5 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
6 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
7 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
9 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
18 @macro internalsref{NAME}
19 @uref{../lilypond-internals/\NAME\.html,\NAME\}
22 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
23 See @internalsref{\NAME\}
29 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
31 @macro internalsref{NAME}
38 @c .{Reference Manual}
40 @node Reference Manual
41 @chapter Reference Manual
44 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
47 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
48 revision of this document was made for LilyPond 1.4.1. It supposes a
49 passing familiarity with how LilyPond input works. New users are
50 encouraged to study the tutorial first.
52 The reference manual is ordered according to different tasks.
53 More details on the property setting mechanisms and context handling is
54 provided in @ref{Tuning output} and @ref{Interpretation context}. The
55 syntactical details are described at the end of the manual.
78 * Skipping corrected music::
79 * Interpretation context::
89 The purpose of LilyPond is explained informally by the term `music
90 typesetter'. This is not a fully correct name: not only does the
91 program print musical symbols, it also makes aesthetic decisions.
92 Symbols and their placements are @emph{generated} from a high-level
93 musical description. In other words, LilyPond would be best described
94 by `music compiler' or `music to notation compiler'.
96 LilyPond is linked to GUILE, GNU's Scheme library for extension
97 programming. The Scheme library provides the glue that holds together
98 the low-level routines and separate modules which are written in C++.
100 When lilypond is run to typeset sheet music, the following happens:
102 @item GUILE Initialization: various scheme files are read
103 @item parsing: first standard @code{ly} initialization files are read, and
104 then the user @file{ly} file is read.
105 @item interpretation: the music in the file is processed ``in playing
106 order'', i.e. the order that you use to read sheet music, or the
107 order in which notes are played. The result of this step is a typesetting
111 The typesetting specification is solved: positions and formatting is
114 @item the visible results ("virtual ink") are written to the output file.
117 During these stages different types of data play the the main role:
118 during parsing, @strong{Music} objects are created. During the
119 interpretation, @strong{contexts} are constructed, and with these contexts
120 a network of @strong{graphical objects} (``grobs'') is created. These
121 grobs contain unknown variables, and the network forms a set of
122 equations. After solving the equations and filling in these variables,
123 the printed output (in the form of @strong{molecules}) is written to an
126 These threemanship of tasks (parsing, translating, typesetting) and
127 data-structures (music, context, graphical objects) permeates the entire
128 design of the program.
130 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
136 The most basic forms of music are notes. We discuss how you enter them
137 here. Notes on their own don't form valid input, but for the sake of
138 brevity we omit obligatory lint such as @code{\score} blocks and
139 @code{\paper} declarations.
150 * Defining pitch names::
151 * Easy Notation note heads ::
158 A note specification has the form
161 @var{pitch}[!][?][@var{duration}]
164 The alteration refers to what note is heard, not to whether an
165 accidental is printed. This is done depending on the key and context.
166 A reminder accidental
167 @cindex reminder accidental
169 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
170 cautionary accidental,
171 @cindex cautionary accidental
172 @cindex parenthesized accidental
173 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
174 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
176 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
177 cis' d' e' cis' c'? d' e' c'!
180 The grob for a note head is called @internalsref{NoteHead}.
188 @cindex Note specification
190 @cindex entering notes
192 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
194 @cindex @code{\pitch}
196 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
199 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object, see @ref{Pitch data type}.
201 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
202 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
203 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
204 from @code{c} to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
205 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
207 @cindex note names, Dutch
209 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
210 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
211 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
212 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
213 both forms are accepted.
215 LilyPond has predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
216 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
217 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
218 the names they define are:
221 Note Names sharp flat
222 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
223 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
224 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
225 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
226 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
227 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
228 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
236 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
237 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
238 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
239 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
241 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
242 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
250 A rest is entered like a note, with note name `@code{r}':
252 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
256 The grob is @internalsref{Rest}. Whole bar rests centered in the bar are
257 specified using @code{R}, see @ref{Multi measure rests}.
259 For polyphonic music, it can be convenient to specify the rest position
260 directly. You can do that by entering a note, with the keyword
261 @code{\rest} appended, e.g. Rest collisions will leave these rests alone.
263 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
273 @cindex Invisible rest
276 An invisible rest, or skip, can be entered like a note with note name
279 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
283 Actually, this is a shorthand for the @code{\skip} command, and it is
284 only available in Note mode and Chord mode.
286 @c FIXME: in lyrics mode, we have " " and _
288 In Lyrics mode, you can use `@code{" "}' and `@code{_}':
289 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
291 \context Lyrics \lyrics { lah2 di4 " " dah2 _4 di }
292 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a4 a a2 a4 a }
296 The unabbreviated `@code{\skip} @var{duration}' also works outside of
299 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
302 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
303 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
308 Note that the skip does not produce any output, not even transparent output.
313 @subsection Durations
317 @cindex @code{\duration}
319 The syntax for a verbose duration specification is
321 \duration @var{scmduration}
323 Here, @var{scmduration} is a Scheme object of type @code{Duration}. See
324 @ref{Duration} for more information.
327 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
328 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
329 longer than a whole you must use identifiers.
333 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
335 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
341 \notes \relative c'' {
343 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
345 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
350 \remove "Clef_engraver"
351 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
352 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
353 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
359 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
360 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
361 NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
362 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
363 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
365 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
366 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
370 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
371 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
372 duration can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
376 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
382 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M} by
383 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
384 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
396 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. When used
397 with chords, it connects all the note heads whose pitches match.
398 Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'. If you try to tie
399 together chords which have no common pitches then no ties will be
402 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
403 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
406 If you dislike the amount of ties created for a chord, you set
407 @code{Voice.sparseTies} to true, resulting in a smaller number of
409 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
410 \property Voice.sparseTies = ##t
411 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
414 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
415 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
416 exactly the same concept.
418 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
419 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
422 The name of the tie grob is @internalsref{Tie}, and it is created in the
423 @internalsref{Voice} context.
427 At present, the tie is implemented as a separate thing, temporally
428 located in between the notes. There is also no way to convert
429 between tied notes, dotted notes and plain notes.
431 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a chord is not supported in a
432 simple way. It can be achieved by moving the tie-engraver into the Thread
433 context and turning on and off ties per Thread.
441 @cindex @code{\times}
443 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all duration
446 @cindex @code{\times}
448 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
451 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
452 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
453 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
454 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
455 their written length:
457 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
458 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
461 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
462 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
463 @code{\times} only once, thus saving typing work.
465 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
466 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
467 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
470 The format of the number is determined by the property
471 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
472 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
473 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
476 The typesetting of brackets and numbers is controlled by the properties
477 @code{tuplet-bracket-visibility} and @code{tuplet-number-visibility}.
479 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
480 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##t
481 \times 2/3{c'8 d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
482 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = #'if-no-beam
483 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
484 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##f
485 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
486 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = ##f
487 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
488 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = #'if-no-beam
489 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
492 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
493 @cindex tuplet formatting
495 Tuplet brackets are printed as @internalsref{TupletBracket} grobs, most
496 often in the @internalsref{Voice} context.
498 @c . {Defining pitch names}
499 @node Defining pitch names
500 @subsection Defining pitch names
502 @cindex defining pitch names
503 @cindex pitch names, defining
505 Note names and chord modifiers can be customized for nationalities. The
506 syntax is as follows.
508 @cindex @code{\pitchnames}
509 @cindex @code{\chordmodifiers}
511 \pitchnames @var{scheme-alist}
512 \chordmodifiers @var{scheme-alist}
515 See @file{ly/nederlands.ly} and @file{ly/chord-modifiers.ly} for
516 specific examples on how to do this.
519 @node Easy Notation note heads
520 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
522 @cindex easy notation
525 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
526 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
527 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
529 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
530 \include "paper23.ly"
532 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
533 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
537 Note that @internalsref{EasyNotation} overrides a @internalsref{Score} context. You
538 probably will want to print it with magnification to make it more
539 readable, see @ref{Output scaling}.
545 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through the
546 letters. Printing the postscript file obtained either by using dvips or
547 the @code{-f ps} option of lilypond produces the correct result.
552 @section Staff notation
554 @cindex Staff notation
566 @subsection Key signature
571 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
574 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
577 @cindex @code{\minor}
578 @cindex @code{\major}
579 @cindex @code{\minor}
580 @cindex @code{\ionian}
581 @cindex @code{\locrian}
582 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
583 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
584 @cindex @code{\lydian}
585 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
586 @cindex @code{\dorian}
588 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
589 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
590 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
591 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
592 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
594 This command sets the context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
595 Non-standard key signatures can be specified by setting this property
598 The printed signature is a @internalsref{KeySignature} grob, typically
599 created in @internalsref{Staff} context.
601 @cindex @code{keySignature}
608 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command.
616 \property Staff.clefGlyph = @var{glyph associated with clefname}
617 \property Staff.clefPosition = @var{clef Y-position for clefname}
618 \property Staff.centralCPosition = @var{position for central C}
619 \property Staff.clefOctavation = @var{extra transposition of clefname}
623 Any change in these properties creates a clef (A @internalsref{Clef} grob).
625 Supported clef-names include
627 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
629 @item treble, violin, G, G2
638 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
653 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
654 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. Note that you have to
655 enclose @var{clefname} in quotes if you use underscores or digits in the
661 Supported associated glyphs (for @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) are:
670 @item clefs-vaticana_do
671 Editio Vaticana style do clef
672 @item clefs-vaticana_fa
673 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
674 @item clefs-medicaea_do
675 Editio Medicaea style do clef
676 @item clefs-medicaea_fa
677 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
678 @item clefs-mensural1_c
679 modern style mensural C clef
680 @item clefs-mensural2_c
681 historic style small mensural C clef
682 @item clefs-mensural3_c
683 historic style big mensural C clef
684 @item clefs-mensural1_f
685 historic style traditional mensural F clef
686 @item clefs-mensural2_f
687 historic style new mensural F clef
688 @item clefs-mensural_g
689 historic style mensural G clef
690 @item clefs-hufnagel_do
691 historic style hufnagel do clef
692 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa
693 historic style hufnagel fa clef
694 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa
695 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
696 @item clefs-percussion
697 modern style percussion clef
700 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
701 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
702 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
705 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
706 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
707 @cindex hufnagel clefs
710 @c . {Time signature}
712 @subsection Time signature
713 @cindex Time signature
717 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
720 \time @var{n}@code{/}@var{d}
722 Internally, this is a shortcut for doing
724 \property Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(@var{n} . @var{d})
725 \property Score.beatLength = #(make-moment 1 @var{d})
726 \property Score.measureLength = #(make-moment @var{n} @var{d})
729 These properties @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines
730 should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be
733 Changing the value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a
734 fraction to be printed. This grob is @internalsref{TimeSignature}.
736 The actual symbol that's printed can be customized with the style
738 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, singleline]
740 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
742 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'()
744 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
748 There are many more options for the layout of this grob. They are
749 selected through the @code{style} grob property.
751 @c FIXME: this isn't documented except in example?
753 @file{input/test/time.ly} for examples.
760 @cindex partial measure
761 @cindex measure, partial
762 @cindex shorten measures
763 @cindex @code{\partial}
765 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
766 @code{\partial} command:
768 \partial @var{duration}
771 Internally, this is a shortcut for
774 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
778 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
779 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
782 @node Unmetered music
783 @subsection Unmetered music
785 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
786 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. The property
787 @code{Score.timing} can be used to switch off this automatic timing
789 @lilypond[fragment,relative,singleline,verbatim]
791 \property Score.timing = ##f
793 \property Score.timing = ##t
797 The identifiers @code{\cadenzaOn} and @code{\cadenzaOff} can be used as
804 @subsection Bar lines
808 @cindex measure lines
815 This is a shortcut for doing
817 \property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}
819 The following bar types are available
821 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
834 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
838 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
840 @cindex repeatCommands
841 @cindex defaultBarType
843 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
844 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
845 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
846 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
848 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
849 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
850 @code{whichBar} settings.
852 @internalsref{BarLine} grobs are created by the @code{Bar_engraver}.
859 Polyphonic parts, i.e. parts with more than one voice on a staff can be
860 typeset with LilyPond.
862 The easiest way to enter such fragments, is the Scheme function
863 @code{voicify-music}. It will split chords using the separator
864 @code{\\}, to make multiple voices. You can use it for small,
865 short-lived voices (make a chord of voices) or for single chords:
867 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
868 \context Voice = VA \apply #voicify-music \relative c'' {
869 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ c, \\ f \\ d >
873 The function @code{voicify-music} instantiates @internalsref{Voice}
874 contexts, bearing the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.
876 To explicity typeset polyphonic music, instantiate a separate Voice
877 context for each part, and assign a stem direction to each part.
879 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
881 < \context Voice = VA { \stemUp b'4 a' g' f' e' }
882 \context Voice = VB { \stemDown g'4 g' g' g' g' } >
885 When there are more than two voices on a staff, you must also indicate
886 which voice should moved horizontally in case of a collision. This can
887 be done with the identifiers @code{\shiftOff}, @code{\shiftOn},
888 @code{\shiftOnn}, etc. (which sets the grob property @code{horizontal-shift}
889 in @internalsref{NoteColumn}).
891 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
892 \context Staff \notes\relative c''<
899 \context Voice=three {
900 \shiftOnn \stemUp ais
902 \context Voice=four {
903 \shiftOnnn \stemUp fis
908 The most convenient way is to use the identifiers @code{\voiceOne}
909 through @code{\voiceFour}, which also set slur and tie directions in the
912 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
914 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
915 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
916 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
919 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
920 if you set the grob property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
922 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
924 \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne
926 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
929 \context Voice = VB { \voiceTwo [g'8. f16] [g'8. f'16] }
933 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
935 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
937 \context Voice { \stemUp c''4 }
938 \context Voice =VB { r4 }
942 Note head collisions (horizontal shifting of note heads) are handled by
943 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} grob. @internalsref{RestCollision}
944 handles vertical shifting of rests.
952 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
953 handles a few situations. When it can not cope, you are advised to use
954 @code{force-hshift} of the NoteColumn grob and @code{staff-position} of
955 the Rest grob to override typesetting decisions.
960 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
961 the metrum. LilyPond guesses where beams should be inserted. If you're
962 not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can specify which patterns
963 to beam automatically. In specific cases, you can also enter the beams
967 @c . {Automatic beams}
968 @subsection Automatic beams
970 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}
971 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
972 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
975 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
976 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
977 or at durations specified by the properties in
978 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
979 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
981 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
982 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
984 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
985 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
987 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
988 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
989 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
990 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
991 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
994 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
995 you can use the following:
997 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
998 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
1000 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1001 entered as @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
1003 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1004 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
1006 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1007 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1009 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1010 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1011 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1013 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
1014 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1015 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1016 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1018 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1019 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1022 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
1023 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
1024 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
1025 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
1029 @c Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
1031 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1032 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1034 @cindex automatic beam generation
1036 @cindex @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming}
1038 Automatic beaming is on by default, but can be switched off by setting
1039 @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming} to true. You you may find this necessary for
1040 a melody that goes with lyrics.
1044 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1045 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1046 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
1047 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,relative]
1048 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1049 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1050 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
1053 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1054 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1055 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1058 @cindex Automatic beams
1059 @subsection Manual beams
1060 @cindex beams, manual
1064 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
1065 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
1066 rests or bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point
1067 manually using a @code{[} before the first beamed note and a @code{]}
1068 after the last note:
1070 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1072 r4 [r8 g' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
1075 Whenever an manual beam is busy, the automatic beamer will not produce
1078 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1080 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1081 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1082 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount}. can
1083 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
1084 property, it's value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1086 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1089 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
1092 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1094 The beam symbol (grob @internalsref{Beam} in @internalsref{Voice}
1095 context), both for automatic and manual beams) can be tweaked through
1096 grob-properties @code{height} and @code{staff-position}. These specify
1097 vertical location and vertical span. Both are measured in half
1098 staff-spaces, @code{staff-position=0} corresponds to the middle staff
1101 Set @code{height} to zero, to get horizontal beams:
1103 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1104 \property Voice.Beam \set #'direction = #1
1105 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #0
1109 Here's how you'd specify a weird looking beam that instead of being
1110 horizontal, falls two staff spaces:
1112 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1113 \property Voice.Beam \set #'staff-position = #4
1114 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #-4
1118 @c TODO -> why this ref? Document?
1119 @cindex @code{neutral-direction}
1121 @node Expressive marks
1122 @section Expressive marks
1137 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1138 They are entered using parentheses:
1140 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1141 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
1145 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1146 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1147 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1148 grob-property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1149 @internalsref{Voice} context It's value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1150 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1152 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1153 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1154 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1156 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1160 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1161 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1162 stems might look better:
1164 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1165 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
1166 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1168 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1173 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
1174 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
1175 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this decision
1176 is in @internalsref{Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}. It is loosely
1177 related to the enclosed area between the slur and the notes. Usually,
1178 the default setting works well, but in some cases you may prefer a
1179 curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved one. You can
1180 indicate this preference by increasing the @code{beautiful} value:
1182 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
1183 \property Voice.Beam \override #'direction = #-1
1184 \property Voice.Slur \override #'direction = #1
1185 c16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
1186 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1187 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
1188 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1193 @code{beautiful} is an arbitrary parameter in the slur formatter.
1194 Useful values can only be determined by trial and error.
1196 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1198 @node Phrasing slurs
1199 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1201 @cindex phrasing slurs
1202 @cindex phrasing marks
1204 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1205 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1208 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1209 \time 6/4 c' \( ( d ) e f ( e ) \) d
1212 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
1213 slur. The grob associated with it is @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, in
1214 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1217 @subsection Breath marks
1219 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}. The result is a
1220 @internalsref{BreathingSign} grob in @internalsref{Voice} context.
1222 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1231 The current layout of the default comma style breath marks
1232 could be improved and more optional symbols should be added to the
1241 @cindex beats per minute
1242 @cindex metronome marking
1244 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1246 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1248 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1251 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1256 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1257 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1258 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1263 @subsection Text spanners
1264 @cindex Text spanners
1266 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando or accelerando, often extend
1267 over many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1268 dotted line. You can create such texts using text spanners. The syntax
1271 \spanrequest \start "text"
1272 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1274 LilyPond will respond by creating a @internalsref{TextSpanner} grob (typically
1275 in @internalsref{Voice} context). The string to be printed, as well as the
1276 style is set through grob properties.
1278 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1279 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1280 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1281 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1282 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1283 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1284 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1285 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1303 @subsection Articulations
1304 @cindex Articulations
1306 @cindex articulations
1310 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1311 different characteristics of the performance. These symbols can be
1312 added to a note with `@var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}'. Numerous symbols
1313 are defined in @file{script.ly}. Symbols can be forced to appear above
1314 or below the note by writing `@var{note}@code{^\}@var{name}' and
1315 `@var{note}@code{_\}@var{name}' respectively. Here is a chart showing
1316 symbols on notes, with the name of the corresponding symbol appearing
1322 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-family =#'typewriter
1323 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1324 \context Staff \notes {
1325 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''^\fermata
1326 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\upbow
1327 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1328 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1329 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1330 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1331 c''-\upmordent c''-\downmordent c''-\pralldown c''-\prallup
1332 c''-\lineprall c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1334 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1335 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1336 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ upbow
1337 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1338 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1339 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1340 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1341 upmordent__ downmordent__ pralldown__ prallup__
1342 lineprall__ thumb__ segno__ coda
1346 linewidth = 5.875\in
1352 To save typing work, some shorthands are available:
1353 @lilypond[singleline]
1355 \notes \context Voice {
1356 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1357 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1363 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1370 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand. For
1371 changes, some markup texts would be needed:
1372 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1373 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1378 @cindex @code{\script}
1383 You can add scripts by editing @file{scm/script.scm}. This file contains
1384 a table, listing script definitions and aliases. The following syntax
1385 accesses a script definition from the table:
1391 Usually the @code{\script} keyword is not used directly. Various
1392 helpful identifier definitions appear in @file{script.ly}.
1394 Grobs for these objects are @internalsref{Script} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
1398 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1399 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1401 Unfortunately, there is no support for adding fingering instructions or
1402 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1403 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1408 @subsection Text scripts
1409 @cindex Text scripts
1411 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1412 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1415 By default, these indications do not influence the note spacing, but
1416 if @code{Voice.textNonEmpty} is set to true the widths will be taken
1417 into account. The identifier @code{\fatText} is defined in the standard
1419 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
1420 \relative c' { c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1423 Text scripts are created in form of @internalsref{TextScript} grobs, in
1424 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1426 @ref{Text markup} describes how to change the font or access
1427 special symbols in text scripts.
1431 @subsection Grace notes
1440 @cindex @code{\grace}
1443 @cindex @code{graceAlignPosition}
1445 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out, but do not take up any
1446 logical time in a measure. LilyPond has limited support for grace notes.
1447 The syntax is as follows.
1449 \grace @var{musicexpr}
1452 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1455 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1457 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1459 \property Voice.Stem \override #'flag-style = #'()
1461 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'flag-style
1466 A grace note expression has duration 0; the next real note is assumed to
1467 be the main note. If you want the note to appear after the main note,
1468 set @code{Voice.graceAlignPosition} to @code{1}.
1472 Nesting @code{\grace} notes is not supported. The following may cause
1473 run-time errors: @example
1474 @code{\grace @{ \grace c32 c16 @} c4}
1476 Since the meaning of such a construct is unclear, we don't consider this
1477 a loss. Similarly, juxtaposing two @code{\grace} sections is
1478 syntactically valid, but makes no sense and may cause runtime errors.
1479 Ending a staff or score with grace notes may also generate a run-time
1480 error, since there will be no main note to attach the grace notes to.
1491 @subsection Glissando
1494 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1496 A glissando line (grob @internalsref{Glissando}) can be requested by
1497 attaching a @code{\glissando} to a notte:
1499 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1505 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1512 @subsection Dynamics
1525 @cindex @code{\ffff}
1535 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an identifier after a
1536 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
1537 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
1538 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
1539 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
1541 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
1542 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
1548 @cindex @code{\decr}
1549 @cindex @code{\rced}
1555 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
1556 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
1557 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
1558 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
1559 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
1560 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
1561 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
1562 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
1563 want several marks during one note, you have to use spacer notes.
1565 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1566 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
1567 < f''1 { s4 s4 \< \! s4 \> \! s4 } >
1570 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
1571 is an example how to do it:
1576 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1578 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc."
1579 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
1584 For everyday use, we recommend the identifiers @code{\cresc},
1585 @code{endcresc}, @code{\dim} and @code{\enddim}.
1589 Dynamics are grobs of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
1590 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is handled
1591 by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. If you want to adjust
1592 padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you must set properties
1593 for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. Predefined identifiers
1594 to set the vertical direction are \dynamicUp and \dynamicDown.
1596 @cindex direction, of dynamics
1597 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
1598 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
1606 @cindex @code{\repeat}
1608 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
1609 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
1610 different variants of repeats.
1614 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
1615 output, and entering repetitive music.
1618 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
1619 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
1622 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
1623 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
1624 @file{input/star-spangled-banner.ly}.
1630 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
1636 * Manual repeat commands::
1638 * Tremolo subdivisions::
1643 @subsection Repeat syntax
1645 The syntax for repeats is
1648 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
1651 If you have alternative endings, you may add
1652 @cindex @code{\alternative}
1654 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
1656 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
1658 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
1660 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
1661 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1663 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
1664 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
1667 With alternative endings:
1668 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1670 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1671 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1674 Folded repeats look like this:
1677 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1679 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1680 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1684 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
1685 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
1686 the specified number of repeats.
1688 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1692 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
1693 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
1698 @subsection Unfolding repeats for MIDI output.
1700 @cindex expanding repeats
1702 See @file{input/test/unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
1707 Notice that timing information is not remembered at the start of an
1708 alternative, so you have to reset timing information after a repeat,
1709 e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting
1710 @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties
1711 are also not repeated.
1713 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}s, although this probably is only
1714 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
1716 Folded repeats offer little more over simultaneous music. However, it
1717 is to be expected that more functionality -- especially for the MIDI
1718 backend -- will be implemented at some point in the future.
1720 Volta repeats are printed over all staves in a score. You must turn them
1721 off explicitly, for example by doing
1723 \property Staff.VoltaBracket = \turnOff
1725 in all but the top staff.
1727 @node Manual repeat commands
1728 @subsection Manual repeat commands
1730 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
1732 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
1733 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
1741 @item (volta . @var{text})
1742 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
1744 Stop a running volta bracket
1747 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
1749 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
1751 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
1756 Repeats brackets are @internalsref{VoltaBracket} grobs.
1758 @node Tremolo repeats
1759 @subsection Tremolo repeats
1760 @cindex tremolo beams
1762 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
1764 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
1766 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
1767 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
1768 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
1769 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
1770 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
1775 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} grobs. Single stem tremolos are
1776 @internalsref{StemTremolo}.
1781 At present, the spacing between tremolo beams is not regular, since the
1782 spacing engine does not notice that not all notes are printed.
1784 @node Tremolo subdivisions
1785 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
1786 @cindex tremolo marks
1787 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
1789 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
1790 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
1791 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
1792 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
1793 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
1795 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
1796 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
1802 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
1805 @node Measure repeats
1806 @subsection Measure repeats
1808 @cindex percent repeats
1809 @cindex measure repeats
1811 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
1812 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
1813 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
1814 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
1816 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1817 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
1818 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
1822 The signs are represented by these grobs: @internalsref{RepeatSlash} and
1823 @internalsref{PercentRepeat} and @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
1827 You can not nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
1828 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
1830 @node Rhythmic music
1831 @section Rhythmic music
1838 @node Rhythmic staves
1839 @subsection Rhythmic staves
1841 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
1842 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
1843 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
1845 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1846 \context RhythmicStaff {
1848 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1855 @section Piano music
1857 Piano music is an odd type of notation. Piano staves are two normal
1858 staves coupled with a brace. The staves are largely independent, but
1859 sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. The
1860 @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
1861 behavior. In this section we discuss the @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some
1862 other pianistic peculiarities.
1865 * Automatic staff changes::
1866 * Manual staff switches::
1869 * Voice follower lines::
1873 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
1874 @node Automatic staff changes
1875 @subsection Automatic staff changes
1876 @cindex Automatic staff changes
1878 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
1879 staff. The syntax for this is
1881 \autochange @var{contexttype} @var{musicexp}
1883 This will switch the interpretation context of @var{musicexp} between a
1884 @var{contexttype} named @code{up} and @code{down}. Typically, you use
1885 @internalsref{Staff} for @var{contexttype}. The autochanger switches on basis
1886 of pitch (central C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping
1887 over rests to switch rests in advance.
1889 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1890 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
1891 \context Staff = "up" {
1892 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
1893 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
1894 \context Staff = "down" {
1900 Note how spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
1901 terminating too soon.
1904 @node Manual staff switches
1905 @subsection Manual staff switches
1907 @cindex manual staff switches
1908 @cindex staff switch, manual
1910 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
1912 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
1914 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
1915 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
1916 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
1919 The formal definition of this construct is obtuse, but for the sake of
1920 completeness we give it here.
1921 @cindex @code{\translator}
1923 \translator @var{contexttype} = @var{name}
1925 Formally, this construct is a music expression indicating
1926 that the context which is a direct child of the context of type
1927 @var{contexttype} should be shifted to a context of type
1928 @var{contexttype} and the specified name.
1936 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
1937 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
1938 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
1940 These identifiers are shorthands for spanner commands of the types
1941 @internalsref{Sustain}, @internalsref{UnaCorda} and @internalsref{Sostenuto}:
1943 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1944 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4
1945 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
1948 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
1949 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal types:
1950 Sustain, Sostenuto or UnaCorda. Refer to the generated documentation of
1951 @rgrob{PianoPedal} for more information.
1953 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
1954 @code{pedal-type} property of SustainPedal grobs:
1956 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1957 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'bracket
1958 c''4 \sustainDown d''4 e''4 a'4 \sustainUp \sustainDown f'4 g'4 a'4 \sustainUp
1961 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
1962 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
1964 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1965 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'mixed
1966 c''4 \sustainDown d''4 e''4 c'4 \sustainUp \sustainDown f'4 g'4 a'4 \sustainUp
1969 The default '*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
1970 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However @code{mixed} is the default style
1971 for a sostenuto pedal:
1973 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1974 c''4 \sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4 \sostenutoUp
1980 @subsection Arpeggio
1983 @cindex broken arpeggio
1984 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
1986 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
1987 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
1990 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1991 \context Voice <c\arpeggio e g c>
1994 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
1995 to the chords in both staves, and set
1996 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
1998 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1999 \context PianoStaff <
2000 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2001 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2002 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2006 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} grobs. Cross staff arpeggios
2007 are @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio}. @internalsref{Arpeggio}
2009 To add an arrow head to explicitly specify the direction of the
2010 arpeggio, you should set the arpeggio grob property
2011 @code{arpeggio-type}.
2013 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2015 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #1
2017 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
2023 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
2024 arpeggiate the chord.
2026 @lil ypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2027 \context PianoStaff <
2028 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2029 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #'bracket
2030 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2031 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2039 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios
2044 @node Voice follower lines
2045 @subsection Voice follower lines
2047 @cindex follow voice
2048 @cindex staff switching
2051 @cindex @code{followVoice}
2053 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
2054 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
2055 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
2057 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2058 \context PianoStaff <
2059 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2060 \context Staff \context Voice {
2062 \translator Staff=two
2065 \context Staff=two {\clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2069 The associated grob is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2079 * Automatic syllable durations::
2085 @subsection Lyrics mode
2088 To print lyrics, you must first make a music expression from the lyric
2089 text. That music expression can be printed by selecting an appropriate
2093 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
2095 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
2096 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
2097 The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
2098 punctuation and accents without any hassle.
2100 Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text. For
2101 example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that
2102 the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
2105 Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes:
2106 @code{"He could"4 not4} or by using an underscore without quotes:
2107 @code{He_could4 not4}. All unquoted underscores are converted to
2110 The precise definition of this mode can be found in @ref{Lyrics mode
2113 @c . {Printing lyrics}
2114 @node Printing lyrics
2115 @subsection Printing lyrics
2118 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the @internalsref{Lyrics} context.
2120 @c Maybe more pedagogical to avoid \addlyrics in this first example? /MB
2121 @c Add tied and beamed melismata too.
2122 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2124 \notes \relative c' {
2126 \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t
2127 d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
2128 b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 }
2129 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2131 share the soft -- ware; }
2135 Notes and syllable durations are matched automatically. This is
2136 accomplished using @code{\addlyrics}, which is documented in
2137 @ref{Automatic syllable durations}. Setting @code{automaticMelismata} in
2138 the melody staff will cause tied, slurred or beamed notes to be
2139 interpreted as melismata.
2141 The Lyric syllables are @code{LyricsVoice.LyricSyllable} grobs.
2144 @cindex lyric extender
2147 As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will
2148 create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of the
2149 lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric,
2150 so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
2151 The grob for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricExtender}.
2156 If you want to have hyphens centered between syllables (rather than
2157 attached to the end of the first syllable) you can use the special
2158 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. This
2159 will result in a hyphen whose length varies depending on the space
2160 between syllables. It will be centered between the syllables. The grob
2161 for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricHyphen}.
2163 @cindex Lyric hyphen
2165 @node Automatic syllable durations
2166 @subsection Automatic syllable durations
2167 @cindex Automatic syllable durations
2169 @cindex automatic lyric durations
2170 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
2172 If you have lyrics that are set to a melody, you can copy the rhythm
2173 of that melody into the lyrics using @code{\addlyrics}. The syntax for
2176 \addlyrics @var{musicexpr1 musicexpr2}
2179 Both @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} are interpreted, but every
2180 music event (``every syllable'') in @var{musicexpr2} is interpreted only
2181 when there are events in @var{musicexpr1}.
2183 @cindex @code{automaticMelismata}
2185 If the property @code{automaticMelismata} is set in the
2186 context of @var{musicexpr1}, no lyrics will be put on slurred or tied
2189 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2192 \property Voice.automaticMelismata = ##t
2193 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2195 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2199 If you want the lyric lines to be above the melody staff, or in some
2200 other, more complex configuration, then build that configuration first
2201 using simultaneous music, and use @code{\addlyrics} after that.
2203 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
2205 \context Lyrics = LA { s1 }
2206 \context Staff = SA { s1 }
2208 \context Staff = SA \relative c' { c4 e g g }
2209 \context Lyrics = LA \lyrics { geen ge -- don -- der } >
2212 For @code{\addlyrics} you should use a single rhythm melody, and single
2213 rhythm lyrics (a constant duration is the obvious choice). If you do
2214 not, you can get undesired effects when using multiple stanzas:
2216 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2219 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2221 \context Lyrics \lyrics
2226 It is valid (but probably not very useful) to use notes instead of
2227 lyrics for @var{musicexpr2}.
2230 @subsection More stanzas
2234 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
2235 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
2236 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
2238 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice
2239 to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
2240 In the following example, the Voice
2241 identity is @code{duet}, and the identities of the LyricsVoices are
2242 @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
2245 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2248 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
2250 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
2251 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
2252 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
2253 Hi, my name is bert. }
2254 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
2255 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
2256 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
2261 You can add stanza numbers by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the
2262 first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following
2263 systems. Notice how you must surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics}
2269 @cindex stanza numbering
2277 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords. Chords are
2278 characterized by a set of pitches. They are
2279 internally stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can
2280 enter chords by name and print them as note head, enter them as notes
2281 and print them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by
2282 name, and print them as name.
2285 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2286 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
2296 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
2297 \context Voice \twoWays > }
2300 Note that this example also shows that the chord printing routines do
2301 not attempt to be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not
2302 interpret this as an inversion.
2306 * Printing named chords::
2311 @subsection Chords mode
2314 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
2315 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
2316 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
2317 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc).
2319 Dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions and subtractions,
2320 so articulation scripts can not be entered in Chord mode.
2322 The syntax for named chords is as follows:
2324 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
2327 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration} is
2328 the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
2329 modifiers. One type is formed by @emph{chord additions}. Additions are
2330 obtained by listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written
2331 by its number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising
2332 or lowering by half a step. Chord additions have two effects: they adds
2333 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
2334 chord, and they may lower or raise the specified interval.
2336 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
2337 using @code{\transpose}.
2339 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2343 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5-
2353 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
2354 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
2355 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
2356 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
2357 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
2358 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
2359 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
2361 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2364 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
2370 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
2371 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
2374 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2383 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
2384 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
2385 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the note
2386 is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
2388 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2398 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
2399 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
2400 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
2401 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
2403 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2414 Implementation details are quite gory. For example @code{c:4} not only
2415 adds a fourth, but also removes the third.
2418 @c . {Printing named chords}
2419 @node Printing named chords
2420 @subsection Printing named chords
2422 @cindex printing chord names
2426 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
2427 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
2428 directly using simultaneous music.
2430 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2432 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
2436 \context ChordNames \scheme
2437 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2442 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
2443 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
2444 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of a
2449 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
2453 \context ChordNames {
2454 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
2456 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2460 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
2461 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
2462 an added bass note, which may result in strange chord names when chords
2463 are entered as a list of pitches:
2465 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2474 \context ChordNames \scheme
2475 \context Staff \scheme
2481 By default, a chord name system proposed by Harald Banter (See
2482 @ref{Literature}) is used. The system is very regular and predictable.
2483 Typical American style chord names may be selected by setting the
2484 @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName} grob to
2485 @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz chordnames.
2487 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
2488 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
2489 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}. Here's an example showing the differences in
2493 @c maybe just junk verbatim option?
2494 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2504 \context ChordNames = banter \scheme
2505 \context ChordNames = american {
2506 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2507 #'style = #'american \scheme }
2508 \context ChordNames = jazz {
2509 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2510 #'style = #'jazz \scheme }
2511 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2518 @section Writing parts
2520 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
2521 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
2522 problems in orchestral music.
2529 * Instrument names::
2531 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
2532 * Multi measure rests::
2533 * Automatic part combining::
2534 * Hara kiri staves::
2537 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
2538 @node Rehearsal marks
2539 @subsection Rehearsal marks
2540 @cindex Rehearsal marks
2542 @cindex @code{\mark}
2546 \mark @var{unsigned}
2551 This command prints a rehearsal mark above the system. You can provide
2552 a number, a string or a markup text as argument. If you use
2553 @code{\default}, the value of property @code{rehearsalMark} is used and
2554 automatically incremented.
2556 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2562 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-segno")
2567 The grob is @internalsref{RehearsalMark} in @internalsref{Score} context. See
2568 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} if you need boxes around the marks.
2571 @subsection Bar numbers
2575 @cindex measure numbers
2576 @cindex currentBarNumber
2578 Bar numbers are @internalsref{BarNumber} grobs. They are printed at the
2579 start of the line. The number itself is a property that can be set by
2580 modifying the @code{currentBarNumber} property, i.e.
2582 \property Score.currentBarNumber = #217
2585 If you want boxed bar numbers, see the example file
2586 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly}.
2590 It is not possible to have bar numbers printed at regular intervals
2593 @node Instrument names
2594 @subsection Instrument names
2596 You can specify an instrument name for a staff by setting
2597 @code{Staff.instrument} and @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string
2598 before the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
2599 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
2601 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2602 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
2605 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
2609 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2611 '((font-relative-size . -2 ) (music "accidentals--1")))
2614 \property Staff.instrument = #`((kern . 0.5) (lines
2615 "2 Clarinetti" (columns " (B" ,text-flat ")")))
2623 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
2624 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
2625 the name to avoid a collision.
2628 @subsection Transpose
2630 @cindex transposition of pitches
2631 @cindex @code{\transpose}
2633 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
2636 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
2639 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
2642 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
2643 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
2644 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
2647 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2650 { \key e \major c d e f }
2652 \transpose des'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2653 \transpose cis'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2657 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
2658 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
2659 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
2661 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
2662 @subsection Sound output transposing instruments
2664 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed and
2666 instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch offset (in
2667 semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done using the
2668 @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed output.
2670 @cindex @code{transposing}
2673 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
2674 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
2677 @c . {Multi measure rests}
2678 @node Multi measure rests
2679 @subsection Multi measure rests
2680 @cindex Multi measure rests
2684 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
2685 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
2687 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
2688 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
2689 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
2692 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2693 \time 3/4 r2. | R2. | R2.*2 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
2696 Notice that the @code{R2.} is printed as a whole rest, centered in the
2699 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
2701 The grob for this object is @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
2705 Currently, there is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into
2706 a single multimeasure rest.
2708 @cindex condensing rests
2710 @node Automatic part combining
2711 @subsection Automatic part combining
2712 @cindex automatic part combining
2713 @cindex part combiner
2716 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
2717 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting
2718 orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
2719 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are
2720 typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically.
2721 Also, solo and @emph{a due} parts can be identified and marked.
2723 The syntax for part combining is
2726 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
2728 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
2729 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
2730 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
2733 The most useful function of the part combiner is to combine parts into
2734 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
2736 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2738 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2739 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2742 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2748 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
2749 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
2750 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
2751 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
2752 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
2755 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
2756 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
2758 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2760 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
2761 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2762 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2765 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2771 There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak the
2772 behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
2773 documentation of @reng{Thread_devnull_engraver} and
2774 @reng{Voice_devnull_engraver}. Look at the documentation of the
2775 responsible engravers, @code{Thread_devnull_engraver},
2776 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
2780 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
2781 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
2784 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
2786 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2787 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2790 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2796 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2797 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
2798 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
2800 @node Hara kiri staves
2801 @subsection Hara kiri staves
2803 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
2804 This saves some space. LilyPond also supports this through the hara
2805 kiri@footnote{Hara kiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
2806 the Japanese Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when
2807 it finds itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will
2808 not disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
2811 The hara kiri staff is specialized version of the @internalsref{Staff}
2812 context. It is available as the context identifier
2813 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
2814 example disappears in the second line.
2818 \notes \relative c' <
2819 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
2820 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
2824 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
2837 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
2838 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
2839 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
2840 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2841 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2846 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
2851 \consists Custos_engraver
2857 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century.
2858 There were different appearances for different notation styles.
2859 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
2860 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
2863 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
2864 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
2865 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
2866 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
2867 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
2874 \consists Custos_engraver
2875 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2880 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
2885 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
2886 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
2893 @section Figured bass
2895 @cindex Basso continuo
2897 TODO. see figured-bass.ly
2899 @c . {Tuning output}
2901 @section Tuning output
2903 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
2904 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
2905 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
2906 ways to do just that.
2908 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called grobs (graphic
2909 objects). Each grob carries with it a set of properties (grob
2910 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem grob has
2911 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
2913 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
2914 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
2915 temporarily change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus
2916 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
2917 object, and set a grob property in that object.
2920 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
2921 * Tuning per grob ::
2929 @node Tuning groups of grobs
2930 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
2932 @cindex grob description
2936 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a
2937 context property. By assigning to that property (using plain
2938 @code{\property}), you can change the resulting grobs.
2940 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2941 c'4 \property Voice.Stem = #'((meta . ((interfaces . ())))) c'4
2944 The @code{\property} assignment effectively empties the definition of
2945 the Stem object. One of the effects is that the recipe of how it should be
2946 printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible. The above
2947 assignment is available as a standard identifier, for the case that you
2951 \property Voice.Stem = \turnOff
2958 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
2959 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
2962 The definition of a grob is actually a list of default grob
2963 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem grob (available in
2964 @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), defines the following values for
2969 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
2970 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
2974 You can add a property on top of the existing definition, or remove a
2975 property, thus overriding the system defaults:
2977 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
2978 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
2981 You should balance @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. If that's too
2982 much work, you can use the @code{\set} shorthand. It performs a revert
2983 followed by an override. The following example gives exactly the same
2984 result as the previous one.
2986 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
2987 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
2990 If you use @code{\set}, you must explicitly restore the default.
2993 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
2995 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2996 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2997 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
2999 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
3000 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
3003 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
3004 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
3005 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
3006 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and @code{\revert},
3007 must be carefully balanced.
3009 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
3012 A clumsy but correct form:
3014 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
3017 Shorter version of the same:
3019 \override \set \set \revert
3022 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
3025 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
3028 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the grob property is unset),
3031 \set \set \set \revert
3034 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
3035 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a
3036 stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
3037 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding
3038 automatic beaming settings.
3042 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
3043 The backend is not very strict in type-checking grob properties. If you
3044 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
3047 Some grobs are created at the moment that their context is created. An
3048 example of such a grob is the staff itself (i.e. the horizontal lines).
3049 You can not change the appearance of the staff symbol by manipulating
3050 @code{\property Staff.StaffSymbol}. At the moment that @code{\property
3051 Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and the StaffSymbol is
3052 created before any @code{\override} is effective. You can deal with this
3053 either overriding properties in a @code{\translator} definition, or by
3054 using @code{\outputproperty}.
3059 @node Tuning per grob
3060 @subsection Tuning per grob
3062 @cindex \outputproperty
3064 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
3065 feature. The syntax is as follows:
3067 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3069 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
3070 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
3071 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
3072 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
3073 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
3075 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
3076 the appropriate context to apply this to.
3078 Here are some random examples.
3081 In the following example, all note heads occurring at current staff
3082 level, are shifted up and right by setting their @code{extra-offset}
3085 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3087 \context Staff \outputproperty
3088 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
3089 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
3093 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
3095 In this example, the predicate checks the @code{text} grob property, to
3096 shift only the `m.d.' text, but not the fingering instruction "2".
3097 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3098 #(define (make-text-checker text)
3099 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
3102 \notes\relative c''' {
3103 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
3104 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
3105 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
3113 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
3114 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
3120 @subsection What to tune?
3122 This all tells you how to tune grobs, but you don't know what variables
3123 to set? The question is not answered in this part of the manual
3124 (although you may encounter some examples.).
3126 Grob properties are tied directly to the implementation of LilyPond, and
3127 they are thus a moving target. Documentation of such variables is in the
3128 automatically generated documentation. Description of properties are
3129 generated from the source code for each version. This documentation is
3130 therefore more up to date. It should be available from the same place
3131 where you got this manual.
3133 To decide how to tune a grob, you need to find the following information
3136 which grob to modify
3138 which property to modify
3140 which context the grob comes from.
3143 Included with the automatically generated documentation is a master list
3144 of grobs. Selecting a grob will take you to an overview of the
3145 properties available for that grob.
3147 There is also a master list of contexts. Selecting one takes you to an
3148 overview of that context which lists which grob types are created there.
3151 @node Font selection
3152 @subsection Font selection
3154 Most graphics in LilyPond are composed of characters of fonts. You can
3155 alter the characteristics of the font by setting certain grob
3156 properties. The mechanism that is used for this resembles La@TeX{}'s New
3157 Font Selection Scheme. Within this scheme, a font is entirely
3158 characterized by its font name.
3160 For each grob that uses fonts (in other words, each grob that supports
3161 @code{font-interface}) a font-name must be selected before it can be
3162 printed. The font name is selected by looking at a number of grob
3167 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
3168 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff braces),
3169 @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic
3170 signs) and @code{typewriter}
3173 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
3174 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
3175 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
3178 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
3179 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
3182 @item font-relative-size
3183 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
3184 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
3185 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
3187 @item font-design-size
3188 A number indicating the design size of the font.
3190 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
3191 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
3192 which enhances readability. Scalable type faces such TrueType and Adobe
3193 Type1 usually come as ``one design fits all sizes''.
3196 The name of the font, without the design size, e.g. @code{cmr},
3197 @code{cmti}, etc. Setting this overrides font-family, font-shape and
3204 The font is selected by taking the first font that satisfies all
3205 qualifiers specified. You can override any of these fields through
3206 @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The special value @code{*} matches
3207 any value for that qualifier.
3210 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
3211 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
3214 @cindex @code{font-style}
3216 There are also pre-cooked font selection qualifiers. These are selected
3217 through the grob property @code{font-style}. For example, the style
3218 @code{finger} selects family @code{number} and relative size @code{-3}.
3219 Styles available include @code{volta}, @code{finger}, @code{tuplet},
3220 @code{timesig}, @code{mmrest}, @code{script}, @code{large}, @code{Large}
3223 The style sheets and tables for selecting fonts are located in
3224 @file{scm/font.scm}. Refer to this file for more information.
3227 Setting @code{font-name} overrides all other qualifiers. The value for
3228 this property should be a string, the file name of the font. You may use
3229 this to use special fonts, which are not a part of the style sheet, or
3230 which have special encodings.
3232 The size of the font may be set with the grob property
3233 @code{font-magnification}. It is the size of font, relative to its
3234 standard size. For example, @code{1.0} is normal size.
3238 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
3240 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
3243 @cindex font selection
3244 @cindex font magnification
3245 @cindex @code{font-interface}
3249 @subsection Text markup
3253 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
3254 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
3255 in the following way.
3257 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3262 c^#'(italic "italic")
3263 d_#'((bold italic) "ff")
3265 f_#'(lines "one" (bold "two"))
3266 g^#'(music "noteheads-2" ((raise . 2.4) "flags-u3"))
3270 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
3271 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
3274 text: string | (head? text+)
3275 head: markup | (markup+)
3276 markup-item: property | abbrev
3277 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
3278 abbrev: @code{columns lines roman music bold italic named super sub}
3279 @code{overstrike text finger volta timesig mmrest mark script}
3280 @code{large Large dynamic}
3283 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
3284 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
3285 pair is a grob property. A list of properties available is included in
3286 the generated documentation for @rint{Text_interface}.
3288 The following abbreviations are currently defined:
3291 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
3293 vertical mode: set every text on a new line
3297 selects the Feta font (the standard font for music notation glyphs),
3298 and uses named lookup
3305 lookup by character name
3307 plain text lookup (by character value)
3313 the next text or character overstrikes this one
3315 select fingering number fontstyle
3317 select volta number fontstyle
3319 select time signature number fontstyle
3321 select multi measure rest number fontstyle
3323 select mark number fontstyle
3325 select scriptsize roman fontstyle
3327 select large roman fontstyle
3329 select Large roman fontstyle
3331 select dynamics fontstyle
3335 @cindex metronome mark
3337 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
3341 #(define note '(columns
3342 (music "noteheads-2" ((kern . -0.1) "flags-stem"))))
3343 #(define eight-note `(columns ,note ((kern . -0.1)
3344 (music ((raise . 3.5) "flags-u3")))))
3345 #(define dotted-eight-note
3346 `(columns ,eight-note (music "dots-dot")))
3349 \notes\relative c'' {
3350 a1^#`((columns (font-relative-size . -1)) ,dotted-eight-note " = 64")
3356 TextScript \override #'font-shape = #'upright
3362 @node Invisible grobs
3363 @subsection Invisible grobs
3364 @cindex invisible grobs
3368 ben nog steeds niet kapot van de informatiedichtheid hier.
3374 You can imagine a number of situations where you would want to make
3375 certain grobs not show up in the output. There may be aesthetic
3376 reasons, to make the output resemble an (old) manuscript as close as
3377 possible, or to make lessons or exercises for students.
3379 Grobs can be made invisible in a number of ways:
3381 Here's an example with blanked-out notes and stems:
3382 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3384 \property Voice.NoteHead \override
3386 \property Voice.Stem \override
3387 #'transparent = ##t }
3390 \property Voice.NoteHead \revert #'transparent
3391 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'transparent }
3394 \notes\relative c'' {
3396 a b c b \blanknotes c \unblanknotes d
3400 This method makes the grobs invisible but they still take the normal space.
3401 To remove all traces of the grob, you can redefine the function
3405 \notes\relative c'' {
3408 as bes c bes c d \break
3409 \property Staff.KeySignature \override #'molecule-callback = #'()
3412 \paper{linewidth=5.0\cm indent=0}
3416 A very rigorous way of removing grobs from the whole score is to remove
3417 the engraver that creates them. For example,
3419 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3420 \score {\notes { c'4 d'8 e'8 g2 }
3421 \paper { \translator {
3423 \remove Stem_engraver
3429 @subsection Dirty tricks
3430 @cindex embedded tex
3432 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
3433 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
3434 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
3435 commands won't work with direct PostScript output (see @ref{PostScript
3438 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3439 a'^"3 $\\times$ \\`a deux"
3442 You can also use raw PostScript commands embedded in text scripts. This
3443 offers ultimate flexibility, but requires you to learn PostScript.
3444 Currently, embedded PostScript will @strong{not} work with direct
3445 PostScript output. Note that all dimensions that you use are in staff
3450 \notes \relative c'' {
3451 a-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 5 3 rlineto stroke}"
3452 -#"\\embeddedps{ [ 0 1 ] 0 setdash 3 5 moveto 5 -3 rlineto stroke}"
3453 b-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 0 0 1 2 8 4 20 3.5 rcurveto stroke}"
3457 \paper { linewidth = 70*\staffspace }
3464 @section Page layout
3467 The page layout is the combined product of LilyPond formatting notation,
3468 and (La)@TeX{} putting the notation on a page, including page breaks.
3469 The part of LilyPond is documented here.
3483 @subsection Paper block
3486 The most important output definition is the @code{\paper} block, for
3487 music notation. The syntax is
3490 @code{\paper @{} [@var{paperidentifier}] @var{items} @code{@}}
3493 where each of the items is one of
3496 @item An assignment.
3498 @item A context definition. See @ref{Interpretation context} for
3499 more information on context definitions.
3501 @item \stylesheet declaration. Its syntax is
3503 \stylesheet @var{alist}
3506 See @file{scm/font.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
3507 @item an @code{\elementdescriptions} declaration.
3509 \elementdescriptions @var{alist}
3511 See @file{scm/grob-description.scm} for details of
3512 @var{alist}. This command is not user-serviceable.
3516 @c . {Paper variables}
3517 @node Paper variables
3518 @subsection Paper variables
3519 @cindex Paper variables
3521 The paper block has some variables you may want to use or change:
3524 @cindex @code{indent}
3526 The indentation of the first line of music.
3527 @cindex @code{staffspace}
3529 @item @code{staffspace}
3530 The distance between two staff lines, calculated from the center
3533 @cindex @code{linewidth}
3534 @item @code{linewidth}
3535 Sets the width of the lines.
3537 If set to a negative value, a single unjustified line is produced.
3538 @c rename to singleLinePaper ?
3539 The shorthand @code{\singleLine} defines a default paper block that
3540 produces a single line.
3542 @cindex @code{textheight}
3544 @item @code{textheight}
3545 Sets the total height of the music on each page. Only used by
3548 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
3550 @item @code{interscoreline}
3551 Sets the spacing between systems. The default is 16pt.
3553 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
3555 @item @code{interscorelinefill}
3556 If set to a positive number, the distance between the score
3557 lines will stretch in order to fill the full page. In that
3558 case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
3563 @cindex @code{stafflinethickness}
3565 @item @code{stafflinethickness}
3566 Determines the thickness of staff lines, and also acts as a scaling
3567 parameter for other line thicknesses.
3570 You may enter these dimension using units (@code{cm}, @code{in},
3571 @code{mm}, @code{pt}), or relative to another dimension
3573 linewidth = 20.0 * \staffspace
3580 @subsection Font size
3583 The Feta font provides musical symbols at six different sizes. These
3584 fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point,
3585 23 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the
3586 height of the five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
3588 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
3589 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any of
3590 these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven}, @code{paperThirteen},
3591 @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and
3592 @code{paperTwentysix} are defined respectively. The default
3593 @code{\paper} block is also set.
3595 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
3596 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
3602 @subsection Paper size
3607 @cindex @code{papersize}
3609 To change the paper size, you must first set the
3610 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
3611 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
3612 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
3613 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
3616 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
3617 \include "paper16.ly"
3620 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
3621 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
3622 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
3626 @subsection Line break
3629 @cindex breaking lines
3631 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
3632 that it looks neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines have
3635 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do
3636 this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at this
3637 point. Do remember that line breaks can only occur at places where there
3638 are bar lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no
3639 bar line, you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
3640 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain point.
3642 If you want linebreaks at regular intervals, you can use the following:
3645 < \repeat 7 unfold @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
3649 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
3653 @cindex @code{\penalty}
3655 The @code{\break} and @code{\noBreak} commands are defined in terms of
3656 the penalty command:
3661 This encourages or discourages LilyPond to make a line break at this
3666 The scaling of the @code{\penalty} argument is not well-defined. The
3667 command is rather kludgey, and slated for rewriting.
3671 @subsection Page break
3674 @cindex breaking pages
3676 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
3677 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into the
3678 @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages, by inserting
3679 the command @code{\newpage}
3680 @cindex @code{\newpage}
3686 @c why do so difficult?
3687 @c maybe should explain contents of between-system.ly,
3688 @c but not now, we're talking about page breaks here.
3690 @c details, see the example file @file{input/test/between-systems.ly}
3693 @c . {Output scaling}
3694 @node Output scaling
3695 @subsection Output scaling
3710 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3711 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts.
3715 @c . {Output formats}
3716 @node Output formats
3717 @section Output formats
3719 LilyPond can output processed music in different output formats.
3723 * PostScript output::
3725 * ASCIIScript output::
3729 @subsection TeX output
3732 LilyPond will use @TeX{} by default. Even if you want to produce
3733 PostScript output for viewing or printing, you should normally have
3734 LilyPond produce @TeX{} first. The .tex output must be processed by
3735 @TeX{} (@strong{not} La@TeX{}) to generate a .dvi. Then, @file{Dvips}
3736 is used to generate PostScript. Alternatively, @file{ly2dvi} can be
3737 used to generate the .dvi for you.
3741 Titling is not generated unless you use @file{ly2dvi}.
3744 @node PostScript output
3745 @subsection PostScript output
3746 @cindex PostScript output
3747 @cindex direct PostScript output
3749 LilyPond can produce PostScript directly, without going through @TeX{}.
3750 Currently, this is mainly useful if you cannot use TeX, because direct
3751 PostScript output has some problems; see Bugs below.
3754 $ lilypond -fps foo.ly
3755 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3756 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3758 Interpreting music...[3]
3759 Preprocessing elements...
3760 Calculating column positions...
3761 paper output to foo.ps...
3763 $ cat /usr/share/lilypond/pfa/feta20.pfa foo.ps | lpr
3769 Text font selection is broken.
3771 The .ps file does not contain the .pfa font files. To print a .ps
3772 created through direct postscript output, you should prepend the
3773 necessary .pfa files to LilyPond's .ps output, or upload them to the
3774 printer before printing.
3776 The line height calculation is broken, you must set @var{lineheight} in
3777 the paperblock if you have more than one staff in your score, e.g.
3782 % Set line height to 40 staff spaces
3788 @subsection Scheme output
3789 @cindex Scheme output
3791 In the typesetting stage, LilyPond builds a page description, which is
3792 then written to disk in postscript, @TeX{} or ASCII art. Before it is
3793 written, the page description is represented as Scheme expressions. You
3794 can also dump these Scheme expressions to a file, which may be
3795 convenient for debugging output routines. This is done with the Scheme
3799 $ lilypond -fscm foo.ly
3800 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3801 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3803 Interpreting music...[3]
3804 Preprocessing elements...
3805 Calculating column positions...
3806 paper output to foo.scm...
3809 ;;; Usage: guile -s x.scm > x.tex
3810 (primitive-load-path 'standalone.scm)
3814 $ guile -s foo.scm > foo.tex
3818 @node ASCIIScript output
3819 @subsection ASCIIScript output
3820 @cindex ASCIIScript output
3821 @cindex ascii script
3824 LilyPond can output ASCII Art. This is a two step process, LilyPond
3825 produces an ASCII description file, dubbed ASCIIScript (extension
3826 @file{.as}). ASCIIScript has a small and simple command set that
3827 includes font selection, character and string printing and line drawing
3828 commands. The program @file{as2text} is used to translate an .as file
3831 To produce ASCII Art, you must include an ASCII Art paper definition
3832 file in your .ly, one of:
3834 \include "paper-as5.ly"
3835 \include "paper-as9.ly"
3838 Here's an example use for ASCII Art output (the example file
3839 @file{as-email.ly} is included in the LilyPond distribution), the staff
3840 symbol has been made invisible:
3843 $ lilypond -fas as-email.ly
3844 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3845 Now processing: `as-email.ly'
3847 Interpreting music...[3]
3848 Preprocessing elements...
3849 Calculating column positions... [2]
3850 paper output to as-email.as...
3852 $ as2text as-email.as 2>/dev/null
3854 |/ |##|##| | | | | |
3855 /| | | | | |\ |\ |\ |\ |\ |
3856 / |_ 3 | | | | 5 | )| )| )| )| )|
3857 | /| \ 8 * * * | 8 * * * * * |
3867 The ASCII Art fonts are far from complete and not very well designed.
3868 It's easy to change the glyphs, though; if you think you can do better,
3869 have a look at @file{mf/*.af}.
3871 Lots of resizable symbols such as slurs, ties and tuplets are missing.
3873 The poor looks of most ASCII Art output and its limited general
3874 usefulness gives ASCII Art output a low priority; it may be
3875 dropped in future versions.
3882 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
3883 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, etc., but it
3884 is good enough for proof-hearing the music you have entered. Ties,
3885 dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
3887 Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume
3888 levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available
3889 MIDI volume range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary
3890 linearly between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
3891 overriding the @code{absolute-volume-alist} defined in
3892 @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3894 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
3895 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
3896 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. You can add
3897 instruments and ranges or change the default settings by overriding the
3898 @code{instrument-equalizer-alist} defined in @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3900 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
3905 It is currently not possible to use the percussion channel (generally
3906 channel 10 of a MIDI file).
3910 * MIDI instrument names::
3915 @subsection MIDI block
3919 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
3920 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
3924 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
3925 @item context definitions
3928 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
3932 @cindex context definition
3934 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
3935 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
3936 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer.ly}.
3939 @node MIDI instrument names
3940 @subsection MIDI instrument names
3942 @cindex instrument names
3943 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3944 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
3946 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3947 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
3948 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
3949 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
3953 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
3954 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by
3964 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
3967 @section Music entry
3975 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce errors. This
3976 section deals with tricks and features that help you enter music, and
3977 find and correct mistakes.
3981 @subsection Relative
3983 @cindex relative octave specification
3985 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
3986 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
3987 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
3988 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
3990 @cindex @code{\relative}
3992 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
3995 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
3996 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
3997 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
3998 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
3999 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
4002 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
4003 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
4004 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
4005 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
4007 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
4008 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
4014 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
4015 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4017 c g c f, c' a, e'' }
4020 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
4021 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
4022 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
4025 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4032 @cindex @code{\notes}
4034 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
4035 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
4036 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
4039 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
4040 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
4041 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
4042 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
4047 @subsection Bar check
4051 @cindex @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}
4055 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
4056 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
4057 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
4058 @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
4059 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
4061 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}:
4063 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
4068 @cindex skipTypesetting
4070 Failed bar checks are most often caused by entering incorrect
4071 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
4072 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the score
4073 by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To speed up
4074 this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting} (See @ref{Skipping
4075 corrected music})). Bar
4078 @c . {Point and click}
4079 @node Point and click
4080 @subsection Point and click
4082 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
4083 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
4084 error in the sheet music.
4086 To use it, you need the following software
4088 @unnumberedsubsec Installation
4092 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,plain
4093 Xdvi} version 22.36 or newer.
4095 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is a
4096 different and less well maintained program. To find out which xdvi you
4097 are running, try @code{xdvi --version} or @code{xdvi.bin --version}.
4101 Xdvi must be configured to find the TeX fonts and music
4102 fonts. Refer to the Xdvi documentation for more information.
4105 @unnumberedsubsec Using it
4107 Add one of these lines to the top of your .ly file. The first one is for
4108 line location only. The second one is more convenient, but requires
4109 patching @code{emacsclient} and @code{server.el}.
4112 #(set! point-and-click line-location)
4115 In the emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}), add the following
4120 Make sure that the environment variable @code{XEDITOR} is set
4123 emacsclient --no-wait +%l %f
4125 The second one, that also specifies the column, only works if you have
4126 patched your emacsclient and server, and have compiled your @code{.ly}
4127 file using the @code{line-column-location} setting.
4129 When viewing, control-mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
4130 spot in the @file{.ly} file. Control-mousebutton 2 will show all
4134 @unnumberedsubsec Column location
4136 If you want emacs to jump to the exact spot (and not just the line) on a
4137 click, you must enable column positioning. To do so, you need to patch
4138 emacsclient. Apply @file{emacsclient.patch} (included with the source
4139 package) to @file{emacsclient.c} and @file{server.el} from the emacs
4140 source code. Recompile and stick the recompiled emacsclient into a bin
4141 directory, and put @file{server.el} into a elisp directory
4142 (e.g. @file{~/usr/share/emacs/}). Add the following to your @file{.emacs}
4143 init file, before invoking server-start.
4146 (setq load-path (cons "~/usr/share/emacs" load-path))
4149 Set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{emacsclient --no-wait +%l:%c %f}
4151 At the top of the @code{ly} file, replace the @code{set!} line with the
4154 #(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
4157 One final hint: if you correct large files with point-and-click, then
4158 start correcting at the end of the file. When you start at the top, and
4159 insert one line, all subsequent locations will be off by a line.
4164 When you convert the @TeX{} file to PostScript using @code{dvips}, it
4165 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. Those complaints
4166 are harmless, and can be ignored.
4168 @node Skipping corrected music
4169 @section Skipping corrected music
4171 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
4172 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
4173 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
4174 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
4177 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4178 \relative c'' { c8 d
4179 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
4181 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
4186 @node Interpretation context
4187 @section Interpretation context
4190 * Creating contexts::
4191 * Default contexts::
4192 * Context properties::
4193 * Engravers and performers::
4194 * Changing context definitions::
4195 * Defining new contexts::
4199 Interpretation contexts are objects that only exist during a run of
4200 LilyPond. During the interpretation phase of LilyPond (when it prints
4201 "interpreting music"), the music expression in a @code{\score} block is
4202 interpreted in time order. This is the same order that humans hear and
4205 During this interpretation, the interpretation context holds the
4206 state for the current point within the music. It contains information
4210 @item What notes are playing at this point?
4211 @item What symbols will be printed at this point?
4212 @item What is the current key signature, time signature, point within
4216 Contexts are grouped hierarchically: A @internalsref{Voice} context is
4217 contained in a @internalsref{Staff} context (because a staff can contain
4218 multiple voices at any point), a @internalsref{Staff} context is contained in
4219 @internalsref{Score}, @internalsref{StaffGroup}, or @internalsref{ChoirStaff} context.
4221 Contexts associated with sheet music output are called @emph{notation
4222 contexts}, those for sound output are called @emph{performance
4223 contexts}. The default definitions of the standard notation and
4224 performance contexts can be found in @file{ly/engraver.ly} and
4225 @file{ly/performer.ly}, respectively.
4228 @node Creating contexts
4229 @subsection Creating contexts
4231 @cindex @code{\context}
4232 @cindex context selection
4234 Contexts for a music expression can be selected manually, using the
4235 following music expression.
4238 \context @var{contexttype} [= @var{contextname}] @var{musicexpr}
4241 This instructs lilypond to interpret @var{musicexpr} within the context
4242 of type @var{contexttype} and with name @var{contextname}. If this
4243 context does not exist, it will be created.
4245 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4247 \notes \relative c'' {
4248 c4 <d4 \context Staff = "another" e4> f
4254 In this example, the @code{c} and @code{d} are printed on the
4255 default staff. For the @code{e}, a context Staff called
4256 @code{another} is specified; since that does not exist, a new
4257 context is created. Within @code{another}, a (default) Voice context
4258 is created for the @code{e4}. When all music referring to a
4259 context is finished, the context is ended as well. So after the
4260 third quarter, @code{another} is removed.
4264 @node Default contexts
4265 @subsection Default contexts
4267 Most music expressions don't need an explicit @code{\context}
4268 declaration: they inherit the
4269 notation context from their parent. Each note is a music expression, and
4270 as you can see in the following example, only the sequential music
4271 enclosing the three notes has an explicit context.
4273 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4274 \score { \notes \context Voice = goUp { c'4 d' e' } }
4277 There are some quirks that you must keep in mind when dealing with
4280 First, every top level music is interpreted by the Score context, in other
4281 words, you may think of @code{\score} working like
4284 \context Score @var{music}
4288 Second, contexts are created automatically to be able to interpret the
4289 music expressions. Consider the following example.
4291 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4292 \score { \context Score \notes { c'4 ( d' )e' } }
4295 The sequential music is interpreted by the Score context initially
4296 (notice that the @code{\context} specification is redundant), but when a
4297 note is encountered, contexts are setup to accept that note. In this
4298 case, a Thread, Voice and Staff are created. The rest of the sequential
4299 music is also interpreted with the same Thread, Voice and Staff context,
4300 putting the notes on the same staff, in the same voice.
4302 This is a convenient mechanism, but do not expect opening chords to work
4303 without @code{\context}. For every note, a separate staff is
4306 @cindex explicit context
4307 @cindex starting with chords
4308 @cindex chords, starting with
4310 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4311 \score { \notes <c'4 es'> }
4314 Of course, if the chord is preceded by a normal note in sequential
4315 music, the chord will be interpreted by the Thread of the preceding
4317 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4318 \score { \notes { c'4 <c'4 es'> } }
4323 @node Context properties
4324 @subsection Context properties
4326 Notation contexts have properties. These properties are from
4327 the @file{.ly} file using the following expression:
4328 @cindex @code{\property}
4330 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} = @var{value}
4333 Sets the @var{propname} property of the context @var{contextname} to the
4334 specified Scheme expression @var{value}. All @var{propname} and
4335 @var{contextname} are strings, which are typically unquoted.
4337 Properties that are set in one context are inherited by all of the
4338 contained contexts. This means that a property valid for the
4339 @internalsref{Voice} context can be set in the @internalsref{Score} context (for
4340 example) and thus take effect in all @internalsref{Voice} contexts.
4342 Properties can be unset using the following expression:
4344 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} \unset
4347 @cindex properties, unsetting
4348 @cindex @code{\unset}
4350 This removes the definition of @var{propname} in @var{contextname}. If
4351 @var{propname} was not defined in @var{contextname} (but was inherited
4352 from a higher context), then this has no effect.
4357 The syntax of @code{\unset} is asymmetric: @code{\property \unset} is not
4358 the inverse of @code{\property \set}.
4360 @node Engravers and performers
4361 @subsection Engravers and performers
4365 Basic building blocks of translation are called engravers; they are
4366 special C++ classes.
4370 @c . {Context definitions}
4371 @node Changing context definitions
4372 @subsection Changing context definitions
4374 @cindex context definition
4375 @cindex translator definition
4377 The most common way to define a context is by extending an existing
4378 context. You can change an existing context from the paper block, by
4379 first initializing a translator with an existing context identifier:
4383 @var{context-identifier}
4386 Then you can add and remove engravers using the following syntax:
4388 \remove @var{engravername}
4389 \consists @var{engravername}
4393 Here @var{engravername} is a string, the name of an engraver in the
4397 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4401 \translator { \StaffContext
4402 \remove Clef_engraver
4408 You can also set properties in a translator definition. The syntax is as
4411 @var{propname} = @var{value}
4412 @var{propname} \set @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4413 @var{propname} \override @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4414 @var{propname} \revert @var{grob-propname}
4416 @var{propname} is a string, @var{grob-propname} a symbol, @var{value}
4417 and @code{pvalue} are Scheme expressions. These type of property
4418 assignments happen before interpretation starts, so a @code{\property}
4419 command will override any predefined settings.
4422 To simplify editing translators, all standard contexts have standard
4423 identifiers called @var{name}@code{Context}, e.g. @code{StaffContext},
4424 @code{VoiceContext}, see @file{ly/engraver.ly}.
4426 @node Defining new contexts
4427 @subsection Defining new contexts
4429 If you want to build a context from scratch, you must also supply the
4430 following extra information:
4432 @item A name, specified by @code{\name @var{contextname}}.
4434 @item A cooperation module. This is specified by @code{\type
4441 \type "Engraver_group_engraver"
4444 \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4445 \consists "Note_head_engraver"
4446 \consistsend "Axis_group_engraver"
4450 The argument of @code{\type} is the name for a special engraver that
4451 handles cooperation between simple engravers such as
4452 @code{Note_head_engraver} and @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. Alternatives
4453 for this engraver are the following:
4455 @cindex @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4456 @item @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4457 The standard cooperation engraver.
4459 @cindex @code{Score_engraver}
4461 @item @code{Score_engraver}
4462 This is cooperation module that should be in the top level context,
4463 and only the top level context.
4465 @cindex @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4467 @item @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4468 This is a special cooperation module (resembling
4469 @code{Score_engraver}) that is used to create an embedded
4476 @item @code{\alias} @var{alternate-name}
4477 This specifies a different name. In the above example,
4478 @code{\property Staff.X = Y} will also work on @code{SimpleStaff}s
4480 @item @code{\consistsend} @var{engravername}
4481 Analogous to @code{\consists}, but makes sure that
4482 @var{engravername} is always added to the end of the list of
4485 Some engraver types need to be at the end of the list; this
4486 insures they stay there even if a user adds or removes engravers.
4487 End-users generally don't need this command.
4489 @item @code{\accepts} @var{contextname}
4490 Add @var{contextname} to the list of contexts this context can
4491 contain in the context hierarchy. The first listed context is the
4492 context to create by default.
4494 @item @code{\denies}. The opposite of @code{\accepts}. Added for
4495 completeness, but is never used in practice.
4498 @item @code{\name} @var{contextname}
4499 This sets the type name of the context, e.g. @internalsref{Staff},
4500 @internalsref{Voice}. If the name is not specified, the translator won't do
4504 In the @code{\paper} block, it is also possible to define translator
4505 identifiers. Like other block identifiers, the identifier can only
4506 be used as the very first item of a translator. In order to define
4507 such an identifier outside of @code{\score}, you must do
4512 foo = \translator @{ @dots{} @}
4519 \translator @{ \foo @dots{} @}
4527 @cindex paper types, engravers, and pre-defined translators
4534 @c . {Syntactic details}
4535 @node Syntactic details
4536 @section Syntactic details
4537 @cindex Syntactic details
4539 This section describes details that were too boring to be put elsewhere.
4544 * Music expressions::
4545 * Manipulating music expressions::
4553 @subsection Top level
4556 This section describes what you may enter at top level.
4560 @subsubsection Score
4563 @cindex score definition
4565 The output is generated combining a music expression with an output
4566 definition. A score block has the following syntax:
4569 \score @{ @var{musicexpr} @var{outputdefs} @}
4572 @var{outputdefs} are zero or more output definitions. If none is
4573 supplied, the default @code{\paper} block will be added.
4577 @c . {Default output}
4578 @subsubsection Default output
4580 Default values for the @code{\paper} and @code{\midi} block are set by
4581 entering such a block at the top level.
4584 @subsubsection Header
4586 @cindex @code{\header}
4589 A header describes bibliographic information of the file's contents. It
4590 can also appear in a @code{\score} block. Tools like @code{ly2dvi} can
4591 use this information for generating titles. Key values that are used by
4592 @code{ly2dvi} are: title, subtitle, composer, opus, poet, instrument,
4593 meter, arranger, piece and tagline.
4595 @cindex @code{ly2dvi}
4599 \header @{ @var{key1} = @var{val1}
4600 @var{key2} = @var{val2} @dots{} @}
4603 It is customary to put the @code{\header} at the top of the file.
4605 @subsubsection Default output
4607 A @code{\midi} or @code{\paper} block at top level sets the default
4608 paper block for all scores that lack an explicit paper block.
4612 @subsection Identifiers
4616 What has this section got to do with identifiers?
4617 It seems more appropriate in the introduction to Chapter 4,
4623 All of the information in a LilyPond input file, is internally
4624 represented as a Scheme value. In addition to normal Scheme data types
4625 (such as pair, number, boolean, etc.), LilyPond has a number of
4626 specialized data types,
4633 @item Translator_def
4637 @item Music_output_def
4638 @item Moment (rational number)
4641 LilyPond also includes some transient object types. Objects of these
4642 types are built during a LilyPond run, and do not `exist' per se within
4643 your input file. These objects are created as a result of your input
4644 file, so you can include commands in the input to manipulate them,
4645 during a lilypond run.
4648 @item Grob: short for Graphical object. See @ref{Grobs}.
4649 @item Molecule: device-independent page output object,
4650 including dimensions. Produced by some Grob functions
4652 @item Translator: object that produces audio objects or Grobs. This is
4653 not yet user accessible.
4654 @item Font_metric: object representing a font. (See @ref{Font metrics})
4659 @node Music expressions
4660 @subsection Music expressions
4662 @cindex music expressions
4664 Music in LilyPond is entered as a music expression. Notes, rests, lyric
4665 syllables are music expressions, and you can combine music expressions
4666 to form new ones, for example by enclosing a list of expressions in
4667 @code{\sequential @{ @}} or @code{< >}. In the following example, a
4668 compound expression is formed out of the quarter note @code{c} and a
4669 quarter note @code{d}:
4672 \sequential @{ c4 d4 @}
4675 @cindex Sequential music
4676 @cindex @code{\sequential}
4677 @cindex sequential music
4680 @cindex Simultaneous music
4681 @cindex @code{\simultaneous}
4683 The two basic compound music expressions are simultaneous and
4687 \sequential @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4688 \simultaneous @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4690 For both, there is a shorthand:
4692 @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4696 @code{<} @var{musicexprlist} @code{>}
4698 for simultaneous music.
4699 In principle, the way in which you nest sequential and simultaneous to
4700 produce music is not relevant. In the following example, three chords
4701 are expressed in two different ways:
4703 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4704 \notes \context Voice {
4705 <a c'> <b d' > <c' e'>
4706 < { a b c' } { c' d' e' } >
4711 Other compound music expressions include
4714 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{expr}
4715 \apply @var{func} @var{expr}
4716 \context @var{type} = @var{id} @var{expr}
4717 \times @var{fraction} @var{expr}
4721 @c . {Manipulating music expressions}
4722 @node Manipulating music expressions
4723 @subsection Manipulating music expressions
4725 The @code{\apply} mechanism gives you access to the internal
4726 representation of music. You can write Scheme-functions that operate
4727 directly on it. The syntax is
4729 \apply #@var{func} @var{music}
4731 This means that @var{func} is applied to @var{music}. The function
4732 @var{func} should return a music expression.
4734 This example replaces the text string of a script. It also shows a dump
4735 of the music it processes, which is useful if you want to know more
4736 about how music is stored.
4738 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4739 #(define (testfunc x)
4740 (if (equal? (ly-get-mus-property x 'text) "foo")
4741 (ly-set-mus-property x 'text "bar"))
4743 (ly-set-mus-property x 'elements
4744 (map testfunc (ly-get-mus-property x 'elements)))
4749 \apply #testfunc { c'4_"foo" }
4753 For more information on what is possible, see the automatically
4754 generated documentation.
4757 Directly accessing internal representations is dangerous: the
4758 implementation is subject to changes, so you should avoid this feature
4761 A final example is a function that reverses a piece of music in time:
4763 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4764 #(define (reverse-music music)
4765 (let* ((elements (ly-get-mus-property music 'elements))
4766 (reversed (reverse elements))
4767 (span-dir (ly-get-mus-property music 'span-direction)))
4768 (ly-set-mus-property music 'elements reversed)
4770 (ly-set-mus-property music 'span-direction (- span-dir)))
4771 (map reverse-music reversed)
4774 music = \notes { c'4 d'4( e'4 f'4 }
4776 \score { \context Voice {
4778 \apply #reverse-music \music
4783 More examples are given in the distributed example files in
4786 @c . {Span requests}
4792 @subsubsection Span requests
4793 @cindex Span requests
4795 Notational constructs that start and end on different notes can be
4796 entered using span requests. The syntax is as follows:
4800 \spanrequest @var{startstop} @var{type}
4804 @cindex @code{\start}
4805 @cindex @code{\stop}
4807 This defines a spanning request. The @var{startstop} parameter is either
4808 -1 (@code{\start}) or 1 (@code{\stop}) and @var{type} is a string that
4809 describes what should be started. Much of the syntactic sugar is a
4810 shorthand for @code{\spanrequest}, for example,
4812 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4813 c'4-\spanrequest \start "slur"
4814 c'4-\spanrequest \stop "slur"
4817 Among the supported types are @code{crescendo}, @code{decrescendo},
4818 @code{beam}, @code{slur}. This is an internal command. Users are
4819 encouraged to use the shorthands which are defined in the initialization
4820 file @file{spanners.ly}.
4825 @subsection Assignments
4828 Identifiers allow objects to be assigned to names during the parse
4829 stage. To assign an identifier, you use @var{name}@code{=}@var{value}
4830 and to refer to an identifier, you precede its name with a backslash:
4831 `@code{\}@var{name}'. @var{value} is any valid Scheme value or any of
4832 the input-types listed above. Identifier assignments can appear at top
4833 level in the LilyPond file, but also in @code{\paper} blocks.
4835 An identifier can be created with any string for its name, but you will
4836 only be able to refer to identifiers whose names begin with a letter,
4837 being entirely alphabetical. It is impossible to refer to an identifier
4838 whose name is the same as the name of a keyword.
4840 The right hand side of an identifier assignment is parsed completely
4841 before the assignment is done, so it is allowed to redefine an
4842 identifier in terms of its old value, e.g.
4848 When an identifier is referenced, the information it points to is
4849 copied. For this reason, an identifier reference must always be the
4850 first item in a block.
4854 \paperIdent % wrong and invalid
4858 \paperIdent % correct
4863 @c . {Lexical modes}
4865 @subsection Lexical modes
4866 @cindex Lexical modes
4869 @cindex @code{\notes}
4870 @cindex @code{\chords}
4871 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
4873 To simplify entering notes, lyrics, and chords, LilyPond has three
4874 special input modes in addition to the default mode: note, lyrics and
4875 chords mode. These input modes change the way that normal, unquoted
4876 words are interpreted: for example, the word @code{cis} may be
4877 interpreted as a C-sharp, as a lyric syllable `cis' or as a C-sharp
4878 major triad respectively.
4880 A mode switch is entered as a compound music expression
4882 @code{\notes} @var{musicexpr}
4883 @code{\chords} @var{musicexpr}
4884 @code{\lyrics} @var{musicexpr}.
4887 In each of these cases, these expressions do not add anything to the
4888 meaning of their arguments. They just instruct the parser in what mode
4889 to parse their arguments. The modes are treated in more detail in
4890 @ref{Lyrics} and @ref{Chords}.
4892 Different input modes may be nested.
4896 @subsection Ambiguities
4901 The grammar contains a number of ambiguities. We hope to resolve them at
4905 @item The assignment
4910 is interpreted as the string identifier assignment. However,
4911 it can also be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
4912 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo}
4913 containing the syllable `bar'.
4915 @item If you do a nested repeat like
4927 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the
4928 @code{\alternative} belongs. This is the classic if-then-else
4929 dilemma. It may be solved by using braces.
4931 @item The parser is not sophisticated enough to distinguish at the
4933 @code{c4*2 / 3 } and @code{c4*2 / g} (in chord mode).
4940 @c . {Lexical details}
4941 @node Lexical details
4942 @section Lexical details
4944 Even more boring details, now on lexical side of the input parser.
4955 * Version information::
4960 @subsection Comments
4963 @cindex block comment
4964 @cindex line comment
4968 A one line comment is introduced by a @code{%} character.
4969 Block comments are started by @code{%@{} and ended by @code{%@}}.
4970 They cannot be nested.
4973 @subsection Direct Scheme
4977 @cindex Scheme, in-line code
4980 LilyPond contains a Scheme interpreter (the GUILE library) for
4981 internal use. In some places, Scheme expressions also form valid syntax:
4982 wherever it is allowed,
4986 evaluates the specified Scheme code. Example:
4988 \property Staff.TestObject \override #'foobar = #(+ 1 2)
4990 @code{\override} expects two Scheme expressions, so there are two Scheme
4991 expressions. The first one is a symbol (@code{foobar}), the second one
4992 an integer (namely, 3).
4994 In-line scheme may be used at the top level. In this case the result is
4997 Scheme is a full-blown programming language, and a full discussion is
4998 outside the scope of this document. Interested readers are referred to
4999 the website @uref{http://www.schemers.org/} for more information on
5004 @subsection Keywords
5008 Keywords start with a backslash, followed by a number of lower case
5009 alphabetic characters. These are all the keywords.
5012 apply arpeggio autochange spanrequest commandspanrequest
5013 simultaneous sequential accepts alternative bar breathe
5014 char chordmodifiers chords clef cm consists consistsend
5015 context denies duration dynamicscript elementdescriptions
5016 font grace header in lyrics key mark pitch
5017 time times midi mm name pitchnames notes outputproperty
5018 override set revert partial paper penalty property pt
5019 relative remove repeat addlyrics partcombine score
5020 script stylesheet skip textscript tempo translator
5025 @subsection Integers
5033 Formed from an optional minus sign followed by digits. Arithmetic
5034 operations cannot be done with integers, and integers cannot be mixed
5039 @cindex real numbers
5045 Formed from an optional minus sign and a sequence of digits followed
5046 by a @emph{required} decimal point and an optional exponent such as
5047 @code{-1.2e3}. Reals can be built up using the usual operations:
5048 `@code{+}', `@code{-}', `@code{*}', and
5049 `@code{/}', with parentheses for grouping.
5057 A real constant can be followed by one of the dimension keywords:
5058 @code{\mm} @code{\pt}, @code{\in}, or @code{\cm}, for millimeters,
5059 points, inches and centimeters, respectively. This converts the number
5060 a number that is the internal representation of that dimension.
5068 Begins and ends with the @code{"} character. To include a @code{"}
5069 character in a string write @code{\"}. Various other backslash
5070 sequences have special interpretations as in the C language. A string
5071 that contains no spaces can be written without the quotes. Strings can
5072 be concatenated with the @code{+} operator.
5076 @subsection Main input
5079 @cindex @code{\maininput}
5081 The @code{\maininput} command is used in init files to signal that the
5082 user file must be read. This command cannot be used in a user file.
5084 @node File inclusion
5085 @subsection File inclusion
5086 @cindex @code{\include}
5088 \include @var{filename}
5091 Include @var{filename}. The argument @var{filename} may be a quoted string (an
5092 unquoted string will not work here!) or a string identifier. The full
5093 filename including the @file{.ly} extension must be given,
5096 @node Version information
5097 @subsection Version information
5098 @cindex @code{\version}
5100 \version @var{string}
5103 Specify the version of LilyPond that a file was written for. The
5104 argument is a version string in quotes, for example @code{"1.2.0"}.
5105 This is used to detect invalid input, and to aid
5106 @code{convert-ly} a tool that automatically upgrades input files. See
5107 See @ref{convert-ly} for more information on @code{convert-ly}.
5115 @c broken with emacs-21
5116 @c {Local emac s vars}
5117 @c Local varia bles:
5119 @c minor-mod e: font-lock
5120 @c minor-mo de: outline
5121 @c outline -layout: (-1 : 0)
5122 @c outlin e-use-mode-specific-leader: "@c \."
5123 @c outli ne-primary-bullet: "{"
5124 @c outli ne-stylish-prefixes: nil
5125 @c outli ne-override-protect: t