3 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
4 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
5 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
7 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
16 @macro internalsref{NAME}
17 @uref{../lilypond-internals/\NAME\.html,\NAME\}
20 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
21 See @internalsref{\NAME\}
27 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
29 @macro internalsref{NAME}
36 @c .{Reference Manual}
38 @node Reference Manual
39 @chapter Reference Manual
42 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
45 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
46 revision of this document was made for LilyPond 1.4.1. It supposes a
47 passing familiarity with how LilyPond input works. New users are
48 encouraged to study the tutorial first.
50 The reference manual is ordered according to different tasks.
51 More details on the property setting mechanisms and context handling is
52 provided in @ref{Tuning output} and @ref{Interpretation context}. The
53 syntactical details are described at the end of the manual.
76 * Skipping corrected music::
77 * Interpretation context::
87 The purpose of LilyPond is explained informally by the term `music
88 typesetter'. This is not a fully correct name: not only does the
89 program print musical symbols, it also makes aesthetic decisions.
90 Symbols and their placements are @emph{generated} from a high-level
91 musical description. In other words, LilyPond would be best described
92 by `music compiler' or `music to notation compiler'.
94 LilyPond is linked to GUILE, GNU's Scheme library for extension
95 programming. The Scheme library provides the glue that holds together
96 the low-level routines and separate modules which are written in C++.
98 When lilypond is run to typeset sheet music, the following happens:
100 @item GUILE Initialization: various scheme files are read
101 @item parsing: first standard @code{ly} initialization files are read, and
102 then the user @file{ly} file is read.
103 @item interpretation: the music in the file is processed ``in playing
104 order'', i.e. the order that you use to read sheet music, or the
105 order in which notes are played. The result of this step is a typesetting
109 The typesetting specification is solved: positions and formatting is
112 @item the visible results ("virtual ink") are written to the output file.
115 During these stages different types of data play the the main role:
116 during parsing, @strong{Music} objects are created. During the
117 interpretation, @strong{contexts} are constructed, and with these contexts
118 a network of @strong{graphical objects} (``grobs'') is created. These
119 grobs contain unknown variables, and the network forms a set of
120 equations. After solving the equations and filling in these variables,
121 the printed output (in the form of @strong{molecules}) is written to an
124 These threemanship of tasks (parsing, translating, typesetting) and
125 data-structures (music, context, graphical objects) permeates the entire
126 design of the program.
128 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
134 The most basic forms of music are notes. We discuss how you enter them
135 here. Notes on their own don't form valid input, but for the sake of
136 brevity we omit obligatory lint such as @code{\score} blocks and
137 @code{\paper} declarations.
148 * Defining pitch names::
149 * Easy Notation note heads ::
156 A note specification has the form
159 @var{pitch}[!][?][@var{duration}]
162 The alteration refers to what note is heard, not to whether an
163 accidental is printed. This is done depending on the key and context.
164 A reminder accidental
165 @cindex reminder accidental
167 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
168 cautionary accidental,
169 @cindex cautionary accidental
170 @cindex parenthesized accidental
171 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
172 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
174 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
175 cis' d' e' cis' c'? d' e' c'!
178 The grob for a note head is called @internalsref{NoteHead}.
186 @cindex Note specification
188 @cindex entering notes
190 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
192 @cindex @code{\pitch}
194 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
197 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object.
199 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
200 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
201 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
202 from @code{c} to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
203 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
205 @cindex note names, Dutch
207 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
208 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
209 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
210 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
211 both forms are accepted.
213 LilyPond has predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
214 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
215 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
216 the names they define are:
219 Note Names sharp flat
220 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
221 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
222 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
223 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
224 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
225 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
226 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
234 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
235 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
236 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
237 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
239 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
240 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
248 A rest is entered like a note, with note name `@code{r}':
250 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
254 The grob is @internalsref{Rest}. Whole bar rests centered in the bar are
255 specified using @code{R}, see @ref{Multi measure rests}.
257 For polyphonic music, it can be convenient to specify the rest position
258 directly. You can do that by entering a note, with the keyword
259 @code{\rest} appended, e.g. Rest collisions will leave these rests alone.
261 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
271 @cindex Invisible rest
274 An invisible rest, or skip, can be entered like a note with note name
277 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
281 Actually, this is a shorthand for the @code{\skip} command, and it is
282 only available in Note mode and Chord mode.
284 @c FIXME: in lyrics mode, we have " " and _
286 In Lyrics mode, you can use `@code{" "}' and `@code{_}':
287 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
289 \context Lyrics \lyrics { lah2 di4 " " dah2 _4 di }
290 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a4 a a2 a4 a }
294 The unabbreviated `@code{\skip} @var{duration}' also works outside of
297 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
300 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
301 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
306 Note that the skip does not produce any output, not even transparent output.
311 @subsection Durations
315 @cindex @code{\duration}
317 The syntax for a verbose duration specification is
319 \duration @var{scmduration}
321 Here, @var{scmduration} is a Scheme object of type @code{Duration}.
324 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
325 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
326 longer than a whole you must use identifiers.
330 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
332 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
338 \notes \relative c'' {
340 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
342 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
347 \remove "Clef_engraver"
348 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
349 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
350 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
356 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
357 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
358 NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
359 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
360 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
362 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
363 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
367 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
368 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
369 duration can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
373 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
379 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M} by
380 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
381 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
393 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. When used
394 with chords, it connects all the note heads whose pitches match.
395 Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'. If you try to tie
396 together chords which have no common pitches then no ties will be
399 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
400 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
403 If you dislike the amount of ties created for a chord, you set
404 @code{Voice.sparseTies} to true, resulting in a smaller number of
406 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
407 \property Voice.sparseTies = ##t
408 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
411 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
412 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
413 exactly the same concept.
415 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
416 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
419 The name of the tie grob is @internalsref{Tie}, and it is created in the
420 @internalsref{Voice} context.
424 At present, the tie is implemented as a separate thing, temporally
425 located in between the notes. There is also no way to convert
426 between tied notes, dotted notes and plain notes.
428 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a chord is not supported in a
429 simple way. It can be achieved by moving the tie-engraver into the Thread
430 context and turning on and off ties per Thread.
438 @cindex @code{\times}
440 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all duration
443 @cindex @code{\times}
445 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
448 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
449 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
450 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
451 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
452 their written length:
454 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
455 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
458 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
459 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
460 @code{\times} only once, thus saving typing work.
462 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
463 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
464 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
467 The format of the number is determined by the property
468 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
469 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
470 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
473 The typesetting of brackets and numbers is controlled by the properties
474 @code{tuplet-bracket-visibility} and @code{tuplet-number-visibility}.
476 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
477 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##t
478 \times 2/3{c'8 d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
479 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = #'if-no-beam
480 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
481 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##f
482 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
483 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = ##f
484 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
485 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = #'if-no-beam
486 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
489 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
490 @cindex tuplet formatting
492 Tuplet brackets are printed as @internalsref{TupletBracket} grobs, most
493 often in the @internalsref{Voice} context.
495 @c . {Defining pitch names}
496 @node Defining pitch names
497 @subsection Defining pitch names
499 @cindex defining pitch names
500 @cindex pitch names, defining
502 Note names and chord modifiers can be customized for nationalities. The
503 syntax is as follows.
505 @cindex @code{\pitchnames}
506 @cindex @code{\chordmodifiers}
508 \pitchnames @var{scheme-alist}
509 \chordmodifiers @var{scheme-alist}
512 See @file{ly/nederlands.ly} and @file{ly/chord-modifiers.ly} for
513 specific examples on how to do this.
516 @node Easy Notation note heads
517 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
519 @cindex easy notation
522 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
523 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
524 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
526 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
527 \include "paper23.ly"
529 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
530 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
534 Note that @internalsref{EasyNotation} overrides a @internalsref{Score} context. You
535 probably will want to print it with magnification to make it more
536 readable, see @ref{Output scaling}.
542 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through the
543 letters. Printing the postscript file obtained either by using dvips or
544 the @code{-f ps} option of lilypond produces the correct result.
549 @section Staff notation
551 @cindex Staff notation
563 @subsection Key signature
568 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
571 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
574 @cindex @code{\minor}
575 @cindex @code{\major}
576 @cindex @code{\minor}
577 @cindex @code{\ionian}
578 @cindex @code{\locrian}
579 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
580 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
581 @cindex @code{\lydian}
582 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
583 @cindex @code{\dorian}
585 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
586 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
587 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
588 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
589 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
591 This command sets the context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
592 Non-standard key signatures can be specified by setting this property
595 The printed signature is a @internalsref{KeySignature} grob, typically
596 created in @internalsref{Staff} context.
598 @cindex @code{keySignature}
605 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command.
613 \property Staff.clefGlyph = @var{glyph associated with clefname}
614 \property Staff.clefPosition = @var{clef Y-position for clefname}
615 \property Staff.centralCPosition = @var{position for central C}
616 \property Staff.clefOctavation = @var{extra transposition of clefname}
620 Any change in these properties creates a clef (A @internalsref{Clef} grob).
622 Supported clef-names include
624 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
626 @item treble, violin, G, G2
635 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
650 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
651 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. Note that you have to
652 enclose @var{clefname} in quotes if you use underscores or digits in the
658 Supported associated glyphs (for @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) are:
667 @item clefs-vaticana_do
668 Editio Vaticana style do clef
669 @item clefs-vaticana_fa
670 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
671 @item clefs-medicaea_do
672 Editio Medicaea style do clef
673 @item clefs-medicaea_fa
674 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
675 @item clefs-mensural1_c
676 modern style mensural C clef
677 @item clefs-mensural2_c
678 historic style small mensural C clef
679 @item clefs-mensural3_c
680 historic style big mensural C clef
681 @item clefs-mensural1_f
682 historic style traditional mensural F clef
683 @item clefs-mensural2_f
684 historic style new mensural F clef
685 @item clefs-mensural_g
686 historic style mensural G clef
687 @item clefs-hufnagel_do
688 historic style hufnagel do clef
689 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa
690 historic style hufnagel fa clef
691 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa
692 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
693 @item clefs-percussion
694 modern style percussion clef
697 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
698 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
699 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
702 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
703 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
704 @cindex hufnagel clefs
707 @c . {Time signature}
709 @subsection Time signature
710 @cindex Time signature
714 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
717 \time @var{n}@code{/}@var{d}
719 Internally, this is a shortcut for doing
721 \property Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(@var{n} . @var{d})
722 \property Score.beatLength = #(make-moment 1 @var{d})
723 \property Score.measureLength = #(make-moment @var{n} @var{d})
726 These properties @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines
727 should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be
730 Changing the value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a
731 fraction to be printed. This grob is @internalsref{TimeSignature}.
733 The actual symbol that's printed can be customized with the style
735 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, singleline]
737 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
739 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'()
741 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
745 There are many more options for the layout of this grob. They are
746 selected through the @code{style} grob property.
748 @c FIXME: this isn't documented except in example?
750 @file{input/test/time.ly} for examples.
757 @cindex partial measure
758 @cindex measure, partial
759 @cindex shorten measures
760 @cindex @code{\partial}
762 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
763 @code{\partial} command:
765 \partial @var{duration}
768 Internally, this is a shortcut for
771 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
775 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
776 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
779 @node Unmetered music
780 @subsection Unmetered music
782 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
783 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. The property
784 @code{Score.timing} can be used to switch off this automatic timing
786 @lilypond[fragment,relative,singleline,verbatim]
788 \property Score.timing = ##f
790 \property Score.timing = ##t
794 The identifiers @code{\cadenzaOn} and @code{\cadenzaOff} can be used as
801 @subsection Bar lines
805 @cindex measure lines
812 This is a shortcut for doing
814 \property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}
816 The following bar types are available
818 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
831 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
835 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
837 @cindex repeatCommands
838 @cindex defaultBarType
840 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
841 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
842 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
843 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
845 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
846 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
847 @code{whichBar} settings.
849 @internalsref{BarLine} grobs are created by the @code{Bar_engraver}.
856 Polyphonic parts, i.e. parts with more than one voice on a staff can be
857 typeset with LilyPond.
859 The easiest way to enter such fragments, is the Scheme function
860 @code{voicify-music}. It will split chords using the separator
861 @code{\\}, to make multiple voices. You can use it for small,
862 short-lived voices (make a chord of voices) or for single chords:
864 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
865 \context Voice = VA \apply #voicify-music \relative c'' {
866 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ c, \\ f \\ d >
870 The function @code{voicify-music} instantiates @internalsref{Voice}
871 contexts, bearing the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.
873 To explicity typeset polyphonic music, instantiate a separate Voice
874 context for each part, and assign a stem direction to each part.
876 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
878 < \context Voice = VA { \stemUp b'4 a' g' f' e' }
879 \context Voice = VB { \stemDown g'4 g' g' g' g' } >
882 When there are more than two voices on a staff, you must also indicate
883 which voice should moved horizontally in case of a collision. This can
884 be done with the identifiers @code{\shiftOff}, @code{\shiftOn},
885 @code{\shiftOnn}, etc. (which sets the grob property @code{horizontal-shift}
886 in @internalsref{NoteColumn}).
888 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
889 \context Staff \notes\relative c''<
896 \context Voice=three {
897 \shiftOnn \stemUp ais
899 \context Voice=four {
900 \shiftOnnn \stemUp fis
905 The most convenient way is to use the identifiers @code{\voiceOne}
906 through @code{\voiceFour}, which also set slur and tie directions in the
909 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
911 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
912 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
913 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
916 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
917 if you set the grob property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
919 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
921 \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne
923 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
926 \context Voice = VB { \voiceTwo [g'8. f16] [g'8. f'16] }
930 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
932 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
934 \context Voice { \stemUp c''4 }
935 \context Voice =VB { r4 }
939 Note head collisions (horizontal shifting of note heads) are handled by
940 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} grob. @internalsref{RestCollision}
941 handles vertical shifting of rests.
949 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
950 handles a few situations. When it can not cope, you are advised to use
951 @code{force-hshift} of the NoteColumn grob and @code{staff-position} of
952 the Rest grob to override typesetting decisions.
957 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
958 the metrum. LilyPond guesses where beams should be inserted. If you're
959 not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can specify which patterns
960 to beam automatically. In specific cases, you can also enter the beams
964 @c . {Automatic beams}
965 @subsection Automatic beams
967 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}
968 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
969 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
972 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
973 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
974 or at durations specified by the properties in
975 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
976 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
978 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
979 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
981 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
982 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
984 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
985 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
986 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
987 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
988 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
991 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
992 you can use the following:
994 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
995 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
997 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
998 entered as @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
1000 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1001 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
1003 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1004 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1006 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1007 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1008 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1010 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
1011 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1012 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1013 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1015 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1016 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1019 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
1020 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
1021 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
1022 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
1026 @c Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
1028 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1029 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1031 @cindex automatic beam generation
1033 @cindex @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming}
1035 Automatic beaming is on by default, but can be switched off by setting
1036 @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming} to true. You you may find this necessary for
1037 a melody that goes with lyrics.
1041 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1042 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1043 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
1044 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,relative]
1045 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1046 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1047 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
1050 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1051 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1052 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1055 @cindex Automatic beams
1056 @subsection Manual beams
1057 @cindex beams, manual
1061 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
1062 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
1063 rests or bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point
1064 manually using a @code{[} before the first beamed note and a @code{]}
1065 after the last note:
1067 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1069 r4 [r8 g' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
1072 Whenever an manual beam is busy, the automatic beamer will not produce
1075 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1077 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1078 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1079 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount}. can
1080 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
1081 property, it's value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1083 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1086 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
1089 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1091 The beam symbol (grob @internalsref{Beam} in @internalsref{Voice}
1092 context), both for automatic and manual beams) can be tweaked through
1093 grob-properties @code{height} and @code{staff-position}. These specify
1094 vertical location and vertical span. Both are measured in half
1095 staff-spaces, @code{staff-position=0} corresponds to the middle staff
1098 Set @code{height} to zero, to get horizontal beams:
1100 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1101 \property Voice.Beam \set #'direction = #1
1102 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #0
1106 Here's how you'd specify a weird looking beam that instead of being
1107 horizontal, falls two staff spaces:
1113 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1114 \property Voice.Beam \set #'staff-position = #4
1115 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #-4
1119 [TODO: doc autokneeing ? ]
1121 @c TODO -> why this ref? Document?
1122 @cindex @code{neutral-direction}
1124 @node Expressive marks
1125 @section Expressive marks
1140 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1141 They are entered using parentheses:
1143 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1144 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
1148 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1149 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1150 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1151 grob-property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1152 @internalsref{Voice} context It's value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1153 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1155 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1156 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1157 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1159 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1163 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1164 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1165 stems might look better:
1167 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1168 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
1169 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1171 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1176 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
1177 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
1178 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this decision
1179 is in @internalsref{Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}. It is loosely
1180 related to the enclosed area between the slur and the notes. Usually,
1181 the default setting works well, but in some cases you may prefer a
1182 curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved one. You can
1183 indicate this preference by increasing the @code{beautiful} value:
1185 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
1186 \property Voice.Beam \override #'direction = #-1
1187 \property Voice.Slur \override #'direction = #1
1188 c16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
1189 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1190 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
1191 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1196 @code{beautiful} is an arbitrary parameter in the slur formatter.
1197 Useful values can only be determined by trial and error.
1199 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1201 @node Phrasing slurs
1202 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1204 @cindex phrasing slurs
1205 @cindex phrasing marks
1207 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1208 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1211 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1212 \time 6/4 c' \( ( d ) e f ( e ) \) d
1215 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
1216 slur. The grob associated with it is @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, in
1217 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1220 @subsection Breath marks
1222 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}. The result is a
1223 @internalsref{BreathingSign} grob in @internalsref{Voice} context.
1225 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1234 The current layout of the default comma style breath marks
1235 could be improved and more optional symbols should be added to the
1244 @cindex beats per minute
1245 @cindex metronome marking
1247 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1249 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1251 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1254 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1259 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1260 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1261 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1266 @subsection Text spanners
1267 @cindex Text spanners
1269 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando or accelerando, often extend
1270 over many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1271 dotted line. You can create such texts using text spanners. The syntax
1274 \spanrequest \start "text"
1275 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1277 LilyPond will respond by creating a @internalsref{TextSpanner} grob (typically
1278 in @internalsref{Voice} context). The string to be printed, as well as the
1279 style is set through grob properties.
1281 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1282 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1283 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1284 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1285 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1286 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1287 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1288 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1306 @subsection Articulations
1307 @cindex Articulations
1309 @cindex articulations
1313 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1314 different characteristics of the performance. These symbols can be
1315 added to a note with `@var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}'. Numerous symbols
1316 are defined in @file{script.ly}. Symbols can be forced to appear above
1317 or below the note by writing `@var{note}@code{^\}@var{name}' and
1318 `@var{note}@code{_\}@var{name}' respectively. Here is a chart showing
1319 symbols on notes, with the name of the corresponding symbol appearing
1325 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-family =#'typewriter
1326 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1327 \context Staff \notes {
1328 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''^\fermata
1329 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\upbow
1330 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1331 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1332 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1333 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1334 c''-\upmordent c''-\downmordent c''-\pralldown c''-\prallup
1335 c''-\lineprall c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1337 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1338 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1339 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ upbow
1340 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1341 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1342 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1343 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1344 upmordent__ downmordent__ pralldown__ prallup__
1345 lineprall__ thumb__ segno__ coda
1349 linewidth = 5.875\in
1355 To save typing work, some shorthands are available:
1356 @lilypond[singleline]
1358 \notes \context Voice {
1359 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1360 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1366 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1373 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand. For
1374 changes, some markup texts would be needed:
1375 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1376 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1381 @cindex @code{\script}
1386 You can add scripts by editing @file{scm/script.scm}. This file contains
1387 a table, listing script definitions and aliases. The following syntax
1388 accesses a script definition from the table:
1394 Usually the @code{\script} keyword is not used directly. Various
1395 helpful identifier definitions appear in @file{script.ly}.
1397 Grobs for these objects are @internalsref{Script} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
1401 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1402 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1404 Unfortunately, there is no support for adding fingering instructions or
1405 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1406 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1411 @subsection Text scripts
1412 @cindex Text scripts
1414 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1415 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1418 By default, these indications do not influence the note spacing, but
1419 if @code{Voice.textNonEmpty} is set to true the widths will be taken
1420 into account. The identifier @code{\fatText} is defined in the standard
1422 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
1423 \relative c' { c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1426 Text scripts are created in form of @internalsref{TextScript} grobs, in
1427 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1429 @ref{Text markup} describes how to change the font or access
1430 special symbols in text scripts.
1434 @subsection Grace notes
1443 @cindex @code{\grace}
1446 @cindex @code{graceAlignPosition}
1448 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out, but do not take up any
1449 logical time in a measure. LilyPond has limited support for grace notes.
1450 The syntax is as follows.
1452 \grace @var{musicexpr}
1455 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1458 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1459 \relative c'' \context Voice {
1460 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1462 \property Voice.Stem \override #'flag-style = #'()
1464 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'flag-style
1469 A grace note expression has duration 0; the next real note is assumed to
1470 be the main note. If you want the note to appear after the main note,
1471 set @code{Voice.graceAlignPosition} to @code{1}.
1475 Nesting @code{\grace} notes is not supported. The following may cause
1476 run-time errors: @example
1477 @code{\grace @{ \grace c32 c16 @} c4}
1479 Since the meaning of such a construct is unclear, we don't consider this
1480 a loss. Similarly, juxtaposing two @code{\grace} sections is
1481 syntactically valid, but makes no sense and may cause runtime errors.
1482 Ending a staff or score with grace notes may also generate a run-time
1483 error, since there will be no main note to attach the grace notes to.
1494 @subsection Glissando
1497 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1499 A glissando line (grob @internalsref{Glissando}) can be requested by
1500 attaching a @code{\glissando} to a notte:
1502 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1508 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1515 @subsection Dynamics
1528 @cindex @code{\ffff}
1538 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an identifier after a
1539 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
1540 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
1541 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
1542 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
1544 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
1545 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
1551 @cindex @code{\decr}
1552 @cindex @code{\rced}
1558 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
1559 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
1560 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
1561 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
1562 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
1563 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
1564 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
1565 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
1566 want several marks during one note, you have to use spacer notes.
1568 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1569 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
1570 < f''1 { s4 s4 \< \! s4 \> \! s4 } >
1573 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
1574 is an example how to do it:
1579 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1581 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc."
1582 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
1587 For everyday use, we recommend the identifiers @code{\cresc},
1588 @code{endcresc}, @code{\dim} and @code{\enddim}.
1592 Dynamics are grobs of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
1593 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is handled
1594 by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. If you want to adjust
1595 padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you must set properties
1596 for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. Predefined identifiers
1597 to set the vertical direction are \dynamicUp and \dynamicDown.
1599 @cindex direction, of dynamics
1600 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
1601 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
1609 @cindex @code{\repeat}
1611 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
1612 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
1613 different variants of repeats.
1617 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
1618 output, and entering repetitive music.
1621 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
1622 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
1625 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
1626 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
1627 @file{input/star-spangled-banner.ly}.
1633 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
1639 * Repeats and MIDI::
1640 * Manual repeat commands::
1642 * Tremolo subdivisions::
1647 @subsection Repeat syntax
1649 The syntax for repeats is
1652 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
1655 If you have alternative endings, you may add
1656 @cindex @code{\alternative}
1658 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
1660 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
1662 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
1664 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
1665 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1667 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
1668 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
1671 With alternative endings:
1672 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1674 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1675 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1678 Folded repeats look like this:
1681 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1683 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1684 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1688 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
1689 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
1690 the specified number of repeats.
1692 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1696 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
1697 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
1702 @node Repeats and MIDI
1703 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
1705 @cindex expanding repeats
1707 For instructions on how to unfoldi repeats for MIDI output, see
1708 the example file @file{input/test/unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
1713 Notice that timing information is not remembered at the start of an
1714 alternative, so you have to reset timing information after a repeat,
1715 e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting
1716 @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties
1717 are also not repeated.
1719 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}s, although this probably is only
1720 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
1722 Folded repeats offer little more over simultaneous music. However, it
1723 is to be expected that more functionality -- especially for the MIDI
1724 backend -- will be implemented at some point in the future.
1726 Volta repeats are printed over all staves in a score. You must turn them
1727 off explicitly, for example by doing
1729 \property Staff.VoltaBracket = \turnOff
1731 in all but the top staff.
1733 @node Manual repeat commands
1734 @subsection Manual repeat commands
1736 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
1738 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
1739 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
1747 @item (volta . @var{text})
1748 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
1750 Stop a running volta bracket
1753 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
1755 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
1757 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
1762 Repeats brackets are @internalsref{VoltaBracket} grobs.
1764 @node Tremolo repeats
1765 @subsection Tremolo repeats
1766 @cindex tremolo beams
1768 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
1770 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
1772 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
1773 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
1774 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
1775 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
1776 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
1781 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} grobs. Single stem tremolos are
1782 @internalsref{StemTremolo}.
1787 At present, the spacing between tremolo beams is not regular, since the
1788 spacing engine does not notice that not all notes are printed.
1790 @node Tremolo subdivisions
1791 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
1792 @cindex tremolo marks
1793 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
1795 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
1796 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
1797 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
1798 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
1799 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
1801 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
1802 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
1808 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
1811 @node Measure repeats
1812 @subsection Measure repeats
1814 @cindex percent repeats
1815 @cindex measure repeats
1817 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
1818 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
1819 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
1820 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
1822 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1823 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
1824 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
1828 The signs are represented by these grobs: @internalsref{RepeatSlash} and
1829 @internalsref{PercentRepeat} and @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
1833 You can not nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
1834 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
1836 @node Rhythmic music
1837 @section Rhythmic music
1844 @node Rhythmic staves
1845 @subsection Rhythmic staves
1847 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
1848 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
1849 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
1851 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1852 \context RhythmicStaff {
1854 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1861 @section Piano music
1863 Piano music is an odd type of notation. Piano staves are two normal
1864 staves coupled with a brace. The staves are largely independent, but
1865 sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. The
1866 @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
1867 behavior. In this section we discuss the @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some
1868 other pianistic peculiarities.
1871 * Automatic staff changes::
1872 * Manual staff switches::
1875 * Voice follower lines::
1879 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
1880 @node Automatic staff changes
1881 @subsection Automatic staff changes
1882 @cindex Automatic staff changes
1884 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
1885 staff. The syntax for this is
1887 \autochange @var{contexttype} \context @var{childcontexttype}
1891 This will switch the interpretation context of @var{musicexp} between
1892 a @var{contexttype} named @code{up} and @code{down}. Typically, you
1893 use @internalsref{Staff} for @var{contexttype}, and
1894 @internalsref{Voice} for @var{childcontexttype}. The autochanger
1895 switches on basis of pitch (central C is the turning point), and it
1896 looks ahead skipping over rests to switch rests in advance.
1898 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1899 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
1900 \context Staff = "up" {
1901 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
1902 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
1903 \context Staff = "down" {
1909 Note how spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
1910 terminating too soon.
1913 @node Manual staff switches
1914 @subsection Manual staff switches
1916 @cindex manual staff switches
1917 @cindex staff switch, manual
1919 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
1921 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
1923 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
1924 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
1925 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
1928 The formal definition of this construct is obtuse, but for the sake of
1929 completeness we give it here.
1930 @cindex @code{\translator}
1932 \translator @var{contexttype} = @var{name}
1934 Formally, this construct is a music expression indicating
1935 that the context which is a direct child of the context of type
1936 @var{contexttype} should be shifted to a context of type
1937 @var{contexttype} and the specified name.
1945 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
1946 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
1947 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
1949 These identifiers are shorthands for spanner commands of the types
1950 @internalsref{Sustain}, @internalsref{UnaCorda} and @internalsref{Sostenuto}:
1952 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1953 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4
1954 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
1957 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
1958 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal types:
1959 Sustain, Sostenuto or UnaCorda. Refer to the generated documentation of
1960 @rgrob{SustainPedal}, for example, for more information.
1962 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
1963 @code{pedal-type} property of SustainPedal grobs:
1965 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1966 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'bracket
1967 c''4 \sustainDown d''4 e''4 a'4 \sustainUp \sustainDown f'4 g'4 a'4 \sustainUp
1970 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
1971 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
1973 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1974 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'mixed
1975 c''4 \sustainDown d''4 e''4 c'4 \sustainUp \sustainDown f'4 g'4 a'4 \sustainUp
1978 The default '*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
1979 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
1980 for a sostenuto pedal:
1982 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1983 c''4 \sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4 \sostenutoUp
1986 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
1987 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
1988 @code{PianoPedalBracket} grobs (see the detailed documentation of
1989 @rgrob{PianoPedalBracket}) can be modified. For example, the bracket
1990 may be extended to the end of the note head.
1992 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1993 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
1994 c''4 \sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4 \sostenutoUp
2001 @subsection Arpeggio
2004 @cindex broken arpeggio
2005 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
2007 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
2008 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
2011 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2012 \context Voice <c\arpeggio e g c>
2015 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
2016 to the chords in both staves, and set
2017 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
2019 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2020 \context PianoStaff <
2021 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2022 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2023 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2027 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} grobs. Cross staff arpeggios
2028 are @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio}.
2030 To add an arrow head to explicitly specify the direction of the
2031 arpeggio, you should set the arpeggio grob property
2032 @code{arpeggio-type}.
2034 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2036 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #1
2038 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
2043 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
2044 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
2045 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
2046 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} grobs to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
2047 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before.
2049 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2050 \context PianoStaff <
2051 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2052 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
2053 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2054 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2061 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios
2066 @node Voice follower lines
2067 @subsection Voice follower lines
2069 @cindex follow voice
2070 @cindex staff switching
2073 @cindex @code{followVoice}
2075 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
2076 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
2077 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
2079 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2080 \context PianoStaff <
2081 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2082 \context Staff \context Voice {
2084 \translator Staff=two
2087 \context Staff=two {\clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2091 The associated grob is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2101 * Automatic syllable durations::
2107 @subsection Lyrics mode
2110 To print lyrics, you must first make a music expression from the lyric
2111 text. That music expression can be printed by selecting an appropriate
2115 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
2117 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
2118 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
2119 The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
2120 punctuation and accents without any hassle.
2122 Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text. For
2123 example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that
2124 the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
2127 Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes:
2128 @code{"He could"4 not4} or by using an underscore without quotes:
2129 @code{He_could4 not4}. All unquoted underscores are converted to
2132 The precise definition of this mode can be found in @ref{Lyrics mode
2135 @c . {Printing lyrics}
2136 @node Printing lyrics
2137 @subsection Printing lyrics
2140 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the @internalsref{Lyrics} context.
2142 @c Maybe more pedagogical to avoid \addlyrics in this first example? /MB
2143 @c Add tied and beamed melismata too.
2144 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2146 \notes \relative c' {
2148 \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t
2149 d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
2150 b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 }
2151 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2153 share the soft -- ware; }
2157 Notes and syllable durations are matched automatically. This is
2158 accomplished using @code{\addlyrics}, which is documented in
2159 @ref{Automatic syllable durations}. Setting @code{automaticMelismata} in
2160 the melody staff will cause tied, slurred or beamed notes to be
2161 interpreted as melismata.
2163 The Lyric syllables are @code{LyricsVoice.LyricSyllable} grobs.
2166 @cindex lyric extender
2169 As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will
2170 create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of the
2171 lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric,
2172 so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
2173 The grob for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricExtender}.
2178 If you want to have hyphens centered between syllables (rather than
2179 attached to the end of the first syllable) you can use the special
2180 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. This
2181 will result in a hyphen whose length varies depending on the space
2182 between syllables. It will be centered between the syllables. The grob
2183 for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricHyphen}.
2185 @cindex Lyric hyphen
2187 @node Automatic syllable durations
2188 @subsection Automatic syllable durations
2189 @cindex Automatic syllable durations
2191 @cindex automatic lyric durations
2192 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
2194 If you have lyrics that are set to a melody, you can copy the rhythm
2195 of that melody into the lyrics using @code{\addlyrics}. The syntax for
2198 \addlyrics @var{musicexpr1 musicexpr2}
2201 Both @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} are interpreted, but every
2202 music event (``every syllable'') in @var{musicexpr2} is interpreted only
2203 when there are events in @var{musicexpr1}.
2205 @cindex @code{automaticMelismata}
2207 If the property @code{automaticMelismata} is set in the
2208 context of @var{musicexpr1}, no lyrics will be put on slurred or tied
2211 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2214 \property Voice.automaticMelismata = ##t
2215 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2217 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2221 If you want the lyric lines to be above the melody staff, or in some
2222 other, more complex configuration, then build that configuration first
2223 using simultaneous music, and use @code{\addlyrics} after that.
2225 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
2227 \context Lyrics = LA { s1 }
2228 \context Staff = SA { s1 }
2230 \context Staff = SA \relative c' { c4 e g g }
2231 \context Lyrics = LA \lyrics { geen ge -- don -- der } >
2234 For @code{\addlyrics} you should use a single rhythm melody, and single
2235 rhythm lyrics (a constant duration is the obvious choice). If you do
2236 not, you can get undesired effects when using multiple stanzas:
2238 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2241 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2243 \context Lyrics \lyrics
2248 It is valid (but probably not very useful) to use notes instead of
2249 lyrics for @var{musicexpr2}.
2252 @subsection More stanzas
2256 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
2257 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
2258 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
2260 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice
2261 to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
2262 In the following example, the Voice
2263 identity is @code{duet}, and the identities of the LyricsVoices are
2264 @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
2267 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2270 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
2272 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
2273 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
2274 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
2275 Hi, my name is bert. }
2276 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
2277 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
2278 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
2283 You can add stanza numbers by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the
2284 first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following
2285 systems. Notice how you must surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics}
2291 @cindex stanza numbering
2299 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords. Chords are
2300 characterized by a set of pitches. They are
2301 internally stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can
2302 enter chords by name and print them as note head, enter them as notes
2303 and print them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by
2304 name, and print them as name.
2307 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2308 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
2318 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
2319 \context Voice \twoWays > }
2322 Note that this example also shows that the chord printing routines do
2323 not attempt to be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not
2324 interpret this as an inversion.
2328 * Printing named chords::
2333 @subsection Chords mode
2336 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
2337 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
2338 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
2339 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc).
2341 Dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions and subtractions,
2342 so articulation scripts can not be entered in Chord mode.
2344 The syntax for named chords is as follows:
2346 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
2349 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration} is
2350 the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
2351 modifiers. One type is formed by @emph{chord additions}. Additions are
2352 obtained by listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written
2353 by its number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising
2354 or lowering by half a step. Chord additions have two effects: they adds
2355 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
2356 chord, and they may lower or raise the specified interval.
2358 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
2359 using @code{\transpose}.
2361 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2365 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5-
2375 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
2376 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
2377 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
2378 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
2379 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
2380 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
2381 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
2383 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2386 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
2392 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
2393 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
2396 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2405 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
2406 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
2407 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the note
2408 is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
2410 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2420 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
2421 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
2422 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
2423 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
2425 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2436 Implementation details are quite gory. For example @code{c:4} not only
2437 adds a fourth, but also removes the third.
2440 @c . {Printing named chords}
2441 @node Printing named chords
2442 @subsection Printing named chords
2444 @cindex printing chord names
2448 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
2449 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
2450 directly using simultaneous music.
2452 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2454 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
2458 \context ChordNames \scheme
2459 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2464 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
2465 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
2466 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of a
2471 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
2475 \context ChordNames {
2476 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
2478 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2482 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
2483 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
2484 an added bass note, which may result in strange chord names when chords
2485 are entered as a list of pitches:
2487 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2496 \context ChordNames \scheme
2497 \context Staff \scheme
2503 By default, a chord name system proposed by Harald Banter (See
2504 @ref{Literature}) is used. The system is very regular and predictable.
2505 Typical American style chord names may be selected by setting the
2506 @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName} grob to
2507 @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz chordnames.
2509 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
2510 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
2511 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}. Here's an example showing the differences in
2515 @c maybe just junk verbatim option?
2516 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2526 \context ChordNames = banter \scheme
2527 \context ChordNames = american {
2528 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2529 #'style = #'american \scheme }
2530 \context ChordNames = jazz {
2531 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2532 #'style = #'jazz \scheme }
2533 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2540 @section Writing parts
2542 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
2543 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
2544 problems in orchestral music.
2551 * Instrument names::
2553 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
2554 * Multi measure rests::
2555 * Automatic part combining::
2556 * Hara kiri staves::
2559 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
2560 @node Rehearsal marks
2561 @subsection Rehearsal marks
2562 @cindex Rehearsal marks
2564 @cindex @code{\mark}
2568 \mark @var{unsigned}
2573 This command prints a rehearsal mark above the system. You can provide
2574 a number, a string or a markup text as argument. If you use
2575 @code{\default}, the value of property @code{rehearsalMark} is used and
2576 automatically incremented.
2578 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2584 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-segno")
2589 The grob is @internalsref{RehearsalMark} in @internalsref{Score} context. See
2590 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} if you need boxes around the marks.
2593 @subsection Bar numbers
2597 @cindex measure numbers
2598 @cindex currentBarNumber
2600 Bar numbers are @internalsref{BarNumber} grobs. They are printed at the
2601 start of the line. The number itself is a property that can be set by
2602 modifying the @code{currentBarNumber} property, i.e.
2604 \property Score.currentBarNumber = #217
2607 If you want boxed bar numbers, see the example file
2608 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly}.
2612 It is not possible to have bar numbers printed at regular intervals
2615 @node Instrument names
2616 @subsection Instrument names
2618 You can specify an instrument name for a staff by setting
2619 @code{Staff.instrument} and @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string
2620 before the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
2621 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
2623 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2624 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
2627 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
2631 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2633 '((font-relative-size . -2 ) (music "accidentals--1")))
2636 \property Staff.instrument = #`((kern . 0.5) (lines
2637 "2 Clarinetti" (columns " (B" ,text-flat ")")))
2645 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
2646 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
2647 the name to avoid a collision.
2650 @subsection Transpose
2652 @cindex transposition of pitches
2653 @cindex @code{\transpose}
2655 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
2658 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
2661 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
2664 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
2665 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
2666 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
2669 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2672 { \key e \major c d e f }
2674 \transpose des'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2675 \transpose cis'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2679 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
2680 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
2681 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
2683 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
2684 @subsection Sound output transposing instruments
2686 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed and
2688 instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch offset (in
2689 semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done using the
2690 @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed output.
2692 @cindex @code{transposing}
2695 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
2696 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
2699 @c . {Multi measure rests}
2700 @node Multi measure rests
2701 @subsection Multi measure rests
2702 @cindex Multi measure rests
2706 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
2707 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
2709 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
2710 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
2711 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
2714 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2715 \time 3/4 r2. | R2. | R2.*2 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
2718 Notice that the @code{R2.} is printed as a whole rest, centered in the
2721 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
2723 The grob for this object is @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
2727 Currently, there is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into
2728 a single multimeasure rest.
2730 @cindex condensing rests
2732 @node Automatic part combining
2733 @subsection Automatic part combining
2734 @cindex automatic part combining
2735 @cindex part combiner
2738 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
2739 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting
2740 orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
2741 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are
2742 typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically.
2743 Also, solo and @emph{a due} parts can be identified and marked.
2745 The syntax for part combining is
2748 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
2750 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
2751 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
2752 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
2755 The most useful function of the part combiner is to combine parts into
2756 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
2758 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2760 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2761 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2764 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2770 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
2771 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
2772 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
2773 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
2774 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
2777 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
2778 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
2780 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2782 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
2783 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2784 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2787 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2793 There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak the
2794 behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
2795 documentation of @reng{Thread_devnull_engraver} and
2796 @reng{Voice_devnull_engraver}. Look at the documentation of the
2797 responsible engravers, @code{Thread_devnull_engraver},
2798 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
2802 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
2803 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
2806 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
2808 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2809 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2812 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2818 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2819 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
2820 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
2822 @node Hara kiri staves
2823 @subsection Hara kiri staves
2825 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
2826 This saves some space. LilyPond also supports this through the hara
2827 kiri@footnote{Hara kiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
2828 the Japanese Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when
2829 it finds itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will
2830 not disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
2833 The hara kiri staff is specialized version of the @internalsref{Staff}
2834 context. It is available as the context identifier
2835 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
2836 example disappears in the second line.
2840 \notes \relative c' <
2841 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
2842 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
2846 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
2859 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
2860 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
2861 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
2862 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2863 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2868 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
2873 \consists Custos_engraver
2879 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century.
2880 There were different appearances for different notation styles.
2881 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
2882 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
2885 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
2886 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
2887 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
2888 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
2889 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
2896 \consists Custos_engraver
2897 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2902 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
2907 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
2908 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
2915 @section Figured bass
2917 @cindex Basso continuo
2919 TODO. see figured-bass.ly
2921 @c . {Tuning output}
2923 @section Tuning output
2925 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
2926 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
2927 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
2928 ways to do just that.
2930 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called grobs (graphic
2931 objects). Each grob carries with it a set of properties (grob
2932 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem grob has
2933 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
2935 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
2936 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
2937 temporarily change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus
2938 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
2939 object, and set a grob property in that object.
2942 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
2943 * Tuning per grob ::
2951 @node Tuning groups of grobs
2952 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
2954 @cindex grob description
2958 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a
2959 context property. By assigning to that property (using plain
2960 @code{\property}), you can change the resulting grobs.
2962 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2963 c'4 \property Voice.Stem = #'((meta . ((interfaces . ())))) c'4
2966 The @code{\property} assignment effectively empties the definition of
2967 the Stem object. One of the effects is that the recipe of how it should be
2968 printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible. The above
2969 assignment is available as a standard identifier, for the case that you
2973 \property Voice.Stem = \turnOff
2980 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
2981 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
2984 The definition of a grob is actually a list of default grob
2985 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem grob (available in
2986 @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), defines the following values for
2991 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
2992 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
2996 You can add a property on top of the existing definition, or remove a
2997 property, thus overriding the system defaults:
2999 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
3000 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
3003 You should balance @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. If that's too
3004 much work, you can use the @code{\set} shorthand. It performs a revert
3005 followed by an override. The following example gives exactly the same
3006 result as the previous one.
3008 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
3009 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
3012 If you use @code{\set}, you must explicitly restore the default.
3015 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
3017 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3018 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3019 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
3021 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
3022 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
3025 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
3026 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
3027 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
3028 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and @code{\revert},
3029 must be carefully balanced.
3031 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
3034 A clumsy but correct form:
3036 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
3039 Shorter version of the same:
3041 \override \set \set \revert
3044 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
3047 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
3050 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the grob property is unset),
3053 \set \set \set \revert
3056 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
3057 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a
3058 stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
3059 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding
3060 automatic beaming settings.
3064 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
3065 The backend is not very strict in type-checking grob properties. If you
3066 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
3069 Some grobs are created at the moment that their context is created. An
3070 example of such a grob is the staff itself (i.e. the horizontal lines).
3071 You can not change the appearance of the staff symbol by manipulating
3072 @code{\property Staff.StaffSymbol}. At the moment that @code{\property
3073 Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and the StaffSymbol is
3074 created before any @code{\override} is effective. You can deal with this
3075 either overriding properties in a @code{\translator} definition, or by
3076 using @code{\outputproperty}.
3081 @node Tuning per grob
3082 @subsection Tuning per grob
3084 @cindex \outputproperty
3086 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
3087 feature. The syntax is as follows:
3089 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3091 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
3092 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
3093 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
3094 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
3095 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
3097 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
3098 the appropriate context to apply this to.
3100 Here are some random examples.
3103 In the following example, all note heads occurring at current staff
3104 level, are shifted up and right by setting their @code{extra-offset}
3107 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3109 \context Staff \outputproperty
3110 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
3111 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
3115 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
3117 In this example, the predicate checks the @code{text} grob property, to
3118 shift only the `m.d.' text, but not the fingering instruction "2".
3119 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3120 #(define (make-text-checker text)
3121 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
3124 \notes\relative c''' {
3125 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
3126 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
3127 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
3135 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
3136 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
3142 @subsection What to tune?
3144 This all tells you how to tune grobs, but you don't know what variables
3145 to set? The question is not answered in this part of the manual
3146 (although you may encounter some examples.).
3148 Grob properties are tied directly to the implementation of LilyPond, and
3149 they are thus a moving target. Documentation of such variables is in the
3150 automatically generated documentation. Description of properties are
3151 generated from the source code for each version. This documentation is
3152 therefore more up to date. It should be available from the same place
3153 where you got this manual.
3155 To decide how to tune a grob, you need to find the following information
3158 which grob to modify
3160 which property to modify
3162 which context the grob comes from.
3165 Included with the automatically generated documentation is a master list
3166 of grobs. Selecting a grob will take you to an overview of the
3167 properties available for that grob.
3169 There is also a master list of contexts. Selecting one takes you to an
3170 overview of that context which lists which grob types are created there.
3173 @node Font selection
3174 @subsection Font selection
3176 Most graphics in LilyPond are composed of characters of fonts. You can
3177 alter the characteristics of the font by setting certain grob
3178 properties. The mechanism that is used for this resembles La@TeX{}'s New
3179 Font Selection Scheme. Within this scheme, a font is entirely
3180 characterized by its font name.
3182 For each grob that uses fonts (in other words, each grob that supports
3183 @code{font-interface}) a font-name must be selected before it can be
3184 printed. The font name is selected by looking at a number of grob
3189 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
3190 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff braces),
3191 @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic
3192 signs) and @code{typewriter}
3195 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
3196 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
3197 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
3200 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
3201 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
3204 @item font-relative-size
3205 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
3206 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
3207 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
3209 @item font-design-size
3210 A number indicating the design size of the font.
3212 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
3213 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
3214 which enhances readability. Scalable type faces such TrueType and Adobe
3215 Type1 usually come as ``one design fits all sizes''.
3218 The name of the font, without the design size, e.g. @code{cmr},
3219 @code{cmti}, etc. Setting this overrides font-family, font-shape and
3226 The font is selected by taking the first font that satisfies all
3227 qualifiers specified. You can override any of these fields through
3228 @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The special value @code{*} matches
3229 any value for that qualifier.
3232 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
3233 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
3236 @cindex @code{font-style}
3238 There are also pre-cooked font selection qualifiers. These are selected
3239 through the grob property @code{font-style}. For example, the style
3240 @code{finger} selects family @code{number} and relative size @code{-3}.
3241 Styles available include @code{volta}, @code{finger}, @code{tuplet},
3242 @code{timesig}, @code{mmrest}, @code{script}, @code{large}, @code{Large}
3245 The style sheets and tables for selecting fonts are located in
3246 @file{scm/font.scm}. Refer to this file for more information.
3249 Setting @code{font-name} overrides all other qualifiers. The value for
3250 this property should be a string, the file name of the font. You may use
3251 this to use special fonts, which are not a part of the style sheet, or
3252 which have special encodings.
3254 The size of the font may be set with the grob property
3255 @code{font-magnification}. It is the size of font, relative to its
3256 standard size. For example, @code{1.0} is normal size.
3260 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
3262 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
3265 @cindex font selection
3266 @cindex font magnification
3267 @cindex @code{font-interface}
3271 @subsection Text markup
3275 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
3276 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
3277 in the following way.
3279 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3284 c^#'(italic "italic")
3285 d_#'((bold italic) "ff")
3287 f_#'(lines "one" (bold "two"))
3288 g^#'(music "noteheads-2" ((raise . 2.4) "flags-u3"))
3292 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
3293 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
3296 text: string | (head? text+)
3297 head: markup | (markup+)
3298 markup-item: property | abbrev
3299 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
3300 abbrev: @code{columns lines roman music bold italic named super sub}
3301 @code{overstrike text finger volta timesig mmrest mark script}
3302 @code{large Large dynamic}
3305 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
3306 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
3307 pair is a grob property. A list of properties available is included in
3308 the generated documentation for @rint{Text_interface}.
3310 The following abbreviations are currently defined:
3313 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
3315 vertical mode: set every text on a new line
3319 selects the Feta font (the standard font for music notation glyphs),
3320 and uses named lookup
3327 lookup by character name
3329 plain text lookup (by character value)
3335 the next text or character overstrikes this one
3337 select fingering number fontstyle
3339 select volta number fontstyle
3341 select time signature number fontstyle
3343 select multi measure rest number fontstyle
3345 select mark number fontstyle
3347 select scriptsize roman fontstyle
3349 select large roman fontstyle
3351 select Large roman fontstyle
3353 select dynamics fontstyle
3357 @cindex metronome mark
3359 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
3363 #(define note '(columns
3364 (music "noteheads-2" ((kern . -0.1) "flags-stem"))))
3365 #(define eight-note `(columns ,note ((kern . -0.1)
3366 (music ((raise . 3.5) "flags-u3")))))
3367 #(define dotted-eight-note
3368 `(columns ,eight-note (music "dots-dot")))
3371 \notes\relative c'' {
3372 a1^#`((columns (font-relative-size . -1)) ,dotted-eight-note " = 64")
3378 TextScript \override #'font-shape = #'upright
3384 @node Invisible grobs
3385 @subsection Invisible grobs
3386 @cindex invisible grobs
3390 ben nog steeds niet kapot van de informatiedichtheid hier.
3396 You can imagine a number of situations where you would want to make
3397 certain grobs not show up in the output. There may be aesthetic
3398 reasons, to make the output resemble an (old) manuscript as close as
3399 possible, or to make lessons or exercises for students.
3401 Grobs can be made invisible in a number of ways:
3403 Here's an example with blanked-out notes and stems:
3404 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3406 \property Voice.NoteHead \override
3408 \property Voice.Stem \override
3409 #'transparent = ##t }
3412 \property Voice.NoteHead \revert #'transparent
3413 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'transparent }
3416 \notes\relative c'' {
3418 a b c b \blanknotes c \unblanknotes d
3422 This method makes the grobs invisible but they still take the normal space.
3423 To remove all traces of the grob, you can redefine the function
3427 \notes\relative c'' {
3430 as bes c bes c d \break
3431 \property Staff.KeySignature \override #'molecule-callback = #'()
3434 \paper{linewidth=5.0\cm indent=0}
3438 A very rigorous way of removing grobs from the whole score is to remove
3439 the engraver that creates them. For example,
3441 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3442 \score {\notes { c'4 d'8 e'8 g2 }
3443 \paper { \translator {
3445 \remove Stem_engraver
3451 @subsection Dirty tricks
3452 @cindex embedded tex
3454 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
3455 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
3456 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
3457 commands won't work with direct PostScript output (see @ref{PostScript
3460 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3461 a'^"3 $\\times$ \\`a deux"
3464 You can also use raw PostScript commands embedded in text scripts. This
3465 offers ultimate flexibility, but requires you to learn PostScript.
3466 Currently, embedded PostScript will @strong{not} work with direct
3467 PostScript output. Note that all dimensions that you use are in staff
3472 \notes \relative c'' {
3473 a-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 5 3 rlineto stroke}"
3474 -#"\\embeddedps{ [ 0 1 ] 0 setdash 3 5 moveto 5 -3 rlineto stroke}"
3475 b-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 0 0 1 2 8 4 20 3.5 rcurveto stroke}"
3479 \paper { linewidth = 70*\staffspace }
3486 @section Page layout
3489 The page layout is the combined product of LilyPond formatting notation,
3490 and (La)@TeX{} putting the notation on a page, including page breaks.
3491 The part of LilyPond is documented here.
3505 @subsection Paper block
3508 The most important output definition is the @code{\paper} block, for
3509 music notation. The syntax is
3512 @code{\paper @{} [@var{paperidentifier}] @var{items} @code{@}}
3515 where each of the items is one of
3518 @item An assignment.
3520 @item A context definition. See @ref{Interpretation context} for
3521 more information on context definitions.
3523 @item \stylesheet declaration. Its syntax is
3525 \stylesheet @var{alist}
3528 See @file{scm/font.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
3529 @item an @code{\elementdescriptions} declaration.
3531 \elementdescriptions @var{alist}
3533 See @file{scm/grob-description.scm} for details of
3534 @var{alist}. This command is not user-serviceable.
3538 @c . {Paper variables}
3539 @node Paper variables
3540 @subsection Paper variables
3541 @cindex Paper variables
3543 The paper block has some variables you may want to use or change:
3546 @cindex @code{indent}
3548 The indentation of the first line of music.
3549 @cindex @code{staffspace}
3551 @item @code{staffspace}
3552 The distance between two staff lines, calculated from the center
3555 @cindex @code{linewidth}
3556 @item @code{linewidth}
3557 Sets the width of the lines.
3559 If set to a negative value, a single unjustified line is produced.
3560 @c rename to singleLinePaper ?
3561 The shorthand @code{\singleLine} defines a default paper block that
3562 produces a single line.
3564 @cindex @code{textheight}
3566 @item @code{textheight}
3567 Sets the total height of the music on each page. Only used by
3570 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
3572 @item @code{interscoreline}
3573 Sets the spacing between systems. The default is 16pt.
3575 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
3577 @item @code{interscorelinefill}
3578 If set to a positive number, the distance between the score
3579 lines will stretch in order to fill the full page. In that
3580 case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
3585 @cindex @code{stafflinethickness}
3587 @item @code{stafflinethickness}
3588 Determines the thickness of staff lines, and also acts as a scaling
3589 parameter for other line thicknesses.
3592 You may enter these dimension using units (@code{cm}, @code{in},
3593 @code{mm}, @code{pt}), or relative to another dimension
3595 linewidth = 20.0 * \staffspace
3602 @subsection Font size
3603 @cindex font size, setting
3604 @cindex staff size, setting
3605 @cindex @code{paper} file
3607 The Feta font provides musical symbols at six different sizes. These
3608 fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point, 23 point, and 26
3609 point. The point size of a font is the height of the five lines in a
3610 staff when displayed in the font.
3612 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
3613 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any of
3614 these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven}, @code{paperThirteen},
3615 @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and
3616 @code{paperTwentysix} are defined respectively. The default
3617 @code{\paper} block is also set. These files should be imported at toplevel, i.e.
3619 \include "paper26.ly"
3623 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
3624 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
3630 @subsection Paper size
3635 @cindex @code{papersize}
3637 To change the paper size, you must first set the
3638 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
3639 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
3640 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
3641 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
3644 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
3645 \include "paper16.ly"
3648 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
3649 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
3650 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
3654 @subsection Line break
3657 @cindex breaking lines
3659 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
3660 that it looks neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines have
3663 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do
3664 this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at this
3665 point. Do remember that line breaks can only occur at places where there
3666 are bar lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no
3667 bar line, you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
3668 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain point.
3670 If you want linebreaks at regular intervals, you can use the following:
3673 < \repeat 7 unfold @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
3677 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
3681 @cindex @code{\penalty}
3683 The @code{\break} and @code{\noBreak} commands are defined in terms of
3684 the penalty command:
3689 This encourages or discourages LilyPond to make a line break at this
3694 The scaling of the @code{\penalty} argument is not well-defined. The
3695 command is rather kludgey, and slated for rewriting.
3699 @subsection Page break
3702 @cindex breaking pages
3704 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
3705 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into the
3706 @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages, by inserting
3707 the command @code{\newpage}
3708 @cindex @code{\newpage}
3714 @c why do so difficult?
3715 @c maybe should explain contents of between-system.ly,
3716 @c but not now, we're talking about page breaks here.
3718 @c details, see the example file @file{input/test/between-systems.ly}
3721 @c . {Output scaling}
3722 @node Output scaling
3723 @subsection Output scaling
3738 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3739 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts.
3743 @c . {Output formats}
3744 @node Output formats
3745 @section Output formats
3747 LilyPond can output processed music in different output formats.
3751 * PostScript output::
3753 * ASCIIScript output::
3757 @subsection TeX output
3760 LilyPond will use @TeX{} by default. Even if you want to produce
3761 PostScript output for viewing or printing, you should normally have
3762 LilyPond produce @TeX{} first. The .tex output must be processed by
3763 @TeX{} (@strong{not} La@TeX{}) to generate a .dvi. Then, @file{Dvips}
3764 is used to generate PostScript. Alternatively, @file{ly2dvi} can be
3765 used to generate the .dvi for you.
3769 Titling is not generated unless you use @file{ly2dvi}.
3772 @node PostScript output
3773 @subsection PostScript output
3774 @cindex PostScript output
3775 @cindex direct PostScript output
3777 LilyPond can produce PostScript directly, without going through @TeX{}.
3778 Currently, this is mainly useful if you cannot use TeX, because direct
3779 PostScript output has some problems; see Bugs below.
3782 $ lilypond -fps foo.ly
3783 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3784 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3786 Interpreting music...[3]
3787 Preprocessing elements...
3788 Calculating column positions...
3789 paper output to foo.ps...
3791 $ cat /usr/share/lilypond/pfa/feta20.pfa foo.ps | lpr
3797 Text font selection is broken.
3799 The .ps file does not contain the .pfa font files. To print a .ps
3800 created through direct postscript output, you should prepend the
3801 necessary .pfa files to LilyPond's .ps output, or upload them to the
3802 printer before printing.
3804 The line height calculation is broken, you must set @var{lineheight} in
3805 the paperblock if you have more than one staff in your score, e.g.
3810 % Set line height to 40 staff spaces
3816 @subsection Scheme output
3817 @cindex Scheme output
3819 In the typesetting stage, LilyPond builds a page description, which is
3820 then written to disk in postscript, @TeX{} or ASCII art. Before it is
3821 written, the page description is represented as Scheme expressions. You
3822 can also dump these Scheme expressions to a file, which may be
3823 convenient for debugging output routines. This is done with the Scheme
3827 $ lilypond -fscm foo.ly
3828 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3829 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3831 Interpreting music...[3]
3832 Preprocessing elements...
3833 Calculating column positions...
3834 paper output to foo.scm...
3837 ;;; Usage: guile -s x.scm > x.tex
3838 (primitive-load-path 'standalone.scm)
3842 $ guile -s foo.scm > foo.tex
3846 @node ASCIIScript output
3847 @subsection ASCIIScript output
3848 @cindex ASCIIScript output
3849 @cindex ascii script
3852 LilyPond can output ASCII Art. This is a two step process, LilyPond
3853 produces an ASCII description file, dubbed ASCIIScript (extension
3854 @file{.as}). ASCIIScript has a small and simple command set that
3855 includes font selection, character and string printing and line drawing
3856 commands. The program @file{as2text} is used to translate an .as file
3859 To produce ASCII Art, you must include an ASCII Art paper definition
3860 file in your .ly, one of:
3862 \include "paper-as5.ly"
3863 \include "paper-as9.ly"
3866 Here's an example use for ASCII Art output (the example file
3867 @file{as-email.ly} is included in the LilyPond distribution), the staff
3868 symbol has been made invisible:
3871 $ lilypond -fas as-email.ly
3872 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3873 Now processing: `as-email.ly'
3875 Interpreting music...[3]
3876 Preprocessing elements...
3877 Calculating column positions... [2]
3878 paper output to as-email.as...
3880 $ as2text as-email.as 2>/dev/null
3882 |/ |##|##| | | | | |
3883 /| | | | | |\ |\ |\ |\ |\ |
3884 / |_ 3 | | | | 5 | )| )| )| )| )|
3885 | /| \ 8 * * * | 8 * * * * * |
3895 The ASCII Art fonts are far from complete and not very well designed.
3896 It's easy to change the glyphs, though; if you think you can do better,
3897 have a look at @file{mf/*.af}.
3899 Lots of resizable symbols such as slurs, ties and tuplets are missing.
3901 The poor looks of most ASCII Art output and its limited general
3902 usefulness gives ASCII Art output a low priority; it may be
3903 dropped in future versions.
3910 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
3911 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, etc., but it
3912 is good enough for proof-hearing the music you have entered. Ties,
3913 dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
3915 Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume
3916 levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available
3917 MIDI volume range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary
3918 linearly between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
3919 overriding the @code{absolute-volume-alist} defined in
3920 @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3922 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
3923 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
3924 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. You can add
3925 instruments and ranges or change the default settings by overriding the
3926 @code{instrument-equalizer-alist} defined in @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3928 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
3933 It is currently not possible to use the percussion channel (generally
3934 channel 10 of a MIDI file).
3938 * MIDI instrument names::
3943 @subsection MIDI block
3947 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
3948 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
3952 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
3953 @item context definitions
3956 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
3960 @cindex context definition
3962 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
3963 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
3964 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer.ly}.
3967 @node MIDI instrument names
3968 @subsection MIDI instrument names
3970 @cindex instrument names
3971 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3972 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
3974 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3975 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
3976 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
3977 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
3981 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
3982 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by
3992 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
3995 @section Music entry
4003 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce errors. This
4004 section deals with tricks and features that help you enter music, and
4005 find and correct mistakes.
4009 @subsection Relative
4011 @cindex relative octave specification
4013 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
4014 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
4015 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
4016 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
4018 @cindex @code{\relative}
4020 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
4023 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
4024 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
4025 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
4026 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
4027 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
4030 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
4031 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
4032 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
4033 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
4035 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
4036 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
4042 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
4043 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4045 c g c f, c' a, e'' }
4048 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
4049 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
4050 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
4053 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4060 @cindex @code{\notes}
4062 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
4063 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
4064 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
4067 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
4068 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
4069 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
4070 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
4075 @subsection Bar check
4079 @cindex @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}
4083 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
4084 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
4085 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
4086 @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
4087 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
4089 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}:
4091 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
4096 @cindex skipTypesetting
4098 Failed bar checks are most often caused by entering incorrect
4099 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
4100 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the score
4101 by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To speed up
4102 this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting} (See @ref{Skipping
4103 corrected music})). Bar
4106 @c . {Point and click}
4107 @node Point and click
4108 @subsection Point and click
4110 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
4111 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
4112 error in the sheet music.
4114 To use it, you need the following software
4116 @unnumberedsubsec Installation
4120 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,plain
4121 Xdvi} version 22.36 or newer.
4123 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is a
4124 different and less well maintained program. To find out which xdvi you
4125 are running, try @code{xdvi --version} or @code{xdvi.bin --version}.
4129 Xdvi must be configured to find the TeX fonts and music
4130 fonts. Refer to the Xdvi documentation for more information.
4133 @unnumberedsubsec Using it
4135 Add one of these lines to the top of your .ly file. The first one is for
4136 line location only. The second one is more convenient, but requires
4137 patching @code{emacsclient} and @code{server.el}.
4140 #(set! point-and-click line-location)
4143 In the emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}), add the following
4148 Make sure that the environment variable @code{XEDITOR} is set
4151 emacsclient --no-wait +%l %f
4153 The second one, that also specifies the column, only works if you have
4154 patched your emacsclient and server, and have compiled your @code{.ly}
4155 file using the @code{line-column-location} setting.
4157 When viewing, control-mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
4158 spot in the @file{.ly} file. Control-mousebutton 2 will show all
4162 @unnumberedsubsec Column location
4164 If you want emacs to jump to the exact spot (and not just the line) on a
4165 click, you must enable column positioning. To do so, you need to patch
4166 emacsclient. Apply @file{emacsclient.patch} (included with the source
4167 package) to @file{emacsclient.c} and @file{server.el} from the emacs
4168 source code. Recompile and stick the recompiled emacsclient into a bin
4169 directory, and put @file{server.el} into a elisp directory
4170 (e.g. @file{~/usr/share/emacs/}). Add the following to your @file{.emacs}
4171 init file, before invoking server-start.
4174 (setq load-path (cons "~/usr/share/emacs" load-path))
4177 Set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{emacsclient --no-wait +%l:%c %f}
4179 At the top of the @code{ly} file, replace the @code{set!} line with the
4182 #(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
4185 One final hint: if you correct large files with point-and-click, then
4186 start correcting at the end of the file. When you start at the top, and
4187 insert one line, all subsequent locations will be off by a line.
4192 When you convert the @TeX{} file to PostScript using @code{dvips}, it
4193 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. Those complaints
4194 are harmless, and can be ignored.
4196 @node Skipping corrected music
4197 @section Skipping corrected music
4199 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
4200 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
4201 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
4202 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
4205 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4206 \relative c'' { c8 d
4207 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
4209 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
4214 @node Interpretation context
4215 @section Interpretation context
4218 * Creating contexts::
4219 * Default contexts::
4220 * Context properties::
4221 * Engravers and performers::
4222 * Changing context definitions::
4223 * Defining new contexts::
4227 Interpretation contexts are objects that only exist during a run of
4228 LilyPond. During the interpretation phase of LilyPond (when it prints
4229 "interpreting music"), the music expression in a @code{\score} block is
4230 interpreted in time order. This is the same order that humans hear and
4233 During this interpretation, the interpretation context holds the
4234 state for the current point within the music. It contains information
4238 @item What notes are playing at this point?
4239 @item What symbols will be printed at this point?
4240 @item What is the current key signature, time signature, point within
4244 Contexts are grouped hierarchically: A @internalsref{Voice} context is
4245 contained in a @internalsref{Staff} context (because a staff can contain
4246 multiple voices at any point), a @internalsref{Staff} context is contained in
4247 @internalsref{Score}, @internalsref{StaffGroup}, or @internalsref{ChoirStaff} context.
4249 Contexts associated with sheet music output are called @emph{notation
4250 contexts}, those for sound output are called @emph{performance
4251 contexts}. The default definitions of the standard notation and
4252 performance contexts can be found in @file{ly/engraver.ly} and
4253 @file{ly/performer.ly}, respectively.
4256 @node Creating contexts
4257 @subsection Creating contexts
4259 @cindex @code{\context}
4260 @cindex context selection
4262 Contexts for a music expression can be selected manually, using the
4263 following music expression.
4266 \context @var{contexttype} [= @var{contextname}] @var{musicexpr}
4269 This instructs lilypond to interpret @var{musicexpr} within the context
4270 of type @var{contexttype} and with name @var{contextname}. If this
4271 context does not exist, it will be created.
4273 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4275 \notes \relative c'' {
4276 c4 <d4 \context Staff = "another" e4> f
4282 In this example, the @code{c} and @code{d} are printed on the
4283 default staff. For the @code{e}, a context Staff called
4284 @code{another} is specified; since that does not exist, a new
4285 context is created. Within @code{another}, a (default) Voice context
4286 is created for the @code{e4}. When all music referring to a
4287 context is finished, the context is ended as well. So after the
4288 third quarter, @code{another} is removed.
4292 @node Default contexts
4293 @subsection Default contexts
4295 Most music expressions don't need an explicit @code{\context}
4296 declaration: they inherit the
4297 notation context from their parent. Each note is a music expression, and
4298 as you can see in the following example, only the sequential music
4299 enclosing the three notes has an explicit context.
4301 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4302 \score { \notes \context Voice = goUp { c'4 d' e' } }
4305 There are some quirks that you must keep in mind when dealing with
4308 First, every top level music is interpreted by the Score context, in other
4309 words, you may think of @code{\score} working like
4312 \context Score @var{music}
4316 Second, contexts are created automatically to be able to interpret the
4317 music expressions. Consider the following example.
4319 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4320 \score { \context Score \notes { c'4 ( d' )e' } }
4323 The sequential music is interpreted by the Score context initially
4324 (notice that the @code{\context} specification is redundant), but when a
4325 note is encountered, contexts are setup to accept that note. In this
4326 case, a Thread, Voice and Staff are created. The rest of the sequential
4327 music is also interpreted with the same Thread, Voice and Staff context,
4328 putting the notes on the same staff, in the same voice.
4330 This is a convenient mechanism, but do not expect opening chords to work
4331 without @code{\context}. For every note, a separate staff is
4334 @cindex explicit context
4335 @cindex starting with chords
4336 @cindex chords, starting with
4338 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4339 \score { \notes <c'4 es'> }
4342 Of course, if the chord is preceded by a normal note in sequential
4343 music, the chord will be interpreted by the Thread of the preceding
4345 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4346 \score { \notes { c'4 <c'4 es'> } }
4351 @node Context properties
4352 @subsection Context properties
4354 Notation contexts have properties. These properties are from
4355 the @file{.ly} file using the following expression:
4356 @cindex @code{\property}
4358 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} = @var{value}
4361 Sets the @var{propname} property of the context @var{contextname} to the
4362 specified Scheme expression @var{value}. All @var{propname} and
4363 @var{contextname} are strings, which are typically unquoted.
4365 Properties that are set in one context are inherited by all of the
4366 contained contexts. This means that a property valid for the
4367 @internalsref{Voice} context can be set in the @internalsref{Score} context (for
4368 example) and thus take effect in all @internalsref{Voice} contexts.
4370 Properties can be unset using the following expression:
4372 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} \unset
4375 @cindex properties, unsetting
4376 @cindex @code{\unset}
4378 This removes the definition of @var{propname} in @var{contextname}. If
4379 @var{propname} was not defined in @var{contextname} (but was inherited
4380 from a higher context), then this has no effect.
4385 The syntax of @code{\unset} is asymmetric: @code{\property \unset} is not
4386 the inverse of @code{\property \set}.
4388 @node Engravers and performers
4389 @subsection Engravers and performers
4393 Basic building blocks of translation are called engravers; they are
4394 special C++ classes.
4398 @c . {Context definitions}
4399 @node Changing context definitions
4400 @subsection Changing context definitions
4402 @cindex context definition
4403 @cindex translator definition
4405 The most common way to define a context is by extending an existing
4406 context. You can change an existing context from the paper block, by
4407 first initializing a translator with an existing context identifier:
4411 @var{context-identifier}
4414 Then you can add and remove engravers using the following syntax:
4416 \remove @var{engravername}
4417 \consists @var{engravername}
4421 Here @var{engravername} is a string, the name of an engraver in the
4425 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4429 \translator { \StaffContext
4430 \remove Clef_engraver
4436 You can also set properties in a translator definition. The syntax is as
4439 @var{propname} = @var{value}
4440 @var{propname} \set @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4441 @var{propname} \override @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4442 @var{propname} \revert @var{grob-propname}
4444 @var{propname} is a string, @var{grob-propname} a symbol, @var{value}
4445 and @code{pvalue} are Scheme expressions. These type of property
4446 assignments happen before interpretation starts, so a @code{\property}
4447 command will override any predefined settings.
4450 To simplify editing translators, all standard contexts have standard
4451 identifiers called @var{name}@code{Context}, e.g. @code{StaffContext},
4452 @code{VoiceContext}, see @file{ly/engraver.ly}.
4454 @node Defining new contexts
4455 @subsection Defining new contexts
4457 If you want to build a context from scratch, you must also supply the
4458 following extra information:
4460 @item A name, specified by @code{\name @var{contextname}}.
4462 @item A cooperation module. This is specified by @code{\type
4469 \type "Engraver_group_engraver"
4472 \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4473 \consists "Note_head_engraver"
4474 \consistsend "Axis_group_engraver"
4478 The argument of @code{\type} is the name for a special engraver that
4479 handles cooperation between simple engravers such as
4480 @code{Note_head_engraver} and @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. Alternatives
4481 for this engraver are the following:
4483 @cindex @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4484 @item @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4485 The standard cooperation engraver.
4487 @cindex @code{Score_engraver}
4489 @item @code{Score_engraver}
4490 This is cooperation module that should be in the top level context,
4491 and only the top level context.
4493 @cindex @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4495 @item @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4496 This is a special cooperation module (resembling
4497 @code{Score_engraver}) that is used to create an embedded
4504 @item @code{\alias} @var{alternate-name}
4505 This specifies a different name. In the above example,
4506 @code{\property Staff.X = Y} will also work on @code{SimpleStaff}s
4508 @item @code{\consistsend} @var{engravername}
4509 Analogous to @code{\consists}, but makes sure that
4510 @var{engravername} is always added to the end of the list of
4513 Some engraver types need to be at the end of the list; this
4514 insures they stay there even if a user adds or removes engravers.
4515 End-users generally don't need this command.
4517 @item @code{\accepts} @var{contextname}
4518 Add @var{contextname} to the list of contexts this context can
4519 contain in the context hierarchy. The first listed context is the
4520 context to create by default.
4522 @item @code{\denies}. The opposite of @code{\accepts}. Added for
4523 completeness, but is never used in practice.
4526 @item @code{\name} @var{contextname}
4527 This sets the type name of the context, e.g. @internalsref{Staff},
4528 @internalsref{Voice}. If the name is not specified, the translator won't do
4532 In the @code{\paper} block, it is also possible to define translator
4533 identifiers. Like other block identifiers, the identifier can only
4534 be used as the very first item of a translator. In order to define
4535 such an identifier outside of @code{\score}, you must do
4540 foo = \translator @{ @dots{} @}
4547 \translator @{ \foo @dots{} @}
4555 @cindex paper types, engravers, and pre-defined translators
4562 @c . {Syntactic details}
4563 @node Syntactic details
4564 @section Syntactic details
4565 @cindex Syntactic details
4567 This section describes details that were too boring to be put elsewhere.
4572 * Music expressions::
4573 * Manipulating music expressions::
4581 @subsection Top level
4584 This section describes what you may enter at top level.
4588 @subsubsection Score
4591 @cindex score definition
4593 The output is generated combining a music expression with an output
4594 definition. A score block has the following syntax:
4597 \score @{ @var{musicexpr} @var{outputdefs} @}
4600 @var{outputdefs} are zero or more output definitions. If none is
4601 supplied, the default @code{\paper} block will be added.
4605 @c . {Default output}
4606 @subsubsection Default output
4608 Default values for the @code{\paper} and @code{\midi} block are set by
4609 entering such a block at the top level.
4612 @subsubsection Header
4614 @cindex @code{\header}
4617 A header describes bibliographic information of the file's contents. It
4618 can also appear in a @code{\score} block. Tools like @code{ly2dvi} can
4619 use this information for generating titles. Key values that are used by
4620 @code{ly2dvi} are: title, subtitle, composer, opus, poet, instrument,
4621 meter, arranger, piece and tagline.
4623 @cindex @code{ly2dvi}
4627 \header @{ @var{key1} = @var{val1}
4628 @var{key2} = @var{val2} @dots{} @}
4631 It is customary to put the @code{\header} at the top of the file.
4633 @subsubsection Default output
4635 A @code{\midi} or @code{\paper} block at top level sets the default
4636 paper block for all scores that lack an explicit paper block.
4640 @subsection Identifiers
4644 What has this section got to do with identifiers?
4645 It seems more appropriate in the introduction to Chapter 4,
4651 All of the information in a LilyPond input file, is internally
4652 represented as a Scheme value. In addition to normal Scheme data types
4653 (such as pair, number, boolean, etc.), LilyPond has a number of
4654 specialized data types,
4661 @item Translator_def
4665 @item Music_output_def
4666 @item Moment (rational number)
4669 LilyPond also includes some transient object types. Objects of these
4670 types are built during a LilyPond run, and do not `exist' per se within
4671 your input file. These objects are created as a result of your input
4672 file, so you can include commands in the input to manipulate them,
4673 during a lilypond run.
4676 @item Grob: short for Graphical object. See @ref{Grobs}.
4677 @item Molecule: device-independent page output object,
4678 including dimensions. Produced by some Grob functions
4680 @item Translator: object that produces audio objects or Grobs. This is
4681 not yet user accessible.
4682 @item Font_metric: object representing a font.
4686 @node Music expressions
4687 @subsection Music expressions
4689 @cindex music expressions
4691 Music in LilyPond is entered as a music expression. Notes, rests, lyric
4692 syllables are music expressions, and you can combine music expressions
4693 to form new ones, for example by enclosing a list of expressions in
4694 @code{\sequential @{ @}} or @code{< >}. In the following example, a
4695 compound expression is formed out of the quarter note @code{c} and a
4696 quarter note @code{d}:
4699 \sequential @{ c4 d4 @}
4702 @cindex Sequential music
4703 @cindex @code{\sequential}
4704 @cindex sequential music
4707 @cindex Simultaneous music
4708 @cindex @code{\simultaneous}
4710 The two basic compound music expressions are simultaneous and
4714 \sequential @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4715 \simultaneous @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4717 For both, there is a shorthand:
4719 @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4723 @code{<} @var{musicexprlist} @code{>}
4725 for simultaneous music.
4726 In principle, the way in which you nest sequential and simultaneous to
4727 produce music is not relevant. In the following example, three chords
4728 are expressed in two different ways:
4730 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4731 \notes \context Voice {
4732 <a c'> <b d' > <c' e'>
4733 < { a b c' } { c' d' e' } >
4738 Other compound music expressions include
4741 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{expr}
4742 \apply @var{func} @var{expr}
4743 \context @var{type} = @var{id} @var{expr}
4744 \times @var{fraction} @var{expr}
4748 @c . {Manipulating music expressions}
4749 @node Manipulating music expressions
4750 @subsection Manipulating music expressions
4752 The @code{\apply} mechanism gives you access to the internal
4753 representation of music. You can write Scheme-functions that operate
4754 directly on it. The syntax is
4756 \apply #@var{func} @var{music}
4758 This means that @var{func} is applied to @var{music}. The function
4759 @var{func} should return a music expression.
4761 This example replaces the text string of a script. It also shows a dump
4762 of the music it processes, which is useful if you want to know more
4763 about how music is stored.
4765 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4766 #(define (testfunc x)
4767 (if (equal? (ly-get-mus-property x 'text) "foo")
4768 (ly-set-mus-property x 'text "bar"))
4770 (ly-set-mus-property x 'elements
4771 (map testfunc (ly-get-mus-property x 'elements)))
4776 \apply #testfunc { c'4_"foo" }
4780 For more information on what is possible, see the automatically
4781 generated documentation.
4784 Directly accessing internal representations is dangerous: the
4785 implementation is subject to changes, so you should avoid this feature
4788 A final example is a function that reverses a piece of music in time:
4790 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4791 #(define (reverse-music music)
4792 (let* ((elements (ly-get-mus-property music 'elements))
4793 (reversed (reverse elements))
4794 (span-dir (ly-get-mus-property music 'span-direction)))
4795 (ly-set-mus-property music 'elements reversed)
4797 (ly-set-mus-property music 'span-direction (- span-dir)))
4798 (map reverse-music reversed)
4801 music = \notes { c'4 d'4( e'4 f'4 }
4803 \score { \context Voice {
4805 \apply #reverse-music \music
4810 More examples are given in the distributed example files in
4813 @c . {Span requests}
4819 @subsubsection Span requests
4820 @cindex Span requests
4822 Notational constructs that start and end on different notes can be
4823 entered using span requests. The syntax is as follows:
4827 \spanrequest @var{startstop} @var{type}
4831 @cindex @code{\start}
4832 @cindex @code{\stop}
4834 This defines a spanning request. The @var{startstop} parameter is either
4835 -1 (@code{\start}) or 1 (@code{\stop}) and @var{type} is a string that
4836 describes what should be started. Much of the syntactic sugar is a
4837 shorthand for @code{\spanrequest}, for example,
4839 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4840 c'4-\spanrequest \start "slur"
4841 c'4-\spanrequest \stop "slur"
4844 Among the supported types are @code{crescendo}, @code{decrescendo},
4845 @code{beam}, @code{slur}. This is an internal command. Users are
4846 encouraged to use the shorthands which are defined in the initialization
4847 file @file{spanners.ly}.
4852 @subsection Assignments
4855 Identifiers allow objects to be assigned to names during the parse
4856 stage. To assign an identifier, you use @var{name}@code{=}@var{value}
4857 and to refer to an identifier, you precede its name with a backslash:
4858 `@code{\}@var{name}'. @var{value} is any valid Scheme value or any of
4859 the input-types listed above. Identifier assignments can appear at top
4860 level in the LilyPond file, but also in @code{\paper} blocks.
4862 An identifier can be created with any string for its name, but you will
4863 only be able to refer to identifiers whose names begin with a letter,
4864 being entirely alphabetical. It is impossible to refer to an identifier
4865 whose name is the same as the name of a keyword.
4867 The right hand side of an identifier assignment is parsed completely
4868 before the assignment is done, so it is allowed to redefine an
4869 identifier in terms of its old value, e.g.
4875 When an identifier is referenced, the information it points to is
4876 copied. For this reason, an identifier reference must always be the
4877 first item in a block.
4881 \paperIdent % wrong and invalid
4885 \paperIdent % correct
4890 @c . {Lexical modes}
4892 @subsection Lexical modes
4893 @cindex Lexical modes
4896 @cindex @code{\notes}
4897 @cindex @code{\chords}
4898 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
4900 To simplify entering notes, lyrics, and chords, LilyPond has three
4901 special input modes in addition to the default mode: note, lyrics and
4902 chords mode. These input modes change the way that normal, unquoted
4903 words are interpreted: for example, the word @code{cis} may be
4904 interpreted as a C-sharp, as a lyric syllable `cis' or as a C-sharp
4905 major triad respectively.
4907 A mode switch is entered as a compound music expression
4909 @code{\notes} @var{musicexpr}
4910 @code{\chords} @var{musicexpr}
4911 @code{\lyrics} @var{musicexpr}.
4914 In each of these cases, these expressions do not add anything to the
4915 meaning of their arguments. They just instruct the parser in what mode
4916 to parse their arguments. The modes are treated in more detail in
4917 @ref{Lyrics} and @ref{Chords}.
4919 Different input modes may be nested.
4923 @subsection Ambiguities
4928 The grammar contains a number of ambiguities. We hope to resolve them at
4932 @item The assignment
4937 is interpreted as the string identifier assignment. However,
4938 it can also be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
4939 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo}
4940 containing the syllable `bar'.
4942 @item If you do a nested repeat like
4954 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the
4955 @code{\alternative} belongs. This is the classic if-then-else
4956 dilemma. It may be solved by using braces.
4958 @item The parser is not sophisticated enough to distinguish at the
4960 @code{c4*2 / 3 } and @code{c4*2 / g} (in chord mode).
4967 @c . {Lexical details}
4968 @node Lexical details
4969 @section Lexical details
4971 Even more boring details, now on lexical side of the input parser.
4982 * Version information::
4987 @subsection Comments
4990 @cindex block comment
4991 @cindex line comment
4995 A one line comment is introduced by a @code{%} character.
4996 Block comments are started by @code{%@{} and ended by @code{%@}}.
4997 They cannot be nested.
5000 @subsection Direct Scheme
5004 @cindex Scheme, in-line code
5007 LilyPond contains a Scheme interpreter (the GUILE library) for
5008 internal use. In some places, Scheme expressions also form valid syntax:
5009 wherever it is allowed,
5013 evaluates the specified Scheme code. Example:
5015 \property Staff.TestObject \override #'foobar = #(+ 1 2)
5017 @code{\override} expects two Scheme expressions, so there are two Scheme
5018 expressions. The first one is a symbol (@code{foobar}), the second one
5019 an integer (namely, 3).
5021 In-line scheme may be used at the top level. In this case the result is
5024 Scheme is a full-blown programming language, and a full discussion is
5025 outside the scope of this document. Interested readers are referred to
5026 the website @uref{http://www.schemers.org/} for more information on
5031 @subsection Keywords
5035 Keywords start with a backslash, followed by a number of lower case
5036 alphabetic characters. These are all the keywords.
5039 apply arpeggio autochange spanrequest commandspanrequest
5040 simultaneous sequential accepts alternative bar breathe
5041 char chordmodifiers chords clef cm consists consistsend
5042 context denies duration dynamicscript elementdescriptions
5043 font grace header in lyrics key mark pitch
5044 time times midi mm name pitchnames notes outputproperty
5045 override set revert partial paper penalty property pt
5046 relative remove repeat addlyrics partcombine score
5047 script stylesheet skip textscript tempo translator
5052 @subsection Integers
5060 Formed from an optional minus sign followed by digits. Arithmetic
5061 operations cannot be done with integers, and integers cannot be mixed
5066 @cindex real numbers
5072 Formed from an optional minus sign and a sequence of digits followed
5073 by a @emph{required} decimal point and an optional exponent such as
5074 @code{-1.2e3}. Reals can be built up using the usual operations:
5075 `@code{+}', `@code{-}', `@code{*}', and
5076 `@code{/}', with parentheses for grouping.
5084 A real constant can be followed by one of the dimension keywords:
5085 @code{\mm} @code{\pt}, @code{\in}, or @code{\cm}, for millimeters,
5086 points, inches and centimeters, respectively. This converts the number
5087 a number that is the internal representation of that dimension.
5095 Begins and ends with the @code{"} character. To include a @code{"}
5096 character in a string write @code{\"}. Various other backslash
5097 sequences have special interpretations as in the C language. A string
5098 that contains no spaces can be written without the quotes. Strings can
5099 be concatenated with the @code{+} operator.
5103 @subsection Main input
5106 @cindex @code{\maininput}
5108 The @code{\maininput} command is used in init files to signal that the
5109 user file must be read. This command cannot be used in a user file.
5111 @node File inclusion
5112 @subsection File inclusion
5113 @cindex @code{\include}
5115 \include @var{filename}
5118 Include @var{filename}. The argument @var{filename} may be a quoted string (an
5119 unquoted string will not work here!) or a string identifier. The full
5120 filename including the @file{.ly} extension must be given,
5123 @node Version information
5124 @subsection Version information
5125 @cindex @code{\version}
5127 \version @var{string}
5130 Specify the version of LilyPond that a file was written for. The
5131 argument is a version string in quotes, for example @code{"1.2.0"}.
5132 This is used to detect invalid input, and to aid
5133 @code{convert-ly} a tool that automatically upgrades input files. See
5134 See @ref{convert-ly} for more information on @code{convert-ly}.
5142 @c broken with emacs-21
5143 @c {Local emac s vars}
5144 @c Local varia bles:
5146 @c minor-mod e: font-lock
5147 @c minor-mo de: outline
5148 @c outline -layout: (-1 : 0)
5149 @c outlin e-use-mode-specific-leader: "@c \."
5150 @c outli ne-primary-bullet: "{"
5151 @c outli ne-stylish-prefixes: nil
5152 @c outli ne-override-protect: t