1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
4 Translation of GIT committish: FILL-IN-HEAD-COMMITTISH
6 When revising a translation, copy the HEAD committish of the
7 version that you are working on. For details, see the Contributors'
8 Guide, node Updating translation committishes..
14 Tutorial guidelines: (different from policy.txt!)
15 - unless you have a really good reason, use either
16 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
18 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
20 Don't use any other relative=X commands.
22 - use "aes" and "ees" instead of "as" and "es". I know it's not
23 correct Dutch naming, but let's not confuse people with this
24 until we get to the Basic notation chapter.
26 - Add "Music Glossary: @rglos{foo}" to the *top* of the relevant
27 portions of the tutorial.
33 @chapter Common notation
35 This chapter explains how to create beautiful printed music
36 containing common musical notation, following the material in
40 * Single staff notation::
41 * Multiple notes at once::
47 @node Single staff notation
48 @section Single staff notation
50 This section introduces common notation that is used for one voice
55 * Accidentals and key signatures::
57 * Articulation and dynamics::
59 * Automatic and manual beams::
60 * Advanced rhythmic commands::
65 @subsection Bar checks
67 Though not strictly necessary, @emph{bar checks} should be
68 used in the input code to show where bar lines are expected
69 to fall. They are entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}.
70 With bar checks, the program can verify that you've entered
71 durations that make each measure add up to the correct
72 length. Bar checks also make your input code easier to
73 read, since they help to keep things organized.
75 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
76 g1 | e1 | c2. c'4 | g4 c g e | c4 r r2 |
81 @ruser{Bar and bar number checks}.
84 @node Accidentals and key signatures
85 @subsection Accidentals and key signatures
87 @warning{New users are often confused by these -- please read the
88 warning at the bottom of this page, especially if you are not
89 familiar with music theory!}
91 @subheading Accidentals
94 @cindex accidentals and key signatures
107 Music Glossary: @rglos{sharp}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{double sharp},
108 @rglos{double flat}, @rglos{accidental}.
110 A @notation{sharp} pitch is made by adding @code{is} to the name,
111 and a @notation{flat} pitch by adding @code{es}. As you might
112 expect, a @notation{double sharp} or @notation{double flat} is
113 made by adding @code{isis} or @code{eses}. This syntax is derived
114 from note naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages,
115 like German and Dutch. To use other names for
116 @notation{accidentals}, see @ruser{Note names in other languages}.
118 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
119 cis4 ees fisis, aeses
122 @cindex key signature, setting
123 @subheading Key signatures
125 @cindex key signature
128 @cindex accidentals and key signature
129 @cindex content vs. layout
130 @cindex layout vs. content
139 Music Glossary: @rglos{key signature}, @rglos{major},
142 The @notation{key signature} is set with the command @code{\key}
143 followed by a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}.
145 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
154 @subheading Warning: key signatures and pitches
156 Music Glossary: @rglos{accidental}, @rglos{key signature},
157 @rglos{pitch}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{natural}, @rglos{sharp},
158 @rglos{transposition}, @rglos{Pitch names}.
160 To determine whether to print an @notation{accidental}, LilyPond
161 examines the pitches and the @notation{key signature}. The key
162 signature only affects the @emph{printed} accidentals, not the
163 note's @notation{pitch}! This is a feature that often causes
164 confusion to newcomers, so let us explain it in more detail.
166 LilyPond makes a clear distinction between musical content and
167 layout. The alteration (@notation{flat}, @notation{natural sign} or
168 @notation{sharp}) of a note is part of the pitch, and is therefore
169 musical content. Whether an accidental (a @emph{printed} flat,
170 natural or sharp sign) is printed in front of the corresponding
171 note is a question of layout. Layout is something that follows
172 rules, so accidentals are printed automatically according to those
173 rules. The pitches in your music are works of art, so they will
174 not be added automatically, and you must enter what you want to
179 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
185 No note has a printed accidental, but you must still add
186 @code{is} and type @code{cis} and @code{fis} in the input file.
188 The code @code{b} does not mean @qq{print a black dot just on
189 the middle line of the staff.} Rather, it means @qq{there is a
190 note with pitch B-natural.} In the key of A-flat major, it
191 @emph{does} get an accidental:
193 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
198 If the above seems confusing, consider this: if you were playing a
199 piano, which key would you hit? If you would press a black key,
200 then you @emph{must} add @w{@code{-is}} or @w{@code{-es}} to the note
203 Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more
204 effort when typing, but the advantage is that
205 @notation{transposing} is easier, and accidentals can be printed
206 according to different conventions. For some examples of how
207 accidentals can be printed according to different rules, see
208 @ruser{Automatic accidentals}.
213 @ruser{Note names in other languages},
215 @ruser{Automatic accidentals},
216 @ruser{Key signature}.
220 @subsection Ties and slurs
224 @cindex slur, phrasing
225 @cindex phrasing slur
234 Music Glossary: @rglos{tie}.
236 A @notation{tie} is created by appending a tilde @code{~} to the
237 first note being tied.
239 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
240 g4~ g c2~ | c4~ c8 a~ a2 |
246 Music Glossary: @rglos{slur}.
248 A @notation{slur} is a curve drawn across many notes. The
249 starting note and ending note are marked with @code{(} and
250 @code{)} respectively.
252 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
253 d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
256 @subheading Phrasing slurs
258 Music Glossary: @rglos{slur}, @rglos{phrasing}.
260 Slurs to indicate longer @notation{phrasing} can be entered with
261 @code{\(} and @code{\)}. You can have both @notation{slurs}
262 and phrasing slurs at the same time, but you cannot have
263 simultaneous slurs or simultaneous phrasing slurs.
265 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
266 g4\( g8( a) b( c) b4\)
271 @cindex slurs versus ties
272 @subheading Warnings: slurs vs. ties
274 Music Glossary: @rglos{articulation}, @rglos{slur}, @rglos{tie}.
276 A @notation{slur} looks like a @notation{tie}, but it has a
277 different meaning. A tie simply makes the first note longer, and
278 can only be used on pairs of notes with the same pitch. Slurs
279 indicate the @notation{articulation} of notes, and can be used on
280 larger groups of notes. Slurs and ties can be nested.
282 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
291 @ruser{Phrasing slurs}.
294 @node Articulation and dynamics
295 @subsection Articulation and dynamics
298 @subheading Articulations
304 Music Glossary: @rglos{articulation}.
306 Common @notation{articulations} can be added to a note using a
307 dash @code{-} and a single character:
309 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
314 @subheading Fingerings
321 Music Glossary: @rglos{fingering}.
323 Similarly, @notation{fingering} indications can be added to a note
324 using a dash (@code{-}) and the digit to be printed:
326 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
330 Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but
331 you can specify a direction by replacing the dash (@code{-}) with
332 @code{^} (up) or @code{_} (down). You can also use multiple
333 articulations on the same note. However, in most cases it is best
334 to let LilyPond determine the articulation directions.
336 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
337 c4_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
359 Music Glossary: @rglos{dynamics}, @rglos{crescendo},
362 @notation{Dynamic} signs are made by adding the markings (with a
363 backslash) to the note:
365 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
370 @notation{Crescendi} and @notation{decrescendi} are started with
371 the commands @code{\<} and @code{\>}. The next dynamics sign, for
372 example @code{\f}, will end the (de)crescendo, or the command
373 @code{\!} can be used:
375 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
382 @ruser{Articulations and ornamentations},
383 @ruser{Fingering instructions},
388 @subsection Adding text
397 Text may be added to your scores:
399 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
403 Extra formatting may be added with the @code{\markup} command:
405 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
406 c2^\markup { \bold espr }
408 \dynamic f \italic \small { 2nd } \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
415 @ruser{Writing text}.
418 @node Automatic and manual beams
419 @subsection Automatic and manual beams
422 @cindex automatic beams
424 @cindex beams, automatic
425 @cindex beams, manual
426 @cindex beams, by hand
431 @funindex \autoBeamOff
432 @funindex autoBeamOff
433 @funindex \autoBeamOn
436 Music Glossary: @rglos{beam}.
438 All @notation{beams} are drawn automatically:
440 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
441 a8 ais d ees r d c16 b a8
444 If you do not like the automatic beams, they may be overridden
445 manually. To correct just an occasional beam mark the first note
446 to be beamed with @code{[} and the last one with @code{]}.
448 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
449 a8[ ais] d[ ees r d] c16 b a8
452 If you want to turn off automatic beaming entirely or for an
453 extended section of music, use the command @code{\autoBeamOff}
454 to turn off automatic beaming and @code{\autoBeamOn} to turn it
457 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
467 @ruser{Automatic beams},
468 @ruser{Manual beams}.
471 @node Advanced rhythmic commands
472 @subsection Advanced rhythmic commands
474 @subheading Partial measure
478 @cindex partial measure
483 Music Glossary: @rglos{anacrusis}.
485 A pickup (or @notation{anacrusis}) is entered with the keyword
486 @code{\partial}. It is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4}
487 is a quarter note pickup and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note.
489 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
502 Music Glossary: @rglos{note value}, @rglos{triplet}.
504 @notation{Tuplets} are made with the @code{\tuplet} keyword. It
505 takes two arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The
506 fraction is the number of tuplet notes over the number
507 of notes normally filling the same duration.
508 For triplets, there are three notes instead of two, so
509 @notation{triplets} have 3/2 as their fraction.
511 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
512 \tuplet 3/2 { f8 g a }
513 \tuplet 3/2 { c8 r c }
514 \tuplet 3/2 { f,8 g16[ a g a] }
515 \tuplet 3/2 { d4 a8 }
518 @subheading Grace notes
526 @funindex \acciaccatura
527 @funindex acciaccatura
528 @funindex \appoggiatura
529 @funindex acciaccatura
531 Music Glossary: @rglos{grace notes}, @rglos{acciaccatura},
532 @rglos{appoggiatura}.
534 @notation{Grace notes} are created with the @code{\grace} command,
535 although they can also be created by prefixing a music expression
536 with the keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}:
538 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
539 c2 \grace { a32[ b] } c2 |
540 c2 \appoggiatura b16 c2 |
541 c2 \acciaccatura b16 c2 |
552 @node Multiple notes at once
553 @section Multiple notes at once
555 This section introduces having more than one note at the same
556 time: multiple instruments, multiple staves for a single
557 instrument (i.e. piano), and chords.
559 Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occurring
560 in a piece of music. Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more
561 than one voice on the same staff.
564 * Music expressions explained::
567 * Combining notes into chords::
568 * Single staff polyphony::
572 @node Music expressions explained
573 @subsection Music expressions explained
575 @cindex music expression
576 @cindex expression, music
577 @cindex compound music expression
578 @cindex music expression, compound
580 In LilyPond input files, music is represented by @emph{music
581 expressions}. A single note is a music expression:
583 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
587 Enclosing a note in braces creates a @emph{compound music
588 expression}. Here we have created a compound music expression
591 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
595 Putting a group of music expressions (e.g. notes) in braces means
596 that they are in sequence (i.e. each one follows the previous
597 one). The result is another music expression:
599 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
603 @subheading Analogy: mathematical expressions
605 This mechanism is similar to mathematical formulas: a big formula
606 is created by composing small formulas. Such formulas are called
607 expressions, and they can contain other expressions, so you can
608 make arbitrarily complex and large expressions. For example,
617 ((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
620 This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is
621 contained in the next (larger) one. The simplest expressions are
622 numbers, and larger ones are made by combining expressions with
623 operators (like @code{+}, @code{*} and @code{/}) and parentheses.
624 Like mathematical expressions, music expressions can be nested
625 arbitrarily deep, which is necessary for complex music like
629 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: multiple staves
631 @cindex multiple staves
632 @cindex staves, multiple
634 @cindex combining expressions in parallel
635 @cindex parallel expressions
636 @cindex expressions, parallel
637 @cindex relative notes and simultaneous music
638 @cindex relative notes and parallel expressions
639 @cindex simultaneous music and relative notes
640 @cindex parallel expressions and relative notes
646 Music Glossary: @rglos{polyphony}.
648 This technique is useful for @notation{polyphonic} music. To
649 enter music with more voices or more staves, we combine
650 expressions in parallel. To indicate that two voices should play
651 at the same time, simply enter a simultaneous combination of music
652 expressions. A @q{simultaneous} music expression is formed by
653 enclosing expressions inside @code{<<} and @code{>>}. In the
654 following example, three sequences (all containing two separate
655 notes) are combined simultaneously:
657 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
667 Note that we have indented each level of the input with a
668 different amount of space. LilyPond does not care how much (or
669 little) space there is at the beginning of a line, but indenting
670 LilyPond code like this makes it much easier for humans to read.
672 @warning{each note is relative to the previous note in the input,
673 only the first is relative to the @code{c''} in the initial
674 @code{@bs{}relative} command.}
677 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: single staff
679 To determine the number of staves in a piece, LilyPond looks at
680 the beginning of the first expression. If there is a single note,
681 there is one staff; if there is a simultaneous expression, there
682 is more than one staff. The following example shows a complex
683 expression, but as it begins with a single note it will be set
684 out on a single staff.
686 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
689 << { e2 f } { c2 <<b d>> } >> |
693 @node Multiple staves
694 @subsection Multiple staves
696 @cindex multiple staves
697 @cindex staves, multiple
699 @cindex context, notation
700 @cindex notation context
712 LilyPond input files are constructed out of music expressions, as
713 we saw in @ref{Music expressions explained}. If the score begins
714 with simultaneous music expressions, LilyPond creates multiples
715 staves. However, it is easier to see what happens if we create
716 each staff explicitly.
718 To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
719 staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it. These
720 @code{Staff} elements are then combined in parallel with @code{<<}
723 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
726 \new Staff { \clef "treble" c4 }
727 \new Staff { \clef "bass" c,,4 }
732 The command @code{\new} introduces a @q{notation context.} A
733 notation context is an environment in which musical events (like
734 notes or @code{\clef} commands) are interpreted. For simple
735 pieces, such notation contexts are created automatically. For
736 more complex pieces, it is best to mark contexts explicitly.
738 There are several types of contexts. @code{Score}, @code{Staff},
739 and @code{Voice} handle melodic notation, while @code{Lyrics} sets
740 lyric texts and @code{ChordNames} prints chord names.
742 In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
743 creates a bigger music expression. In this way it resembles the
744 minus sign in mathematics. The formula @math{(4+5)} is an
745 expression, so @math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.
747 Time signatures entered in one staff affect all other staves by
748 default. On the other hand, the key signature of one staff does
749 @emph{not} affect other staves. This different default behavior
750 is because scores with transposing instruments are more common
751 than polyrhythmic scores.
753 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
756 \new Staff { \clef "treble" \key d \major \time 3/4 c4 }
757 \new Staff { \clef "bass" c,,4 }
766 @subsection Staff groups
785 Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a
787 Printing such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in
788 @ref{Multiple staves}. However, now this entire expression is
789 inserted inside a @code{PianoStaff}:
798 Here is a small example:
800 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
803 \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 e | g g, | }
804 \new Staff { \clef "bass" c,,4 c' | e c | }
809 Other staff groupings are introduced with @code{\new GrandStaff},
810 suitable for orchestral scores, and @w{@code{\new ChoirStaff}},
811 suitable for vocal scores. These staff groups each form another
812 type of context, one that generates the brace at the left end of
813 every system and also controls the extent of bar lines.
818 @ruser{Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments},
819 @ruser{Displaying staves}.
822 @node Combining notes into chords
823 @subsection Combining notes into chords
825 Music Glossary: @rglos{chord}
828 @cindex note durations in chords
834 We saw earlier how notes can be combined into @notation{chords} by
835 indicating they are simultaneous by enclosing them in double angle
836 brackets. However, the normal way of indicating a chord is to
837 surround the pitches with @emph{single} angle brackets. Note that
838 all the notes in a chord must have the same duration, and that the
839 duration is placed after the closing bracket.
841 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
845 Think of chords as almost equivalent to single notes:
846 almost everything you can attach to a single note can be attached
847 to a chord, and everything must go @emph{outside} the angle
848 brackets. For example, you can combine markings like beams and
849 ties with chords. They must be placed outside the angle brackets.
851 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
852 r4 <c e g>~ <c f a>2 |
853 <c e g>8[ <c f a> <c e g> <c f a>]
854 <c e g>8\>[ <c f a> <c f a> <c e g>]\! |
855 r4 <c e g>8.\p <c f a>16( <c e g>4-. <c f a>) |
860 @ruser{Chorded notes}.
863 @node Single staff polyphony
864 @subsection Single staff polyphony
867 @cindex multiple voices
868 @cindex voices, more on one staff
869 @cindex single staff polyphony
873 @funindex << ... \\ ... >>
878 Polyphonic music in lilypond, while not difficult, uses concepts
879 that we haven't discussed yet, so we're not going to introduce
880 them here. Instead, the following sections introduce these concepts
881 and explain them thoroughly.
885 @ref{Voices contain music}.
888 @ruser{Simultaneous notes}.
893 This section introduces vocal music and simple song sheets.
896 * Setting simple songs::
897 * Aligning lyrics to a melody::
898 * Lyrics to multiple staves::
902 @node Setting simple songs
903 @subsection Setting simple songs
911 Music Glossary: @rglos{lyrics}.
913 Here is the start of the melody to a nursery
914 rhyme, @notation{Girls and boys come out to play}:
916 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
920 d4 b8 c4 a8 | d4 b8 g4
924 The @notation{lyrics} can be set to these notes, combining both
925 with the @code{\addlyrics} keyword. Lyrics are entered by
926 separating each syllable with a space.
928 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
933 d4 b8 c4 a8 | d4 b8 g4
936 Girls and boys come | out to play,
941 Note the double angle brackets @w{@code{<<@dots{}>>}} around the
942 whole piece to show that the music and lyrics are to occur at the
945 @node Aligning lyrics to a melody
946 @subsection Aligning lyrics to a melody
949 @cindex extender line
952 @cindex lyrics, aligning
953 @cindex aligning lyrics
954 @cindex lyrics, multi-syllable words
955 @cindex words with multiple syllables in lyrics
957 Music Glossary: @rglos{melisma}, @rglos{extender line}.
959 The next line in the nursery rhyme is @notation{The moon doth
960 shine as bright as day}. Let's extend it:
962 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
967 d4 b8 c4 a8 | d4 b8 g4 g8 |
968 a4 b8 c b a | d4 b8 g4. |
971 Girls and boys come | out to play,
972 The | moon doth shine as | bright as day; |
977 If you compile the code in the example above, you should see some
978 warnings in the console output:
981 song.ly:12:29: warning: barcheck failed at: 5/8
982 The | moon doth shine as
984 song.ly:12:46: warning: barcheck failed at: 3/8
985 The | moon doth shine as | bright as day;
989 This is a good example of the usefulness of bar checks. Now,
990 looking at the music, we see that the extra lyrics do not align
991 properly with the notes. The word @notation{shine} should be sung
992 on two notes, not one. This is called a @notation{melisma}, a
993 single syllable sung to more than one note. There are several
994 ways to spread a syllable over multiple notes, the simplest being
995 to add a slur across them, for details, see @ref{Ties and slurs}:
997 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1002 d4 b8 c4 a8 | d4 b8 g4 g8 |
1003 a4 b8 c( b) a | d4 b8 g4. |
1006 Girls and boys come | out to play,
1007 The | moon doth shine as | bright as day; |
1012 The words now line up correctly with the notes, but the automatic
1013 beaming for the notes above @notation{shine as} does not look right.
1014 We can correct this by inserting manual beaming commands to override
1015 the automatic beaming here, for details, see @ref{Automatic and
1018 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1023 d4 b8 c4 a8 | d4 b8 g4 g8 |
1024 a4 b8 c([ b]) a | d4 b8 g4. |
1027 Girls and boys come | out to play,
1028 The | moon doth shine as | bright as day; |
1033 As an alternative to using slurs, the melismata may be indicated
1034 in just the lyrics by using an underscore @code{_} for each note
1035 that should be included in the melisma:
1037 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1042 d4 b8 c4 a8 | d4 b8 g4 g8 |
1043 a4 b8 c[ b] a | d4 b8 g4. |
1046 Girls and boys come | out to play,
1047 The | moon doth shine _ as | bright as day; |
1052 If a syllable extends over several notes or a single very long
1053 note an @notation{extender line} is usually drawn from the
1054 syllable extending under all the notes for that syllable. It is
1055 entered as two underscores @code{__}. Here is an example from the
1056 first three bars of @notation{Dido's Lament}, from Purcell's
1057 @notation{Dido and Æneas}:
1059 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1064 g2 a bes | bes2( a) b2 |
1065 c4.( bes8 a4. g8 fis4.) g8 | fis1
1069 am | laid __ in | earth,
1074 None of the examples so far have involved words containing more
1075 than one syllable. Such words are usually split one syllable to a
1076 note, with hyphens between syllables. Such hyphens are entered as
1077 two dashes, resulting in a centered hyphen between the syllables.
1078 Here is an example showing this and everything we have learned so
1079 far about aligning lyrics to notes.
1081 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1082 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1083 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,noragged-right]
1089 d4 | g4 g a8( b) | g4 g b8( c) |
1093 A -- | way in a __ | man -- ger,
1094 no __ | crib for a | bed, __
1099 Some lyrics, especially those in Italian, require the opposite:
1100 setting more than one syllable to a single note. This is
1101 achieved by linking the syllables together with a single
1102 underscore @code{_} (with no spaces), or enclosing them in quotes.
1103 Here's an example from Rossini's @notation{Figaro}, where
1104 @notation{al} has to be sung on the same note as the @notation{go} of
1105 @notation{Largo} in Figaro's aria @notation{Largo al factotum}:
1107 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1108 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1109 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,noragged-right]
1115 c4.~ c8 d b | c8([ d]) b c d b | c8
1118 Lar -- go_al fac -- | to -- tum del -- la cit -- | tÃ
1126 @ruser{Vocal music}.
1129 @node Lyrics to multiple staves
1130 @subsection Lyrics to multiple staves
1132 @cindex lyrics and multiple staves
1133 @cindex multiple staves and lyrics
1135 The simple approach using @code{\addlyrics} can be used for
1136 placing lyrics under more than one staff. Here is an
1137 example from Handel's @notation{Judas Maccabæus}:
1139 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1145 c8 | c8([ bes]) a a([ g]) f | f'4. b, | c4.~ c4
1148 Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- | dorn, __
1154 r8 | r4. r4 c8 | a'8([ g]) f f([ e]) d | e8([ d]) c bes'4
1157 Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- dorn,
1162 Scores any more complex than this simple example are better
1163 produced by separating out the score structure from the notes and
1164 lyrics with variables. These are discussed in @ref{Organizing
1165 pieces with variables}.
1170 @ruser{Vocal music}.
1174 @section Final touches
1176 This is the final section of the tutorial; it demonstrates how to
1177 add the final touches to simple pieces, and provides an
1178 introduction to the rest of the manual.
1181 * Organizing pieces with variables::
1183 * Absolute note names::
1184 * After the tutorial::
1188 @node Organizing pieces with variables
1189 @subsection Organizing pieces with variables
1192 @cindex variables, defining
1195 @cindex assigning variables
1196 @cindex using variables
1197 @cindex variables, using
1198 @cindex variables, characters allowed in
1199 @cindex characters allowed in variables
1201 When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
1202 larger files, the music expressions get a lot bigger. In
1203 polyphonic music with many staves, the input files can become very
1204 confusing. We can reduce this confusion by using
1207 With variables (also known as identifiers or macros), we can break
1208 up complex music expressions. A variable is assigned as
1212 namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
1215 The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic} can be used
1216 later by placing a backslash in front of the name
1217 (@code{\namedMusic}, just like a normal LilyPond command).
1219 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1220 violin = \new Staff {
1226 cello = \new Staff {
1242 The name of a variable must have alphabetic characters only, no
1243 numbers, underscores, or dashes.
1245 Variables must be defined @emph{before} the main music
1246 expression, but may be used as many times as required anywhere after
1247 they have been defined. They may even be used in a later definition
1248 of another variable, giving a way of shortening the input if a
1249 section of music is repeated many times.
1251 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1252 tripletA = \tuplet 3/2 { c,8 e g }
1253 barA = { \tripletA \tripletA \tripletA \tripletA }
1260 Variables may be used for many other types of objects in
1261 the input. For example,
1266 aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
1269 Depending on its contents, the variable can be used in different
1270 places. The following example uses the above variables:
1285 @subsection Adding titles
1289 @cindex header block
1294 The title, composer, opus number, and similar information are
1295 entered in the @code{\header} block. This exists outside of the
1296 main music expression; the @code{\header} block is usually placed
1297 underneath the version number.
1300 \version @w{"@version{}"}
1309 @dots{} music @dots{}
1313 When the file is processed, the title and composer are printed
1314 above the music. More information on titling can be found in
1315 @ruser{Creating titles headers and footers}.
1318 @node Absolute note names
1319 @subsection Absolute note names
1322 @cindex note names, absolute
1323 @cindex absolute mode
1324 @cindex absolute values for pitches
1325 @cindex pitches, absolute values
1326 @cindex absolute note names
1328 So far we have always used @code{\relative} to define pitches.
1329 This is usually the fastest way to enter most music. Without
1330 @code{\relative}, pitches are interpreted in absolute mode.
1332 In this mode, LilyPond treats all pitches as absolute values. A
1333 @code{c'} will always mean middle C, a @code{b} will always mean
1334 the note one step below middle C, and a @code{g,} will always mean
1335 the note on the bottom staff of the bass clef.
1337 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1345 Here is a four-octave scale:
1347 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1362 As you can see, writing a melody in the treble clef involves a lot
1363 of quote @code{'} marks. Consider this fragment from Mozart:
1365 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1369 cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8 |
1370 b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8 |
1374 All these quotes makes the input less readable and they are a source
1375 of errors. With @code{\relative}, the previous example is much
1376 easier to read and type:
1378 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1382 cis8. d16 cis8 e4 e8 |
1383 b8. cis16 b8 d4 d8 |
1387 If you make a mistake with an octave mark (@code{'} or @code{,})
1388 while working in @code{\relative} mode, it is very obvious -- many
1389 notes will be in the wrong octave. When working in absolute mode,
1390 a single mistake will not be as visible, and will not be as easy
1393 However, absolute mode is useful for music which has large
1394 intervals, and is extremely useful for computer-generated LilyPond
1395 files. When cutting and pasting melody fragments, absolute mode
1396 preserves the original octave.
1398 Sometimes music is arranged in more complex ways. If you are
1399 using @code{\relative} inside of @code{\relative}, the outer and
1400 inner relative sections are independent:
1402 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1403 \relative c { c'4 \relative c'' { f g } c }
1407 If you are using absolute music inside of relative, you'll need to
1408 mark the absolute music explicitly with @code{\absolute} to stop
1409 it from becoming part of the relative music:
1411 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1412 \relative c { c'4 \absolute { f'' g'' } c }
1415 @node After the tutorial
1416 @subsection After the tutorial
1418 After finishing the tutorial, you should probably try writing a
1419 piece or two. Start by adding notes to one of the
1420 @ref{Templates}. If you need any notation that was not covered in
1421 the tutorial, look at the Notation Reference, starting with
1422 @ruser{Musical notation}. If you want to write for an instrument
1423 ensemble that is not covered in the templates, take a look at
1424 @ref{Extending the templates}.
1426 Once you have written a few short pieces, read the rest of the
1427 Learning Manual (chapters 3-5). There's nothing wrong with
1428 reading it now, of course! However, the rest of the Learning
1429 Manual assumes that you are familiar with LilyPond input. You may
1430 wish to skim these chapters right now, and come back to them after
1431 you have more experience.
1433 In this tutorial and in the rest of the Learning Manual, there is a
1434 paragraph @strong{See also} at the end of each section, which contains
1435 cross-references to other sections: you should not follow these
1436 cross-references at first reading; when you have read all of the
1437 Learning Manual, you may want to read some sections again and follow
1438 cross-references for further reading.
1440 If you have not done so already, @emph{please} read @ref{Overview
1441 of manuals}. There is a lot of information about LilyPond, so
1442 newcomers often do not know where they should look for help. If
1443 you spend five minutes reading that section carefully, you might
1444 save yourself hours of frustration looking in the wrong places!