1 \input texinfo @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @setfilename music-glosssary.info
3 @settitle Music Glossary
4 @documentencoding UTF-8
11 @c see lilypond.tely for info installation note
14 * Glossary: (lilypond/music-glossary). Glossary of music terms.
18 This document is also available in
19 @uref{source/Documentation/user/music-glossary.pdf,PDF}
20 and as @uref{source/Documentation/user/music-glossary-big-page.html,one big page}.
25 @author Christian Mondrup @c Original author of LilyPond glossary
27 @author François Pinard @c Original glossary of GNU music project,
29 @author Mats Bengtsson @c Swedish glossary
30 @author David González @c Spanish glossary
31 @author Bjoern Jacke @c German glossary
32 @author Neil Jerram @c English glossary translations
33 @author Heikki Junes @c Finnish glossary
34 @author Kurtis Kroon @c English glossary maintenance, beg. Oct. 2007
35 @author Adrian Mariano @c Italian glossary
36 @author Han-Wen Nienhuys @c Dutch glossary
37 @author Jan Nieuwenhuizen @c Dutch glossary
39 @c Fixes by Jean-Pierre Coulon and `Dirk', alphabetized by last name, KK, 10/07
40 @c Updates to the German translation by Till Rettig, 12/07
42 Copyright @copyright{} 1999--2007 by the authors
44 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
45 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
46 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation,
47 without Invariant Sections.
52 @c TODO: multiple omfcreators?
54 @omfcreator Christian Mondrup, Kurt Kroon
55 @omfdescription Glossary of musical terms with translations
57 @omfcategory Applications|Publishing
69 This glossary was brought you by
76 @item Christian Mondrup
77 Original author of LilyPond glossary, Danish glossary,
81 Original glossary of GNU music project, French glossary,
82 @item Han-Wen Nienhuys
85 Finnish glossary translations,
86 @item Jan Nieuwenhuizen
93 English glossary translations.
96 Copyright 1999--2007 by the authors
98 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
99 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
100 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation,
101 without Invariant Sections.
107 @c @everyheading @| @thispage @|
108 @c @evenheading @thispage @| @|
109 @c @oddheading @| @| @thispage @|
111 This is the Music Glossary (MG) for GNU LilyPond version @version{}.
112 For more information about how this fits with the other
113 documentation, see @rlearning{About the documentation}.
119 @w{@expansion{}@strong{\word\}}@c
122 @expansion{}@ref{\word\, @strong{\word\}}@c
127 * Musical terms A-Z::
128 * Duration names notes and rests::
132 @node Musical terms A-Z
133 @chapter Musical terms A-Z
135 Languages in this order.
137 @item UK - British English (where it differs from American English)
163 * ancient minor scale::
168 * ascending interval::
170 * augmented interval::
206 * compound interval::
210 * conjunct movement::
223 * descending interval::
226 * diminished interval::
230 * disjunct movement::
232 * dissonant interval::
234 * dominant ninth chord::
235 * dominant seventh chord::
237 * dot (augmentation dot)::
239 * double appoggiatura::
241 * double dotted note::
244 * double time signature::
251 * ecclesiastical mode::
258 * equal temperament::
277 * functional harmony::
294 * inverted interval::
309 * long appoggiatura::
315 * meantone temperament::
322 * mensural notation::
326 * metronomic indication::
338 * multi-measure rest::
368 * polymetric time signature::
373 * Pythagorean comma::
403 * sixty-fourth note::
404 * sixty-fourth rest::
434 * thirty-second note::
435 * thirty-second rest::
442 * transposing instrument::
497 Abbreviated @samp{a2} or @samp{a 2}.
501 @item An indication in orchestral scores that a single part notated on a single
502 staff that normally carries parts for two players (e.g. first and second oboes)
503 is to be played by both players.
505 @item Or conversely, that two pitches or parts notated on a staff that normally
506 carries a single part (e.g. first violin) are to be played by different players,
507 or groups of players (@q{desks}).
521 F: accelerando, en accélérant,
522 D: accelerando, schneller werden,
526 FI: accelerando, kiihdyttäen.
541 FI: aksentti, korostus.
543 The stress of one tone over others.
555 @section acciaccatura
557 A grace note which takes its time from the rest or note preceding the
558 principal note to which it is attached. The acciaccatura is drawn as a
559 small eighth note (quaver) with a line drawn through the flag and
564 @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes}, @ref{ornament}.
570 ES: alteración accidental,
572 F: altération accidentelle,
573 D: Versetzungszeichen, Akzidenz,
574 NL: toevallig (verplaatsings)teken,
576 S: tillfälligt förtecken,
577 FI: tilapäinen etumerkki.
579 An accidental has the effect of an @ref{alteration} of a note. A
580 sharp raises a tone by a @ref{semitone}, a double sharp raises it by a
581 @ref{whole tone}, a flat lowers it by a semitone and a double flat
582 lowers it by a whole tone. A natural cancels the effect of a previous
583 accidental, or a sharp or flat in the key signature.
585 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
586 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
588 \context Staff \relative c'' {
589 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
590 gisis1 gis g! ges geses
593 \override Lyrics .LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
594 "db. sharp" sharp natural flat "db. flat"
610 FI: adagio, hitaasti.
612 It.@: comfortable, easy.
616 @item Slow tempo, slower -- especially in even meter -- than
617 @ref{andante} and faster than @ref{largo}.
619 @item A movement in slow tempo, especially the second (slow) movement
620 of @ref{sonata}s, symphonies, etc.
631 D: Allegro, Schnell, Fröhlich, Lustig,
635 FI: allegro, nopeasti.
637 It.@: cheerful. Quick tempo. Also used as a title for pieces in a quick
638 tempo, especially the first and last movements of a @ref{sonata}.
648 NL: verhoging of verlaging,
653 An alteration is the modification, raising or lowering, of a note's
654 pitch. It is established by an @ref{accidental}.
667 FI: altto, matala naisääni.
669 A female voice of low range (@emph{contralto}). Originally the alto
670 was a high male voice (hence the name), which by the use of falsetto
671 reached the height of the female voice. This type of voice is also
672 known as @ref{countertenor}.
678 ES: clave de do en tercera,
679 I: chiave di contralto,
680 F: clef d'ut troisième ligne,
681 D: Altschlüssel, Bratschenschlüssel,
687 C clef setting middle C on the middle line of the staff.
704 FI: ambitus, ääniala, soitinala.
706 [Latin: past participle of @emph{ambire}, @q{to go around}; plural: ambitus]
707 Denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in a part of music. It may
708 also denote the pitch range that a musical instrument is capable of playing.
709 Sometimes anglicized to @emph{ambit} (pl. @emph{ambits}).
724 An anacrusis (also known as pickup or upbeat) is an incomplete measure
725 of music before a section of music. It also refers to the initial
726 note(s) of a melody occurring in that incomplete measure.
730 @ref{measure}, @ref{meter}.
732 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
736 \partial 4 f4 | bes4. a8 bes4 c |
737 bes( a) g f | bes4. a8 bes4 c | f,2. \bar "||" }
741 @node ancient minor scale
742 @section ancient minor scale
744 ES: escala menor natural,
745 I: scala minore naturale,
746 F: forme du mode mineur ancien, troisème mode, mode hellénique,
747 D: reines Moll, natürliches Moll,
748 NL: authentieke mineurtoonladder,
751 FI: luonnollinen molliasteikko.
753 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
754 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
761 @ref{diatonic scale}.
776 Walking tempo/character.
780 @section appoggiatura
784 F: appoggiature, (port de voix),
785 D: Vorschlag, Vorhalt
789 FI: appoggiatura, etuhele.
791 Ornamental note, usually a second, that is melodically connected with
792 the main note following it. In music before the 19th century
793 appoggiature were usually performed on the beat, after that mostly
794 before the beat. While the short appoggiatura is performed as a short
795 note regardless of the duration of the main note the duration of the
796 long appoggiatura is proportional to that of the main note.
798 @lilypond[line-width=13.0\cm]
799 \context Voice \relative c'' {
803 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
804 <d a fis>4_"notation" r
805 { \override Stem #'flag-style = #'()
807 \revert Stem #'flag-style
810 { \override Stem #'flag-style = #'()
812 \revert Stem #'flag-style
815 \cadenzaOn a4 \bar "||" \cadenzaOff
817 <d, a fis>4_"performance" r g16 ( fis) e fis a ( g) fis g |
818 \cadenzaOn a4 \bar "||" \cadenzaOff
822 An appoggiatura may have more notes preceding the main note.
824 @lilypond[line-width=13.0\cm]
828 % \override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
829 \grace { bes16 } as8_"notation" as16 bes as8 g |
830 \grace { as16[( bes] } < c as >4-)
831 \grace { as16[( bes] } < c as >4-) \bar "||"
832 \grace { bes16 } as8_"performance" as16 bes as8 g |
833 << \context Voice = va { \stemUp\tieUp as32 bes c8. as32 bes c8. }
834 \context Voice = vb { \stemDown\tieDown as16 ~ as8. as16 ~ as8. } >>
846 D: Arpeggio, Akkordbrechungen, gebro@-chener Akkord,
848 DK: arpeggio, akkordbrydning,
850 FI: arpeggio, murtosointu.
852 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
853 \context PianoStaff <<
854 \context Staff = SA \relative c'' {
857 r8 g16 c e g, c e r8 g,16 c e g, c e |
858 r8 a,16 d f a, d f r8 a,16 d f a, d f \bar "||" }
859 \context Staff = SB \relative c' {
861 << \context Voice = va {
863 r16 e8. ( e4) r16 e8. ( e4) |
864 r16 d8. ( d4) r16 d8. ( d4) }
865 \context Voice = vb {
874 @section articulation
883 FI: artikulaatio, ilmaisu.
885 Articulation refers to notation which indicates how a note or notes
886 should be played. Slurs, accents, staccato, and legato are all
887 examples of articulation.
890 @node ascending interval
891 @section ascending interval
893 ES: intervalo ascendente,
894 I: intervallo ascendente,
895 F: intervalle ascendant,
896 D: steigendes Intervall,
897 NL: stijgend interval,
898 DK: stigende interval,
899 S: stigande intervall,
900 FI: nouseva intervalli.
902 A distance between a starting lower note and a higher ending note.
905 @node augmented interval
906 @section augmented interval
908 ES: intervalo aumentado,
909 I: intervallo aumentato,
910 F: intervalle augmenté,
911 D: übermäßiges Intervall,
912 NL: overmatig interval,
913 DK: forstørret interval,
914 S: överstigande intervall,
915 FI: ylinouseva intervalli.
923 @section augmentation
934 @c TODO: add definition.
936 This is a placeholder for augmentation (wrt mensural notation).
940 @ref{diminution}, @ref{mensural notation}.
948 F: manuscrit, autographe
949 D: Autograph, Handschrift,
951 DK: håndskrift, autograf,
953 FI: käsinkirjoitettu nuotti.
957 @item A manuscript written in the composer's own hand.
959 @item Music prepared for photoreproduction by freehand drawing, with
960 the aid of a straightedge ruler and T-square only, which attempts to
961 emulate engraving. This required more skill than did engraving.
1004 ES: barra, línea divisoria,
1005 I: stanghetta, barra (di divisione),
1006 F: barre (de mesure),
1024 FI: baritoni, keskikorkuinen miesääni.
1026 The male voice intermediate between the @ref{bass} and the
1029 @c F: clef de troisième ligne dropped
1033 @section baritone clef
1035 ES: clave de fa en tercera,
1036 I: chiave di baritono,
1037 F: clef d' Ut cinquième ligne, clef de Fa troisième,
1038 D: Baritonschlüssel,
1044 C or F clef setting middle C on the upper staff line.
1048 @ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}.
1061 FI: basso, matala miesääni.
1065 @item The lowest male voice.
1067 @item Sometimes, especially in jazz music, used as an abbreviation for
1080 ES: clave de fa en cuarta,
1082 F: clef de fa quatrième ligne,
1089 A clef setting with middle C on the first top ledger line.
1108 Line connecting a series of notes (shorter than a quarter note). The
1109 number of beams determines the note value of the connected notes.
1111 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1112 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1113 %\override TextScript #'font-style = #'large
1115 g8_"1/8"[ g g g] s16
1116 g16_"1/16"[ g g g] s16
1117 g32_"1/32"[ s32 g32 s32 g32 s32 g32] s16
1118 g64_"1/64"[ s32 g64 s32 g64 s32 g64] s32 }
1123 @ref{feathered beam}.
1129 ES: tiempo, parte (de compás)
1132 D: Takt, Taktschlag, Zeit (im Takt),
1138 Note value used for counting, most often half-, fourth-, and eighth
1139 notes. The base counting value and the number of them per measure is
1140 indicated at the start of the music.
1142 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
1145 \relative c'' { g4 c b a | g1 \bar "||"}
1147 \relative c'' { g8 d' c | b c a | g4. \bar "||"}
1152 @section beat repeat
1156 @ref{percent repeat}.
1170 ES: llave, corchete,
1173 D: Klammer, Akkolade,
1174 NL: accolade, teksthaak,
1177 FI: yhdistävä sulkumerkki.
1179 Symbol at the start of a system connecting staves.
1181 Curly braces are used for connecting piano staves, and sometimes for connecting
1182 the staves of like instruments in an orchestral score when written on different
1183 staves (e.g. first and second flutes):
1185 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
1186 \context GrandStaff <<
1187 \relative c''\context Staff = SA { \clef treble g4 e c2 }
1188 \relative c \context Staff = SB { \clef bass c1 \bar "|." } >>
1191 Angular brackets for connecting parts in an orchestral or choral score:
1193 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
1194 \context StaffGroup <<
1195 % \set StaffGroup.minVerticalAlign = #12
1196 \relative c'' \context Staff = SA { \clef treble g4 e c2 }
1197 \relative c \context Staff = SB { \clef bass c1 \bar "|." } >>
1224 NL: koper (blazers),
1227 S: brassinstrument, mässingsinstrument,
1230 A family of blown musical instruments made of brass, all using a cup
1231 formed mouth piece. The brass instruments commonly used in a symphony
1232 orchestra are trumpet, trombone, french horn, and tube.
1236 @section breath mark
1241 D: Atemzeichen, Trennungszeichen,
1242 NL: repercussieteken,
1243 DK: vejrtrækningstegn,
1247 Indication of where to breathe in vocal and wind instrument parts.
1253 ES: cuadrada, breve,
1260 FI: brevis, kaksoiskokonuotti.
1262 Note value twice as long as a whole note. Mainly used in pre-1650 music.
1263 The shortest note value generally used in white mensural notation, hence the
1264 name, which originally meant @q{of short duration}.
1266 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
1267 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1268 \relative c'' { g\breve }
1273 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{note value}.
1307 Clef symbol indicating the position of the middle C. Used on all note
1310 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1311 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1312 \override Score.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
1314 \context Staff \relative c' {
1316 \clef mezzosoprano c
1321 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1322 \override Lyrics .LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
1323 "Soprano " "Mezzosoprano " "Alto " "Tenor " Baritone
1339 FI: kadenssi, lopuke.
1343 @ref{harmonic cadence}, @ref{functional harmony}.
1356 FI: kadenssi, lopuke.
1358 An extended, improvisatory style section inserted near the end of
1359 movement. The purpose of a cadenza is to give singers or players a
1360 chance to exhibit their technical skill and -- not last -- their
1361 ability to improvise. Since the middle of the 19th century, however,
1362 most cadenzas have been written down by the composer.
1375 FI: kaanon, tarkka jäljittely.
1392 FI: sentti, puolisävelaskeleen sadasosa tasavireisessä
1393 viritysjärjestelmässä.
1395 Logarithmic unit of measurement. 1@tie{}cent is 1/1200 of an octave
1396 (1/100 of an equally tempered @ref{semitone}).
1400 @ref{equal temperament}.
1423 Three or more tones sounding simultaneously. In traditional European music
1424 the base chord is a @emph{triad} consisting of two thirds. @emph{Major}
1425 (major + minor third) as well as @emph{minor} (minor + major third) chords
1426 may be extended with more thirds. Four-tone @emph{seventh chords} and
1427 five-tone @emph{ninth} major chords are most often used as dominants
1428 (functional harmony). Chords having no third above the lower notes to
1429 define their mood are a special case called @q{open chords}. The lack of
1430 the middle third means their quality is ambivalent: neither major nor minor.
1432 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1433 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1434 %\override TextScript #'font-style = #'large
1436 \context Staff \relative c'' {
1437 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
1458 @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{interval}, @ref{inversion}, @ref{quality},
1462 @node chromatic scale
1463 @section chromatic scale
1465 ES: escala cromática,
1467 F: gamme chromatique,
1468 D: chro@-ma@-ti@-sche Tonleiter,
1469 NL: chromatische toonladder,
1470 DK: kromatisk skala,
1472 FI: kromaattinen asteikko.
1474 A scale consisting of all 12 @ref{semitone}s.
1476 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1477 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1478 \relative c' { c1 cis d dis e f fis g gis a ais b c }
1483 @section chromaticism
1494 Use of tones extraneous to a @ref{diatonic scale} (minor, major).
1498 @section church mode
1500 ES: modo eclesiástico,
1501 I: modo ecclesiastico,
1502 F: mode ecclésiastique,
1507 FI: moodi, kirkkosävellaji.
1511 @ref{diatonic scale}.
1520 D: Schlüssel, Notenschlüssel,
1524 FI: avain, nuottiavain.
1528 @ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}, @ref{G clef}.
1530 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
1531 pitches. The three clef symbols in common use are:
1533 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1536 \line { "The Treble or G clef: " \musicglyph #"clefs.G" }
1537 \line { "The Bass or F clef: " \musicglyph #"clefs.F" }
1538 \line { "The Alto or C clef: " \musicglyph #"clefs.C" }
1543 Imagine a large staff of 11 lines centered on middle C, sometimes
1544 called a @q{grand staff}, with the bottom line representing low G and
1545 the top line high F:
1547 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1550 %-- Treble Staff --%
1552 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1553 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
1554 % Allow the treble clef to overlap the lower staves:
1555 % \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1556 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1558 s1^\markup { "g," \transparent "g" }
1559 s^ \markup { "b," \transparent "g" }
1560 s^ \markup { "d" \transparent "g" }
1561 s^ \markup { "f" \transparent "g" }
1562 s^ \markup { "a" \transparent "g" }
1563 s^ \markup { \with-color #red c' \transparent "g"}
1564 e'^\markup { "e'" \transparent "g" }
1565 g'^\markup { "g'" \transparent "g" }
1566 b'^\markup { "b'" \transparent "g" }
1567 d''^\markup { "d''" \transparent "g" }
1568 f''^\markup { "f ''" \transparent "g" }
1571 %-- Alto Staff reduced to a single line on middle C --%
1573 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 1 % One line only
1574 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red % Coloured red
1575 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1578 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1579 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1580 % Specify height to give correct spacing between treble and bass staves
1581 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1583 s1 s s s s % Space along to align horizonatally
1584 \override NoteHead #'color = #red
1586 s1 s s s s s % Keep staff (ie the red line) showing
1590 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1591 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-3 . 2)
1592 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1595 s s s s s s s % Keep staff showing
1599 % Reduce horizontal spacing so semibreves can be used without exceeding 1 line
1600 \context { \Score \override SpacingSpanner #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 1)
1602 % Reduce apparent vertical size of note heads to permit them to overlap other grobs vertically
1603 \context { \Score \override NoteHead #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1605 % Remove all barlines
1606 \context { \Score \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1608 % Remove time signature from all staves
1609 \context { \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver
1615 Staves of five lines are usually used, and the clef superimposed on
1616 them indicates which five lines have been selected from this
1617 @samp{grand staff}. For example, the treble or G clef indicates that
1618 the top five lines have been selected:
1620 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1623 %-- Treble Staff --%
1625 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1626 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup
1627 #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1628 % Allow the treble clef to overlap the lower staves:
1629 % \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1630 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required here
1632 s1^\markup { "g," \transparent "g" }
1633 s^ \markup { "b," \transparent "g" }
1634 s^ \markup { "d" \transparent "g" }
1635 s^ \markup { "f" \transparent "g" }
1636 s^ \markup { "a" \transparent "g" }
1637 s^ \markup { \with-color #red c' \transparent "g"}
1638 \stopStaff \startStaff
1639 \clef "C" % Dummy to force next clef to be printed
1640 s % Need at least one note for \clef to take effect
1641 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##t % Clef now required
1642 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0) % Permit overlap
1644 e'^\markup { "e'" \transparent "g" }
1645 g'^\markup { "g'" \transparent "g" }
1646 b'^\markup { "b'" \transparent "g" }
1647 d''^\markup { "d''" \transparent "g" }
1648 f''^\markup { "f ''" \transparent "g" }
1650 %-- Alto Staff reduced to a single line on middle C --%
1652 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 1 % One line only
1653 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red % Coloured red
1654 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1657 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1658 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup
1659 #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1660 % Specify height to give correct spacing between the staves
1661 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1663 s1 s s s s % Space along to align horizonatally
1664 \override NoteHead #'color = #red
1666 % s1 s s s s % Keep staff (ie the red line) showing
1670 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1671 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup
1672 #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1673 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1676 % s s s s s s % Keep staff showing
1680 % Reduce horizontal spacing so semibreves can be used
1681 % without exceeding 1 line
1682 \context { \Score \override SpacingSpanner
1683 #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 1)
1685 % Reduce apparent vertical size of note heads to
1686 % permit them to overlap other grobs vertically
1687 \context { \Score \override NoteHead #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1689 % Remove all barlines
1690 \context { \Score \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1692 % Remove time signature from all staves
1693 \context { \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver
1699 The @q{curl} of the G clef is centered on the line that represents the
1702 In the same way, the bass or F clef indicates that the bottom five
1703 lines have been selected from the @samp{grand staff}, and the alto or
1704 C clef indicates the middle five lines have been selected. This
1705 relationship is shown below, where the notes show an arpeggio on a C
1708 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1711 %-- Treble Staff --%
1712 \new Staff = "G" \with {
1713 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1716 % The following two overrides are required to make the two middle C's overlap
1717 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1718 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
1720 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1722 s1 s s s s e' g' c''
1725 \new Staff = "C" \with {
1726 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1729 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 1
1730 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'stencil = ##f
1731 \once \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
1732 \clef "G" % A frig. This clef is invisible; use G to force the later C clef to be shown
1733 \override Score.BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1735 % The following two overrides are required to align the C staff to the G and F staves
1736 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1737 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1740 \stopStaff \startStaff
1741 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1742 \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'stencil
1743 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
1744 b'1 % A frig. This really shows as a middle C in the score
1746 \stopStaff \startStaff
1747 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 5
1748 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1749 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1750 \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'color
1751 \stopStaff \startStaff
1753 s1 s s c e g c' e' g' c''
1756 \new Staff = "F" \with {
1757 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1760 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1761 % The following two overrides are required to make the two middle C's overlap
1762 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1763 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
1771 \Score \override SpacingSpanner #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 2 1)
1774 \Score \override NoteHead #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1777 \Score \override NoteHead #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1794 FI: klusteri, cluster.
1796 A @emph{cluster} is a range of simultaneously sounding pitches that
1797 may change over time. The set of available pitches to apply usually
1798 depends on the acoustic source. Thus, in piano music, a cluster
1799 typically consists of a continuous range of the semitones as provided
1800 by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic scale. In choral music, each
1801 singer of the choir typically may sing an arbitrary pitch within the
1802 cluster's range that is not bound to any diatonic, chromatic or other
1803 scale. In electronic music, a cluster (theoretically) may even cover
1804 a continuous range of pitches, thus resulting in colored noise, such
1807 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
1808 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
1809 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
1810 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by
1811 the shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical
1812 extent of the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster
1813 geometrically describes the development of a range of pitches
1814 (vertical extent) over time (horizontal extent). Still, the
1815 geometrical shape of a cluster covers the area in which any single
1816 pitch contained in the cluster would be notated as an ordinary note.
1818 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,ragged-right]
1819 \makeClusters { <c e> <b f'> <b g'> <c g> <f e> }
1833 FI: komma, korvinkuultava ero äänenkorkeudessa.
1835 Difference in pitch between a note derived from pure tuning and the
1836 same note derived from some other tuning method.
1840 @ref{didymic comma}, @ref{Pythagorean comma}, @ref{syntonic comma},
1845 @section common meter
1855 @section common time
1866 4/4 time. The symbol, which resembles a capital letter C, derives from
1871 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}.
1877 ES: intervalo invertido,
1879 F: intervalle complémentaire,
1880 D: Komplementärintervall,
1881 NL: complementair interval,
1882 DK: komplementærinterval,
1883 S: komplementärintervall (?),
1884 FI: täydentävä intervalli.
1888 @ref{inverted interval}.
1891 @node compound interval
1892 @section compound interval
1894 ES: intervalo compuesto,
1895 I: intervallo composto,
1896 F: intervalle composé,
1897 D: weites Intervall,
1898 NL: samengesteld interval,
1899 DK: sammensat interval,
1900 S: sammansatt intervall,
1901 FI: oktaavia laajempi intervalli.
1903 Intervals larger than an octave.
1910 @node compound meter
1911 @section compound meter
1913 ES: compás compuesto, compás de subdivisión ternaria,
1922 A meter that includes a triplet subdivision within the beat, such as
1927 @ref{meter}, @ref{simple meter}.
1931 @section compound time
1933 ES: compás compuesto, compás de amalgama (def. 2),
1945 A meter that includes a triplet subdivision within the beat: see
1946 @ref{compound meter}.
1949 A time signature that additively combines two or more unequal meters, e.g.
1950 "3/8 + 2/8" instead of "5/8". Sometimes called additive time signatures.
1952 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
1953 #(define (compound-time grob one two three num)
1955 (ly:grob-layout grob)
1956 '(((baseline-skip . 2)
1958 (font-family . number)))
1960 #:line ( #:column (one) "+" #:column (two num) "+" #:column (three)))))
1964 #(set-time-signature 8 8 '(3 2 3))
1965 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil
1966 = #(lambda (grob) (compound-time grob "3" "2" "3" "8"))
1967 #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 8 8) 3 8)
1968 #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 8 8) 5 8)
1969 \set Staff.beatGrouping = #'(3 2 3)
1971 c8 d e f4 d8 c bes | c4 g'8 e c f4. \bar "||"
1979 @ref{compound meter}, @ref{meter}.
1983 @section concert pitch
1985 ES: en Do, afinación de concierto,
1994 The pitch at which the piano and other nontransposing instruments play: such
1995 instruments are said to be @q{in C}. The following list includes some (but not
1996 all) instruments that play in concert pitch:
2010 @item tenor trombone
2025 The trombones are a special case: although they are said to be @q{in F} (alto or
2026 bass) or @q{in B-flat} (tenor), this refers to their fundamental note, not to
2027 their parts' transposition. (In fact, the trombones' parts are written at
2028 concert pitch with an appropriate clef -- alto, tenor or bass.) This differs
2029 from other instruments @q{in F}, @q{in B-flat}, and so on, which are transposing
2032 Instruments that play @q{in C} but in a different octave than what is written
2033 are, technically speaking, @emph{transposing instruments}:
2037 @item piccolo (plays an octave higher)
2038 @item celesta (plays an octave higher)
2039 @item double-bass (plays an octave lower)
2045 @ref{transposing instrument}.
2048 @node conjunct movement
2049 @section conjunct movement
2051 ES: movimiento conjunto,
2053 F: mouvement conjoint,
2054 D: schritt@-weise, stufenweise Bewegung,
2055 NL: stapsgewijze, trapsgewijze beweging,
2056 DK: trinvis bevægelse,
2058 FI: asteittainen liike.
2060 Progressing melodically by intervals of a second. The opposite of a
2061 @ref{disjunct movement}.
2063 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
2064 \key g \major \time 4/4
2065 \relative c'' { g4 g g a | b2 a | g4 b a a | g1 \bar "||" }
2079 FI: konsonanssi, sopusointi.
2104 @section copying music
2106 A music copyist did fast freehand scores and parts on preprinted staff
2107 lines for performance. Some of their conventions (e.g., the placement
2108 of note heads on stems) varied slightly from those of engravers. Some
2109 of their working methods were superior and could well be adopted by
2112 @c Copying music required more skill than engraving. Flagged for NPOV
2116 @section counterpoint
2125 FI: kontrapunkti, ääni ääntä vastaan.
2127 From Latin @emph{punctus contra punctum}, note against note. The
2128 combination into a single musical fabric of lines or parts which have
2129 distinct melodic significance. A frequently used polyphonic technique
2130 is imitation, in its strictest form found in the canon needing only
2131 one part to be written down while the other parts are performed with a
2132 given displacement. Imitation is also the contrapunctal technique
2133 used in the @emph{fugue} which, since the music of the baroque era,
2134 has been one of the most popular polyphonic composition methods.
2136 @lilypond[fragment,staffsize=12,line-width=13.0\cm]
2137 \set Score.implicitTimeSignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
2138 \override Score.TimeSignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible
2139 \context PianoStaff <<
2140 \context Staff = SA \relative c' {
2144 << \context Voice = rha {
2146 r1 | r2 r8 g'8 bes d, |
2147 cis4 d r8 e!16 f g8 f16 e |
2148 f8 g16 a bes8 a16 g a8
2150 \context Voice = rhb {
2156 \context Staff = SB \relative c' {
2159 << \context Voice = lha {
2161 r8 d es g, fis4 g | r8 a16 bes c8 bes16 a bes4 g |
2162 r8 a16 g f8 g16 a bes8 g e! cis' |
2165 \context Voice = lhb {
2175 @section countertenor
2180 D: Countertenor, Kontratenor,
2183 S: kontratenor, counter tenor,
2197 D: Crescendo, lauter werden,
2201 FI: cresendo, voimistuen.
2203 Increasing volume. Indicated by a rightwards opening horizontal wedge
2204 or the abbreviation @samp{cresc.}.
2206 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2207 \key g \major \time 4/4
2208 \relative c'' { g4 \< a b c | d1\! \bar "|." }
2217 F: petites notes précédent l'entrée d'un instrument, réplique,
2224 In a separate part notes belonging to another part with the purpose of
2225 hinting when to start playing. Usually printed in a smaller type.
2234 D: Notenzeiger, Custos,
2240 A custos (plural: custodes) is a staff symbol that appears at the end
2241 of a staff line with monophonic musical contents (i.e., with a single
2242 voice). It anticipates the pitch of the first note of the following
2243 line and thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2244 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2246 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 16th
2247 century. There were different appearences for different notation
2248 styles. Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical
2249 notation such as via the Editio Vaticana dating back to the beginning
2255 % \override Staff.Custos #'neutral-position = #4
2256 \override Staff.Custos #'neutral-direction = #down
2257 \override Staff.Custos #'style = #'hufnagel
2265 \consists Custos_engraver
2297 F: da capo, depuis le commencement,
2298 D: da capo, von Anfang,
2302 FI: da capo, alusta.
2304 Abbreviated @samp{D.C.}. Indicates that the piece is to be repeated from
2305 the beginning to the end or to a certain place marked @emph{fine}.
2313 F: dal segno, depuis le signe,
2314 D: dal segno, ab dem Zeichen,
2318 FI: dal segno, lähtien merkistä.
2320 Abbreviated @samp{D.S.}. Repetition, not from the beginning, but from
2321 another place frequently near the beginning marked by a sign:
2323 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2324 %\override TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2325 \override TextScript #'font-shape = #'italic
2326 \key g \major \time 4/4
2331 \line { "D.S. " \tiny \raise #1 \musicglyph #"scripts.segno" } }
2338 @section decrescendo
2342 D: Decrescendo, leiser werden,
2346 FI: decresendo, hiljentyen.
2348 Decreasing tone volume. Indicated by a leftwards opening horizontal wedge
2349 or the abbreviation @samp{decresc.}.
2351 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2353 \key g \major \time 4/4
2354 d4 \> c b a | g1 \! \bar "|."
2359 @node descending interval
2360 @section descending interval
2362 ES: intervalo descendente,
2363 I: intervallo discendente,
2364 F: intervalle descendant,
2365 D: fallendes Intervall, absteigendes Intervall,
2366 NL: dalend interval,
2367 DK: faldende interval,
2368 S: fallande intervall,
2369 FI: laskeva intervalli.
2371 A distance between a starting higher note and a lower ending note.
2374 @node diatonic scale
2375 @section diatonic scale
2377 ES: escala diatónica,
2379 F: gamme diatonique,
2380 D: diatonische Tonleiter,
2381 NL: diatonische toonladder,
2382 DK: diatonisk skala,
2384 FI: diatoninen asteikko.
2386 A scale consisting of 5@w{ }@ref{whole tone}s and 2@w{ }@ref{semitone}s (S).
2387 Scales played on the white keys of a piano keybord are diatonic; and these
2388 scales are sometimes called, somewhat inaccurately, @q{church modes}).
2390 These @q{modes} are used in gregorian chant and in pre-baroque early music
2391 but also to some extent in newer jazz music.
2393 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2394 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2395 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2396 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2398 \context Staff \relative c' {
2400 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2401 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c
2403 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2409 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2410 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2412 \context Staff \relative c' {
2414 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2415 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c d
2423 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2424 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2427 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2428 e1^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c d e
2436 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2437 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2441 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2442 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f
2450 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2451 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2455 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2456 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g }
2463 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2464 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2465 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2466 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2470 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2471 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a
2479 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2480 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2481 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2482 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2485 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2486 b1^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a b
2494 From the beginning of the 17th century the scales used in European
2495 compositional music are primarily the major and the minor scales. In
2496 the harmonic minor scale type an augmented second (A) occurs between
2497 the 6th and 7th tone.
2499 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2500 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2504 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2505 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c
2513 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2514 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2518 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2519 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a
2527 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2528 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2532 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2533 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f!^"~~ A" gis^"~~ S" a
2535 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2541 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
2542 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2543 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2544 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2548 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2549 b^"~~ S" c d e fis gis^"~~ S" a
2552 "Melodic minor ascending"
2557 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
2558 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2559 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2560 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2564 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2565 a g! f!^"~~ S" e d c^"~~ S" b a
2568 "Melodic minor descending"
2575 @section didymic comma
2579 @ref{syntonic comma}.
2582 @node diminished interval
2583 @section diminished interval
2585 ES: intervalo disminuido,
2586 I: intervallo diminuito,
2587 F: intervalle diminué,
2588 D: vermindertes Intervall,
2589 NL: verminderd interval,
2590 DK: formindsket interval,
2591 S: förminskat intervall,
2592 FI: vähennetty intervalli.
2609 FI: diminuendo, hiljentyen.
2628 @c TODO: add definition
2630 This is a placeholder for diminution (wrt mensural notation).
2634 @ref{augmentation}, @ref{mensural notation}.
2654 @node disjunct movement
2655 @section disjunct movement
2657 ES: movimiento disjunto,
2659 F: mouvement disjoint,
2660 D: sprunghafte Bewegung,
2661 NL: sprongsgewijze beweging,
2662 DK: springende bevægelse,
2663 S: hoppande rörelse,
2664 FI: melodian hyppivä liike.
2666 Progressing melodically by intervals larger than a major second, as
2667 opposed to @ref{conjunct movement}.
2669 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2674 a4. gis8 b a e cis |
2675 fis2 d4. \bar "||" }
2682 @ref{dissonant interval}.
2685 @node dissonant interval
2686 @section dissonant interval
2688 ES: intervalo disonante, disonancia,
2689 I: intervallo dissonante, dissonanza,
2692 NL: dissonant interval, dissonant,
2693 DK: dissonerende interval, dissonans,
2695 FI: dissonanssi, dissonoiva intervalli, riitasointi.
2712 FI: dominantti, huippusointu.
2714 The fifth @ref{scale degree} in @ref{functional harmony}.
2717 @node dominant ninth chord
2718 @section dominant ninth chord
2720 ES: acorde de novena de dominante,
2721 I: accordo di nona di dominante,
2722 F: accord de neuvième dominante,
2723 D: Domi@-nant@-nonen@-akkord,
2724 NL: dominant noon akkoord,
2725 DK: dominantnoneakkord,
2726 S: dominantnonackord,
2727 FI: dominanttinoonisointu.
2731 @ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}.
2734 @node dominant seventh chord
2735 @section dominant seventh chord
2737 ES: acorde de séptima de dominante,
2738 I: accordo di settima di dominante,
2739 F: accord de septième dominante,
2740 D: Dominantseptakkord,
2741 NL: dominant septiem akkoord,
2742 DK: dominantseptimakkord,
2743 S: dominantseptimackord,
2744 FI: dominanttiseptimisointu.
2748 @ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}.
2752 @section dorian mode
2757 D: dorisch, dorischer Kirchenton,
2758 NL: dorische toonladder,
2765 @ref{diatonic scale}.
2768 @node dot (augmentation dot)
2769 @section dot (augmentation dot)
2772 I: punto (di valore),
2774 D: Punkt (Verlängerungspunkt),
2782 @ref{dotted note}, @ref{note value}.
2786 @section dotted note
2788 ES: nota con puntillo,
2792 NL: gepuncteerde noot,
2795 FI: pisteellinen nuotti.
2802 @node double appoggiatura
2803 @section double appoggiatura
2805 ES: apoyatura doble,
2806 I: appoggiatura doppia,
2807 F: appoggiature double,
2808 D: doppelter Vorschlag,
2809 NL: dubbele voorslag,
2810 DK: dobbelt forslag,
2812 FI: kaksoisappogiatura, kaksoisetuhele.
2819 @node double bar line
2820 @section double bar line
2826 NL: dubbele maatstreep,
2829 FI: kaksoistahtiviiva.
2831 Indicates the end of a section within a movement.
2834 @node double dotted note
2835 @section double dotted note
2837 ES: nota con doble puntillo,
2838 I: nota doppiamente puntata,
2839 F: note doublement pointée,
2840 D: doppelt punktierte Note,
2841 NL: dubbelgepuncteerde noot,
2842 DK: dob@-belt@-punk@-te@-ret node,
2843 S: dub@-bel@-punk@-te@-rad not,
2844 FI: kaksoispisteellinen nuotti.
2852 @section double flat
2861 FI: kaksoisalennusmerkki.
2869 @section double sharp
2871 ES: doble sostenido,
2876 DK: dob@-belt@-kryds,
2878 FI: kaksoisylennysmerkki.
2885 @node double time signature
2886 @section double time signature
2899 @ref{polymetric time signature}.
2903 @section double trill
2909 NL: dubbele triller,
2914 A simultaneous trill on two notes, usually in the distance of a third.
2918 @section duple meter
2923 D: in zwei, grader Takt,
2924 NL: tweedelige maatsoort,
2961 FI: kesto, aika-arvo.
2971 ES: dinámica, matices,
2974 D: Dynamik, Lautstärke,
2980 The aspect of music relating to degrees of loudness, or changes from
2981 one degree to another. The terms, abbreviations, and symbols used to
2982 indicate this information are called dynamic marks.
2986 @ref{piano}, @ref{forte}, @ref{crescendo}, @ref{decrescendo},
3009 @node ecclesiastical mode
3010 @section ecclesiastical mode
3018 @section eighth note
3025 @item D: Achtel, Achtelnote
3026 @item NL: achtste noot
3027 @item DK: ottendedelsnode
3028 @item S: åttondelsnot
3029 @item FI: kahdeksasosanuotti
3038 @section eighth rest
3041 @item UK: quaver rest
3042 @item ES: silencio de corchea
3043 @item I: pausa di croma
3044 @item F: demi-soupir
3045 @item D: Achtelpause
3046 @item NL: achtste rust
3047 @item DK: ottendedelspause
3048 @item S: åttonddelspaus
3049 @item FI: kahdeksasosatauko
3060 @c TODO: add languages
3071 More properly synalepha [New Lat. > Gr. συναλοιφη, from Greek συναλοιφην @q{to
3074 The singing of several syllables on a single note. Elision may be indicated
3075 by a lyric tie, which is looks like (and serves the same function) as a
3084 @section embellishment
3097 D: Notenstich, Notendruck
3103 Engraving means incising or etching a metal plate for printing.
3104 Photoengraving means drawing music with ink in a manner similar to
3105 drafting or engineering drawing, using similar tools.
3107 The traditional process of music printing is done through cutting in a
3108 plate of metal. Now also the term for the art of music typesetting.
3123 Two notes, intervals, or scales are enharmonic if they have different
3124 names but equal pitch.
3126 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3127 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3129 \context Staff \relative c'' {
3130 gis1 as <des g,!> <cis g!>
3132 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3133 \override Lyrics .LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
3134 "g sharp " "a flat " "dim fifth " "augm fourth"
3140 @node equal temperament
3141 @section equal temperament
3143 ES: temperamento igual,
3144 I: temperamento equabile,
3145 F: tempérament égal,
3146 D: gleichschwebende Stimmung,
3147 NL: ge@-lijk@-zwe@-ven@-de temperatuur,
3148 DK: ligesvævende temperatur,
3149 S: liksvävande temperatur,
3152 Tuning system dividing the octave into 12 equal @ref{semitone}s
3153 (precisely 100 @ref{cent}s).
3160 @node expression mark
3161 @section expression mark
3164 I: segno d'espressione,
3165 F: signe d'expression, indication de nuance,
3167 NL: voordrachtsteken,
3168 DK: foredragsbetegnelse,
3169 S: föredragsbeteckning,
3170 FI: nyanssiosoitus, esitysmerkki.
3172 Performance indications concerning:
3176 @item volume, dynamics (for example @ref{forte}, @ref{crescendo}),
3178 @item tempo (for example @ref{andante}, @ref{allegro}).
3184 @section extender line
3186 ES: línea de extensión [de melisma, de bajo cifrado, etc.],
3188 F: ligne d'extension [de mélisme, de basse chiffrée, etc.],
3195 The generic term for a line (or dash) of arbitrary length that extends
3196 text (without indicating the musical @emph{function} of that text).
3198 Used in many contexts, for example:
3202 @item In vocal music to indicate the syllable for a melisma. Called
3203 @q{extension} in the
3204 @uref{http://www.dolmetsch.com/defse1.htm,Dolmetsch Online Music
3208 In figured bass to indicate that:
3212 @item The extended note should be held through a change in harmony, when applied
3213 to one figure --OR--
3214 @item The chord thus represented should be held above a moving bass line, when
3215 applied to more than one figure.
3216 @item These uses were not completely standardized, and some composers used a
3217 single extender line to indicate the latter case.
3222 In string music to indicate that all notes in the passage thus indicated should
3223 be played on the same string. On the violin, for example, a series of notes to
3224 be played on the G string would be indicated @samp{sul G}, another series to be
3225 played on the D string would be indicated @samp{sul D}, and so on.
3228 With an octave mark to indicate that a passage is to be played higher or lower
3229 by the given number of octaves.
3235 @ref{melisma}, @ref{sul G}, @ref{thorough bass}, @ref{octave mark}, @ref{octave
3270 The position between the dots of the key symbol is the line of the F
3271 below central@w{ }C. Used on the third, fourth and fifth note line.
3272 A digit@w{ }8 above the clef symbol indicates that the notes must be
3273 played an octave higher (for example, bass recorder) while 8@w{ }below
3274 the clef symbol indicates playing an octave lower (for example, on
3275 double bass @ref{strings}).
3277 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3278 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3279 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
3307 @c F: 'point d'orgue' on a note, 'point d'arret' on a rest.
3310 @node feathered beam
3311 @section feathered beam
3315 F: liens de croches en soufflet,
3316 D: gespreizter Balken,
3322 A type of beam used to indicate that a small group of notes should be
3323 played at an increasing or decreasing tempo -- depending on the
3324 direction of @q{feathering} -- but without changing the overall tempo
3329 Internals Reference: @ruser{Manual beams}
3337 F: point d'orgue, point d'arrêt,
3342 FI: fermaatti, pidäke.
3344 Prolonged note or rest of indefinite duration.
3346 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
3349 a4 b c2^\fermata \bar "|."
3372 @section figured bass
3375 I: basso continuo, basso numerato,
3376 F: basse chiffrée, basse continue,
3377 D: Generalbass, bezifferter Bass,
3378 NL: basso continuo, becijferde bas
3381 FI: kenraalibasso, numeroitu basso.
3383 Also called @q{thorough bass}.
3385 A method of indicating an accompaniment part by the bass notes only, together
3386 with figures designating the chief @ref{interval}s and @ref{chord}s to be played
3387 above the bass notes.
3389 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
3390 \context GrandStaff <<
3391 \context Staff = lh \relative c'' {
3395 << \context Voice = rha {
3398 \context Voice = rhb {
3400 < bes g >8 as < as f > g < g es > f < d f > es | < g es >4 }
3404 \context Staff = rh \relative c' {
3407 es8 c d bes c as bes16 as g f | es4
3409 \figures { s8 <6> s <4 2> s <6> s16 s <6> <4 2> }
3429 The methodical use of fingers in the playing of instruments.
3436 I: coda (uncinata), bandiera,
3444 Ornament at the end of the stem of a note used for notes with values
3445 less than a quarter note. The number of flags determines the
3448 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
3449 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3450 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3495 FI: forte, voimakkaasti.
3497 Loud, abbreviated @samp{@b{f}}, @emph{fortissimo} (@samp{@b{ff}}) very loud,
3498 @emph{mezzo forte} (@samp{@b{mf}}) medium loud.
3518 @node Frenched score
3519 @section Frenched score
3521 ES: partitura a la francesa,
3530 A @q{condensed} score, produced by omitting staves for instruments that are not
3531 playing at the moment, and by moving up additional systems from following pages
3532 to take up the space thus liberated, which reduces the total number of pages
3533 used to print the work.
3535 The specific rules for @q{frenching} a score differ from publisher to publisher.
3536 If you are producing scores for eventual publication by a commercial publisher,
3537 you may wish to procure a copy of their style manual.
3541 @ref{Frenched staff}.
3544 @node Frenched staff
3545 @section Frenched staff
3547 ES: pentagrama a la francesa,
3556 Analogous to Frenched scores (@emph{q.v}), a Frenched staff has unneeded
3557 measures or sections removed. This would be useful for producing, for example,
3558 an @emph{ossia} staff.
3565 @node Frenched staves
3566 @section Frenched staves
3568 ES: pentagramas a la francesa,
3577 The plural of @ref{Frenched staff}, @emph{q.v.}.
3597 @node functional harmony
3598 @section functional harmony
3600 ES: armonía funcional,
3601 I: armonia funzionale,
3602 F: étude des functions,
3604 NL: functionele harmonie,
3605 DK: funktionsanalyse, funktionsharmonik,
3607 FI: harmoniajärjestelmä.
3609 A system of harmonic analysis. It is based on the idea that, in a
3610 given key, there are only three functionally different chords: tonic
3611 (T, the chord on the first note of the scale), subdominant (S, the
3612 chord on the fourth note), and dominant (D, the chord on the fifth
3613 note). Others are considered to be variants of the base chords.
3615 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3616 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3618 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3619 <g e c >1 < a f d > < b g e >
3620 <c a f > < d b g > < e c a > < f d b > }
3621 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3622 T Sp Dp S D Tp \markup{ D\translate #(cons -2 0) {"|"} } }
3652 D: G-Schlüssel, Violinschlüssel,
3658 A clef symbol indicating the G above middle@w{ }C. Used on the first
3659 and second note lines. A digit 8 above the clef symbol indicates that
3660 the notes must be played an octave higher while 8 below the clef
3661 symbol indicates playing or singing an octave lower (most tenor parts
3662 in choral scores are notated like that).
3664 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
3666 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3667 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
3670 \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
3680 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3681 \override Lyrics . LyricText #'X-offset = #-5
3682 "french violin clef"
3701 FI: glissando, liukuen.
3703 Letting the pitch slide fluently from one note to the other.
3707 @section grace notes
3709 ES: notas de adorno,
3712 D: Verzierungen, Vorschläge, Vor@-schlags@-noten,
3718 Notes printed in small types to indicate that their time values are not
3719 counted in the rhythm of the bar.
3723 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes},
3728 @section grand staff
3730 ES: sistema de piano,
3733 D: Akkolade, Klaviersystem,
3736 S: ackolad, böjd klammer,
3737 FI: kaksoisnuottiviivasto.
3739 A combination of two staves with a brace. Usually used for piano music.
3756 FI: grave, raskaasti.
3783 Letter name used for @samp{B natural} in German and Scandinavian
3784 usage. In the standard usage of these countries, @samp{B} means
3789 @ref{Pitch names}, @ref{B}
3799 D: Halbe, halbe Note,
3814 ES: silencio de blanca,
3828 @node harmonic cadence
3829 @section harmonic cadence
3831 ES: cadencia (armónica),
3832 I: cadenza (armonica),
3833 F: cadence harmonique,
3835 NL: harmonische cadens,
3836 DK: harmonisk kadence,
3837 S: (harmonisk) kadens,
3838 FI: harmoninen kadenssi.
3840 A sequence of chords that terminates a musical phrase or section.
3842 @ref{functional harmony}.
3844 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
3845 \context PianoStaff <<
3846 \context Staff = SA \relative c'' {
3850 \partial 4 < c g e >4 |
3851 < c a f > < b g d > < c g e >2
3854 \context Staff = SB \relative c {
3856 \partial 4 c4 | f, g c2
3874 D: Harmonie, Zusammenklang,
3878 FI: harmonia, yhteissointi.
3880 Tones sounding simultaneously. Two note harmonies fall into the
3881 categories @emph{consonances} and @emph{dissonances}.
3885 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3886 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3887 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3888 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3901 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3902 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3903 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3904 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3905 <g a>1_"second " s s
3906 <g f'>_"seventh " s s
3911 Three note harmony @ref{chord}.
3926 [From Greek: in Latin, @emph{sesquialtera}] The ratio 3:2. Refers to
3927 the use of three notes of equal value in the time normally occupied by
3928 of two notes of equal value. The resulting rhythm can be expressed in
3929 modern terms as a substitution (for example) of a bar in 3/2 for one
3930 of 6/4, or of a bar in 3/4 for one of 6/8. During the Baroque era,
3931 hemiola is most frequently as a special effect (or @emph{affect}) at
3934 For example, this phrase in 6/4 time
3936 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
3940 c2. e | d2 c d | c1. \bar "||" }
3943 may be thought of having alternating time signatures
3945 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
3949 c2. e | \time 3/2 d2 c d | \time 6/4 c1. \bar "||" }
3952 and is therefore a polymeter (second definition) of considerable antiquity.
3956 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}, @ref{polymeter}.
3969 FI: homofonia, yksiäänisyys.
3971 Music in which one voice leads melodically followed by the other
3972 voices more or less in the same rhythm. In contrast to
3986 FI: intervalli, kahden sävelen korkeusero.
3988 Difference in pitch between two notes. Intervals may be perfect,
3989 minor, major, diminished, or augmented. The augmented fourth and the
3990 diminished fifth are identical (@ref{enharmonic}) and are called
3991 @emph{tritonus} because they consist of three @ref{whole tone}s. The
3992 addition of such two intervals forms an octave.
3994 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3995 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3997 \context Voice \relative c'' {
4007 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
4008 "unison " "second " "second " "second "
4009 "third " "third " "third " "third"
4014 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4015 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4017 \context Staff \relative c'' {
4028 "fourth " "fourth " "fifth " "fifth "
4029 "sixth " "sixth " "sixth " "sixth"
4034 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4035 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4037 \context Staff \relative c'' {
4038 < gis f'! >1^"dimin"
4047 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
4048 "seventh " "seventh " "seventh " "octave "
4049 "ninth " "ninth " "tenth " "tenth"
4067 When the bass is not the same as the root, the chord is inverted. The number
4068 of inversions that a chord can have is one fewer than the number of
4069 constituent notes. Triads, for example, (having three constituent notes) can
4070 have three positions, two of which are inversions:
4074 The root note is in the bass, and above that are the third and the fifth. A
4075 triad built on the first scale degree, for example, is marked @notation{I}.
4077 @item First inversion
4078 The third is in the bass, and above it are the fifth and the root. This
4079 creates an interval of a sixth and a third above the bass note, and so is
4080 marked in figured Roman notation as @notation{6/3}. This is commonly
4081 abbreviated to @notation{I6} (or @notation{Ib}) since the sixth is the
4082 characteristic interval of the inversion, and so always implies
4085 @item Second inversion
4086 The fifth is in the bass, and above it are the root and the third. This
4087 creates an interval of a sixth and a fourth above the bass note, and so is
4088 marked as @notation{I6/4} or @notation{Ic}. Second inversion is the most
4089 unstable chord position.
4093 @node inverted interval
4094 @section inverted interval
4096 ES: intervalo invertido,
4097 I: intervallo rivolto,
4098 F: intervalle reversé,
4099 D: umgekehrtes Intervall,
4100 NL: interval inversie,
4101 DK: omvendingsinterval,
4102 S: intervallets omvändning,
4103 FI: käänteisintervalli.
4105 The difference between an interval and an octave.
4107 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4108 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4109 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4110 \context Staff \relative c'' {
4111 < g a >1_"second " s s < g' a, >_"seventh " s s \bar "||"
4112 < g, b >_"third " s s < g' b, >_"sixth " s s \bar "||"
4113 < g, c >_"fourth " s s < g' c, >_"fifth " s s \bar "||"
4118 @node just intonation
4119 @section just intonation
4121 ES: entonación justa,
4122 I: intonazione giusta,
4123 F: intonation juste,
4130 Tuning system in which the notes are obtained by adding and subtracting
4131 natural fifths and thirds.
4148 According to the 12@w{ }tones of the @ref{chromatic scale} there are
4149 12@w{ }keys, one on@w{ }c, one on c-sharp, etc.
4153 @ref{key signature}.
4157 @section key signature
4159 ES: armadura (de la clave),
4160 I: armatura di chiave,
4161 F: armure, armature [de la clé],
4162 D: Vorzeichen, Tonart,
4163 NL: toon@-soort (voortekens),
4166 FI: sävellajiosoitus.
4168 The sharps or flats appearing at the beginning of each staff indicating the
4174 @node laissez vibrer
4175 @section laissez vibrer
4186 [From French, @q{Let vibrate}]. Most frequently associated with harp
4187 parts. Marked @samp{l.v.} in the score.
4196 D: Largo, Langsam, Breit,
4200 FI: largo, hitaasti, leveästi.
4202 Very slow in tempo, usually combined with great expressiveness.
4203 @emph{Larghetto} is less slow than largo.
4207 @section leading note
4218 The seventh @ref{scale degree}, a @ref{semitone} below the tonic; so
4219 called because of its strong tendency to @q{lead up} (resolve upwards)
4220 to the tonic scale degree.
4224 @section ledger line
4226 ES: línea adicional,
4227 I: tagli addizionali,
4228 F: ligne supplémentaire,
4235 A ledger line is an extension of the staff.
4237 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
4238 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4239 \relative c'' { a,1 s c'' }
4249 D: legato, gebunden,
4255 To be performed (a) without any perceptible interruption between the
4256 notes, unlike (b) @emph{leggiero} or @emph{non-legato}, (c)
4257 @emph{portato}, and (d) @ref{staccato}.
4259 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4260 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4262 \context Staff \relative c'' {
4263 c4-( d e-) \bar "||"
4264 c4-- d-- e-- \bar "||"
4265 c4-.-( d-. e-.-) \bar "||"
4266 c4-. d-. e-. \bar "||"
4279 @section legato curve
4283 @ref{slur}, @ref{legato}.
4306 A ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that represents at least two
4307 distinct notes. Ligatures originally appeared in the manuscripts of
4308 Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th century to denote ascending
4309 or descending sequences of notes. In early notation, ligatures were used
4310 for monophonic tunes (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way of
4311 performance in the sense of articulation. With the invention of the metric
4312 system of the white mensural notation, the need for ligatures to denote such
4313 patterns disappeared.
4317 @ref{mensural notation}.
4324 ES: estanque de nenúfares,
4325 I: stagno del giglio,
4326 F: étang de nénuphars, étang de nymphéas,
4328 NL: le@-lie@-vij@-ver,
4333 A pond with lilies floating in it.
4334 Also, the name of a music typesetting program.
4343 D: Linie, Notenlinie,
4347 FI: viiva, nuottiviiva.
4366 [From Italian, @q{place}]. Instruction to play the following passage at the
4367 written pitch. Cancels octave mark (q.v.).
4371 @ref{octave mark}, @ref{octave marking}.
4374 @node long appoggiatura
4375 @section long appoggiatura
4377 ES: apoyatura larga,
4378 I: appoggiatura lunga,
4379 F: appoggiature longue,
4384 FI: pitkä appoggiatura, pitkä etuhele.
4403 Note value: double length of @ref{breve}.
4405 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
4406 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4408 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
4421 ES: ligadura de letra,
4430 @c TODO: add languages
4440 ES: letra (de la canción),
4443 D: Liedtext, Gesangtext,
4464 @ref{diatonic scale}.
4467 @node major interval
4468 @section major interval
4470 ES: intervalo mayor,
4471 I: intervallo maggiore,
4472 F: intervalle majeur,
4473 D: großes Intervall,
4477 FI: suuri intervalli.
4484 @node meantone temperament
4485 @section meantone temperament
4487 ES: afinación mesotónica,
4488 I: accordatura mesotonica,
4489 F: tempérament mésotonique,
4490 D: mitteltönige Stimmung,
4491 NL: middenstemming, middentoonstemming,
4492 DK: middeltonetemperatur,
4493 S: medeltonstemperatur,
4494 FI: keskisävelviritys.
4496 Temperament yielding acoustically pure thirds by decreasing the
4497 natural fifth by 16@w{ }@ref{cent}s. Due to the non-circular
4498 character of this @ref{temperament} only a limited set of keys are
4499 playable. Used for tuning keyboard instruments for performance of
4515 A group of @ref{beat}s (units of musical time) the first of which
4516 bears an accent. Such groups in numbers of two or more recur
4517 consistently throughout the composition and are marked from each other
4523 @node measure repeat
4524 @section measure repeat
4528 @ref{percent repeat}.
4535 I: mediante, modale,
4545 @item The third @b{scale degree}.
4547 @item A @ref{chord} having its base tone a third from that of another
4548 chord. For example, the tonic chord may be replaced by its lower
4549 mediant (variant tonic).
4554 @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{relative key}.
4567 FI: melisma, laulettavan tavun sävelkuvio.
4569 A melisma (plural, from Greek: melismata) is a group of notes or tones
4570 sung on one syllable, especially as applied to liturgical chant.
4574 @section melisma line
4576 @c TODO: add languages
4578 ES: línea de melisma,
4589 @ref{extender line}.
4592 @node melodic cadence
4593 @section melodic cadence
4600 @node mensural notation
4601 @section mensural notation
4603 @c TODO: add languages
4605 ES: notación mensural,
4614 A system of duration notation whose principles were first established in the
4615 mid-13th century, and that (with various changes) remained in use until about
4616 1600. As such, it is the basis for the notation of rhythms in Western musical
4619 Franco of Cologne (ca. 1250) is credited with the first systematic explanation
4620 of the notation's principles, so the notation of this earliest period is called
4621 @q{Franconian}. Franco's system made use of three note values -- long, breve,
4622 and semibreve -- each of which was normally equivalent to three of the next
4625 Then, in the first half of the 14th century, Philippe de Vitry and Jehan de Murs
4626 added several note values (the minim, semiminim and fusa) and extended Franco's
4627 principles to govern the relationship between these values. They also put the
4628 duple division of note values on an equal footing with the earlier (preferred)
4631 TODO: continue description of French and Italian black notation, and the
4632 relationship betwixt them.
4634 @b{White or void mensural notation}
4636 In the 15th century, hollow (or void) notes began to substitute for the earlier
4637 solid black ones, which were then free to assume the function of red (or
4638 colored) notes in the earlier notation. ...
4640 TODO: add to definition (including summary info on proportional notation)
4644 @ref{augmentation}, @ref{diminution}, @ref{ligature}, @ref{proportion}.
4645 @c TODO: more cross-references?
4653 F: indication de mesure, mesure,
4660 The pattern of note values and accents in a composition or a section thereof.
4661 There are a couple ways to classify @q{traditional} meter (i.e. not polymeter):
4662 by grouping beats and by subdividing the primary beat.
4664 @b{By grouping beats}:
4668 @item @b{duple}: groups of two.
4669 @item @b{triple}: groups of three.
4670 @item @b{quadruple}: groups of four. A special case of duple meter.
4671 @item @b{quintuple}: groups of five beats.
4672 @item @b{sextuple} meter: groups of six. A special case of:
4676 @item duple meter, subdivided in three; or
4677 @item triple meter, subdivided in two.
4681 @item @b{septuple} meter: groups of seven.
4686 Other than triple meter and its subdivided variants (see below), meters that
4687 feature odd groupings of beats (e.g. quintuple or septuple meter) are not
4688 frequently used prior to the 20th Century.
4690 @b{By subdividing the primary beat}:
4694 @item simple: groups of two.
4698 @item duple: 2/2, 2/4, 2/8
4699 @item triple: 3/2, 3/4, 3/8
4700 @item quadruple: 4/2, 4/4 (also called common time), 4/8
4704 @item compound: groups of three.
4710 @item quadruple: 12/8
4716 Time signatures are placed at the beginning of a composition (or section) to
4717 indicate the meter. For instance, a piece written in simple triple meter with a
4718 beat on each quarter note is conventionally written with a time signature of
4719 3/4. Here are some combinations of the two classifications above:
4721 Simple duple meter (F.J. Haydn, 1732-1809; or a Croatian folk tune):
4723 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4727 g8. a16 b8 a | c b a16( fis) g8 | e' d c b | a2 \bar "||"}
4730 Simple triple meter:
4732 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4736 c es d8 c | d4 b g | d' f es8 d | es d c2 \bar "||"}
4739 Simple quadruple meter (French folk tune, @emph{Au clair de la lune}):
4741 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4745 g4 g g a | b2 a | g4 b a a | g1 \bar "||"}
4748 Simple quintuple meter (B. Marcello, 1686-1739):
4750 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4754 r4 cis8 bis ais4 dis c8 ais |
4755 aes4 bes8 aes ges4 aes f8 es \bar "||"}
4758 Compound duple meter (unknown):
4760 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4764 f8 f g a bes16 a g f |
4765 g8 g bes a c16 a bes g
4769 Compound triple meter (J.S. Bach, 1685-1750):
4771 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4775 r8 g'( a) b( d c) c( e d) |
4776 d( g fis) g( d b) g( a b)
4780 Compound quadruple meter (P. Yon, 1886-1943):
4782 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4786 b'8.( a16) gis8 a8.( gis16) fis8 gis8.( fis16) e8 fis4 b,8 |
4787 e4 e8 fis( gis) a b4.~ b4 b8
4791 @b{@q{Monometer} vs Polymeter}
4793 TODO: add information from discussion on lilypond-user related to polymeter.
4797 @ref{accent}, @ref{hemiola}, @ref{note value}, @ref{time signature}
4812 Device indicating the exact tempo of a piece.
4814 Invented ca. 1812 by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkler of Amsterdam, but takes its name
4815 from Johann Nepomuk Mälzel, who copied the device, added a scale of tempo
4816 divisions, and patented it as a "metronome". The inevitable lawsuit that
4817 followed acknowledged Winkler as the creator, but by then Mälzel had already
4818 sold many of them, and people had taken to calling it a Mälzel Metronome.
4822 @ref{metronome mark}.
4825 @node metronome mark
4826 @section metronome mark
4828 ES: indicación metronómica,
4829 I: indicazione metronomica,
4830 F: indication métronomique,
4832 NL: metronoom aanduiding,
4834 S: metronomangivelse,
4835 FI: metronomiosoitus.
4837 Exact tempo indication (in beats per minute). Abbreviated @samp{M.M.} or
4838 @samp{MM}, which is short for Mälzels Metronom (or Mälzel's Mark,
4846 @node metronomic indication
4847 @section metronomic indication
4851 @ref{metronome mark}
4855 @section mezzo-soprano
4866 The female voice between @ref{soprano} and @ref{contralto}.
4875 D: eingestrichenes@w{ }c,
4877 DK: enstreget@w{ }c,
4878 S: ettstruket@w{ }c,
4881 First C below the 440 Hz A.
4883 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
4884 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4885 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
4908 @ref{diatonic scale}.
4911 @node minor interval
4912 @section minor interval
4914 ES: intervalo menor,
4915 I: intervallo minore,
4916 F: intervalle mineur,
4917 D: kleines Intervall,
4921 FI: pieni intervalli.
4928 @node mixolydian mode
4929 @section mixolydian mode
4933 @ref{diatonic scale}.
4942 D: Kirchentonart, Modus,
4946 FI: moodi, kirkkosävelasteikko.
4950 @ref{church mode}, @ref{diatonic scale}.
4963 FI: modulaatio, sävellajin vaihdos.
4965 Moving from one @ref{key} to another. For example, the second subject
4966 of a @ref{sonata form} movement modulates to the dominant key if the
4967 key is major and to the @ref{relative key} if the key is minor.
4979 FI: mordent, korukuvio.
5004 FI: teema, sävelaihe.
5006 The briefest intelligible and self-contained fragment of a musical
5009 @lilypond[line-width=13.0\cm]
5012 \set Score.implicitTimeSignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
5013 \override Score.TimeSignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible
5016 \partial 8 g16\startGroup fis |
5017 g8\stopGroup d16\startGroup c d8\stopGroup g16 fis g8 b,16 a b8 g'16 fis |
5018 g8 g,16 a b8 cis d16 s
5022 \Staff \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
5040 Greater musical works like @ref{symphony} and @ref{sonata} most often
5041 consist of several -- more or less -- independant pieces called
5045 @node multi-measure rest
5046 @section multi-measure rest
5048 ES: compases de espera,
5052 D: mehrtaktige Pause, Kirchenpause,
5055 FI: usean tahdin mittainen tauko.
5057 Multi-measure rests are conventionally typeset with a combination of
5058 longa, breve and whole rests for shorter and a long horizontal bar for
5059 longer spans of rest, with a number above to indicate the duration (in
5060 measures) of the rest. The former style is called @q{Kirchenpausen} in
5061 German, as a reminiscence of its use in Renaissance vocal polyphony.
5063 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
5066 \set Score.skipBars = ##t R1*3
5068 \set Score.skipBars = ##t R1*122
5075 @ref{longa}, @ref{breve}.
5084 D: Auflösungszeichen,
5085 NL: herstellingsteken,
5086 DK: op@-løsningstegn,
5087 S: återställningstecken,
5095 @node neighbour tones
5096 @section neighbour tones
5100 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes},
5141 Notes are signs by means of which music is fixed in writing. The term is also
5142 used for the sound indicated by a note, and even for the key of the piano
5143 which produces the sound. However, a clear distinction between the terms tone
5144 and @ref{note} is strongly recommended. Briefly, one sees a note,
5152 I: testa, testina, capocchia,
5160 A head-like sign which indicates pitch by its position on a
5161 @ref{staff} provided with a @ref{clef}, and duration
5162 by a variety of shapes such as hollow or black heads with or without
5163 @ref{stem}s, @ref{flag}s, etc. For percussion
5164 instruments (often having no defined pitch) the note head may indicate the
5179 ES: valor (duración),
5181 F: durée, valeur (d'une note),
5186 FI: nuotin aika-arvo.
5188 Note values (durations) are measured as fractions, normally 1/2, of
5189 the next higher note value. The longest duration normally used is
5190 called @emph{brevis}, but sometimes (mostly in pre-baroque music) the
5191 double-length note value @emph{longa} or the quadruple-length note
5192 value @emph{maxima} are used.
5194 @c TODO -- add maxima to this example, in a way that doesn't break it.
5196 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5197 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5198 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5200 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
5201 a\longa_"longa" a\breve_"breve"
5202 \revert NoteHead #'style
5203 a1_"1/1" a2_"1/2" a4_"1/4" s16 a8_"1/8" s16
5204 a16_"1/16" s16 a32_"1/32" s16 a64_"1/64" s32 }
5207 @c TODO -- add maxima rest to this example
5209 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5210 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5211 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5213 r\longa_"longa" r\breve_"breve"
5214 r1_"1/1" r2_"1/2" r4_"1/4" s16 r8_"1/8" s16
5215 r16_"1/16" s16 r32_"1/32" s16 r64_"1/64" s32 }
5218 An augmentation dot after a note multiplies the duration by one and a
5219 half. Another dot adds yet a fourth of the duration.
5221 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
5222 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5225 g4._"pointed" g8 g2 | g4 ~ g8 g g2 \bar "||"
5226 g4.._"double pointed" g16 g2 | g4 ~ g8 ~ g16 g g2 \bar "||" }
5229 Alternatively note values may be subdivided by other ratios. Most common is
5230 subdivision by@w{ }3 (@emph{triplets}) and@w{ }5 (@emph{quintuplets}).
5231 Subdivisions by@w{ }2 (@emph{duplets}) or@w{ }4 (@emph{quadruplets}) of
5232 dotted notes are also frequently used.
5234 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
5235 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5238 \times 2/3 {g8_"triplets" g g} g4 g8 g g4 \bar "||"
5239 \times 2/5 {g8_"quintuplets" g g g g} g4 g8 g g4 \bar "||"
5243 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
5246 \times 3/2 {g4_"duplets" g} |
5248 \times 6/4 {g8_"quadruplets" g g g} |
5249 g8 g g g g4 \bar "||"
5259 @ref{octave marking}.
5274 The interval of an octave, sometimes abbreviated @samp{8ve}.
5276 For uses like @emph{all'ottava} or @emph{8va} with an extender line or
5277 bracket, or @samp{loco} see octave marking.
5281 @ref{interval}, @ref{octave marking}.
5285 @section octave mark
5287 ES: indicación de octava,
5296 The phrase, abbreviation, or other mark used (with or without an extender line
5297 or bracket) to indicate that the music is to be played in a different octave:
5301 @item @samp{15ma}: play two octaves higher
5302 @item @samp{8va}: play one octave higher
5303 @item @samp{8vb}: play one octave lower
5304 @item @samp{8va} (written below the passage): same as @samp{8vb}
5305 @item @samp{15vb}: play two octaves lower
5306 @item @samp{15va} (written below the passage): same as @samp{15vb}
5310 For longer passages, it may be more practical to mark the octave change at the
5311 beginning with a phrase (see the list below for examples), but without a bracket
5312 or extender line. Then, when the music returns to the written pitch, the octave
5313 change is cancelled with the word @emph{loco} (q.v.).
5315 To parallel the list above:
5319 @item @samp{15ma}: @emph{alla quindicesima (alta)}
5320 @item @samp{8va}: @emph{all'ottava} or @emph{ottava sopra}
5321 @item @samp{8vb}: @emph{ottava bassa}, @emph{ottava sotto}
5322 @item @samp{15vb}: @emph{alla quindicesima (bassa)}
5326 In the phrases above, @emph{quindicesima} is sometimes replaced with
5327 @emph{quindecima}, which is Latin.
5329 Finally, the music on an entire staff can be marked to be played in a different
5330 octave by putting an 8 or 15 above or below the clef at the beginning. This
5331 octave mark can be applied to any clef, but it is most frequently used with the
5336 @ref{F clef}, @ref{G clef}, @ref{loco}, @ref{octave marking}.
5339 @node octave marking
5340 @section octave marking
5349 FI: oktaavamerkintä.
5351 The practice of marking music -- an entire staff, a passage, etc. -- to indicate
5352 that it is to be played in a different octave. If applied to the clef at the
5353 beginning of the staff, all music on that staff is to played at the indicated
5356 For a list of the specific marks used, see @ref{octave mark}.
5360 @ref{interval}, @ref{loco}, @ref{octave}, @ref{octave mark}.
5364 @section octave sign
5375 I: abbellimento, fioriture,
5376 F: agrément, ornement,
5377 D: Verzierung, Ornament,
5383 Most commonly used is the @emph{trill}, the rapid alternation of a given note
5384 with the diatonic @ref{second} above it. In the music from the
5385 middle of the 19th century and onwards the trill is performed with the main
5386 note first while in the music from the preceding baroque and classic periods
5387 the upper note is played first.
5389 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
5391 \context Staff = sa {
5392 % \override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5394 c2._"pre-1850" b4\trill | c1 \bar "||"
5395 c2._"post-1850" b4\trill | c1 \bar "||"
5399 c2. c32 b c b c b c b | c1
5400 c2. b32 c b c \times 4/5 { b c b c b } | c1
5405 Other frequently used ornaments are the @emph{turn}, the @emph{mordent}, and
5407 @emph{prall} (inverted mordent).
5409 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
5411 \context Staff = sa {
5412 % \override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5414 a4_"turn" b\turn c2 \bar "||"
5415 g4_"mordent" a b\mordent a \bar "||"
5416 e'4_"prall" d\prall c2 \bar "||"
5422 e'4 e32[ d e d ~ d8] c2
5429 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes}.
5442 FI: ossia, vaihtoehtoinen esitystapa.
5444 Ossia (otherwise) marks an alternative. It is an added staff or piano
5445 score, usually only a few measures long, which presents another version
5446 of the music, for example for small hands.
5459 FI: stemma, instrumenttiosuus.
5463 @item In instrumental or choral music, the music for a single
5464 instrument or voice.
5466 @item in contrapuntal music, a single melodic line in the contrapuntal
5492 @node percent repeat
5493 @section percent repeat
5495 LilyPond-specific term to indicate the repetition of a musical expression on a
5496 single staff, as opposed to the more usual definition of repeat, which affects
5497 all parts. The musical expression can be anything from a single note or note
5498 pattern to one or more measures. There are other names for this symbol:
5503 @item slash mark, or slash repeat
5505 @item measure (or multi-measure) repeat
5509 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
5512 \repeat percent 4 { c4_"Beat (or slash) repeat" }
5513 \repeat percent 2 { c4 e g b_"Measure repeat" }
5514 \repeat percent 2 { c,2 es | f4 fis g c_"Multi-measure repeat" | }
5521 @uref{http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/textr/Repeat.html,University of
5522 Vermont Music Dictionary}.
5531 D: Schlagzeug, Schlagwerk,
5537 A family of musical instruments which are played on by striking or
5538 shaking. Percussion instruments commonly used in a symphony orchestra are
5539 kettledrums (I: @emph{timpani}, D: @emph{Pauken}), snare drum, bass drum,
5540 tambourine, cymbals, chinese gong (tam-tam), triangle, celesta, glockenspiel,
5544 @node perfect interval
5545 @section perfect interval
5547 ES: intervalo justo,
5548 I: intervallo giusto,
5549 F: intervalle juste,
5550 D: reines Intervall,
5554 FI: puhdas intervalli.
5573 A natural division of the melodic line, comparable to a sentence of speech.
5586 FI: fraseeraus, jäsentäminen.
5588 The clear rendering in musical performance of the @ref{phrase}s of
5589 the melody. Phrasing may be indicated by a @ref{slur}.
5604 @emph{piano} (@b{p}) soft, @emph{pianissimo} (@b{pp}) very soft,
5605 @emph{mezzo piano} (@b{mp}) medium soft.
5613 F: anacrouse, levée,
5639 @item The perceived quality of a sound that is primarily a function of its
5640 fundamental frequency.
5642 @item [FR. ton; DE. Ton; ES. tono] Any point on the continuum of musical pitch.
5644 @item [FR. diapason; DE. Kammerton, Stimmung; ES. diapasón] The standardized
5645 association of a particular frequency with a particular pitch name, e.g., c' =
5662 NL: pizzicato, getokkeld,
5665 FI: pizzicato, näppäillen.
5667 A technique for stringed instruments, abbr. @emph{pizz}. To play by plucking
5674 ES: compás polimétrico,
5685 @item The simultaneous use of two or more meters, in two or more parts.
5687 @item The @emph{successive} use of different meters in one or more parts.
5693 @ref{polymetric} (adj.)
5708 Using two or more metric frameworks simultaneously or in alternation.
5712 @ref{polymeter} (noun)
5715 @node polymetric time signature
5716 @section polymetric time signature
5718 ES: compás polimétrico,
5727 A time signature that indicates regularly alternating polymetric time.
5740 D: Polyphonie, Mehrstimmigkeit,
5744 FI: polyfonia, moniäänisyys.
5746 Music written in a combination of several simultaneous voices (parts)
5747 of a more or less pronounced individuality.
5766 D: Presto, Sehr schnell,
5767 NL: presto, Sehr schnell,
5770 FI: presto, hyvin nopeasti.
5772 Very quick, i.e., quicker than @ref{allegro}; @emph{prestissimo}
5773 denotes the highest possible degree of speed.
5788 [From Latin @emph{proportio}] In mensural notation, a ratio that expresses the
5789 relationship between the note values that follow with those that precede; or
5790 between the note values of a passage and the @q{normal} relationship of note
5791 values to the metrical pulse.
5793 @c TODO: add an example or two. O => 4/3, and its modern equivalent
5797 @ref{mensural notation}
5800 @node Pythagorean comma
5801 @section Pythagorean comma
5803 ES: coma pitagórica,
5804 I: comma pitagorico,
5805 F: comma pythagoricien,
5806 D: Pythagoräisches Komma,
5807 NL: komma van Pythagoras,
5808 DK: pythagoræisk komma,
5809 S: pytagoreiskt komma,
5810 FI: pytagorinen komma.
5812 Originally, the interval by which the sum of six whole tones exceeds the octave
5813 -- (9:8)^6 - 2:1 = 531441:524288, or 23.5 cents.
5815 Modern acoustical theory defines it as the interval by which twelve fifths
5816 exceed seven octaves. To put it another way: A sequence of fifths that starts
5817 on C eventually circles back to C. However, this C is 23.5 @ref{cent}s higher
5818 than the C obtained by adding 7 octaves. The difference between those two
5819 pitches is the Pythagorean comma.
5823 @ref{cent}, @ref{temperament}.
5855 The quality of a triad is determined by the precise arrangement of its
5856 intervals. Tertian triads can be described as a series of three notes. The
5857 first element is the root note (or simply @q{root}) of the chord, the second
5858 note is the @q{third} of the chord, and the last note is the @q{fifth} of
5859 the chord. These are described below:
5861 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
5863 @headitem Chord name @tab Component intervals
5866 @item major triad @tab major third/perfect fifth
5868 @tab C, CM, Cma, Cmaj, CΔ
5869 @item minor triad @tab minor third/perfect fifth
5871 @tab Cm, Cmi, Cmin, C-
5872 @item augmented triad @tab major third/augmented fifth
5875 @item diminished triad @tab minor third/diminished fifth
5877 @tab Cm(♭5), Cº, Cdim
5880 There are various types of seventh chords depending on the quality of the
5881 original chord and the quality of the seventh added.
5883 Five common types of seventh chords have standard symbols. The chord quality
5884 indications are sometimes superscripted and sometimes not (e.g. Dm7, Dm^7,
5885 and D^m7 are all identical). The last three chords are not used commonly
5894 @section quarter note
5899 @item I: semiminima, nera
5901 @item D: Viertel, Viertelnote
5903 @item DK: fjerdedelsnode
5904 @item S: fjärdedelsnot
5905 @item FI: neljäsosanuotti
5914 @section quarter rest
5917 @item UK: crotchet rest
5918 @item ES: silencio de negra
5919 @item I: pausa di semiminima
5921 @item D: Viertelpause
5923 @item DK: fjerdedelspause
5924 @item S: fjärdedelspaus
5925 @item FI: neljäsosatauko
5934 @section quarter tone
5936 ES: cuarto de tonno,
5945 An interval equal to half a semitone.
5955 ES: cinquillo, quintillo.
5970 @section rallentando
5975 D: rallentando, langsamer werden,
5979 FI: rallerdando, hidastuen.
5981 Abbreviation "rall.".
5987 @section relative key
5990 I: tonalità relativa,
5991 F: tonalité relative,
5993 NL: paralleltoonsoort,
5994 DK: paralleltoneart,
5996 FI: rinnakkaissävellaji.
5998 @ref{major} and @ref{minor} @ref{key}s with the same @ref{key signature}.
6000 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
6001 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6002 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
6005 es1_"e flat major" f g as bes c d es
6010 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
6011 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6012 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
6015 c1_"c minor" d es f g a! b! c \bar "||"
6025 F: barre de reprise,
6028 DK: gen@-ta@-gel@-se,
6032 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
6036 \repeat volta 2 {g4 g d' d | e e d2 | c4 c b b | a a g2 }
6053 @c F: 'pause' if you mean a whole rest, 'silence' if you do not want to
6054 @c specify the rest's value.
6075 @item Metrical rhythm in which every time value is a multiple or
6076 fraction of a fixed unit of time, called @ref{beat}, and in which the
6077 normal @ref{accent} recurs in regular intervals, called @ref{measure}.
6078 The basic scheme of time values is called @ref{meter}.
6080 @item Measured rhythm which lacks regularly recurrent accent. In
6081 modern notation such music appears as a free alternation of different
6084 @item Free rhythm, i.e., the use of temporal values having no common
6085 metrical unit (beat).
6096 D: ritardando, langsamer werden,
6100 FI: ritardando, hidastuen,
6102 Gradually slackening in speed. Mostly abbreviated to rit.@: or ritard.
6115 FI: ritenuto, hidastaen.
6117 Immediate reduction of speed.
6130 FI: asteikko, sävelasteikko.
6134 @ref{diatonic scale}.
6138 @section scale degree
6140 ES: grado (de la escala),
6141 I: grado della scala,
6142 F: degré [de la gamme],
6144 NL: trap [van de toonladder],
6147 FI: sävelaste, asteikon sävel.
6149 Names and symbols used in harmonic analysis to denote tones of the
6150 scale as roots of chords. The most important are degrees I = tonic
6151 (T), IV = sub@-do@-mi@-nant (S) and V = dominant (D).
6153 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
6154 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6156 \context Staff \relative c' {
6160 << { I II III IV V VI VII I }
6168 @ref{functional harmony}.
6176 F: à cordes ravallées,
6183 [From Italian, @emph{scordare}, @q{to mistune}.] Unconventional
6184 tuning of stringed instruments, particularly lutes or violins. Used
6189 @item facilitate pitch combinations that would otherwise be difficult
6192 @item alter the characteristic timbre of the instrument, for example,
6193 to increase brilliance
6195 @item reinforce certain sonorities or tonalities by making them
6196 available on open strings
6198 @item imitate other instruments
6204 Tunings that could be called @var{scordatura} first appeared early in
6205 the 16th Century and became commonplace in the 17th.
6214 D: Partitur (full score), Klavierauszug (vocal score),
6220 A copy of orchestral, choral, or chamber music showing what each
6221 instrument is to play, each voice to sing, having each part arranged
6222 one underneath the other on different staves @ref{staff}.
6237 The @ref{interval} between two neigbouring tones of a scale. A
6238 @ref{diatonic scale} consists of alternating @ref{semitone}s and
6239 @ref{whole tone}s, hence the size of a se@-cond depends on the scale
6240 degrees in question.
6255 The interval of a minor second. The (usually) smallest interval in European
6256 composed music. The interval between two neighbouring tones on the piano
6257 keyboard -- including black and white keys -- is a semitone. An octave may
6258 be divided into 12@w{ }semitones.
6260 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
6261 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6262 \relative c'' { g1 gis s a bes s b! c }
6267 @ref{interval}, @ref{chromatic scale}.
6292 @ref{sextuplet}, @ref{note value}.
6349 [From It, @q{in the same manner}] Performance direction: the music thus marked
6350 is to be played in the same manner (i.e. with the same articulations, dynamics,
6351 etc.) as the music that precedes it.
6355 TODO: Where else could I refer the reader?
6359 @section simple meter
6361 ES: compás simple, compás de subdivisión binaria,
6370 A meter in which the basic beat is subdivided in two: that is, a meter
6371 that does not include triplet subdivision of the beat.
6375 @ref{compound meter}, @ref{meter}.
6378 @node sixteenth note
6379 @section sixteenth note
6382 @item UK: semiquaver
6383 @item ES: semicorchea
6385 @item F: double croche
6386 @item D: Sechzehntel, Sechzehntelnote
6387 @item NL: zes@-ti@-ende noot
6388 @item DK: sekstendedelsnode
6389 @item S: sextondelsnot
6390 @item FI: kuudestoistaosanuotti
6398 @node sixteenth rest
6399 @section sixteenth rest
6402 @item UK: semiquaver rest
6403 @item ES: silencio de semicorchea
6404 @item I: pausa di semicroma
6405 @item F: quart de soupir
6406 @item D: Sechzehntelpause
6407 @item NL: zestiende rust
6408 @item DK: sekstendedelspause
6409 @item S: sextondelspaus
6410 @item FI: kuudestoistaosatauko
6435 @node sixty-fourth note
6436 @section sixty-fourth note
6439 @item UK: hemidemisemiquaver
6441 @item I: semibiscroma
6442 @item F: quadruple croche
6443 @item D: Vierundsechzigstel, Vierundsechzigstelnote
6444 @item NL: vierenzestigste noot
6445 @item DK: fi@-re@-og@-tred@-sinds@-ty@-ven@-de@-dels@-no@-de
6446 @item S: sextiofjärdedelsnot
6447 @item FI: kuudeskymmenesneljäsosanuotti
6455 @node sixty-fourth rest
6456 @section sixty-fourth rest
6459 @item UK: hemidemisemiquaver rest
6460 @item ES: silencio de semifusa
6461 @item I: pausa di semibiscroma
6462 @item F: seizième de soupir
6463 @item D: Vierundsechzigstelpause
6464 @item NL: vierenzestigste rust
6465 @item DK: fi@-re@-og@-tred@-sinds@-ty@-ven@-de@-dels@-pau@-se
6466 @item S: sextiofjärdedelspaus
6467 @item FI: kuudeskymmenesneljäsosatauko
6476 @section slash repeat
6480 @ref{percent repeat}.
6486 ES: ligadura (de expresión),
6487 I: legatura (di portamento or espressiva),
6489 D: Bogen (Legatobogen, Phrasierungsbogen),
6490 NL: fraseringsboog, legatoboog, streekboog,
6491 DK: legatobue, fraseringsbue,
6495 A slur above or below a group of notes indicates that they are to be
6496 played @ref{legato}, e.g., with one stroke of the violin bow or with
6497 one breath in singing.
6501 @section solmization
6510 FI: suhteelliset laulunimet.
6512 General term for systems of designating the degrees of the
6513 @ref{scale}, not by letters, but by syllables (@emph{do} (@emph{ut}),
6514 @emph{re}, @emph{mi}, @emph{fa}, @emph{sol}, @emph{la}, @emph{si}
6532 In its present-day meaning a sonata denotes an instrumental
6533 composition for piano or for some other instrument with piano
6534 accompaniment, which consists of three or four independant pieces,
6539 @section sonata form
6543 F: [en] forme de sonate,
6545 NL: hoofdvorm, sonatevorm,
6550 A form used frequently for single movements of the @ref{sonata},
6551 @ref{symphony}, quartet, etc. A movement written in sonata form falls
6552 into three sections called @emph{exposition}, @emph{development} and
6553 @emph{recapitulation}. In the exposition the composer introduces some
6554 musical ideas, consisting of a number of themes; in the development
6555 section the composer @q{develops} this material, and in the
6556 recapitulation the composer repeats the exposition, with certain
6557 modifications. The exposition contains a number of themes that fall
6558 into two groups, often called first and second subject. Other
6559 melodies occurring in each group are considered as continuations of
6560 these two. The second theme is in another key, normally in the key of
6561 the @ref{dominant} if the @ref{tonic} is @ref{major}, and in the
6562 @ref{relative key} if the tonic is @ref{minor}.
6583 FI: sopraano, korkea naisääni.
6585 The highest female voice.
6593 F: staccato, piqué, détaché,
6598 FI: staccato, lyhyesti, terävästi.
6600 Playing the note(s) short. Staccato is indicated by a dot above or
6601 below the note head.
6603 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
6608 d4-\staccato cis-\staccato b-\staccato cis-\staccato |
6618 I: pentagramma, rigo (musicale),
6620 D: Notensystem, Notenzeile,
6621 NL: (noten)balk, partij,
6626 A staff (plural: staves) is a series of (normally five) horizontal
6627 lines upon and between which the musical notes are written, thus
6628 indicating (in connection with a @ref{clef}) their pitch. Staves for
6629 @ref{percussion} instruments may have fewer lines.
6646 D: Hals, Notenhals, Stiel,
6652 Vertical line above or below a @ref{note head} shorter than a
6657 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
6658 \set Score.autoBeaming = ##f
6659 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6660 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
6682 A family of stringed musical instruments played with a bow. Strings
6683 commonly used in a symphony orchestra are violin, viola, violoncello,
6688 @section strong beat
6693 D: betonter Taktteil oder Taktschlag,
6695 D: betonet taktslag,
6696 S: betonat taktslag,
6697 FI: tahdin vahva isku.
6701 @ref{beat}, @ref{accent}, @ref{measure}, @ref{rhythm}.
6705 @section subdominant
6714 FI: subdominantti, alidominantti.
6716 The fourth @ref{scale degree}.
6718 @ref{functional harmony}.
6733 The sixth @ref{scale degree}.
6746 FI: subtoonika, alitoonika.
6748 The seventh @ref{scale degree}.
6754 ES: sobre la cuerda de Sol,
6757 D: auf G, auf der G-Saite,
6763 Indicates that the indicated passage (or note) should be played on the
6768 @section superdominant
6779 The sixth @ref{scale degree}.
6794 The second @ref{scale degree}.
6803 D: Sinfonie, Symphonie,
6809 A symphony may be defined as a @ref{sonata} for orchestra.
6813 @section syncopation
6824 Any deliberate upsetting of the normal pulse of @ref{meter},
6825 @ref{accent}, and @ref{rhythm}. The occidental system of musical
6826 rhythm rests upon the grouping of equal beats into groups of two or
6827 three, with a regularly recurrent accent on the first beat of each
6828 group. Any deviation from this scheme is felt as a disturbance or
6829 contradiction between the underlaying (normal) pulse and the actual
6832 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
6837 e c'4 e,8 c'4 e,8 c' ( | c2)
6842 @node syntonic comma
6843 @section syntonic comma
6845 ES: coma sintónica, coma de Dídimo,
6846 I: comma sintonico (o didimico),
6847 F: comma syntonique,
6848 D: syntonisches Komma,
6849 NL: syntonische komma,
6850 DK: syntonisk komma,
6851 S: syntoniskt komma,
6852 FI: syntoninen komma, terssien taajuusero luonnollisessa ja
6853 Pytagorisessa viritysjärjestelmässä.
6855 Named after Ptolemy's syntonic diatonic genus. Originally, the difference
6856 by which the ditone exceeds the pure major third obtained by Pythagorean
6857 tuning -- (9:8)^2 - 5:4 = 81:80, or 21.5@w{ }cents.
6859 Modern acoustical theory defines it as the interval by which four fifths exceed
6860 the sum of two octaves plus a major third. (3:2)^4 - (2:1)^2 + (5:4)
6862 This comma is also known as the comma of Didymus, or didymic comma.
6866 @ref{Pythagorean comma}
6875 D: Notensystem, Partitur,
6879 FI: nuottijärjestelmä.
6881 The collection of staves (@ref{staff}), two or more, as used for writing
6882 down of keyboard, chamber, choral, or orchestral music.
6886 @section temperament
6891 D: Stimmung, Tem@-pe@-ra@-tur,
6892 NL: stemming, temperatuur,
6895 FI: viritysjärjestelmä.
6897 Systems of tuning in which the intervals deviate from the acoustically
6900 @ref{meantone temperament}, @ref{equal temperament}.
6903 @node tempo indication
6904 @section tempo indication
6906 ES: indicación de tempo,
6907 I: indicazione di tempo,
6908 F: indication de tempo,
6909 D: Zeitmaß, Tempobezeichnung,
6910 NL: tempo aanduiding,
6915 The rate of speed of a composition or a section thereof, ranging from
6916 the slowest to the quickest, as is indicated by tempo marks as
6917 @ref{largo}, @ref{adagio}, @ref{andante}, @ref{allegro}, and
6931 FI: tenori, korkea miesääni.
6933 The highest male voice (apart from @ref{countertenor}).
6956 ES: subrayado (tenuto),
6965 An indication that a particular note should be held for the whole
6966 length, although this can vary depending on the composer and era.
6986 @node thirty-second note
6987 @section thirty-second note
6990 @item UK: demisemiquaver
6993 @item F: triple croche
6994 @item D: Zweiunddreissigstel, Zweiunddreissigstelnote
6995 @item NL: twee-endertig@-ste (32e) noot
6996 @item DK: toogtredivtedelsnode
6997 @item S: trettiotvåondelsnot
6998 @item FI: kolmaskymmeneskahdesosanuotti
7006 @node thirty-second rest
7007 @section thirty-second rest
7010 @item UK: demisemiquaver rest
7011 @item ES: silencio de fusa
7012 @item I: pausa di biscroma
7013 @item F: huitième de soupir
7014 @item D: Zweiunddreissigstel@-pause
7015 @item NL: twee-endertig@-ste (32e) rust
7016 @item DK: toogtredivtedelspause
7017 @item S: trettiotvåondelspaus
7018 @item FI: kolmaskymmeneskahdesosatauko
7027 @section thorough bass
7037 ES: ligadura de prolongación, ligadura de unión,
7038 I: legatura (di valore),
7040 D: Haltebogen, Bindebogen,
7041 NL: overbinding, bindingsboog,
7043 S: bindebåge, överbindning,
7046 A curved line, identical in appearance with the @ref{slur}, which
7047 connects two succesive notes of the same pitch, and which has the
7048 function of uniting them into a single sound (tone) equal to the
7051 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
7052 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
7053 \relative c'' { g2 ~ g4. }
7065 @node time signature
7066 @section time signature
7068 ES: indicación de compás,
7070 F: chiffrage (chiffres indicateurs), signe de valeur, indication de mesure,
7071 D: Taktangabe, Angabe der Taktart,
7074 S: taktartssignatur,
7077 The sign placed at the beginning of a composition to indicate its
7078 meter. It most often takes the form of a fraction, but a few signs
7079 derived from mensural notation and proportions are also employed.
7083 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}.
7098 A sound of definite pitch and duration, as distinct from @emph{noise}.
7099 Tone is a primary building material of music.
7101 @c Music from the 20th century may be based on atonal sounds. Meh, not so much
7116 The first @ref{scale degree}.
7120 @ref{functional harmony}.
7123 @node transposing instrument
7124 @section transposing instrument
7126 ES: instrumento transpositor,
7135 Instruments whose notated pitch is different from their sounded pitch. Except
7136 for those whose notated and sounding pitches differ by one or more octaves (to
7137 reduce the number of ledger lines needed), most such instruments are identified
7138 by the letter name of the pitch class of their fundamental. The pitch class is
7139 the note that @emph{sounds} (disregarding the octave in which it sounds) when
7140 the instrument plays a notated C.
7142 For example: when played on the B-flat clarinet, the note middle C @emph{sounds}
7143 the B-flat one tone lower. If played on the A clarinet, the same written
7144 note sounds the A (one and half tones -- a minor third -- lower).
7146 Not all transposing instruments include the pitch class in their name:
7150 @item English horn (in F)
7152 @item Alto flute (in G)
7158 @ref{concert pitch}.
7162 @section transposition
7173 Shifting a melody up or down in pitch, while keeping the same
7176 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
7181 d4 g,8 a b c | d4 g, g | e' c8 d e fis | g4 g, g \bar "|."
7186 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
7189 \transpose c bes \relative c'' {
7191 d4 g,8 a b c | d4 g, g | e' c8 d e fis | g4 g, g \bar "|."
7198 @section treble clef
7201 I: chiave di violino,
7203 D: Violinschlüssel, Sopranschlüssel,
7226 On stringed instruments:
7230 @item The quick reiteration of the same tone, produced by a rapid
7231 up-and-down movement of the bow.
7233 @item Or, the rapid alternation between two notes of a @ref{chord}, usually
7234 in the distance of a third (@ref{interval}).
7238 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
7239 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
7240 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
7243 f:32 [ e8:16 f:16 g:16 a:16 ] s4
7244 \repeat tremolo 8 { e32_"b" g }
7258 F: triade, accord parfait, accord de trois sons,
7275 F: trille, tremblement, battement (cadence),
7288 @section triple meter
7290 ES: compás ternario,
7293 D: in drei, ungerader Takt,
7294 NL: driedelige maatsoort,
7339 @section tuning fork
7341 ES: diapasón, horquilla de afinación,
7342 I: diapason, corista,
7350 A two-pronged piece of steel used to indicate an absolute pitch, usually for
7351 @emph{A} above middle C (440 cps/Hz), which is the international tuning
7352 standard. Tuning forks for other pitches are available.
7362 A non-standard subdivision of a beat or part of a beat, usually
7363 indicated with a bracket and a number indicating the number of
7368 @ref{triplet}, @ref{note value}.
7374 ES: grupeto (circular),
7398 FI: unisono, yksiäänisesti.
7400 Playing of the same notes or the same melody by various instruments
7401 (voices) or by the whole orchestra (choir), either at exactly the same
7402 pitch or in a different octave.
7410 F: anacrouse, levée,
7432 FI: ääni, lauluääni.
7442 @item @ref{mezzo-soprano}
7444 @item @ref{contralto}
7448 @item @ref{baritone}
7454 @item A melodic layer or part of a polyphonic composition.
7462 ES: vez, primera y segunda vez,
7471 [From Italian, @q{time} (instance, not duration)]. An ending, such as a first
7472 or second ending. LilyPond extends this idea to any number, and allows any text
7473 (not just a number) -- to serve as the @q{volta} text.
7480 I: tempo debole, arsi,
7482 D: unbetonter Taktteil oder Taktschlag,
7484 DK: ubetonet taktslag,
7485 S: obetonat taktslag,
7486 FI: tahdin heikko isku.
7490 @ref{beat}, @ref{measure}, @ref{rhythm}.
7501 @item D: Ganze, ganze Note
7505 @item FI: kokonuotti
7517 @item UK: semibreve rest
7518 @item ES: silencio de redonda
7519 @item I: pausa di semibreve
7521 @item D: ganze Pause, ganztaktige Pause
7523 @item DK: helnodespause
7545 The interval of a major second. The interval between two tones
7546 on the piano keyboard with exactly one key between them -- including
7547 black and white keys -- is a whole tone.
7566 A family of blown wooden musical instruments. Today some of these
7567 instruments are actually made from metal. The woodwind instruments
7568 commonly used in a symphony orchestra are flute, oboe, clarinet,
7569 saxophone, and bassoon.
7572 @node Duration names notes and rests
7573 @chapter Duration names notes and rests
7575 @multitable @columnfractions .12 .22 .22 .22 .22
7577 @headitem Lang. @tab note name
7581 @item @strong{US} @tab long
7585 @item @strong{UK} @tab longa
7589 @item @strong{ES} @tab longa
7590 @tab silencio de longa
7592 @tab silencio de cuadrada
7593 @item @strong{IT} @tab longa
7597 @item @strong{FR} @tab longa
7598 @tab quadruple-pause
7601 @item @strong{DE} @tab Longa
7605 @item @strong{NL} @tab longa
7609 @item @strong{DK} @tab longa
7610 @tab longanodespause
7612 @tab brevis(nodes)pause
7613 @item @strong{SE} @tab longa
7617 @item @strong{FI} @tab longa-nuotti
7619 @tab brevis-nuotti, kaksoiskokonuotti
7620 @tab brevis-tauko, kaksoiskokotauko
7624 @multitable @columnfractions .12 .22 .22 .22 .22
7626 @headitem Lang. @tab note name
7630 @item @strong{US} @tab whole note
7634 @item @strong{UK} @tab semibreve
7638 @item @strong{ES} @tab redonda
7639 @tab silencio de redonda
7641 @tab silencio de blanca
7642 @item @strong{IT} @tab semibreve
7643 @tab pause di semibreve
7645 @tab pausa di minima
7646 @item @strong{FR} @tab ronde
7650 @item @strong{DE} @tab ganze Note
7654 @item @strong{NL} @tab hele noot
7658 @item @strong{DK} @tab helnode
7662 @item @strong{SE} @tab helnot
7666 @item @strong{FI} @tab kokonuotti
7673 @multitable @columnfractions .12 .22 .22 .22 .22
7675 @headitem Lang. @tab note name
7679 @item @strong{US} @tab quarter note
7683 @item @strong{UK} @tab crotchet
7687 @item @strong{ES} @tab negra
7688 @tab silencio de negra
7690 @tab silencio de corchea
7691 @item @strong{IT} @tab semiminima, nera
7692 @tab pausa di semiminima, pausa di nera
7695 @item @strong{FR} @tab noire
7699 @item @strong{DE} @tab Viertelnote
7703 @item @strong{NL} @tab kwartnoot
7707 @item @strong{DK} @tab fjerdedelsnode
7708 @tab fjerdedelspause
7709 @tab ottendedelsnode
7710 @tab ottendedelspause
7711 @item @strong{SE} @tab fjärdedelsnot
7715 @item @strong{FI} @tab neljäsosanuotti
7717 @tab kahdeksasosanuotti
7718 @tab kahdeksasosatauko
7722 * About the French naming system: @emph{croche} refers to the note's "hook".
7723 Therefore, from the eighth note on, the note names mean @q{hook}, @q{doubled
7724 hook}, @q{trebled hook}, and so on.
7726 The rest names are based on the @emph{soupir}, or quarter rest. Subsequent
7727 rests are expressed as fractions thereof: half a @emph{soupir}, a quarter of
7728 a @emph{soupir}, and so on.
7730 Each of the following tables contains one type of note and its matching rest,
7731 with abbreviations that apply to both notes and rests. Just switch the part
7732 that means @q{note} with the part that means @q{rest}, for example:
7736 @item English: 16th @strong{note}, 16th @strong{rest}
7737 @item German: 32tel-@strong{Note}, 32tel-@strong{Pause}
7738 @item Finnish: 64-osa@strong{nuotti}, 64-osa@strong{tauko}
7742 I put a dash @q{-} when I could not find a language-specific abbreviation for a
7743 duration name. If you know of one that I missed, please send it to me, care of
7744 the lilypond-user discussion list.
7746 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
7748 @headitem Lang. @tab Note name
7751 @item @strong{US} @tab sixteenth note
7754 @item @strong{UK} @tab semiquaver
7755 @tab semiquaver rest
7757 @item @strong{ES} @tab semicorchea
7758 @tab silencio de semicorchea
7760 @item @strong{IT} @tab semicroma
7761 @tab pausa di semicroma
7763 @item @strong{FR} @tab double croche
7764 @tab quart de soupir
7766 @item @strong{DE} @tab Sechzehntelnote
7767 @tab Sechzehntelpause
7769 @item @strong{NL} @tab zestiende noot
7772 @item @strong{DK} @tab sekstendedelsnode
7773 @tab sekstendedelspause
7775 @item @strong{SE} @tab sextondelsnot
7778 @item @strong{FI} @tab kuudestoistaosanuotti
7779 @tab kuudestoistaosatauko
7784 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
7786 @headitem Lang. @tab Note name
7789 @item @strong{US} @tab thirty-second note
7790 @tab thirty-second rest
7792 @item @strong{UK} @tab demisemiquaver
7793 @tab demisemiquaver rest
7795 @item @strong{ES} @tab fusa
7796 @tab silencio de fusa
7798 @item @strong{IT} @tab biscroma
7799 @tab pausa di biscroma
7801 @item @strong{FR} @tab triple croche
7802 @tab huitième de soupir
7804 @item @strong{DE} @tab Zweiunddreißigstelnote
7805 @tab Zweiunddreißigstelpause
7807 @item @strong{NL} @tab tweeendertigste noot
7808 @tab tweeendertigste rust
7810 @item @strong{DK} @tab toogtredivtedelsnode
7811 @tab toogtredivtedelspause
7813 @item @strong{SE} @tab trettiotvåondelsnot
7814 @tab trettiotvåondelspaus
7816 @item @strong{FI} @tab kolmaskymmeneskahdesosanuotti
7817 @tab kolmaskymmeneskahdesosatauko
7822 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
7824 @headitem Lang. @tab Note name
7827 @item @strong{US} @tab sixty-fourth note
7828 @tab sixty-fourth rest
7830 @item @strong{UK} @tab hemidemisemiquaver
7831 @tab hemidemisemiquaver rest
7833 @item @strong{ES} @tab semifusa
7834 @tab silencio de semifusa
7836 @item @strong{IT} @tab semibiscroma
7837 @tab pausa di semibiscroma
7839 @item @strong{FR} @tab quadruple croche
7840 @tab seizième de soupir
7842 @item @strong{DE} @tab Vierundsechzigstelnote
7843 @tab Vierundsechzigstelpause
7845 @item @strong{NL} @tab vierenzestigste noot
7846 @tab vierenzestigste rust
7848 @item @strong{DK} @tab fireogtredsindstyvendedelsnode
7849 @tab fireogtredsindstyvendedelspause
7851 @item @strong{SE} @tab sextiofjärdedelsnot
7852 @tab sextiofjärdedelspaus
7854 @item @strong{FI} @tab kuudeskymmenesneljäsosanuotti
7855 @tab kuudeskymmenesneljäsosatauko
7860 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
7862 @headitem Lang. @tab Note name
7865 @item @strong{US} @tab one-hundred-twenty-eighth note
7866 @tab one-hundred-twenty-eighth rest
7868 @item @strong{UK} @tab semihemidemisemiquaver
7869 @tab semihemidemisemiquaver rest
7871 @item @strong{ES} @tab garrapatea
7872 @tab silencio de garrapatea
7874 @item @strong{IT} @tab fusa
7877 @item @strong{FR} @tab quintuple croche
7878 @tab trente-deuxième de soupir @tab -
7879 @item @strong{DE} @tab Hundertundachtundzwanzigstel
7880 @tab Hundertundachtundzwanzigstel @tab 128tel-Note
7881 @item @strong{NL} @tab honderdachtentwintigste noot
7882 @tab honderdachtentwintigste rust
7884 @item @strong{DK} @tab hundredeotteogtyvendedelsnode
7885 @tab hundredeotteogtyvendedelspause
7887 @item @strong{SE} @tab hundratjugoåttondelsnot
7888 @tab hundratjugoåttondelspaus
7890 @item @strong{FI} @tab sadaskahdeskymmeneskahdeksasosanuotti
7891 @tab sadaskahdeskymmeneskahdeksasosatauko
7896 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
7898 @headitem Lang. @tab Note name
7901 @item @strong{US} @tab two-hundred-fifty-sixth note
7902 @tab two-hundred-fifty-sixth rest
7904 @item @strong{UK} @tab demisemihemidemisemiquaver
7905 @tab demisemihemidemisemiquaver rest
7907 @item @strong{ES} @tab semigarrapatea
7908 @tab silencio de semigarrapatea @tab -
7909 @item @strong{IT} @tab semifusa
7910 @tab pausa di semifusa
7912 @item @strong{FR} @tab sextuple croche
7913 @tab soixante-quatrième de soupir @tab -
7914 @item @strong{DE} @tab Zweihundertundsechsundfünfzigstelnote
7915 @tab Zweihundertundsechsundfünfzigstel @tab 256tel-Note
7916 @item @strong{NL} @tab tweehonderdzesenvijftigste noot
7917 @tab tweehonderdzesenvijftigste rust
7919 @item @strong{DK} @tab tohundredeseksoghalvtredsendedelsnode
7920 @tab tohundredeseksoghalvtredsendedelspause
7922 @item @strong{SE} @tab tvåhundrafemtiosjättedelsnot
7923 @tab tvåhundrafemtiosjättedelspaus
7925 @item @strong{FI} @tab kahdessadasviideskymmeneskuudesosanuotti
7926 @tab kahdessadasviideskymmeneskuudesosatauko
7933 @ref{mensural notation}
7937 @chapter Pitch names
7939 @c -is/-es endings for Danish per Rune Zedeler
7940 @c and for Finnish per Risto Vääräniemi
7941 @c -iss/-ess endings for Swedish per Mats Bengtsson
7942 @c @columnfractions .105 .145 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125 -->
7944 @multitable {c-sharp} {do sostenido} {do diesis} {ut dièse} {Cis} {cis} {cis} {ciss} {cis}
7946 @tab ES @tab I @tab F @tab D
7947 @tab NL @tab DK @tab S @tab FI
7948 @item @strong{c} @tab do @tab do @tab ut @tab C
7949 @tab c @tab c @tab c @tab c
7950 @item @strong{c-sharp} @tab do sostenido @tab do diesis @tab ut dièse @tab Cis
7951 @tab cis @tab cis @tab ciss @tab cis
7952 @item @strong{d-flat} @tab re bemol @tab re bemolle @tab ré bémol @tab Des
7953 @tab des @tab des @tab dess @tab des
7954 @item @strong{d} @tab re @tab re @tab ré @tab D
7955 @tab d @tab d @tab d @tab d
7956 @item @strong{d-sharp} @tab re sostenido @tab re diesis @tab re dièse @tab Dis
7957 @tab dis @tab dis @tab diss @tab dis
7958 @item @strong{e-flat} @tab mi bemol @tab mi bemolle @tab mi bémol @tab Es
7959 @tab es @tab es @tab ess @tab es
7960 @item @strong{e} @tab mi @tab mi @tab mi @tab E
7961 @tab e @tab e @tab e @tab e
7962 @item @strong{f-flat} = e
7963 @tab fa bemol @tab fa bemolle @tab fa bémol @tab Fes
7964 @tab fes @tab fes @tab fess @tab fes
7965 @item @strong{f} @tab fa @tab fa @tab fa @tab F
7966 @tab f @tab f @tab f @tab f
7967 @item @strong{e-sharp} = f
7968 @tab mi sostenido @tab mi diesis @tab mi dièse @tab Eis
7969 @tab eis @tab eis @tab eiss @tab eis
7970 @item @strong{f-sharp} @tab fa sostenido @tab fa diesis @tab fa dièse @tab Fis
7971 @tab fis @tab fis @tab fiss @tab fis
7972 @item @strong{g-flat} @tab sol bemol @tab sol bemolle @tab sol bémol @tab Ges
7973 @tab ges @tab ges @tab gess @tab ges
7974 @item @strong{g} @tab sol @tab sol @tab sol @tab G
7975 @tab g @tab g @tab g @tab g
7976 @item @strong{g-sharp} @tab sol sostenido @tab sol diesis @tab sol dièse @tab Gis
7977 @tab gis @tab gis @tab giss @tab gis
7978 @item @strong{a-flat} @tab la bemol @tab la bemolle @tab la bémol @tab As
7979 @tab as @tab as @tab ass @tab as
7980 @item @strong{a} @tab la @tab la @tab la @tab A
7981 @tab a @tab a @tab a @tab a
7982 @item @strong{a-sharp} @tab la sostenido @tab la diesis @tab la dièse @tab Ais
7983 @tab ais @tab ais @tab aiss @tab ais
7984 @item @strong{b-flat} @tab si bemol @tab si bemolle @tab si bémol @tab B
7985 @tab bes @tab b @tab b @tab b
7986 @item @strong{b} @tab si @tab si @tab si @tab H
7987 @tab b @tab h @tab h @tab h
7995 @node Literature used
7996 @unnumberedsec Literature used
7999 @item The Harvard Dictionary of Music, London 1944. Many more or less
8000 literal quotes from its articles have been included into the item
8003 @item Hugo Riemanns Musiklexicon, Berlin 1929.
8005 @item Polyglottes Wörterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie, Kassel
8008 @item Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, Third
8011 @item Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary, Springfield 1913.
8013 @item Felix Krohn, Lyhyt musiikkioppi, Porvoo, Helsinki, 1976.
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