1 \input texinfo @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @setfilename music-glosssary.info
3 @settitle Music Glossary
4 @documentencoding UTF-8
11 @c see lilypond.tely for info installation note
14 * Glossary: (lilypond/music-glossary). Glossary of music terms.
18 This document is also available in
19 @uref{source/Documentation/user/music-glossary.pdf,PDF}
20 and as @uref{source/Documentation/user/music-glossary-big-page.html,one big page}.
25 @author Christian Mondrup @c Original author of LilyPond glossary
27 @author François Pinard @c Original glossary of GNU music project,
29 @author Mats Bengtsson @c Swedish glossary
30 @author David González @c Spanish glossary
31 @author Bjoern Jacke @c German glossary
32 @author Neil Jerram @c English glossary translations
33 @author Heikki Junes @c Finnish glossary
34 @author Kurtis Kroon @c English glossary maintenance, beg. Oct. 2007
35 @author Adrian Mariano @c Italian glossary
36 @author Han-Wen Nienhuys @c Dutch glossary
37 @author Jan Nieuwenhuizen @c Dutch glossary
39 @c Fixes by Jean-Pierre Coulon and `Dirk', alphabetized by last name, KK, 10/07
40 @c Updates to the German translation by Till Rettig, 12/07
42 Copyright @copyright{} 1999--2007 by the authors
44 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
45 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
46 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation,
47 without Invariant Sections.
52 @c TODO: multiple omfcreators?
54 @omfcreator Christian Mondrup, Kurt Kroon
55 @omfdescription Glossary of musical terms with translations
57 @omfcategory Applications|Publishing
69 This glossary was brought you by
76 @item Christian Mondrup
77 Original author of LilyPond glossary, Danish glossary,
81 Original glossary of GNU music project, French glossary,
82 @item Han-Wen Nienhuys
85 Finnish glossary translations,
86 @item Jan Nieuwenhuizen
93 English glossary translations.
96 Copyright 1999--2007 by the authors
98 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
99 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
100 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation,
101 without Invariant Sections.
107 @c @everyheading @| @thispage @|
108 @c @evenheading @thispage @| @|
109 @c @oddheading @| @| @thispage @|
111 This is the Music Glossary (MG) for GNU LilyPond version @version{}.
112 For more information about how this fits with the other
113 documentation, see @rlearning{About the documentation}.
119 @w{@expansion{}@strong{\word\}}@c
122 @expansion{}@ref{\word\, @strong{\word\}}@c
127 * Musical terms A-Z::
128 * Duration names notes and rests::
135 @node Musical terms A-Z
136 @chapter Musical terms A-Z
138 Languages in this order.
140 @item UK - British English (where it differs from American English)
166 * ancient minor scale::
171 * ascending interval::
173 * augmented interval::
209 * compound interval::
213 * conjunct movement::
226 * descending interval::
229 * diminished interval::
233 * disjunct movement::
235 * dissonant interval::
237 * dominant ninth chord::
238 * dominant seventh chord::
240 * dot (augmentation dot)::
242 * double appoggiatura::
244 * double dotted note::
247 * double time signature::
254 * ecclesiastical mode::
261 * equal temperament::
280 * functional harmony::
297 * inverted interval::
312 * long appoggiatura::
318 * meantone temperament::
325 * mensural notation::
329 * metronomic indication::
341 * multi-measure rest::
371 * polymetric time signature::
376 * Pythagorean comma::
406 * sixty-fourth note::
407 * sixty-fourth rest::
437 * thirty-second note::
438 * thirty-second rest::
445 * transposing instrument::
500 Abbreviated @samp{a2} or @samp{a 2}.
504 @item An indication in orchestral scores that a single part notated on a single
505 staff that normally carries parts for two players (e.g. first and second oboes)
506 is to be played by both players.
508 @item Or conversely, that two pitches or parts notated on a staff that normally
509 carries a single part (e.g. first violin) are to be played by different players,
510 or groups of players (@q{desks}).
524 F: accelerando, en accélérant,
525 D: accelerando, schneller werden,
529 FI: accelerando, kiihdyttäen.
544 FI: aksentti, korostus.
546 The stress of one tone over others.
558 @section acciaccatura
560 A grace note which takes its time from the rest or note preceding the
561 principal note to which it is attached. The acciaccatura is drawn as a
562 small eighth note (quaver) with a line drawn through the flag and
567 @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes}, @ref{ornament}.
573 ES: alteración accidental,
575 F: altération accidentelle,
576 D: Versetzungszeichen, Akzidenz,
577 NL: toevallig (verplaatsings)teken,
579 S: tillfälligt förtecken,
580 FI: tilapäinen etumerkki.
582 An accidental has the effect of an @ref{alteration} of a note. A
583 sharp raises a tone by a @ref{semitone}, a double sharp raises it by a
584 @ref{whole tone}, a flat lowers it by a semitone and a double flat
585 lowers it by a whole tone. A natural cancels the effect of a previous
586 accidental, or a sharp or flat in the key signature.
588 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
589 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
591 \context Staff \relative c'' {
592 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
593 gisis1 gis g! ges geses
596 \override Lyrics .LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
597 "db. sharp" sharp natural flat "db. flat"
613 FI: adagio, hitaasti.
615 It.@: comfortable, easy.
619 @item Slow tempo, slower -- especially in even meter -- than
620 @ref{andante} and faster than @ref{largo}.
622 @item A movement in slow tempo, especially the second (slow) movement
623 of @ref{sonata}s, symphonies, etc.
634 D: Allegro, Schnell, Fröhlich, Lustig,
638 FI: allegro, nopeasti.
640 It.@: cheerful. Quick tempo. Also used as a title for pieces in a quick
641 tempo, especially the first and last movements of a @ref{sonata}.
651 NL: verhoging of verlaging,
656 An alteration is the modification, raising or lowering, of a note's
657 pitch. It is established by an @ref{accidental}.
670 FI: altto, matala naisääni.
672 A female voice of low range (@emph{contralto}). Originally the alto
673 was a high male voice (hence the name), which by the use of falsetto
674 reached the height of the female voice. This type of voice is also
675 known as @ref{countertenor}.
681 ES: clave de do en tercera,
682 I: chiave di contralto,
683 F: clef d'ut troisième ligne,
684 D: Altschlüssel, Bratschenschlüssel,
690 C clef setting middle C on the middle line of the staff.
707 FI: ambitus, ääniala, soitinala.
709 [Latin: past participle of @emph{ambire}, @q{to go around}; plural: ambitus]
710 Denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in a part of music. It may
711 also denote the pitch range that a musical instrument is capable of playing.
712 Sometimes anglicized to @emph{ambit} (pl. @emph{ambits}).
727 An anacrusis (also known as pickup or upbeat) is an incomplete measure
728 of music before a section of music. It also refers to the initial
729 note(s) of a melody occurring in that incomplete measure.
733 @ref{measure}, @ref{meter}.
735 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
739 \partial 4 f4 | bes4. a8 bes4 c |
740 bes( a) g f | bes4. a8 bes4 c | f,2. \bar "||" }
744 @node ancient minor scale
745 @section ancient minor scale
747 ES: escala menor natural,
748 I: scala minore naturale,
749 F: forme du mode mineur ancien, troisème mode, mode hellénique,
750 D: reines Moll, natürliches Moll,
751 NL: authentieke mineurtoonladder,
754 FI: luonnollinen molliasteikko.
756 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
757 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
764 @ref{diatonic scale}.
779 Walking tempo/character.
783 @section appoggiatura
787 F: appoggiature, (port de voix),
788 D: Vorschlag, Vorhalt
792 FI: appoggiatura, etuhele.
794 Ornamental note, usually a second, that is melodically connected with
795 the main note following it. In music before the 19th century
796 appoggiature were usually performed on the beat, after that mostly
797 before the beat. While the short appoggiatura is performed as a short
798 note regardless of the duration of the main note the duration of the
799 long appoggiatura is proportional to that of the main note.
801 @lilypond[line-width=13.0\cm]
802 \context Voice \relative c'' {
806 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
807 <d a fis>4_"notation" r
808 { \override Stem #'flag-style = #'()
810 \revert Stem #'flag-style
813 { \override Stem #'flag-style = #'()
815 \revert Stem #'flag-style
818 \cadenzaOn a4 \bar "||" \cadenzaOff
820 <d, a fis>4_"performance" r g16 ( fis) e fis a ( g) fis g |
821 \cadenzaOn a4 \bar "||" \cadenzaOff
825 An appoggiatura may have more notes preceding the main note.
827 @lilypond[line-width=13.0\cm]
831 % \override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
832 \grace { bes16 } as8_"notation" as16 bes as8 g |
833 \grace { as16[( bes] } < c as >4-)
834 \grace { as16[( bes] } < c as >4-) \bar "||"
835 \grace { bes16 } as8_"performance" as16 bes as8 g |
836 << \context Voice = va { \stemUp\tieUp as32 bes c8. as32 bes c8. }
837 \context Voice = vb { \stemDown\tieDown as16 ~ as8. as16 ~ as8. } >>
849 D: Arpeggio, Akkordbrechungen, gebro@-chener Akkord,
851 DK: arpeggio, akkordbrydning,
853 FI: arpeggio, murtosointu.
855 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
856 \context PianoStaff <<
857 \context Staff = SA \relative c'' {
860 r8 g16 c e g, c e r8 g,16 c e g, c e |
861 r8 a,16 d f a, d f r8 a,16 d f a, d f \bar "||" }
862 \context Staff = SB \relative c' {
864 << \context Voice = va {
866 r16 e8. ( e4) r16 e8. ( e4) |
867 r16 d8. ( d4) r16 d8. ( d4) }
868 \context Voice = vb {
877 @section articulation
886 FI: artikulaatio, ilmaisu.
888 Articulation refers to notation which indicates how a note or notes
889 should be played. Slurs, accents, staccato, and legato are all
890 examples of articulation.
893 @node ascending interval
894 @section ascending interval
896 ES: intervalo ascendente,
897 I: intervallo ascendente,
898 F: intervalle ascendant,
899 D: steigendes Intervall,
900 NL: stijgend interval,
901 DK: stigende interval,
902 S: stigande intervall,
903 FI: nouseva intervalli.
905 A distance between a starting lower note and a higher ending note.
908 @node augmented interval
909 @section augmented interval
911 ES: intervalo aumentado,
912 I: intervallo aumentato,
913 F: intervalle augmenté,
914 D: übermäßiges Intervall,
915 NL: overmatig interval,
916 DK: forstørret interval,
917 S: överstigande intervall,
918 FI: ylinouseva intervalli.
926 @section augmentation
937 @c TODO: add definition.
939 This is a placeholder for augmentation (wrt mensural notation).
943 @ref{diminution}, @ref{mensural notation}.
951 F: manuscrit, autographe
952 D: Autograph, Handschrift,
954 DK: håndskrift, autograf,
956 FI: käsinkirjoitettu nuotti.
960 @item A manuscript written in the composer's own hand.
962 @item Music prepared for photoreproduction by freehand drawing, with
963 the aid of a straightedge ruler and T-square only, which attempts to
964 emulate engraving. This required more skill than did engraving.
1007 ES: barra, línea divisoria,
1008 I: stanghetta, barra (di divisione),
1009 F: barre (de mesure),
1027 FI: baritoni, keskikorkuinen miesääni.
1029 The male voice intermediate between the @ref{bass} and the
1032 @c F: clef de troisième ligne dropped
1036 @section baritone clef
1038 ES: clave de fa en tercera,
1039 I: chiave di baritono,
1040 F: clef d' Ut cinquième ligne, clef de Fa troisième,
1041 D: Baritonschlüssel,
1047 C or F clef setting middle C on the upper staff line.
1051 @ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}.
1064 FI: basso, matala miesääni.
1068 @item The lowest male voice.
1070 @item Sometimes, especially in jazz music, used as an abbreviation for
1083 ES: clave de fa en cuarta,
1085 F: clef de fa quatrième ligne,
1092 A clef setting with middle C on the first top ledger line.
1111 Line connecting a series of notes (shorter than a quarter note). The
1112 number of beams determines the note value of the connected notes.
1114 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1115 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1116 %\override TextScript #'font-style = #'large
1118 g8_"1/8"[ g g g] s16
1119 g16_"1/16"[ g g g] s16
1120 g32_"1/32"[ s32 g32 s32 g32 s32 g32] s16
1121 g64_"1/64"[ s32 g64 s32 g64 s32 g64] s32 }
1126 @ref{feathered beam}.
1132 ES: tiempo, parte (de compás)
1135 D: Takt, Taktschlag, Zeit (im Takt),
1141 Note value used for counting, most often half-, fourth-, and eighth
1142 notes. The base counting value and the number of them per measure is
1143 indicated at the start of the music.
1145 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
1148 \relative c'' { g4 c b a | g1 \bar "||"}
1150 \relative c'' { g8 d' c | b c a | g4. \bar "||"}
1155 @section beat repeat
1159 @ref{percent repeat}.
1173 ES: llave, corchete,
1176 D: Klammer, Akkolade,
1177 NL: accolade, teksthaak,
1180 FI: yhdistävä sulkumerkki.
1182 Symbol at the start of a system connecting staves.
1184 Curly braces are used for connecting piano staves, and sometimes for connecting
1185 the staves of like instruments in an orchestral score when written on different
1186 staves (e.g. first and second flutes):
1188 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
1189 \context GrandStaff <<
1190 \relative c''\context Staff = SA { \clef treble g4 e c2 }
1191 \relative c \context Staff = SB { \clef bass c1 \bar "|." } >>
1194 Angular brackets for connecting parts in an orchestral or choral score:
1196 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
1197 \context StaffGroup <<
1198 % \set StaffGroup.minVerticalAlign = #12
1199 \relative c'' \context Staff = SA { \clef treble g4 e c2 }
1200 \relative c \context Staff = SB { \clef bass c1 \bar "|." } >>
1227 NL: koper (blazers),
1230 S: brassinstrument, mässingsinstrument,
1233 A family of blown musical instruments made of brass, all using a cup
1234 formed mouth piece. The brass instruments commonly used in a symphony
1235 orchestra are trumpet, trombone, french horn, and tube.
1239 @section breath mark
1244 D: Atemzeichen, Trennungszeichen,
1245 NL: repercussieteken,
1246 DK: vejrtrækningstegn,
1250 Indication of where to breathe in vocal and wind instrument parts.
1256 ES: cuadrada, breve,
1263 FI: brevis, kaksoiskokonuotti.
1265 Note value twice as long as a whole note. Mainly used in pre-1650 music.
1266 The shortest note value generally used in white mensural notation, hence the
1267 name, which originally meant @q{of short duration}.
1269 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
1270 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1271 \relative c'' { g\breve }
1276 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{note value}.
1310 Clef symbol indicating the position of the middle C. Used on all note
1313 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1314 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1315 \override Score.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
1317 \context Staff \relative c' {
1319 \clef mezzosoprano c
1324 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1325 \override Lyrics .LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
1326 "Soprano " "Mezzosoprano " "Alto " "Tenor " Baritone
1342 FI: kadenssi, lopuke.
1346 @ref{harmonic cadence}, @ref{functional harmony}.
1359 FI: kadenssi, lopuke.
1361 An extended, improvisatory style section inserted near the end of
1362 movement. The purpose of a cadenza is to give singers or players a
1363 chance to exhibit their technical skill and -- not last -- their
1364 ability to improvise. Since the middle of the 19th century, however,
1365 most cadenzas have been written down by the composer.
1378 FI: kaanon, tarkka jäljittely.
1395 FI: sentti, puolisävelaskeleen sadasosa tasavireisessä
1396 viritysjärjestelmässä.
1398 Logarithmic unit of measurement. 1@tie{}cent is 1/1200 of an octave
1399 (1/100 of an equally tempered @ref{semitone}).
1403 @ref{equal temperament}.
1426 Three or more tones sounding simultaneously. In traditional European music
1427 the base chord is a @emph{triad} consisting of two thirds. @emph{Major}
1428 (major + minor third) as well as @emph{minor} (minor + major third) chords
1429 may be extended with more thirds. Four-tone @emph{seventh chords} and
1430 five-tone @emph{ninth} major chords are most often used as dominants
1431 (functional harmony). Chords having no third above the lower notes to
1432 define their mood are a special case called @q{open chords}. The lack of
1433 the middle third means their quality is ambivalent: neither major nor minor.
1435 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1436 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1437 %\override TextScript #'font-style = #'large
1439 \context Staff \relative c'' {
1440 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
1461 @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{interval}, @ref{inversion}, @ref{quality},
1465 @node chromatic scale
1466 @section chromatic scale
1468 ES: escala cromática,
1470 F: gamme chromatique,
1471 D: chro@-ma@-ti@-sche Tonleiter,
1472 NL: chromatische toonladder,
1473 DK: kromatisk skala,
1475 FI: kromaattinen asteikko.
1477 A scale consisting of all 12 @ref{semitone}s.
1479 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1480 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1481 \relative c' { c1 cis d dis e f fis g gis a ais b c }
1486 @section chromaticism
1497 Use of tones extraneous to a @ref{diatonic scale} (minor, major).
1501 @section church mode
1503 ES: modo eclesiástico,
1504 I: modo ecclesiastico,
1505 F: mode ecclésiastique,
1510 FI: moodi, kirkkosävellaji.
1514 @ref{diatonic scale}.
1523 D: Schlüssel, Notenschlüssel,
1527 FI: avain, nuottiavain.
1531 @ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}, @ref{G clef}.
1533 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
1534 pitches. The three clef symbols in common use are:
1536 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1539 \line { "The Treble or G clef: " \musicglyph #"clefs.G" }
1540 \line { "The Bass or F clef: " \musicglyph #"clefs.F" }
1541 \line { "The Alto or C clef: " \musicglyph #"clefs.C" }
1546 Imagine a large staff of 11 lines centered on middle C, sometimes
1547 called a @q{grand staff}, with the bottom line representing low G and
1548 the top line high F:
1550 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1553 %-- Treble Staff --%
1555 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1556 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
1557 % Allow the treble clef to overlap the lower staves:
1558 % \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1559 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1561 s1^\markup { "g," \transparent "g" }
1562 s^ \markup { "b," \transparent "g" }
1563 s^ \markup { "d" \transparent "g" }
1564 s^ \markup { "f" \transparent "g" }
1565 s^ \markup { "a" \transparent "g" }
1566 s^ \markup { \with-color #red c' \transparent "g"}
1567 e'^\markup { "e'" \transparent "g" }
1568 g'^\markup { "g'" \transparent "g" }
1569 b'^\markup { "b'" \transparent "g" }
1570 d''^\markup { "d''" \transparent "g" }
1571 f''^\markup { "f ''" \transparent "g" }
1574 %-- Alto Staff reduced to a single line on middle C --%
1576 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 1 % One line only
1577 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red % Coloured red
1578 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1581 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1582 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1583 % Specify height to give correct spacing between treble and bass staves
1584 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1586 s1 s s s s % Space along to align horizonatally
1587 \override NoteHead #'color = #red
1589 s1 s s s s s % Keep staff (ie the red line) showing
1593 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1594 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-3 . 2)
1595 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1598 s s s s s s s % Keep staff showing
1602 % Reduce horizontal spacing so semibreves can be used without exceeding 1 line
1603 \context { \Score \override SpacingSpanner #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 1)
1605 % Reduce apparent vertical size of note heads to permit them to overlap other grobs vertically
1606 \context { \Score \override NoteHead #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1608 % Remove all barlines
1609 \context { \Score \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1611 % Remove time signature from all staves
1612 \context { \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver
1618 Staves of five lines are usually used, and the clef superimposed on
1619 them indicates which five lines have been selected from this
1620 @samp{grand staff}. For example, the treble or G clef indicates that
1621 the top five lines have been selected:
1623 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1626 %-- Treble Staff --%
1628 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1629 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup
1630 #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1631 % Allow the treble clef to overlap the lower staves:
1632 % \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1633 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required here
1635 s1^\markup { "g," \transparent "g" }
1636 s^ \markup { "b," \transparent "g" }
1637 s^ \markup { "d" \transparent "g" }
1638 s^ \markup { "f" \transparent "g" }
1639 s^ \markup { "a" \transparent "g" }
1640 s^ \markup { \with-color #red c' \transparent "g"}
1641 \stopStaff \startStaff
1642 \clef "C" % Dummy to force next clef to be printed
1643 s % Need at least one note for \clef to take effect
1644 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##t % Clef now required
1645 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0) % Permit overlap
1647 e'^\markup { "e'" \transparent "g" }
1648 g'^\markup { "g'" \transparent "g" }
1649 b'^\markup { "b'" \transparent "g" }
1650 d''^\markup { "d''" \transparent "g" }
1651 f''^\markup { "f ''" \transparent "g" }
1653 %-- Alto Staff reduced to a single line on middle C --%
1655 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 1 % One line only
1656 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red % Coloured red
1657 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1660 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1661 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup
1662 #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1663 % Specify height to give correct spacing between the staves
1664 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1666 s1 s s s s % Space along to align horizonatally
1667 \override NoteHead #'color = #red
1669 % s1 s s s s % Keep staff (ie the red line) showing
1673 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1674 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup
1675 #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1676 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1679 % s s s s s s % Keep staff showing
1683 % Reduce horizontal spacing so semibreves can be used
1684 % without exceeding 1 line
1685 \context { \Score \override SpacingSpanner
1686 #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 1)
1688 % Reduce apparent vertical size of note heads to
1689 % permit them to overlap other grobs vertically
1690 \context { \Score \override NoteHead #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1692 % Remove all barlines
1693 \context { \Score \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1695 % Remove time signature from all staves
1696 \context { \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver
1702 The @q{curl} of the G clef is centered on the line that represents the
1705 In the same way, the bass or F clef indicates that the bottom five
1706 lines have been selected from the @samp{grand staff}, and the alto or
1707 C clef indicates the middle five lines have been selected. This
1708 relationship is shown below, where the notes show an arpeggio on a C
1711 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1714 %-- Treble Staff --%
1715 \new Staff = "G" \with {
1716 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1719 % The following two overrides are required to make the two middle C's overlap
1720 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1721 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
1723 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1725 s1 s s s s e' g' c''
1728 \new Staff = "C" \with {
1729 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1732 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 1
1733 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'stencil = ##f
1734 \once \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
1735 \clef "G" % A frig. This clef is invisible; use G to force the later C clef to be shown
1736 \override Score.BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1738 % The following two overrides are required to align the C staff to the G and F staves
1739 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1740 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1743 \stopStaff \startStaff
1744 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1745 \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'stencil
1746 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
1747 b'1 % A frig. This really shows as a middle C in the score
1749 \stopStaff \startStaff
1750 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 5
1751 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1752 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1753 \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'color
1754 \stopStaff \startStaff
1756 s1 s s c e g c' e' g' c''
1759 \new Staff = "F" \with {
1760 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1763 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1764 % The following two overrides are required to make the two middle C's overlap
1765 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1766 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
1774 \Score \override SpacingSpanner #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 2 1)
1777 \Score \override NoteHead #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1780 \Score \override NoteHead #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1797 FI: klusteri, cluster.
1799 A @emph{cluster} is a range of simultaneously sounding pitches that
1800 may change over time. The set of available pitches to apply usually
1801 depends on the acoustic source. Thus, in piano music, a cluster
1802 typically consists of a continuous range of the semitones as provided
1803 by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic scale. In choral music, each
1804 singer of the choir typically may sing an arbitrary pitch within the
1805 cluster's range that is not bound to any diatonic, chromatic or other
1806 scale. In electronic music, a cluster (theoretically) may even cover
1807 a continuous range of pitches, thus resulting in colored noise, such
1810 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
1811 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
1812 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
1813 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by
1814 the shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical
1815 extent of the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster
1816 geometrically describes the development of a range of pitches
1817 (vertical extent) over time (horizontal extent). Still, the
1818 geometrical shape of a cluster covers the area in which any single
1819 pitch contained in the cluster would be notated as an ordinary note.
1821 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,ragged-right]
1822 \makeClusters { <c e> <b f'> <b g'> <c g> <f e> }
1836 FI: komma, korvinkuultava ero äänenkorkeudessa.
1838 Difference in pitch between a note derived from pure tuning and the
1839 same note derived from some other tuning method.
1843 @ref{didymic comma}, @ref{Pythagorean comma}, @ref{syntonic comma},
1848 @section common meter
1858 @section common time
1869 4/4 time. The symbol, which resembles a capital letter C, derives from
1874 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}.
1880 ES: intervalo invertido,
1882 F: intervalle complémentaire,
1883 D: Komplementärintervall,
1884 NL: complementair interval,
1885 DK: komplementærinterval,
1886 S: komplementärintervall (?),
1887 FI: täydentävä intervalli.
1891 @ref{inverted interval}.
1894 @node compound interval
1895 @section compound interval
1897 ES: intervalo compuesto,
1898 I: intervallo composto,
1899 F: intervalle composé,
1900 D: weites Intervall,
1901 NL: samengesteld interval,
1902 DK: sammensat interval,
1903 S: sammansatt intervall,
1904 FI: oktaavia laajempi intervalli.
1906 Intervals larger than an octave.
1913 @node compound meter
1914 @section compound meter
1916 ES: compás compuesto, compás de subdivisión ternaria,
1925 A meter that includes a triplet subdivision within the beat, such as
1930 @ref{meter}, @ref{simple meter}.
1934 @section compound time
1936 ES: compás compuesto, compás de amalgama (def. 2),
1948 A meter that includes a triplet subdivision within the beat: see
1949 @ref{compound meter}.
1952 A time signature that additively combines two or more unequal meters, e.g.
1953 "3/8 + 2/8" instead of "5/8". Sometimes called additive time signatures.
1955 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
1956 #(define (compound-time grob one two three num)
1958 (ly:grob-layout grob)
1959 '(((baseline-skip . 2)
1961 (font-family . number)))
1963 #:line ( #:column (one) "+" #:column (two num) "+" #:column (three)))))
1967 #(set-time-signature 8 8 '(3 2 3))
1968 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil
1969 = #(lambda (grob) (compound-time grob "3" "2" "3" "8"))
1970 #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 8 8) 3 8)
1971 #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 8 8) 5 8)
1972 \set Staff.beatGrouping = #'(3 2 3)
1974 c8 d e f4 d8 c bes | c4 g'8 e c f4. \bar "||"
1982 @ref{compound meter}, @ref{meter}.
1986 @section concert pitch
1988 ES: en Do, afinación de concierto,
1997 The pitch at which the piano and other nontransposing instruments play: such
1998 instruments are said to be @q{in C}. The following list includes some (but not
1999 all) instruments that play in concert pitch:
2013 @item tenor trombone
2028 The trombones are a special case: although they are said to be @q{in F} (alto or
2029 bass) or @q{in B-flat} (tenor), this refers to their fundamental note, not to
2030 their parts' transposition. (In fact, the trombones' parts are written at
2031 concert pitch with an appropriate clef -- alto, tenor or bass.) This differs
2032 from other instruments @q{in F}, @q{in B-flat}, and so on, which are transposing
2035 Instruments that play @q{in C} but in a different octave than what is written
2036 are, technically speaking, @emph{transposing instruments}:
2040 @item piccolo (plays an octave higher)
2041 @item celesta (plays an octave higher)
2042 @item double-bass (plays an octave lower)
2048 @ref{transposing instrument}.
2051 @node conjunct movement
2052 @section conjunct movement
2054 ES: movimiento conjunto,
2056 F: mouvement conjoint,
2057 D: schritt@-weise, stufenweise Bewegung,
2058 NL: stapsgewijze, trapsgewijze beweging,
2059 DK: trinvis bevægelse,
2061 FI: asteittainen liike.
2063 Progressing melodically by intervals of a second. The opposite of a
2064 @ref{disjunct movement}.
2066 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
2067 \key g \major \time 4/4
2068 \relative c'' { g4 g g a | b2 a | g4 b a a | g1 \bar "||" }
2082 FI: konsonanssi, sopusointi.
2107 @section copying music
2109 A music copyist did fast freehand scores and parts on preprinted staff
2110 lines for performance. Some of their conventions (e.g., the placement
2111 of note heads on stems) varied slightly from those of engravers. Some
2112 of their working methods were superior and could well be adopted by
2115 @c Copying music required more skill than engraving. Flagged for NPOV
2119 @section counterpoint
2128 FI: kontrapunkti, ääni ääntä vastaan.
2130 From Latin @emph{punctus contra punctum}, note against note. The
2131 combination into a single musical fabric of lines or parts which have
2132 distinct melodic significance. A frequently used polyphonic technique
2133 is imitation, in its strictest form found in the canon needing only
2134 one part to be written down while the other parts are performed with a
2135 given displacement. Imitation is also the contrapunctal technique
2136 used in the @emph{fugue} which, since the music of the baroque era,
2137 has been one of the most popular polyphonic composition methods.
2139 @lilypond[fragment,staffsize=12,line-width=13.0\cm]
2140 \set Score.implicitTimeSignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
2141 \override Score.TimeSignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible
2142 \context PianoStaff <<
2143 \context Staff = SA \relative c' {
2147 << \context Voice = rha {
2149 r1 | r2 r8 g'8 bes d, |
2150 cis4 d r8 e!16 f g8 f16 e |
2151 f8 g16 a bes8 a16 g a8
2153 \context Voice = rhb {
2159 \context Staff = SB \relative c' {
2162 << \context Voice = lha {
2164 r8 d es g, fis4 g | r8 a16 bes c8 bes16 a bes4 g |
2165 r8 a16 g f8 g16 a bes8 g e! cis' |
2168 \context Voice = lhb {
2178 @section countertenor
2183 D: Countertenor, Kontratenor,
2186 S: kontratenor, counter tenor,
2200 D: Crescendo, lauter werden,
2204 FI: cresendo, voimistuen.
2206 Increasing volume. Indicated by a rightwards opening horizontal wedge
2207 or the abbreviation @samp{cresc.}.
2209 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2210 \key g \major \time 4/4
2211 \relative c'' { g4 \< a b c | d1\! \bar "|." }
2220 F: petites notes précédent l'entrée d'un instrument, réplique,
2227 In a separate part notes belonging to another part with the purpose of
2228 hinting when to start playing. Usually printed in a smaller type.
2237 D: Notenzeiger, Custos,
2243 A custos (plural: custodes) is a staff symbol that appears at the end
2244 of a staff line with monophonic musical contents (i.e., with a single
2245 voice). It anticipates the pitch of the first note of the following
2246 line and thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2247 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2249 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 16th
2250 century. There were different appearences for different notation
2251 styles. Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical
2252 notation such as via the Editio Vaticana dating back to the beginning
2258 % \override Staff.Custos #'neutral-position = #4
2259 \override Staff.Custos #'neutral-direction = #down
2260 \override Staff.Custos #'style = #'hufnagel
2268 \consists Custos_engraver
2300 F: da capo, depuis le commencement,
2301 D: da capo, von Anfang,
2305 FI: da capo, alusta.
2307 Abbreviated @samp{D.C.}. Indicates that the piece is to be repeated from
2308 the beginning to the end or to a certain place marked @emph{fine}.
2316 F: dal segno, depuis le signe,
2317 D: dal segno, ab dem Zeichen,
2321 FI: dal segno, lähtien merkistä.
2323 Abbreviated @samp{D.S.}. Repetition, not from the beginning, but from
2324 another place frequently near the beginning marked by a sign:
2326 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2327 %\override TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2328 \override TextScript #'font-shape = #'italic
2329 \key g \major \time 4/4
2334 \line { "D.S. " \tiny \raise #1 \musicglyph #"scripts.segno" } }
2341 @section decrescendo
2345 D: Decrescendo, leiser werden,
2349 FI: decresendo, hiljentyen.
2351 Decreasing tone volume. Indicated by a leftwards opening horizontal wedge
2352 or the abbreviation @samp{decresc.}.
2354 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2356 \key g \major \time 4/4
2357 d4 \> c b a | g1 \! \bar "|."
2362 @node descending interval
2363 @section descending interval
2365 ES: intervalo descendente,
2366 I: intervallo discendente,
2367 F: intervalle descendant,
2368 D: fallendes Intervall, absteigendes Intervall,
2369 NL: dalend interval,
2370 DK: faldende interval,
2371 S: fallande intervall,
2372 FI: laskeva intervalli.
2374 A distance between a starting higher note and a lower ending note.
2377 @node diatonic scale
2378 @section diatonic scale
2380 ES: escala diatónica,
2382 F: gamme diatonique,
2383 D: diatonische Tonleiter,
2384 NL: diatonische toonladder,
2385 DK: diatonisk skala,
2387 FI: diatoninen asteikko.
2389 A scale consisting of 5@w{ }@ref{whole tone}s and 2@w{ }@ref{semitone}s (S).
2390 Scales played on the white keys of a piano keybord are diatonic; and these
2391 scales are sometimes called, somewhat inaccurately, @q{church modes}).
2393 These @q{modes} are used in gregorian chant and in pre-baroque early music
2394 but also to some extent in newer jazz music.
2396 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2397 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2398 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2399 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2401 \context Staff \relative c' {
2403 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2404 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c
2406 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2412 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2413 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2415 \context Staff \relative c' {
2417 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2418 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c d
2426 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2427 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2430 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2431 e1^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c d e
2439 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2440 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2444 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2445 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f
2453 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2454 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2458 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2459 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g }
2466 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2467 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2468 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2469 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2473 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2474 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a
2482 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2483 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2484 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2485 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2488 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2489 b1^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a b
2497 From the beginning of the 17th century the scales used in European
2498 compositional music are primarily the major and the minor scales. In
2499 the harmonic minor scale type an augmented second (A) occurs between
2500 the 6th and 7th tone.
2502 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2503 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2507 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2508 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c
2516 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2517 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2521 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2522 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a
2530 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2531 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2535 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2536 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f!^"~~ A" gis^"~~ S" a
2538 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2544 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
2545 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2546 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2547 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2551 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2552 b^"~~ S" c d e fis gis^"~~ S" a
2555 "Melodic minor ascending"
2560 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
2561 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2562 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2563 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2567 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2568 a g! f!^"~~ S" e d c^"~~ S" b a
2571 "Melodic minor descending"
2578 @section didymic comma
2582 @ref{syntonic comma}.
2585 @node diminished interval
2586 @section diminished interval
2588 ES: intervalo disminuido,
2589 I: intervallo diminuito,
2590 F: intervalle diminué,
2591 D: vermindertes Intervall,
2592 NL: verminderd interval,
2593 DK: formindsket interval,
2594 S: förminskat intervall,
2595 FI: vähennetty intervalli.
2612 FI: diminuendo, hiljentyen.
2631 @c TODO: add definition
2633 This is a placeholder for diminution (wrt mensural notation).
2637 @ref{augmentation}, @ref{mensural notation}.
2657 @node disjunct movement
2658 @section disjunct movement
2660 ES: movimiento disjunto,
2662 F: mouvement disjoint,
2663 D: sprunghafte Bewegung,
2664 NL: sprongsgewijze beweging,
2665 DK: springende bevægelse,
2666 S: hoppande rörelse,
2667 FI: melodian hyppivä liike.
2669 Progressing melodically by intervals larger than a major second, as
2670 opposed to @ref{conjunct movement}.
2672 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2677 a4. gis8 b a e cis |
2678 fis2 d4. \bar "||" }
2685 @ref{dissonant interval}.
2688 @node dissonant interval
2689 @section dissonant interval
2691 ES: intervalo disonante, disonancia,
2692 I: intervallo dissonante, dissonanza,
2695 NL: dissonant interval, dissonant,
2696 DK: dissonerende interval, dissonans,
2698 FI: dissonanssi, dissonoiva intervalli, riitasointi.
2715 FI: dominantti, huippusointu.
2717 The fifth @ref{scale degree} in @ref{functional harmony}.
2720 @node dominant ninth chord
2721 @section dominant ninth chord
2723 ES: acorde de novena de dominante,
2724 I: accordo di nona di dominante,
2725 F: accord de neuvième dominante,
2726 D: Domi@-nant@-nonen@-akkord,
2727 NL: dominant noon akkoord,
2728 DK: dominantnoneakkord,
2729 S: dominantnonackord,
2730 FI: dominanttinoonisointu.
2734 @ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}.
2737 @node dominant seventh chord
2738 @section dominant seventh chord
2740 ES: acorde de séptima de dominante,
2741 I: accordo di settima di dominante,
2742 F: accord de septième dominante,
2743 D: Dominantseptakkord,
2744 NL: dominant septiem akkoord,
2745 DK: dominantseptimakkord,
2746 S: dominantseptimackord,
2747 FI: dominanttiseptimisointu.
2751 @ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}.
2755 @section dorian mode
2760 D: dorisch, dorischer Kirchenton,
2761 NL: dorische toonladder,
2768 @ref{diatonic scale}.
2771 @node dot (augmentation dot)
2772 @section dot (augmentation dot)
2775 I: punto (di valore),
2777 D: Punkt (Verlängerungspunkt),
2785 @ref{dotted note}, @ref{note value}.
2789 @section dotted note
2791 ES: nota con puntillo,
2795 NL: gepuncteerde noot,
2798 FI: pisteellinen nuotti.
2805 @node double appoggiatura
2806 @section double appoggiatura
2808 ES: apoyatura doble,
2809 I: appoggiatura doppia,
2810 F: appoggiature double,
2811 D: doppelter Vorschlag,
2812 NL: dubbele voorslag,
2813 DK: dobbelt forslag,
2815 FI: kaksoisappogiatura, kaksoisetuhele.
2822 @node double bar line
2823 @section double bar line
2829 NL: dubbele maatstreep,
2832 FI: kaksoistahtiviiva.
2834 Indicates the end of a section within a movement.
2837 @node double dotted note
2838 @section double dotted note
2840 ES: nota con doble puntillo,
2841 I: nota doppiamente puntata,
2842 F: note doublement pointée,
2843 D: doppelt punktierte Note,
2844 NL: dubbelgepuncteerde noot,
2845 DK: dob@-belt@-punk@-te@-ret node,
2846 S: dub@-bel@-punk@-te@-rad not,
2847 FI: kaksoispisteellinen nuotti.
2855 @section double flat
2864 FI: kaksoisalennusmerkki.
2872 @section double sharp
2874 ES: doble sostenido,
2879 DK: dob@-belt@-kryds,
2881 FI: kaksoisylennysmerkki.
2888 @node double time signature
2889 @section double time signature
2902 @ref{polymetric time signature}.
2906 @section double trill
2912 NL: dubbele triller,
2917 A simultaneous trill on two notes, usually in the distance of a third.
2921 @section duple meter
2926 D: in zwei, grader Takt,
2927 NL: tweedelige maatsoort,
2964 FI: kesto, aika-arvo.
2974 ES: dinámica, matices,
2977 D: Dynamik, Lautstärke,
2983 The aspect of music relating to degrees of loudness, or changes from
2984 one degree to another. The terms, abbreviations, and symbols used to
2985 indicate this information are called dynamic marks.
2989 @ref{piano}, @ref{forte}, @ref{crescendo}, @ref{decrescendo},
3012 @node ecclesiastical mode
3013 @section ecclesiastical mode
3021 @section eighth note
3028 @item D: Achtel, Achtelnote
3029 @item NL: achtste noot
3030 @item DK: ottendedelsnode
3031 @item S: åttondelsnot
3032 @item FI: kahdeksasosanuotti
3041 @section eighth rest
3044 @item UK: quaver rest
3045 @item ES: silencio de corchea
3046 @item I: pausa di croma
3047 @item F: demi-soupir
3048 @item D: Achtelpause
3049 @item NL: achtste rust
3050 @item DK: ottendedelspause
3051 @item S: åttonddelspaus
3052 @item FI: kahdeksasosatauko
3063 @c TODO: add languages
3074 More properly synalepha [New Lat. > Gr. συναλοιφη, from Greek συναλοιφην @q{to
3077 The singing of several syllables on a single note. Elision may be indicated
3078 by a lyric tie, which is looks like (and serves the same function) as a
3087 @section embellishment
3100 D: Notenstich, Notendruck
3106 Engraving means incising or etching a metal plate for printing.
3107 Photoengraving means drawing music with ink in a manner similar to
3108 drafting or engineering drawing, using similar tools.
3110 The traditional process of music printing is done through cutting in a
3111 plate of metal. Now also the term for the art of music typesetting.
3126 Two notes, intervals, or scales are enharmonic if they have different
3127 names but equal pitch.
3129 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3130 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3132 \context Staff \relative c'' {
3133 gis1 as <des g,!> <cis g!>
3135 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3136 \override Lyrics .LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
3137 "g sharp " "a flat " "dim fifth " "augm fourth"
3143 @node equal temperament
3144 @section equal temperament
3146 ES: temperamento igual,
3147 I: temperamento equabile,
3148 F: tempérament égal,
3149 D: gleichschwebende Stimmung,
3150 NL: ge@-lijk@-zwe@-ven@-de temperatuur,
3151 DK: ligesvævende temperatur,
3152 S: liksvävande temperatur,
3155 Tuning system dividing the octave into 12 equal @ref{semitone}s
3156 (precisely 100 @ref{cent}s).
3163 @node expression mark
3164 @section expression mark
3167 I: segno d'espressione,
3168 F: signe d'expression, indication de nuance,
3170 NL: voordrachtsteken,
3171 DK: foredragsbetegnelse,
3172 S: föredragsbeteckning,
3173 FI: nyanssiosoitus, esitysmerkki.
3175 Performance indications concerning:
3179 @item volume, dynamics (for example @ref{forte}, @ref{crescendo}),
3181 @item tempo (for example @ref{andante}, @ref{allegro}).
3187 @section extender line
3189 ES: línea de extensión [de melisma, de bajo cifrado, etc.],
3191 F: ligne d'extension [de mélisme, de basse chiffrée, etc.],
3198 The generic term for a line (or dash) of arbitrary length that extends
3199 text (without indicating the musical @emph{function} of that text).
3201 Used in many contexts, for example:
3205 @item In vocal music to indicate the syllable for a melisma. Called
3206 @q{extension} in the
3207 @uref{http://www.dolmetsch.com/defse1.htm,Dolmetsch Online Music
3211 In figured bass to indicate that:
3215 @item The extended note should be held through a change in harmony, when applied
3216 to one figure --OR--
3217 @item The chord thus represented should be held above a moving bass line, when
3218 applied to more than one figure.
3219 @item These uses were not completely standardized, and some composers used a
3220 single extender line to indicate the latter case.
3225 In string music to indicate that all notes in the passage thus indicated should
3226 be played on the same string. On the violin, for example, a series of notes to
3227 be played on the G string would be indicated @samp{sul G}, another series to be
3228 played on the D string would be indicated @samp{sul D}, and so on.
3231 With an octave mark to indicate that a passage is to be played higher or lower
3232 by the given number of octaves.
3238 @ref{melisma}, @ref{sul G}, @ref{thorough bass}, @ref{octave mark}, @ref{octave
3273 The position between the dots of the key symbol is the line of the F
3274 below central@w{ }C. Used on the third, fourth and fifth note line.
3275 A digit@w{ }8 above the clef symbol indicates that the notes must be
3276 played an octave higher (for example, bass recorder) while 8@w{ }below
3277 the clef symbol indicates playing an octave lower (for example, on
3278 double bass @ref{strings}).
3280 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3281 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3282 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
3310 @c F: 'point d'orgue' on a note, 'point d'arret' on a rest.
3313 @node feathered beam
3314 @section feathered beam
3318 F: liens de croches en soufflet,
3319 D: gespreizter Balken,
3325 A type of beam used to indicate that a small group of notes should be
3326 played at an increasing or decreasing tempo -- depending on the
3327 direction of @q{feathering} -- but without changing the overall tempo
3332 Internals Reference: @ruser{Manual beams}
3340 F: point d'orgue, point d'arrêt,
3345 FI: fermaatti, pidäke.
3347 Prolonged note or rest of indefinite duration.
3349 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
3352 a4 b c2^\fermata \bar "|."
3375 @section figured bass
3378 I: basso continuo, basso numerato,
3379 F: basse chiffrée, basse continue,
3380 D: Generalbass, bezifferter Bass,
3381 NL: basso continuo, becijferde bas
3384 FI: kenraalibasso, numeroitu basso.
3386 Also called @q{thorough bass}.
3388 A method of indicating an accompaniment part by the bass notes only, together
3389 with figures designating the chief @ref{interval}s and @ref{chord}s to be played
3390 above the bass notes.
3392 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
3393 \context GrandStaff <<
3394 \context Staff = lh \relative c'' {
3398 << \context Voice = rha {
3401 \context Voice = rhb {
3403 < bes g >8 as < as f > g < g es > f < d f > es | < g es >4 }
3407 \context Staff = rh \relative c' {
3410 es8 c d bes c as bes16 as g f | es4
3412 \figures { s8 <6> s <4 2> s <6> s16 s <6> <4 2> }
3432 The methodical use of fingers in the playing of instruments.
3439 I: coda (uncinata), bandiera,
3447 Ornament at the end of the stem of a note used for notes with values
3448 less than a quarter note. The number of flags determines the
3451 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
3452 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3453 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3498 FI: forte, voimakkaasti.
3500 Loud, abbreviated @samp{@b{f}}, @emph{fortissimo} (@samp{@b{ff}}) very loud,
3501 @emph{mezzo forte} (@samp{@b{mf}}) medium loud.
3521 @node Frenched score
3522 @section Frenched score
3524 ES: partitura a la francesa,
3533 A @q{condensed} score, produced by omitting staves for instruments that are not
3534 playing at the moment, and by moving up additional systems from following pages
3535 to take up the space thus liberated, which reduces the total number of pages
3536 used to print the work.
3538 The specific rules for @q{frenching} a score differ from publisher to publisher.
3539 If you are producing scores for eventual publication by a commercial publisher,
3540 you may wish to procure a copy of their style manual.
3544 @ref{Frenched staff}.
3547 @node Frenched staff
3548 @section Frenched staff
3550 ES: pentagrama a la francesa,
3559 Analogous to Frenched scores (@emph{q.v}), a Frenched staff has unneeded
3560 measures or sections removed. This would be useful for producing, for example,
3561 an @emph{ossia} staff.
3568 @node Frenched staves
3569 @section Frenched staves
3571 ES: pentagramas a la francesa,
3580 The plural of @ref{Frenched staff}, @emph{q.v.}.
3600 @node functional harmony
3601 @section functional harmony
3603 ES: armonía funcional,
3604 I: armonia funzionale,
3605 F: étude des functions,
3607 NL: functionele harmonie,
3608 DK: funktionsanalyse, funktionsharmonik,
3610 FI: harmoniajärjestelmä.
3612 A system of harmonic analysis. It is based on the idea that, in a
3613 given key, there are only three functionally different chords: tonic
3614 (T, the chord on the first note of the scale), subdominant (S, the
3615 chord on the fourth note), and dominant (D, the chord on the fifth
3616 note). Others are considered to be variants of the base chords.
3618 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3619 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3621 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3622 <g e c >1 < a f d > < b g e >
3623 <c a f > < d b g > < e c a > < f d b > }
3624 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3625 T Sp Dp S D Tp \markup{ D\translate #(cons -2 0) {"|"} } }
3655 D: G-Schlüssel, Violinschlüssel,
3661 A clef symbol indicating the G above middle@w{ }C. Used on the first
3662 and second note lines. A digit 8 above the clef symbol indicates that
3663 the notes must be played an octave higher while 8 below the clef
3664 symbol indicates playing or singing an octave lower (most tenor parts
3665 in choral scores are notated like that).
3667 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
3669 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3670 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
3673 \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
3683 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3684 \override Lyrics . LyricText #'X-offset = #-5
3685 "french violin clef"
3704 FI: glissando, liukuen.
3706 Letting the pitch slide fluently from one note to the other.
3710 @section grace notes
3712 ES: notas de adorno,
3715 D: Verzierungen, Vorschläge, Vor@-schlags@-noten,
3721 Notes printed in small types to indicate that their time values are not
3722 counted in the rhythm of the bar.
3726 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes},
3731 @section grand staff
3733 ES: sistema de piano,
3736 D: Akkolade, Klaviersystem,
3739 S: ackolad, böjd klammer,
3740 FI: kaksoisnuottiviivasto.
3742 A combination of two staves with a brace. Usually used for piano music.
3759 FI: grave, raskaasti.
3786 Letter name used for @samp{B natural} in German and Scandinavian
3787 usage. In the standard usage of these countries, @samp{B} means
3792 @ref{Pitch names}, @ref{B}
3802 D: Halbe, halbe Note,
3817 ES: silencio de blanca,
3831 @node harmonic cadence
3832 @section harmonic cadence
3834 ES: cadencia (armónica),
3835 I: cadenza (armonica),
3836 F: cadence harmonique,
3838 NL: harmonische cadens,
3839 DK: harmonisk kadence,
3840 S: (harmonisk) kadens,
3841 FI: harmoninen kadenssi.
3843 A sequence of chords that terminates a musical phrase or section.
3845 @ref{functional harmony}.
3847 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
3848 \context PianoStaff <<
3849 \context Staff = SA \relative c'' {
3853 \partial 4 < c g e >4 |
3854 < c a f > < b g d > < c g e >2
3857 \context Staff = SB \relative c {
3859 \partial 4 c4 | f, g c2
3877 D: Harmonie, Zusammenklang,
3881 FI: harmonia, yhteissointi.
3883 Tones sounding simultaneously. Two note harmonies fall into the
3884 categories @emph{consonances} and @emph{dissonances}.
3888 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3889 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3890 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3891 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3904 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3905 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3906 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3907 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3908 <g a>1_"second " s s
3909 <g f'>_"seventh " s s
3914 Three note harmony @ref{chord}.
3929 [From Greek: in Latin, @emph{sesquialtera}] The ratio 3:2. Refers to
3930 the use of three notes of equal value in the time normally occupied by
3931 of two notes of equal value. The resulting rhythm can be expressed in
3932 modern terms as a substitution (for example) of a bar in 3/2 for one
3933 of 6/4, or of a bar in 3/4 for one of 6/8. During the Baroque era,
3934 hemiola is most frequently as a special effect (or @emph{affect}) at
3937 For example, this phrase in 6/4 time
3939 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
3943 c2. e | d2 c d | c1. \bar "||" }
3946 may be thought of having alternating time signatures
3948 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
3952 c2. e | \time 3/2 d2 c d | \time 6/4 c1. \bar "||" }
3955 and is therefore a polymeter (second definition) of considerable antiquity.
3959 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}, @ref{polymeter}.
3972 FI: homofonia, yksiäänisyys.
3974 Music in which one voice leads melodically followed by the other
3975 voices more or less in the same rhythm. In contrast to
3989 FI: intervalli, kahden sävelen korkeusero.
3991 Difference in pitch between two notes. Intervals may be perfect,
3992 minor, major, diminished, or augmented. The augmented fourth and the
3993 diminished fifth are identical (@ref{enharmonic}) and are called
3994 @emph{tritonus} because they consist of three @ref{whole tone}s. The
3995 addition of such two intervals forms an octave.
3997 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3998 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4000 \context Voice \relative c'' {
4010 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
4011 "unison " "second " "second " "second "
4012 "third " "third " "third " "third"
4017 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4018 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4020 \context Staff \relative c'' {
4031 "fourth " "fourth " "fifth " "fifth "
4032 "sixth " "sixth " "sixth " "sixth"
4037 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4038 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4040 \context Staff \relative c'' {
4041 < gis f'! >1^"dimin"
4050 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
4051 "seventh " "seventh " "seventh " "octave "
4052 "ninth " "ninth " "tenth " "tenth"
4070 When the bass is not the same as the root, the chord is inverted. The number
4071 of inversions that a chord can have is one fewer than the number of
4072 constituent notes. Triads, for example, (having three constituent notes) can
4073 have three positions, two of which are inversions:
4077 The root note is in the bass, and above that are the third and the fifth. A
4078 triad built on the first scale degree, for example, is marked @notation{I}.
4080 @item First inversion
4081 The third is in the bass, and above it are the fifth and the root. This
4082 creates an interval of a sixth and a third above the bass note, and so is
4083 marked in figured Roman notation as @notation{6/3}. This is commonly
4084 abbreviated to @notation{I6} (or @notation{Ib}) since the sixth is the
4085 characteristic interval of the inversion, and so always implies
4088 @item Second inversion
4089 The fifth is in the bass, and above it are the root and the third. This
4090 creates an interval of a sixth and a fourth above the bass note, and so is
4091 marked as @notation{I6/4} or @notation{Ic}. Second inversion is the most
4092 unstable chord position.
4096 @node inverted interval
4097 @section inverted interval
4099 ES: intervalo invertido,
4100 I: intervallo rivolto,
4101 F: intervalle reversé,
4102 D: umgekehrtes Intervall,
4103 NL: interval inversie,
4104 DK: omvendingsinterval,
4105 S: intervallets omvändning,
4106 FI: käänteisintervalli.
4108 The difference between an interval and an octave.
4110 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4111 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4112 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4113 \context Staff \relative c'' {
4114 < g a >1_"second " s s < g' a, >_"seventh " s s \bar "||"
4115 < g, b >_"third " s s < g' b, >_"sixth " s s \bar "||"
4116 < g, c >_"fourth " s s < g' c, >_"fifth " s s \bar "||"
4121 @node just intonation
4122 @section just intonation
4124 ES: entonación justa,
4125 I: intonazione giusta,
4126 F: intonation juste,
4133 Tuning system in which the notes are obtained by adding and subtracting
4134 natural fifths and thirds.
4151 According to the 12@w{ }tones of the @ref{chromatic scale} there are
4152 12@w{ }keys, one on@w{ }c, one on c-sharp, etc.
4156 @ref{key signature}.
4160 @section key signature
4162 ES: armadura (de la clave),
4163 I: armatura di chiave,
4164 F: armure, armature [de la clé],
4165 D: Vorzeichen, Tonart,
4166 NL: toon@-soort (voortekens),
4169 FI: sävellajiosoitus.
4171 The sharps or flats appearing at the beginning of each staff indicating the
4177 @node laissez vibrer
4178 @section laissez vibrer
4189 [From French, @q{Let vibrate}]. Most frequently associated with harp
4190 parts. Marked @samp{l.v.} in the score.
4199 D: Largo, Langsam, Breit,
4203 FI: largo, hitaasti, leveästi.
4205 Very slow in tempo, usually combined with great expressiveness.
4206 @emph{Larghetto} is less slow than largo.
4210 @section leading note
4221 The seventh @ref{scale degree}, a @ref{semitone} below the tonic; so
4222 called because of its strong tendency to @q{lead up} (resolve upwards)
4223 to the tonic scale degree.
4227 @section ledger line
4229 ES: línea adicional,
4230 I: tagli addizionali,
4231 F: ligne supplémentaire,
4238 A ledger line is an extension of the staff.
4240 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
4241 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4242 \relative c'' { a,1 s c'' }
4252 D: legato, gebunden,
4258 To be performed (a) without any perceptible interruption between the
4259 notes, unlike (b) @emph{leggiero} or @emph{non-legato}, (c)
4260 @emph{portato}, and (d) @ref{staccato}.
4262 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4263 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4265 \context Staff \relative c'' {
4266 c4-( d e-) \bar "||"
4267 c4-- d-- e-- \bar "||"
4268 c4-.-( d-. e-.-) \bar "||"
4269 c4-. d-. e-. \bar "||"
4282 @section legato curve
4286 @ref{slur}, @ref{legato}.
4309 A ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that represents at least two
4310 distinct notes. Ligatures originally appeared in the manuscripts of
4311 Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th century to denote ascending
4312 or descending sequences of notes. In early notation, ligatures were used
4313 for monophonic tunes (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way of
4314 performance in the sense of articulation. With the invention of the metric
4315 system of the white mensural notation, the need for ligatures to denote such
4316 patterns disappeared.
4320 @ref{mensural notation}.
4327 ES: estanque de nenúfares,
4328 I: stagno del giglio,
4329 F: étang de nénuphars, étang de nymphéas,
4331 NL: le@-lie@-vij@-ver,
4336 A pond with lilies floating in it.
4337 Also, the name of a music typesetting program.
4346 D: Linie, Notenlinie,
4350 FI: viiva, nuottiviiva.
4369 [From Italian, @q{place}]. Instruction to play the following passage at the
4370 written pitch. Cancels octave mark (q.v.).
4374 @ref{octave mark}, @ref{octave marking}.
4377 @node long appoggiatura
4378 @section long appoggiatura
4380 ES: apoyatura larga,
4381 I: appoggiatura lunga,
4382 F: appoggiature longue,
4387 FI: pitkä appoggiatura, pitkä etuhele.
4406 Note value: double length of @ref{breve}.
4408 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
4409 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4411 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
4424 ES: ligadura de letra,
4433 @c TODO: add languages
4443 ES: letra (de la canción),
4446 D: Liedtext, Gesangtext,
4467 @ref{diatonic scale}.
4470 @node major interval
4471 @section major interval
4473 ES: intervalo mayor,
4474 I: intervallo maggiore,
4475 F: intervalle majeur,
4476 D: großes Intervall,
4480 FI: suuri intervalli.
4487 @node meantone temperament
4488 @section meantone temperament
4490 ES: afinación mesotónica,
4491 I: accordatura mesotonica,
4492 F: tempérament mésotonique,
4493 D: mitteltönige Stimmung,
4494 NL: middenstemming, middentoonstemming,
4495 DK: middeltonetemperatur,
4496 S: medeltonstemperatur,
4497 FI: keskisävelviritys.
4499 Temperament yielding acoustically pure thirds by decreasing the
4500 natural fifth by 16@w{ }@ref{cent}s. Due to the non-circular
4501 character of this @ref{temperament} only a limited set of keys are
4502 playable. Used for tuning keyboard instruments for performance of
4518 A group of @ref{beat}s (units of musical time) the first of which
4519 bears an accent. Such groups in numbers of two or more recur
4520 consistently throughout the composition and are marked from each other
4526 @node measure repeat
4527 @section measure repeat
4531 @ref{percent repeat}.
4538 I: mediante, modale,
4548 @item The third @b{scale degree}.
4550 @item A @ref{chord} having its base tone a third from that of another
4551 chord. For example, the tonic chord may be replaced by its lower
4552 mediant (variant tonic).
4557 @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{relative key}.
4570 FI: melisma, laulettavan tavun sävelkuvio.
4572 A melisma (plural, from Greek: melismata) is a group of notes or tones
4573 sung on one syllable, especially as applied to liturgical chant.
4577 @section melisma line
4579 @c TODO: add languages
4581 ES: línea de melisma,
4592 @ref{extender line}.
4595 @node melodic cadence
4596 @section melodic cadence
4603 @node mensural notation
4604 @section mensural notation
4606 @c TODO: add languages
4608 ES: notación mensural,
4617 A system of duration notation whose principles were first established in the
4618 mid-13th century, and that (with various changes) remained in use until about
4619 1600. As such, it is the basis for the notation of rhythms in Western musical
4622 Franco of Cologne (ca. 1250) is credited with the first systematic explanation
4623 of the notation's principles, so the notation of this earliest period is called
4624 @q{Franconian}. Franco's system made use of three note values -- long, breve,
4625 and semibreve -- each of which was normally equivalent to three of the next
4628 Then, in the first half of the 14th century, Philippe de Vitry and Jehan de Murs
4629 added several note values (the minim, semiminim and fusa) and extended Franco's
4630 principles to govern the relationship between these values. They also put the
4631 duple division of note values on an equal footing with the earlier (preferred)
4634 TODO: continue description of French and Italian black notation, and the
4635 relationship betwixt them.
4637 @b{White or void mensural notation}
4639 In the 15th century, hollow (or void) notes began to substitute for the earlier
4640 solid black ones, which were then free to assume the function of red (or
4641 colored) notes in the earlier notation. ...
4643 TODO: add to definition (including summary info on proportional notation)
4647 @ref{augmentation}, @ref{diminution}, @ref{ligature}, @ref{proportion}.
4648 @c TODO: more cross-references?
4656 F: indication de mesure, mesure,
4663 The pattern of note values and accents in a composition or a section thereof.
4664 There are a couple ways to classify @q{traditional} meter (i.e. not polymeter):
4665 by grouping beats and by subdividing the primary beat.
4667 @b{By grouping beats}:
4671 @item @b{duple}: groups of two.
4672 @item @b{triple}: groups of three.
4673 @item @b{quadruple}: groups of four. A special case of duple meter.
4674 @item @b{quintuple}: groups of five beats.
4675 @item @b{sextuple} meter: groups of six. A special case of:
4679 @item duple meter, subdivided in three; or
4680 @item triple meter, subdivided in two.
4684 @item @b{septuple} meter: groups of seven.
4689 Other than triple meter and its subdivided variants (see below), meters that
4690 feature odd groupings of beats (e.g. quintuple or septuple meter) are not
4691 frequently used prior to the 20th Century.
4693 @b{By subdividing the primary beat}:
4697 @item simple: groups of two.
4701 @item duple: 2/2, 2/4, 2/8
4702 @item triple: 3/2, 3/4, 3/8
4703 @item quadruple: 4/2, 4/4 (also called common time), 4/8
4707 @item compound: groups of three.
4713 @item quadruple: 12/8
4719 Time signatures are placed at the beginning of a composition (or section) to
4720 indicate the meter. For instance, a piece written in simple triple meter with a
4721 beat on each quarter note is conventionally written with a time signature of
4722 3/4. Here are some combinations of the two classifications above:
4724 Simple duple meter (F.J. Haydn, 1732-1809; or a Croatian folk tune):
4726 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4730 g8. a16 b8 a | c b a16( fis) g8 | e' d c b | a2 \bar "||"}
4733 Simple triple meter:
4735 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4739 c es d8 c | d4 b g | d' f es8 d | es d c2 \bar "||"}
4742 Simple quadruple meter (French folk tune, @emph{Au clair de la lune}):
4744 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4748 g4 g g a | b2 a | g4 b a a | g1 \bar "||"}
4751 Simple quintuple meter (B. Marcello, 1686-1739):
4753 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4757 r4 cis8 bis ais4 dis c8 ais |
4758 aes4 bes8 aes ges4 aes f8 es \bar "||"}
4761 Compound duple meter (unknown):
4763 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4767 f8 f g a bes16 a g f |
4768 g8 g bes a c16 a bes g
4772 Compound triple meter (J.S. Bach, 1685-1750):
4774 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4778 r8 g'( a) b( d c) c( e d) |
4779 d( g fis) g( d b) g( a b)
4783 Compound quadruple meter (P. Yon, 1886-1943):
4785 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4789 b'8.( a16) gis8 a8.( gis16) fis8 gis8.( fis16) e8 fis4 b,8 |
4790 e4 e8 fis( gis) a b4.~ b4 b8
4794 @b{@q{Monometer} vs Polymeter}
4796 TODO: add information from discussion on lilypond-user related to polymeter.
4800 @ref{accent}, @ref{hemiola}, @ref{note value}, @ref{time signature}
4815 Device indicating the exact tempo of a piece.
4817 Invented ca. 1812 by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkler of Amsterdam, but takes its name
4818 from Johann Nepomuk Mälzel, who copied the device, added a scale of tempo
4819 divisions, and patented it as a "metronome". The inevitable lawsuit that
4820 followed acknowledged Winkler as the creator, but by then Mälzel had already
4821 sold many of them, and people had taken to calling it a Mälzel Metronome.
4825 @ref{metronome mark}.
4828 @node metronome mark
4829 @section metronome mark
4831 ES: indicación metronómica,
4832 I: indicazione metronomica,
4833 F: indication métronomique,
4835 NL: metronoom aanduiding,
4837 S: metronomangivelse,
4838 FI: metronomiosoitus.
4840 Exact tempo indication (in beats per minute). Abbreviated @samp{M.M.} or
4841 @samp{MM}, which is short for Mälzels Metronom (or Mälzel's Mark,
4849 @node metronomic indication
4850 @section metronomic indication
4854 @ref{metronome mark}
4858 @section mezzo-soprano
4869 The female voice between @ref{soprano} and @ref{contralto}.
4878 D: eingestrichenes@w{ }c,
4880 DK: enstreget@w{ }c,
4881 S: ettstruket@w{ }c,
4884 First C below the 440 Hz A.
4886 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
4887 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4888 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
4911 @ref{diatonic scale}.
4914 @node minor interval
4915 @section minor interval
4917 ES: intervalo menor,
4918 I: intervallo minore,
4919 F: intervalle mineur,
4920 D: kleines Intervall,
4924 FI: pieni intervalli.
4931 @node mixolydian mode
4932 @section mixolydian mode
4936 @ref{diatonic scale}.
4945 D: Kirchentonart, Modus,
4949 FI: moodi, kirkkosävelasteikko.
4953 @ref{church mode}, @ref{diatonic scale}.
4966 FI: modulaatio, sävellajin vaihdos.
4968 Moving from one @ref{key} to another. For example, the second subject
4969 of a @ref{sonata form} movement modulates to the dominant key if the
4970 key is major and to the @ref{relative key} if the key is minor.
4982 FI: mordent, korukuvio.
5007 FI: teema, sävelaihe.
5009 The briefest intelligible and self-contained fragment of a musical
5012 @lilypond[line-width=13.0\cm]
5015 \set Score.implicitTimeSignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
5016 \override Score.TimeSignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible
5019 \partial 8 g16\startGroup fis |
5020 g8\stopGroup d16\startGroup c d8\stopGroup g16 fis g8 b,16 a b8 g'16 fis |
5021 g8 g,16 a b8 cis d16 s
5025 \Staff \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
5043 Greater musical works like @ref{symphony} and @ref{sonata} most often
5044 consist of several -- more or less -- independant pieces called
5048 @node multi-measure rest
5049 @section multi-measure rest
5051 ES: compases de espera,
5055 D: mehrtaktige Pause, Kirchenpause,
5058 FI: usean tahdin mittainen tauko.
5060 Multi-measure rests are conventionally typeset with a combination of
5061 longa, breve and whole rests for shorter and a long horizontal bar for
5062 longer spans of rest, with a number above to indicate the duration (in
5063 measures) of the rest. The former style is called @q{Kirchenpausen} in
5064 German, as a reminiscence of its use in Renaissance vocal polyphony.
5066 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
5069 \set Score.skipBars = ##t R1*3
5071 \set Score.skipBars = ##t R1*122
5078 @ref{longa}, @ref{breve}.
5087 D: Auflösungszeichen,
5088 NL: herstellingsteken,
5089 DK: op@-løsningstegn,
5090 S: återställningstecken,
5098 @node neighbour tones
5099 @section neighbour tones
5103 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes},
5144 Notes are signs by means of which music is fixed in writing. The term is also
5145 used for the sound indicated by a note, and even for the key of the piano
5146 which produces the sound. However, a clear distinction between the terms tone
5147 and @ref{note} is strongly recommended. Briefly, one sees a note,
5155 I: testa, testina, capocchia,
5163 A head-like sign which indicates pitch by its position on a
5164 @ref{staff} provided with a @ref{clef}, and duration
5165 by a variety of shapes such as hollow or black heads with or without
5166 @ref{stem}s, @ref{flag}s, etc. For percussion
5167 instruments (often having no defined pitch) the note head may indicate the
5182 ES: valor (duración),
5184 F: durée, valeur (d'une note),
5189 FI: nuotin aika-arvo.
5191 Note values (durations) are measured as fractions, normally 1/2, of
5192 the next higher note value. The longest duration normally used is
5193 called @emph{brevis}, but sometimes (mostly in pre-baroque music) the
5194 double-length note value @emph{longa} or the quadruple-length note
5195 value @emph{maxima} are used.
5197 @c TODO -- add maxima to this example, in a way that doesn't break it.
5199 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5200 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5201 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5203 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
5204 a\longa_"longa" a\breve_"breve"
5205 \revert NoteHead #'style
5206 a1_"1/1" a2_"1/2" a4_"1/4" s16 a8_"1/8" s16
5207 a16_"1/16" s16 a32_"1/32" s16 a64_"1/64" s32 }
5210 @c TODO -- add maxima rest to this example
5212 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5213 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5214 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5216 r\longa_"longa" r\breve_"breve"
5217 r1_"1/1" r2_"1/2" r4_"1/4" s16 r8_"1/8" s16
5218 r16_"1/16" s16 r32_"1/32" s16 r64_"1/64" s32 }
5221 An augmentation dot after a note multiplies the duration by one and a
5222 half. Another dot adds yet a fourth of the duration.
5224 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
5225 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5228 g4._"pointed" g8 g2 | g4 ~ g8 g g2 \bar "||"
5229 g4.._"double pointed" g16 g2 | g4 ~ g8 ~ g16 g g2 \bar "||" }
5232 Alternatively note values may be subdivided by other ratios. Most common is
5233 subdivision by@w{ }3 (@emph{triplets}) and@w{ }5 (@emph{quintuplets}).
5234 Subdivisions by@w{ }2 (@emph{duplets}) or@w{ }4 (@emph{quadruplets}) of
5235 dotted notes are also frequently used.
5237 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
5238 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5241 \times 2/3 {g8_"triplets" g g} g4 g8 g g4 \bar "||"
5242 \times 2/5 {g8_"quintuplets" g g g g} g4 g8 g g4 \bar "||"
5246 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
5249 \times 3/2 {g4_"duplets" g} |
5251 \times 6/4 {g8_"quadruplets" g g g} |
5252 g8 g g g g4 \bar "||"
5262 @ref{octave marking}.
5277 The interval of an octave, sometimes abbreviated @samp{8ve}.
5279 For uses like @emph{all'ottava} or @emph{8va} with an extender line or
5280 bracket, or @samp{loco} see octave marking.
5284 @ref{interval}, @ref{octave marking}.
5288 @section octave mark
5290 ES: indicación de octava,
5299 The phrase, abbreviation, or other mark used (with or without an extender line
5300 or bracket) to indicate that the music is to be played in a different octave:
5304 @item @samp{15ma}: play two octaves higher
5305 @item @samp{8va}: play one octave higher
5306 @item @samp{8vb}: play one octave lower
5307 @item @samp{8va} (written below the passage): same as @samp{8vb}
5308 @item @samp{15vb}: play two octaves lower
5309 @item @samp{15va} (written below the passage): same as @samp{15vb}
5313 For longer passages, it may be more practical to mark the octave change at the
5314 beginning with a phrase (see the list below for examples), but without a bracket
5315 or extender line. Then, when the music returns to the written pitch, the octave
5316 change is cancelled with the word @emph{loco} (q.v.).
5318 To parallel the list above:
5322 @item @samp{15ma}: @emph{alla quindicesima (alta)}
5323 @item @samp{8va}: @emph{all'ottava} or @emph{ottava sopra}
5324 @item @samp{8vb}: @emph{ottava bassa}, @emph{ottava sotto}
5325 @item @samp{15vb}: @emph{alla quindicesima (bassa)}
5329 In the phrases above, @emph{quindicesima} is sometimes replaced with
5330 @emph{quindecima}, which is Latin.
5332 Finally, the music on an entire staff can be marked to be played in a different
5333 octave by putting an 8 or 15 above or below the clef at the beginning. This
5334 octave mark can be applied to any clef, but it is most frequently used with the
5339 @ref{F clef}, @ref{G clef}, @ref{loco}, @ref{octave marking}.
5342 @node octave marking
5343 @section octave marking
5352 FI: oktaavamerkintä.
5354 The practice of marking music -- an entire staff, a passage, etc. -- to indicate
5355 that it is to be played in a different octave. If applied to the clef at the
5356 beginning of the staff, all music on that staff is to played at the indicated
5359 For a list of the specific marks used, see @ref{octave mark}.
5363 @ref{interval}, @ref{loco}, @ref{octave}, @ref{octave mark}.
5367 @section octave sign
5378 I: abbellimento, fioriture,
5379 F: agrément, ornement,
5380 D: Verzierung, Ornament,
5386 Most commonly used is the @emph{trill}, the rapid alternation of a given note
5387 with the diatonic @ref{second} above it. In the music from the
5388 middle of the 19th century and onwards the trill is performed with the main
5389 note first while in the music from the preceding baroque and classic periods
5390 the upper note is played first.
5392 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
5394 \context Staff = sa {
5395 % \override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5397 c2._"pre-1850" b4\trill | c1 \bar "||"
5398 c2._"post-1850" b4\trill | c1 \bar "||"
5402 c2. c32 b c b c b c b | c1
5403 c2. b32 c b c \times 4/5 { b c b c b } | c1
5408 Other frequently used ornaments are the @emph{turn}, the @emph{mordent}, and
5410 @emph{prall} (inverted mordent).
5412 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
5414 \context Staff = sa {
5415 % \override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5417 a4_"turn" b\turn c2 \bar "||"
5418 g4_"mordent" a b\mordent a \bar "||"
5419 e'4_"prall" d\prall c2 \bar "||"
5425 e'4 e32[ d e d ~ d8] c2
5432 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes}.
5445 FI: ossia, vaihtoehtoinen esitystapa.
5447 Ossia (otherwise) marks an alternative. It is an added staff or piano
5448 score, usually only a few measures long, which presents another version
5449 of the music, for example for small hands.
5462 FI: stemma, instrumenttiosuus.
5466 @item In instrumental or choral music, the music for a single
5467 instrument or voice.
5469 @item in contrapuntal music, a single melodic line in the contrapuntal
5495 @node percent repeat
5496 @section percent repeat
5498 LilyPond-specific term to indicate the repetition of a musical expression on a
5499 single staff, as opposed to the more usual definition of repeat, which affects
5500 all parts. The musical expression can be anything from a single note or note
5501 pattern to one or more measures. There are other names for this symbol:
5506 @item slash mark, or slash repeat
5508 @item measure (or multi-measure) repeat
5512 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
5515 \repeat percent 4 { c4_"Beat (or slash) repeat" }
5516 \repeat percent 2 { c4 e g b_"Measure repeat" }
5517 \repeat percent 2 { c,2 es | f4 fis g c_"Multi-measure repeat" | }
5524 @uref{http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/textr/Repeat.html,University of
5525 Vermont Music Dictionary}.
5534 D: Schlagzeug, Schlagwerk,
5540 A family of musical instruments which are played on by striking or
5541 shaking. Percussion instruments commonly used in a symphony orchestra are
5542 kettledrums (I: @emph{timpani}, D: @emph{Pauken}), snare drum, bass drum,
5543 tambourine, cymbals, chinese gong (tam-tam), triangle, celesta, glockenspiel,
5547 @node perfect interval
5548 @section perfect interval
5550 ES: intervalo justo,
5551 I: intervallo giusto,
5552 F: intervalle juste,
5553 D: reines Intervall,
5557 FI: puhdas intervalli.
5576 A natural division of the melodic line, comparable to a sentence of speech.
5589 FI: fraseeraus, jäsentäminen.
5591 The clear rendering in musical performance of the @ref{phrase}s of
5592 the melody. Phrasing may be indicated by a @ref{slur}.
5607 @emph{piano} (@b{p}) soft, @emph{pianissimo} (@b{pp}) very soft,
5608 @emph{mezzo piano} (@b{mp}) medium soft.
5616 F: anacrouse, levée,
5642 @item The perceived quality of a sound that is primarily a function of its
5643 fundamental frequency.
5645 @item [FR. ton; DE. Ton; ES. tono] Any point on the continuum of musical pitch.
5647 @item [FR. diapason; DE. Kammerton, Stimmung; ES. diapasón] The standardized
5648 association of a particular frequency with a particular pitch name, e.g., c' =
5665 NL: pizzicato, getokkeld,
5668 FI: pizzicato, näppäillen.
5670 A technique for stringed instruments, abbr. @emph{pizz}. To play by plucking
5677 ES: compás polimétrico,
5688 @item The simultaneous use of two or more meters, in two or more parts.
5690 @item The @emph{successive} use of different meters in one or more parts.
5696 @ref{polymetric} (adj.)
5711 Using two or more metric frameworks simultaneously or in alternation.
5715 @ref{polymeter} (noun)
5718 @node polymetric time signature
5719 @section polymetric time signature
5721 ES: compás polimétrico,
5730 A time signature that indicates regularly alternating polymetric time.
5743 D: Polyphonie, Mehrstimmigkeit,
5747 FI: polyfonia, moniäänisyys.
5749 Music written in a combination of several simultaneous voices (parts)
5750 of a more or less pronounced individuality.
5769 D: Presto, Sehr schnell,
5770 NL: presto, Sehr schnell,
5773 FI: presto, hyvin nopeasti.
5775 Very quick, i.e., quicker than @ref{allegro}; @emph{prestissimo}
5776 denotes the highest possible degree of speed.
5791 [From Latin @emph{proportio}] In mensural notation, a ratio that expresses the
5792 relationship between the note values that follow with those that precede; or
5793 between the note values of a passage and the @q{normal} relationship of note
5794 values to the metrical pulse.
5796 @c TODO: add an example or two. O => 4/3, and its modern equivalent
5800 @ref{mensural notation}
5803 @node Pythagorean comma
5804 @section Pythagorean comma
5806 ES: coma pitagórica,
5807 I: comma pitagorico,
5808 F: comma pythagoricien,
5809 D: Pythagoräisches Komma,
5810 NL: komma van Pythagoras,
5811 DK: pythagoræisk komma,
5812 S: pytagoreiskt komma,
5813 FI: pytagorinen komma.
5815 Originally, the interval by which the sum of six whole tones exceeds the octave
5816 -- (9:8)^6 - 2:1 = 531441:524288, or 23.5 cents.
5818 Modern acoustical theory defines it as the interval by which twelve fifths
5819 exceed seven octaves. To put it another way: A sequence of fifths that starts
5820 on C eventually circles back to C. However, this C is 23.5 @ref{cent}s higher
5821 than the C obtained by adding 7 octaves. The difference between those two
5822 pitches is the Pythagorean comma.
5826 @ref{cent}, @ref{temperament}.
5858 The quality of a triad is determined by the precise arrangement of its
5859 intervals. Tertian triads can be described as a series of three notes. The
5860 first element is the root note (or simply @q{root}) of the chord, the second
5861 note is the @q{third} of the chord, and the last note is the @q{fifth} of
5862 the chord. These are described below:
5864 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
5866 @headitem Chord name @tab Component intervals
5869 @item major triad @tab major third/perfect fifth
5871 @tab C, CM, Cma, Cmaj, CΔ
5872 @item minor triad @tab minor third/perfect fifth
5874 @tab Cm, Cmi, Cmin, C-
5875 @item augmented triad @tab major third/augmented fifth
5878 @item diminished triad @tab minor third/diminished fifth
5880 @tab Cm(♭5), Cº, Cdim
5883 There are various types of seventh chords depending on the quality of the
5884 original chord and the quality of the seventh added.
5886 Five common types of seventh chords have standard symbols. The chord quality
5887 indications are sometimes superscripted and sometimes not (e.g. Dm7, Dm^7,
5888 and D^m7 are all identical). The last three chords are not used commonly
5897 @section quarter note
5902 @item I: semiminima, nera
5904 @item D: Viertel, Viertelnote
5906 @item DK: fjerdedelsnode
5907 @item S: fjärdedelsnot
5908 @item FI: neljäsosanuotti
5917 @section quarter rest
5920 @item UK: crotchet rest
5921 @item ES: silencio de negra
5922 @item I: pausa di semiminima
5924 @item D: Viertelpause
5926 @item DK: fjerdedelspause
5927 @item S: fjärdedelspaus
5928 @item FI: neljäsosatauko
5937 @section quarter tone
5939 ES: cuarto de tonno,
5948 An interval equal to half a semitone.
5958 ES: cinquillo, quintillo.
5973 @section rallentando
5978 D: rallentando, langsamer werden,
5982 FI: rallerdando, hidastuen.
5984 Abbreviation "rall.".
5990 @section relative key
5993 I: tonalità relativa,
5994 F: tonalité relative,
5996 NL: paralleltoonsoort,
5997 DK: paralleltoneart,
5999 FI: rinnakkaissävellaji.
6001 @ref{major} and @ref{minor} @ref{key}s with the same @ref{key signature}.
6003 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
6004 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6005 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
6008 es1_"e flat major" f g as bes c d es
6013 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
6014 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6015 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
6018 c1_"c minor" d es f g a! b! c \bar "||"
6028 F: barre de reprise,
6031 DK: gen@-ta@-gel@-se,
6035 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
6039 \repeat volta 2 {g4 g d' d | e e d2 | c4 c b b | a a g2 }
6056 @c F: 'pause' if you mean a whole rest, 'silence' if you do not want to
6057 @c specify the rest's value.
6078 @item Metrical rhythm in which every time value is a multiple or
6079 fraction of a fixed unit of time, called @ref{beat}, and in which the
6080 normal @ref{accent} recurs in regular intervals, called @ref{measure}.
6081 The basic scheme of time values is called @ref{meter}.
6083 @item Measured rhythm which lacks regularly recurrent accent. In
6084 modern notation such music appears as a free alternation of different
6087 @item Free rhythm, i.e., the use of temporal values having no common
6088 metrical unit (beat).
6099 D: ritardando, langsamer werden,
6103 FI: ritardando, hidastuen,
6105 Gradually slackening in speed. Mostly abbreviated to rit.@: or ritard.
6118 FI: ritenuto, hidastaen.
6120 Immediate reduction of speed.
6133 FI: asteikko, sävelasteikko.
6137 @ref{diatonic scale}.
6141 @section scale degree
6143 ES: grado (de la escala),
6144 I: grado della scala,
6145 F: degré [de la gamme],
6147 NL: trap [van de toonladder],
6150 FI: sävelaste, asteikon sävel.
6152 Names and symbols used in harmonic analysis to denote tones of the
6153 scale as roots of chords. The most important are degrees I = tonic
6154 (T), IV = sub@-do@-mi@-nant (S) and V = dominant (D).
6156 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
6157 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6159 \context Staff \relative c' {
6163 << { I II III IV V VI VII I }
6171 @ref{functional harmony}.
6179 F: à cordes ravallées,
6186 [From Italian, @emph{scordare}, @q{to mistune}.] Unconventional
6187 tuning of stringed instruments, particularly lutes or violins. Used
6192 @item facilitate pitch combinations that would otherwise be difficult
6195 @item alter the characteristic timbre of the instrument, for example,
6196 to increase brilliance
6198 @item reinforce certain sonorities or tonalities by making them
6199 available on open strings
6201 @item imitate other instruments
6207 Tunings that could be called @var{scordatura} first appeared early in
6208 the 16th Century and became commonplace in the 17th.
6217 D: Partitur (full score), Klavierauszug (vocal score),
6223 A copy of orchestral, choral, or chamber music showing what each
6224 instrument is to play, each voice to sing, having each part arranged
6225 one underneath the other on different staves @ref{staff}.
6240 The @ref{interval} between two neigbouring tones of a scale. A
6241 @ref{diatonic scale} consists of alternating @ref{semitone}s and
6242 @ref{whole tone}s, hence the size of a se@-cond depends on the scale
6243 degrees in question.
6258 The interval of a minor second. The (usually) smallest interval in European
6259 composed music. The interval between two neighbouring tones on the piano
6260 keyboard -- including black and white keys -- is a semitone. An octave may
6261 be divided into 12@w{ }semitones.
6263 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
6264 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6265 \relative c'' { g1 gis s a bes s b! c }
6270 @ref{interval}, @ref{chromatic scale}.
6295 @ref{sextuplet}, @ref{note value}.
6352 [From It, @q{in the same manner}] Performance direction: the music thus marked
6353 is to be played in the same manner (i.e. with the same articulations, dynamics,
6354 etc.) as the music that precedes it.
6358 TODO: Where else could I refer the reader?
6362 @section simple meter
6364 ES: compás simple, compás de subdivisión binaria,
6373 A meter in which the basic beat is subdivided in two: that is, a meter
6374 that does not include triplet subdivision of the beat.
6378 @ref{compound meter}, @ref{meter}.
6381 @node sixteenth note
6382 @section sixteenth note
6385 @item UK: semiquaver
6386 @item ES: semicorchea
6388 @item F: double croche
6389 @item D: Sechzehntel, Sechzehntelnote
6390 @item NL: zes@-ti@-ende noot
6391 @item DK: sekstendedelsnode
6392 @item S: sextondelsnot
6393 @item FI: kuudestoistaosanuotti
6401 @node sixteenth rest
6402 @section sixteenth rest
6405 @item UK: semiquaver rest
6406 @item ES: silencio de semicorchea
6407 @item I: pausa di semicroma
6408 @item F: quart de soupir
6409 @item D: Sechzehntelpause
6410 @item NL: zestiende rust
6411 @item DK: sekstendedelspause
6412 @item S: sextondelspaus
6413 @item FI: kuudestoistaosatauko
6438 @node sixty-fourth note
6439 @section sixty-fourth note
6442 @item UK: hemidemisemiquaver
6444 @item I: semibiscroma
6445 @item F: quadruple croche
6446 @item D: Vierundsechzigstel, Vierundsechzigstelnote
6447 @item NL: vierenzestigste noot
6448 @item DK: fi@-re@-og@-tred@-sinds@-ty@-ven@-de@-dels@-no@-de
6449 @item S: sextiofjärdedelsnot
6450 @item FI: kuudeskymmenesneljäsosanuotti
6458 @node sixty-fourth rest
6459 @section sixty-fourth rest
6462 @item UK: hemidemisemiquaver rest
6463 @item ES: silencio de semifusa
6464 @item I: pausa di semibiscroma
6465 @item F: seizième de soupir
6466 @item D: Vierundsechzigstelpause
6467 @item NL: vierenzestigste rust
6468 @item DK: fi@-re@-og@-tred@-sinds@-ty@-ven@-de@-dels@-pau@-se
6469 @item S: sextiofjärdedelspaus
6470 @item FI: kuudeskymmenesneljäsosatauko
6479 @section slash repeat
6483 @ref{percent repeat}.
6489 ES: ligadura (de expresión),
6490 I: legatura (di portamento or espressiva),
6492 D: Bogen (Legatobogen, Phrasierungsbogen),
6493 NL: fraseringsboog, legatoboog, streekboog,
6494 DK: legatobue, fraseringsbue,
6498 A slur above or below a group of notes indicates that they are to be
6499 played @ref{legato}, e.g., with one stroke of the violin bow or with
6500 one breath in singing.
6504 @section solmization
6513 FI: suhteelliset laulunimet.
6515 General term for systems of designating the degrees of the
6516 @ref{scale}, not by letters, but by syllables (@emph{do} (@emph{ut}),
6517 @emph{re}, @emph{mi}, @emph{fa}, @emph{sol}, @emph{la}, @emph{si}
6535 In its present-day meaning a sonata denotes an instrumental
6536 composition for piano or for some other instrument with piano
6537 accompaniment, which consists of three or four independant pieces,
6542 @section sonata form
6546 F: [en] forme de sonate,
6548 NL: hoofdvorm, sonatevorm,
6553 A form used frequently for single movements of the @ref{sonata},
6554 @ref{symphony}, quartet, etc. A movement written in sonata form falls
6555 into three sections called @emph{exposition}, @emph{development} and
6556 @emph{recapitulation}. In the exposition the composer introduces some
6557 musical ideas, consisting of a number of themes; in the development
6558 section the composer @q{develops} this material, and in the
6559 recapitulation the composer repeats the exposition, with certain
6560 modifications. The exposition contains a number of themes that fall
6561 into two groups, often called first and second subject. Other
6562 melodies occurring in each group are considered as continuations of
6563 these two. The second theme is in another key, normally in the key of
6564 the @ref{dominant} if the @ref{tonic} is @ref{major}, and in the
6565 @ref{relative key} if the tonic is @ref{minor}.
6586 FI: sopraano, korkea naisääni.
6588 The highest female voice.
6596 F: staccato, piqué, détaché,
6601 FI: staccato, lyhyesti, terävästi.
6603 Playing the note(s) short. Staccato is indicated by a dot above or
6604 below the note head.
6606 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
6611 d4-\staccato cis-\staccato b-\staccato cis-\staccato |
6621 I: pentagramma, rigo (musicale),
6623 D: Notensystem, Notenzeile,
6624 NL: (noten)balk, partij,
6629 A staff (plural: staves) is a series of (normally five) horizontal
6630 lines upon and between which the musical notes are written, thus
6631 indicating (in connection with a @ref{clef}) their pitch. Staves for
6632 @ref{percussion} instruments may have fewer lines.
6649 D: Hals, Notenhals, Stiel,
6655 Vertical line above or below a @ref{note head} shorter than a
6660 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
6661 \set Score.autoBeaming = ##f
6662 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6663 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
6685 A family of stringed musical instruments played with a bow. Strings
6686 commonly used in a symphony orchestra are violin, viola, violoncello,
6691 @section strong beat
6696 D: betonter Taktteil oder Taktschlag,
6698 D: betonet taktslag,
6699 S: betonat taktslag,
6700 FI: tahdin vahva isku.
6704 @ref{beat}, @ref{accent}, @ref{measure}, @ref{rhythm}.
6708 @section subdominant
6717 FI: subdominantti, alidominantti.
6719 The fourth @ref{scale degree}.
6721 @ref{functional harmony}.
6736 The sixth @ref{scale degree}.
6749 FI: subtoonika, alitoonika.
6751 The seventh @ref{scale degree}.
6757 ES: sobre la cuerda de Sol,
6760 D: auf G, auf der G-Saite,
6766 Indicates that the indicated passage (or note) should be played on the
6771 @section superdominant
6782 The sixth @ref{scale degree}.
6797 The second @ref{scale degree}.
6806 D: Sinfonie, Symphonie,
6812 A symphony may be defined as a @ref{sonata} for orchestra.
6816 @section syncopation
6827 Any deliberate upsetting of the normal pulse of @ref{meter},
6828 @ref{accent}, and @ref{rhythm}. The occidental system of musical
6829 rhythm rests upon the grouping of equal beats into groups of two or
6830 three, with a regularly recurrent accent on the first beat of each
6831 group. Any deviation from this scheme is felt as a disturbance or
6832 contradiction between the underlaying (normal) pulse and the actual
6835 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
6840 e c'4 e,8 c'4 e,8 c' ( | c2)
6845 @node syntonic comma
6846 @section syntonic comma
6848 ES: coma sintónica, coma de Dídimo,
6849 I: comma sintonico (o didimico),
6850 F: comma syntonique,
6851 D: syntonisches Komma,
6852 NL: syntonische komma,
6853 DK: syntonisk komma,
6854 S: syntoniskt komma,
6855 FI: syntoninen komma, terssien taajuusero luonnollisessa ja
6856 Pytagorisessa viritysjärjestelmässä.
6858 Named after Ptolemy's syntonic diatonic genus. Originally, the difference
6859 by which the ditone exceeds the pure major third obtained by Pythagorean
6860 tuning -- (9:8)^2 - 5:4 = 81:80, or 21.5@w{ }cents.
6862 Modern acoustical theory defines it as the interval by which four fifths exceed
6863 the sum of two octaves plus a major third. (3:2)^4 - (2:1)^2 + (5:4)
6865 This comma is also known as the comma of Didymus, or didymic comma.
6869 @ref{Pythagorean comma}
6878 D: Notensystem, Partitur,
6882 FI: nuottijärjestelmä.
6884 The collection of staves (@ref{staff}), two or more, as used for writing
6885 down of keyboard, chamber, choral, or orchestral music.
6889 @section temperament
6894 D: Stimmung, Tem@-pe@-ra@-tur,
6895 NL: stemming, temperatuur,
6898 FI: viritysjärjestelmä.
6900 Systems of tuning in which the intervals deviate from the acoustically
6903 @ref{meantone temperament}, @ref{equal temperament}.
6906 @node tempo indication
6907 @section tempo indication
6909 ES: indicación de tempo,
6910 I: indicazione di tempo,
6911 F: indication de tempo,
6912 D: Zeitmaß, Tempobezeichnung,
6913 NL: tempo aanduiding,
6918 The rate of speed of a composition or a section thereof, ranging from
6919 the slowest to the quickest, as is indicated by tempo marks as
6920 @ref{largo}, @ref{adagio}, @ref{andante}, @ref{allegro}, and
6934 FI: tenori, korkea miesääni.
6936 The highest male voice (apart from @ref{countertenor}).
6959 ES: subrayado (tenuto),
6968 An indication that a particular note should be held for the whole
6969 length, although this can vary depending on the composer and era.
6989 @node thirty-second note
6990 @section thirty-second note
6993 @item UK: demisemiquaver
6996 @item F: triple croche
6997 @item D: Zweiunddreissigstel, Zweiunddreissigstelnote
6998 @item NL: twee-endertig@-ste (32e) noot
6999 @item DK: toogtredivtedelsnode
7000 @item S: trettiotvåondelsnot
7001 @item FI: kolmaskymmeneskahdesosanuotti
7009 @node thirty-second rest
7010 @section thirty-second rest
7013 @item UK: demisemiquaver rest
7014 @item ES: silencio de fusa
7015 @item I: pausa di biscroma
7016 @item F: huitième de soupir
7017 @item D: Zweiunddreissigstel@-pause
7018 @item NL: twee-endertig@-ste (32e) rust
7019 @item DK: toogtredivtedelspause
7020 @item S: trettiotvåondelspaus
7021 @item FI: kolmaskymmeneskahdesosatauko
7030 @section thorough bass
7040 ES: ligadura de prolongación, ligadura de unión,
7041 I: legatura (di valore),
7043 D: Haltebogen, Bindebogen,
7044 NL: overbinding, bindingsboog,
7046 S: bindebåge, överbindning,
7049 A curved line, identical in appearance with the @ref{slur}, which
7050 connects two succesive notes of the same pitch, and which has the
7051 function of uniting them into a single sound (tone) equal to the
7054 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
7055 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
7056 \relative c'' { g2 ~ g4. }
7068 @node time signature
7069 @section time signature
7071 ES: indicación de compás,
7073 F: chiffrage (chiffres indicateurs), signe de valeur, indication de mesure,
7074 D: Taktangabe, Angabe der Taktart,
7077 S: taktartssignatur,
7080 The sign placed at the beginning of a composition to indicate its
7081 meter. It most often takes the form of a fraction, but a few signs
7082 derived from mensural notation and proportions are also employed.
7086 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}.
7101 A sound of definite pitch and duration, as distinct from @emph{noise}.
7102 Tone is a primary building material of music.
7104 @c Music from the 20th century may be based on atonal sounds. Meh, not so much
7119 The first @ref{scale degree}.
7123 @ref{functional harmony}.
7126 @node transposing instrument
7127 @section transposing instrument
7129 ES: instrumento transpositor,
7138 Instruments whose notated pitch is different from their sounded pitch. Except
7139 for those whose notated and sounding pitches differ by one or more octaves (to
7140 reduce the number of ledger lines needed), most such instruments are identified
7141 by the letter name of the pitch class of their fundamental. The pitch class is
7142 the note that @emph{sounds} (disregarding the octave in which it sounds) when
7143 the instrument plays a notated C.
7145 For example: when played on the B-flat clarinet, the note middle C @emph{sounds}
7146 the B-flat one tone lower. If played on the A clarinet, the same written
7147 note sounds the A (one and half tones -- a minor third -- lower).
7149 Not all transposing instruments include the pitch class in their name:
7153 @item English horn (in F)
7155 @item Alto flute (in G)
7161 @ref{concert pitch}.
7165 @section transposition
7176 Shifting a melody up or down in pitch, while keeping the same
7179 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
7184 d4 g,8 a b c | d4 g, g | e' c8 d e fis | g4 g, g \bar "|."
7189 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
7192 \transpose c bes \relative c'' {
7194 d4 g,8 a b c | d4 g, g | e' c8 d e fis | g4 g, g \bar "|."
7201 @section treble clef
7204 I: chiave di violino,
7206 D: Violinschlüssel, Sopranschlüssel,
7229 On stringed instruments:
7233 @item The quick reiteration of the same tone, produced by a rapid
7234 up-and-down movement of the bow.
7236 @item Or, the rapid alternation between two notes of a @ref{chord}, usually
7237 in the distance of a third (@ref{interval}).
7241 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
7242 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
7243 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
7246 f:32 [ e8:16 f:16 g:16 a:16 ] s4
7247 \repeat tremolo 8 { e32_"b" g }
7261 F: triade, accord parfait, accord de trois sons,
7278 F: trille, tremblement, battement (cadence),
7291 @section triple meter
7293 ES: compás ternario,
7296 D: in drei, ungerader Takt,
7297 NL: driedelige maatsoort,
7342 @section tuning fork
7344 ES: diapasón, horquilla de afinación,
7345 I: diapason, corista,
7353 A two-pronged piece of steel used to indicate an absolute pitch, usually for
7354 @emph{A} above middle C (440 cps/Hz), which is the international tuning
7355 standard. Tuning forks for other pitches are available.
7365 A non-standard subdivision of a beat or part of a beat, usually
7366 indicated with a bracket and a number indicating the number of
7371 @ref{triplet}, @ref{note value}.
7377 ES: grupeto (circular),
7401 FI: unisono, yksiäänisesti.
7403 Playing of the same notes or the same melody by various instruments
7404 (voices) or by the whole orchestra (choir), either at exactly the same
7405 pitch or in a different octave.
7413 F: anacrouse, levée,
7435 FI: ääni, lauluääni.
7445 @item @ref{mezzo-soprano}
7447 @item @ref{contralto}
7451 @item @ref{baritone}
7457 @item A melodic layer or part of a polyphonic composition.
7465 ES: vez, primera y segunda vez,
7474 [From Italian, @q{time} (instance, not duration)]. An ending, such as a first
7475 or second ending. LilyPond extends this idea to any number, and allows any text
7476 (not just a number) -- to serve as the @q{volta} text.
7483 I: tempo debole, arsi,
7485 D: unbetonter Taktteil oder Taktschlag,
7487 DK: ubetonet taktslag,
7488 S: obetonat taktslag,
7489 FI: tahdin heikko isku.
7493 @ref{beat}, @ref{measure}, @ref{rhythm}.
7504 @item D: Ganze, ganze Note
7508 @item FI: kokonuotti
7520 @item UK: semibreve rest
7521 @item ES: silencio de redonda
7522 @item I: pausa di semibreve
7524 @item D: ganze Pause, ganztaktige Pause
7526 @item DK: helnodespause
7548 The interval of a major second. The interval between two tones
7549 on the piano keyboard with exactly one key between them -- including
7550 black and white keys -- is a whole tone.
7569 A family of blown wooden musical instruments. Today some of these
7570 instruments are actually made from metal. The woodwind instruments
7571 commonly used in a symphony orchestra are flute, oboe, clarinet,
7572 saxophone, and bassoon.
7575 @node Duration names notes and rests
7576 @chapter Duration names notes and rests
7578 @multitable @columnfractions .12 .22 .22 .22 .22
7580 @headitem Lang. @tab note name
7584 @item @strong{US} @tab long
7588 @item @strong{UK} @tab longa
7592 @item @strong{ES} @tab longa
7593 @tab silencio de longa
7595 @tab silencio de cuadrada
7596 @item @strong{IT} @tab longa
7600 @item @strong{FR} @tab longa
7601 @tab quadruple-pause
7604 @item @strong{DE} @tab Longa
7608 @item @strong{NL} @tab longa
7612 @item @strong{DK} @tab longa
7613 @tab longanodespause
7615 @tab brevis(nodes)pause
7616 @item @strong{SE} @tab longa
7620 @item @strong{FI} @tab longa-nuotti
7622 @tab brevis-nuotti, kaksoiskokonuotti
7623 @tab brevis-tauko, kaksoiskokotauko
7627 @multitable @columnfractions .12 .22 .22 .22 .22
7629 @headitem Lang. @tab note name
7633 @item @strong{US} @tab whole note
7637 @item @strong{UK} @tab semibreve
7641 @item @strong{ES} @tab redonda
7642 @tab silencio de redonda
7644 @tab silencio de blanca
7645 @item @strong{IT} @tab semibreve
7646 @tab pause di semibreve
7648 @tab pausa di minima
7649 @item @strong{FR} @tab ronde
7653 @item @strong{DE} @tab ganze Note
7657 @item @strong{NL} @tab hele noot
7661 @item @strong{DK} @tab helnode
7665 @item @strong{SE} @tab helnot
7669 @item @strong{FI} @tab kokonuotti
7676 @multitable @columnfractions .12 .22 .22 .22 .22
7678 @headitem Lang. @tab note name
7682 @item @strong{US} @tab quarter note
7686 @item @strong{UK} @tab crotchet
7690 @item @strong{ES} @tab negra
7691 @tab silencio de negra
7693 @tab silencio de corchea
7694 @item @strong{IT} @tab semiminima, nera
7695 @tab pausa di semiminima, pausa di nera
7698 @item @strong{FR} @tab noire
7702 @item @strong{DE} @tab Viertelnote
7706 @item @strong{NL} @tab kwartnoot
7710 @item @strong{DK} @tab fjerdedelsnode
7711 @tab fjerdedelspause
7712 @tab ottendedelsnode
7713 @tab ottendedelspause
7714 @item @strong{SE} @tab fjärdedelsnot
7718 @item @strong{FI} @tab neljäsosanuotti
7720 @tab kahdeksasosanuotti
7721 @tab kahdeksasosatauko
7725 * About the French naming system: @emph{croche} refers to the note's "hook".
7726 Therefore, from the eighth note on, the note names mean @q{hook}, @q{doubled
7727 hook}, @q{trebled hook}, and so on.
7729 The rest names are based on the @emph{soupir}, or quarter rest. Subsequent
7730 rests are expressed as fractions thereof: half a @emph{soupir}, a quarter of
7731 a @emph{soupir}, and so on.
7733 Each of the following tables contains one type of note and its matching rest,
7734 with abbreviations that apply to both notes and rests. Just switch the part
7735 that means @q{note} with the part that means @q{rest}, for example:
7739 @item English: 16th @strong{note}, 16th @strong{rest}
7740 @item German: 32tel-@strong{Note}, 32tel-@strong{Pause}
7741 @item Finnish: 64-osa@strong{nuotti}, 64-osa@strong{tauko}
7745 I put a dash @q{-} when I could not find a language-specific abbreviation for a
7746 duration name. If you know of one that I missed, please send it to me, care of
7747 the lilypond-user discussion list.
7749 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
7751 @headitem Lang. @tab Note name
7754 @item @strong{US} @tab sixteenth note
7757 @item @strong{UK} @tab semiquaver
7758 @tab semiquaver rest
7760 @item @strong{ES} @tab semicorchea
7761 @tab silencio de semicorchea
7763 @item @strong{IT} @tab semicroma
7764 @tab pausa di semicroma
7766 @item @strong{FR} @tab double croche
7767 @tab quart de soupir
7769 @item @strong{DE} @tab Sechzehntelnote
7770 @tab Sechzehntelpause
7772 @item @strong{NL} @tab zestiende noot
7775 @item @strong{DK} @tab sekstendedelsnode
7776 @tab sekstendedelspause
7778 @item @strong{SE} @tab sextondelsnot
7781 @item @strong{FI} @tab kuudestoistaosanuotti
7782 @tab kuudestoistaosatauko
7787 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
7789 @headitem Lang. @tab Note name
7792 @item @strong{US} @tab thirty-second note
7793 @tab thirty-second rest
7795 @item @strong{UK} @tab demisemiquaver
7796 @tab demisemiquaver rest
7798 @item @strong{ES} @tab fusa
7799 @tab silencio de fusa
7801 @item @strong{IT} @tab biscroma
7802 @tab pausa di biscroma
7804 @item @strong{FR} @tab triple croche
7805 @tab huitième de soupir
7807 @item @strong{DE} @tab Zweiunddreißigstelnote
7808 @tab Zweiunddreißigstelpause
7810 @item @strong{NL} @tab tweeendertigste noot
7811 @tab tweeendertigste rust
7813 @item @strong{DK} @tab toogtredivtedelsnode
7814 @tab toogtredivtedelspause
7816 @item @strong{SE} @tab trettiotvåondelsnot
7817 @tab trettiotvåondelspaus
7819 @item @strong{FI} @tab kolmaskymmeneskahdesosanuotti
7820 @tab kolmaskymmeneskahdesosatauko
7825 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
7827 @headitem Lang. @tab Note name
7830 @item @strong{US} @tab sixty-fourth note
7831 @tab sixty-fourth rest
7833 @item @strong{UK} @tab hemidemisemiquaver
7834 @tab hemidemisemiquaver rest
7836 @item @strong{ES} @tab semifusa
7837 @tab silencio de semifusa
7839 @item @strong{IT} @tab semibiscroma
7840 @tab pausa di semibiscroma
7842 @item @strong{FR} @tab quadruple croche
7843 @tab seizième de soupir
7845 @item @strong{DE} @tab Vierundsechzigstelnote
7846 @tab Vierundsechzigstelpause
7848 @item @strong{NL} @tab vierenzestigste noot
7849 @tab vierenzestigste rust
7851 @item @strong{DK} @tab fireogtredsindstyvendedelsnode
7852 @tab fireogtredsindstyvendedelspause
7854 @item @strong{SE} @tab sextiofjärdedelsnot
7855 @tab sextiofjärdedelspaus
7857 @item @strong{FI} @tab kuudeskymmenesneljäsosanuotti
7858 @tab kuudeskymmenesneljäsosatauko
7863 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
7865 @headitem Lang. @tab Note name
7868 @item @strong{US} @tab one-hundred-twenty-eighth note
7869 @tab one-hundred-twenty-eighth rest
7871 @item @strong{UK} @tab semihemidemisemiquaver
7872 @tab semihemidemisemiquaver rest
7874 @item @strong{ES} @tab garrapatea
7875 @tab silencio de garrapatea
7877 @item @strong{IT} @tab fusa
7880 @item @strong{FR} @tab quintuple croche
7881 @tab trente-deuxième de soupir @tab -
7882 @item @strong{DE} @tab Hundertundachtundzwanzigstel
7883 @tab Hundertundachtundzwanzigstel @tab 128tel-Note
7884 @item @strong{NL} @tab honderdachtentwintigste noot
7885 @tab honderdachtentwintigste rust
7887 @item @strong{DK} @tab hundredeotteogtyvendedelsnode
7888 @tab hundredeotteogtyvendedelspause
7890 @item @strong{SE} @tab hundratjugoåttondelsnot
7891 @tab hundratjugoåttondelspaus
7893 @item @strong{FI} @tab sadaskahdeskymmeneskahdeksasosanuotti
7894 @tab sadaskahdeskymmeneskahdeksasosatauko
7899 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
7901 @headitem Lang. @tab Note name
7904 @item @strong{US} @tab two-hundred-fifty-sixth note
7905 @tab two-hundred-fifty-sixth rest
7907 @item @strong{UK} @tab demisemihemidemisemiquaver
7908 @tab demisemihemidemisemiquaver rest
7910 @item @strong{ES} @tab semigarrapatea
7911 @tab silencio de semigarrapatea @tab -
7912 @item @strong{IT} @tab semifusa
7913 @tab pausa di semifusa
7915 @item @strong{FR} @tab sextuple croche
7916 @tab soixante-quatrième de soupir @tab -
7917 @item @strong{DE} @tab Zweihundertundsechsundfünfzigstelnote
7918 @tab Zweihundertundsechsundfünfzigstel @tab 256tel-Note
7919 @item @strong{NL} @tab tweehonderdzesenvijftigste noot
7920 @tab tweehonderdzesenvijftigste rust
7922 @item @strong{DK} @tab tohundredeseksoghalvtredsendedelsnode
7923 @tab tohundredeseksoghalvtredsendedelspause
7925 @item @strong{SE} @tab tvåhundrafemtiosjättedelsnot
7926 @tab tvåhundrafemtiosjättedelspaus
7928 @item @strong{FI} @tab kahdessadasviideskymmeneskuudesosanuotti
7929 @tab kahdessadasviideskymmeneskuudesosatauko
7936 @ref{mensural notation}
7940 @chapter Pitch names
7942 @c -is/-es endings for Danish per Rune Zedeler
7943 @c and for Finnish per Risto Vääräniemi
7944 @c -iss/-ess endings for Swedish per Mats Bengtsson
7945 @c @columnfractions .105 .145 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125 -->
7947 @multitable {c-sharp} {do sostenido} {do diesis} {ut dièse} {Cis} {cis} {cis} {ciss} {cis}
7949 @tab ES @tab I @tab F @tab D
7950 @tab NL @tab DK @tab S @tab FI
7951 @item @strong{c} @tab do @tab do @tab ut @tab C
7952 @tab c @tab c @tab c @tab c
7953 @item @strong{c-sharp} @tab do sostenido @tab do diesis @tab ut dièse @tab Cis
7954 @tab cis @tab cis @tab ciss @tab cis
7955 @item @strong{d-flat} @tab re bemol @tab re bemolle @tab ré bémol @tab Des
7956 @tab des @tab des @tab dess @tab des
7957 @item @strong{d} @tab re @tab re @tab ré @tab D
7958 @tab d @tab d @tab d @tab d
7959 @item @strong{d-sharp} @tab re sostenido @tab re diesis @tab re dièse @tab Dis
7960 @tab dis @tab dis @tab diss @tab dis
7961 @item @strong{e-flat} @tab mi bemol @tab mi bemolle @tab mi bémol @tab Es
7962 @tab es @tab es @tab ess @tab es
7963 @item @strong{e} @tab mi @tab mi @tab mi @tab E
7964 @tab e @tab e @tab e @tab e
7965 @item @strong{f-flat} = e
7966 @tab fa bemol @tab fa bemolle @tab fa bémol @tab Fes
7967 @tab fes @tab fes @tab fess @tab fes
7968 @item @strong{f} @tab fa @tab fa @tab fa @tab F
7969 @tab f @tab f @tab f @tab f
7970 @item @strong{e-sharp} = f
7971 @tab mi sostenido @tab mi diesis @tab mi dièse @tab Eis
7972 @tab eis @tab eis @tab eiss @tab eis
7973 @item @strong{f-sharp} @tab fa sostenido @tab fa diesis @tab fa dièse @tab Fis
7974 @tab fis @tab fis @tab fiss @tab fis
7975 @item @strong{g-flat} @tab sol bemol @tab sol bemolle @tab sol bémol @tab Ges
7976 @tab ges @tab ges @tab gess @tab ges
7977 @item @strong{g} @tab sol @tab sol @tab sol @tab G
7978 @tab g @tab g @tab g @tab g
7979 @item @strong{g-sharp} @tab sol sostenido @tab sol diesis @tab sol dièse @tab Gis
7980 @tab gis @tab gis @tab giss @tab gis
7981 @item @strong{a-flat} @tab la bemol @tab la bemolle @tab la bémol @tab As
7982 @tab as @tab as @tab ass @tab as
7983 @item @strong{a} @tab la @tab la @tab la @tab A
7984 @tab a @tab a @tab a @tab a
7985 @item @strong{a-sharp} @tab la sostenido @tab la diesis @tab la dièse @tab Ais
7986 @tab ais @tab ais @tab aiss @tab ais
7987 @item @strong{b-flat} @tab si bemol @tab si bemolle @tab si bémol @tab B
7988 @tab bes @tab b @tab b @tab b
7989 @item @strong{b} @tab si @tab si @tab si @tab H
7990 @tab b @tab h @tab h @tab h
7998 @node Literature used
7999 @unnumberedsec Literature used
8002 @item The Harvard Dictionary of Music, London 1944. Many more or less
8003 literal quotes from its articles have been included into the item
8006 @item Hugo Riemanns Musiklexicon, Berlin 1929.
8008 @item Polyglottes Wörterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie, Kassel
8011 @item Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, Third
8014 @item Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary, Springfield 1913.
8016 @item Felix Krohn, Lyhyt musiikkioppi, Porvoo, Helsinki, 1976.
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