* Glossary: (lilypond/music-glossary). Glossary of music terms.
@end direntry
-@ifnottex
-@node Top
-@top Music Glossary
-@end ifnottex
-
-
@ifhtml
This document is also available in
@uref{source/Documentation/user/music-glossary.pdf,PDF}
@omflanguage English
@end ignore
+@ifnottex
+@node Top
+@top Music glossary
+@end ifnottex
+
@ifnottex
-This glossary was brought you by
-
-@multitable {Jan Nieuwenhuizen} {Original glossary of GNU music project, French glossary,}
-@item Adrian Mariano @tab Italian glossary,
-@item Bjoern Jacke @tab German glossary,
-@item Christian Mondrup @tab Original author of LilyPond glossary, Danish glossary,
-@item David González @tab Spanish glossary,
-@item François Pinard @tab Original glossary of GNU music project, French glossary,
-@item Han-Wen Nienhuys @tab Dutch glossary,
-@item Heikki Junes @tab Finnish glossary translations,
-@item Jan Nieuwenhuizen @tab Dutch glossary,
-@item Kurtis Kroon @tab English glossary,
-@item Mats Bengtsson @tab Swedish glossary,
-@item Neil Jerram @tab English glossary translations.
-@end multitable
+This glossary was brought you by:
+
+@itemize
+
+@item @b{Christian Mondrup}: Original author of LilyPond glossary, Danish,
+@item @b{François Pinard}: Original glossary of GNU music project, French,
+
+@item @b{Han-Wen Nienhuys}: Dutch,
+@item @b{Jan Nieuwenhuizen}: Dutch,
+
+@item @b{Neil Jerram}: English,
+@item @b{Kurtis Kroon}: English,
+
+@item @b{Heikki Junes}: Finnish,
+
+@item @b{Bjoern Jacke}: German,
+
+@item @b{Adrian Mariano}: Italian,
+
+@item @b{David González}: Spanish,
+
+@item @b{Mats Bengtsson}: Swedish,
+
+@end itemize
+
+with additional contributions: thanks to all who have contributed.
+
+@ignore
+
+The list is rather long ...
+
+@itemize
+
+@item Danish:
+@itemize
+@item Rune Zedeler, @emph{pace}
+@item Eyolf Østrem
+@end itemize
+
+@item Dutch:
+@itemize
+@item Alard de Boer
+@end itemize
+
+@item English:
+@itemize
+@item Trevor Bača
+@item Trevor Daniels
+@item Andrew Hawryluk
+@item Ian Hulin
+@item Kieren MacMillan
+@item Patrick McCarty
+@item Ralph Palmer
+@item Carl D. Sorensen
+@item Anh Hai Trinh
+@end itemize
+
+@item Finnish:
+@itemize
+@item Risto Vääräniemi
+@end itemize
+
+@item German:
+@itemize
+@item Orm Finnendahl
+@item Reinhold Kainhofer
+@item Werner Lemberg
+@item Till Rettig
+@item Thomas Scharkowski
+@end itemize
+
+@item Italian
+@itemize
+@item Andrea Valle
+@end itemize
+
+@item Spanish
+@itemize
+@item Francisco Vila
+@end itemize
+
+@item Swedish
+@itemize
+@item Simon Dahlbacka
+@end itemize
+
+@end itemize
+@end ignore
+
@*
Copyright 1999--2008 by the authors
For more information about how this fits with the other
documentation, see @rlearning{About the documentation}.
-@shortcontents
@c arrowref
@macro aref{word}
* Pitch names::
@end menu
+
@node Musical terms A-Z
@chapter Musical terms A-Z
@item FI - Finnish
@end itemize
+
@menu
* A::
* a due::
* C clef::
* cadence::
* cadenza::
+* caesura::
* canon::
* cent::
* central C::
* movement::
* multi-measure rest::
* natural::
-* neighbour tones::
+* neighbor tones::
* ninth::
* non-legato::
* note::
@seealso
-@ref{Pitch names}
+@ref{Pitch names}.
@node a due
@seealso
-@ref{Pitch names}
+None yet.
@node accelerando
Increase tempo
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node accent
@section accent
The stress of one tone over others.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node accessory
@section accessory
S: tillfälligt förtecken,
FI: tilapäinen etumerkki.
-An accidental has the effect of an @ref{alteration} of a note. A
-sharp raises a tone by a @ref{semitone}, a double sharp raises it by a
-@ref{whole tone}, a flat lowers it by a semitone and a double flat
-lowers it by a whole tone. A natural cancels the effect of a previous
-accidental, or a sharp or flat in the key signature.
+An accidental alters a note by:
+
+@itemize
+
+@item Raising its pitch:
+@itemize
+@item A @notation{double sharp}, by two semitones (a whole tone)
+@item A @notation{sharp}, by one semitone
+@end itemize
+
+@item Lowering its pitch:
+@itemize
+@item A @notation{flat}, by one semitone
+@item A @notation{double flat}, by two semitones (a whole tone)
+@end itemize
+
+@item Canceling the effects of the key signature or previous accidentals.
+@end itemize
@lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
\set Score.automaticBars = ##f
>>
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{alteration}, @ref{semitone}, @ref{whole tone}.
+
@node adagio
@section adagio
@itemize
-@item Slow tempo, slower -- especially in even meter -- than
-@ref{andante} and faster than @ref{largo}.
+@item Slow tempo, slower -- especially in even meter -- than @notation{andante}
+and faster than @notation{largo}.
@item A movement in slow tempo, especially the second (slow) movement
-of @ref{sonata}s, symphonies, etc.
+of sonatas, symphonies, etc.
@end itemize
+@seealso
+
+@ref{andante}, @ref{largo}, @ref{sonata}.
+
@node al niente
@section al niente
@end lilypond
Since one does not crescendo @emph{to} nothing, it is not correct to use
-@notation{al niente} with the word @notation{crescendo}. Instead, one
-should use @emph{dal niente} (@notation{@b{from} nothing}).
+@notation{al niente} with @notation{crescendo}. Instead, one should use
+@emph{dal niente} (@notation{@b{from} nothing}).
@seealso
S: allegro,
FI: allegro, nopeasti.
-[Italian: cheerful.] Quick tempo. Also used as a title for pieces in a quick
-tempo, especially the first and last movements of a @ref{sonata}.
+[Italian: @q{cheerful}.] Quick tempo. Also used as a title for pieces in a quick
+tempo, especially the first and last movements of a sonata.
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{sonata}.
@node alteration
FI: ?.
An alteration is the modification, raising or lowering, of a note's
-pitch. It is established by an @ref{accidental}.
+pitch. It is established by an accidental.
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{accidental}.
@node alto
A female voice of low range (@emph{contralto}). Originally the alto
was a high male voice (hence the name), which by the use of falsetto
reached the height of the female voice. This type of voice is also
-known as @ref{countertenor}.
+known as countertenor.
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{countertenor}.
@node alto clef
also denote the pitch range that a musical instrument is capable of playing.
Sometimes anglicized to @emph{ambit} (pl. @emph{ambits}).
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node anacrusis
@section anacrusis
of music before a section of music. It also refers to the initial
note(s) of a melody occurring in that incomplete measure.
-@seealso
-
-@ref{measure}, @ref{meter}.
-
@lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
\key f \major
\time 4/4
bes( a) g f | bes4. a8 bes4 c | f,2. \bar "||" }
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{measure}, @ref{meter}.
+
@node ancient minor scale
@section ancient minor scale
@lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
\set Score.automaticBars = ##f
\relative c'' {
-a1 b c d e f g a }
+ a1 b c d e f g a }
@end lilypond
@seealso
S: andante,
FI: andante, käyden.
+[Italian: present participle of @emph{andare}, @q{to walk}.]
+
Walking tempo/character.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node appoggiatura
@section appoggiatura
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node arpeggio
@section arpeggio
S: arpeggio,
FI: arpeggio, murtosointu.
+[Italian: @q{harp-like, played like a harp}.]
+
@lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
\context PianoStaff <<
\context Staff = SA \relative c'' {
>>
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node articulation
@section articulation
should be played. Slurs, accents, staccato, and legato are all
examples of articulation.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node ascending interval
@section ascending interval
A distance between a starting lower note and a higher ending note.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node augmented interval
@section augmented interval
@end itemize
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node B
@section B
S: taktstreck,
FI: tahtiviiva.
+A vertical line through the staff (or through multiple staves) that
+separates measures. Used very infrequently during the Renaissance (mostly
+in secular music, or in sacred music to indicate congruences between parts
+in otherwise-unmetered music).
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{measure}.
+
@node baritone
@section baritone
S: baryton,
FI: baritoni, keskikorkuinen miesääni.
-The male voice intermediate between the @ref{bass} and the
-@ref{tenor}.
+The male voice intermediate in pitch between the bass and the tenor.
@c F: clef de troisième ligne dropped
+@seealso
+
+@ref{bass}, @ref{tenor}.
+
@node baritone clef
@section baritone clef
S: taktslag,
FI: aika-arvo.
-Note value used for counting, most often half-, fourth-, and eighth
-notes. The base counting value and the number of them per measure is
-indicated at the start of the music.
+Note value used for counting, most often half-, fourth-, and eighth notes.
+The base counting value and the number of them in each measure is indicated
+at the start of the music by the @notation{time signature}.
@lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
\key g \major
\relative c'' { g8 d' c | b c a | g4. \bar "||"}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{time signature}.
+
@node beat repeat
@section beat repeat
\relative c \context Staff = SB { \clef bass c1 \bar "|." } >>
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node bracket
@section bracket
formed mouth piece. The brass instruments commonly used in a symphony
orchestra are trumpet, trombone, french horn, and tube.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node breath mark
@section breath mark
Indication of where to breathe in vocal and wind instrument parts.
+@seealso
+
+@ref{caesura}.
+
@node breve
@section breve
-ES: cuadrada, breve,
-I: breve,
-F: brève,
-D: Brevis,
-NL: brevis,
-DK: brevis,
-S: brevis,
-FI: brevis, kaksoiskokonuotti.
+@itemize
+@item US: breve, double-whole note,
+@item ES: cuadrada, breve,
+@item I: breve,
+@item F: brève,
+@item D: Brevis,
+@item NL: brevis,
+@item DK: brevis,
+@item S: brevis,
+@item FI: brevis, kaksoiskokonuotti.
+@end itemize
Note value twice as long as a whole note. Mainly used in pre-1650 music.
The shortest note value generally used in white mensural notation, hence the
@seealso
-@ref{Pitch names}
+@ref{Pitch names}.
@node C clef
>>
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node cadence
@section cadence
ability to improvise. Since the middle of the 19th century, however,
most cadenzas have been written down by the composer.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
+
+@node caesura
+@section caesura
+
+ES: cesura,
+I: cesura,
+F: césura,
+D: Zäsur,
+NL: ?,
+DK: ?,
+S: ?,
+FI: ?.
+
+[Latin: from the supine of @emph{caedere} @q{to cut down}.]
+
+The break between two musical phrases, sometimes (but not always) marked by a
+rest or a breath mark.
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{breath mark}.
+
@node canon
@section canon
viritysjärjestelmässä.
Logarithmic unit of measurement. 1@tie{}cent is 1/1200 of an octave
-(1/100 of an equally tempered @ref{semitone}).
+(1/100 of an equally tempered semitone).
@seealso
-@ref{equal temperament}.
+@ref{equal temperament}, @ref{semitone}.
@node central C
five-tone @emph{ninth} major chords are most often used as dominants
(functional harmony). Chords having no third above the lower notes to
define their mood are a special case called @q{open chords}. The lack of
-the middle third means their quality is ambivalent: neither major nor minor.
+the middle third means their quality is ambivalent -- neither major nor
+minor.
@lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
\set Score.automaticBars = ##f
S: kromatisk skala,
FI: kromaattinen asteikko.
-A scale consisting of all 12 @ref{semitone}s.
+A scale consisting of all 12 semitones.
@lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
\set Score.automaticBars = ##f
\relative c' { c1 cis d dis e f fis g gis a ais b c }
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{semitone}.
+
@node chromaticism
@section chromaticism
S: kromatik,
FI: kromatiikka.
-Use of tones extraneous to a @ref{diatonic scale} (minor, major).
+Using tones extraneous to a diatonic scale (minor, major).
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{diatonic scale}.
@node church mode
S: klav,
FI: avain, nuottiavain.
-@seealso
-
-@ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}, @ref{G clef}.
-
The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
pitches. The three clef symbols in common use are:
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}, @ref{G clef}.
+
@node cluster
@section cluster
\makeClusters { <c e> <b f'> <b g'> <c g> <f e> }
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node comma
@section comma
@node common meter
@section common meter
-@ref{common time}
+Another name for @ref{common time}.
@seealso
-@ref{meter}.
+@ref{common time}, @ref{meter}.
@node common time
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-4/4 time. The symbol, which resembles a capital letter C, derives from
+4/4 time. The symbol, which resembles a capital letter C, comes from
mensural notation.
@seealso
@ref{compound meter}.
@item
-A time signature that additively combines two or more unequal meters, e.g.
+A time signature that additively combines two or more unequal meters, e.g.,
"3/8 + 2/8" instead of "5/8". Sometimes called additive time signatures.
@lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
#(define (compound-time grob one two three num)
- (interpret-markup
- (ly:grob-layout grob)
- '(((baseline-skip . 2)
- (word-space . 1.5)
- (font-family . number)))
- (markup
- #:line ( #:column (one) "+" #:column (two num) "+" #:column (three)))))
+ (grob-interpret-markup grob
+ (markup
+ #:override '(baseline-skip . 0)
+ #:number
+ #:line (
+ #:left-column (one num)
+ #:vcenter "+"
+ #:left-column (two num)
+ #:vcenter "+"
+ #:left-column (three num)))))
- \relative c' {
- \key f \major
- #(set-time-signature 8 8 '(3 2 3))
- \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil
- = #(lambda (grob) (compound-time grob "3" "2" "3" "8"))
- #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 8 8) 3 8)
- #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 8 8) 5 8)
- \set Staff.beatGrouping = #'(3 2 3)
-
- c8 d e f4 d8 c bes | c4 g'8 e c f4. \bar "||"
- }
+\relative c' {
+ \key f \major
+ #(set-time-signature 8 8 '(3 2 3))
+ \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil = #(lambda (grob)
+ (compound-time grob "3" "2" "3" "8"))
+ #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 8 8) 3 8)
+ #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 8 8) 5 8)
+
+ c8 d e f4 d8 c bes
+ c4 g'8 e c f4.
+ \bar "||"
+}
@end lilypond
@end enumerate
@seealso
-@ref{compound meter}, @ref{meter}.
+@ref{compound meter}, @ref{meter}, @ref{polymetric time signature}.
@node concert pitch
instruments are said to be @q{in C}. The following list includes some (but not
all) instruments that play in concert pitch:
-@itemize
+@c Let's see how easy (or hard) it is to put bulleted lists in tables.
+
+@multitable {alto trombone} {tenor trombone} {bass trombone}
+@headitem Woodwinds @tab Brass @tab Strings
-@item Woodwinds
+@item
@itemize
@item flute
@item oboe
@item bassoon
@end itemize
-@item Brass
+@tab
+
@itemize
@item alto trombone
@item tenor trombone
@item bass trombone
@end itemize
-@item Strings
+@tab
+
@itemize
@item violin
@item viola
@item violincello
@end itemize
-@item piano
-
-@end itemize
+@end multitable
The trombones are a special case: although they are said to be @q{in F} (alto or
bass) or @q{in B-flat} (tenor), this refers to their fundamental note, not to
S: stegvis rörelse,
FI: asteittainen liike.
-Progressing melodically by intervals of a second. The opposite of a
-@ref{disjunct movement}.
+Progressing melodically by intervals of a second, as contrasted with
+@emph{disjunct movement}.
@lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
\key g \major \time 4/4
\relative c'' { g4 g g a | b2 a | g4 b a a | g1 \bar "||" }
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{disjunct movement}.
+
@node consonance
@section consonance
@c Copying music required more skill than engraving. Flagged for NPOV
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node counterpoint
@section counterpoint
>>
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node countertenor
@section countertenor
\relative c'' { g4 \< a b c | d1\! \bar "|." }
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{decrescendo}, @ref{hairpin}.
+
@node cue-notes
@section cue-notes
In a separate part notes belonging to another part with the purpose of
hinting when to start playing. Usually printed in a smaller type.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node custos
@section custos
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-A custos (plural: custodes) is a staff symbol that appears at the end
-of a staff line with monophonic musical contents (i.e., with a single
-voice). It anticipates the pitch of the first note of the following
-line and thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
-performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
+A custos (plural: custodes) is a staff symbol that appears at the end of a
+staff line with monophonic musical contents (i.e., with a single voice). It
+anticipates the pitch of the first note of the following line and thus helps
+the player or singer to manage line breaks during performance, which
+enhances the readability of a score.
-Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 16th
-century. There were different appearences for different notation
-styles. Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical
-notation such as via the Editio Vaticana dating back to the beginning
-of the 20th century
+Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 16th century.
+There were different appearences for different notation styles. Nowadays,
+they have survived only in special forms of musical notation such as the
+@emph{Editio Vaticana}, dating from the beginning of the 20th century
@lilypond
\score {
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node D
@section D
Abbreviated @notation{D.C.}. Indicates that the piece is to be repeated from
the beginning to the end or to a certain place marked @emph{fine}.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node dal niente
@section dal niente
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node decrescendo
@section decrescendo
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{crescendo}, @ref{diminuendo}, @ref{hairpin}.
+
@node descending interval
@section descending interval
A distance between a starting higher note and a lower ending note.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node diatonic scale
@section diatonic scale
S: diatonisk skala,
FI: diatoninen asteikko.
-A scale consisting of 5@w{ }@ref{whole tone}s and 2@w{ }@ref{semitone}s (S).
-Scales played on the white keys of a piano keybord are diatonic; and these
-scales are sometimes called, somewhat inaccurately, @q{church modes}).
+A scale consisting of 5@w{ }whole tones and 2@w{ }semitones (S). Scales
+played on the white keys of a piano keybord are diatonic. These scales
+are sometimes called, somewhat inaccurately, @q{church modes}).
-These @q{modes} are used in Gregorian chant and in pre-baroque early music
+These @emph{modes} are used in Gregorian chant and in pre-baroque early music
but also to some extent in newer jazz music.
@lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a
}
\lyrics {
- "Ancient minor"
+ "Ancient (or Natural) minor"
}
>>
@end lilypond
>>
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{semitone}, @ref{whole tone}.
+
@node didymic comma
@section didymic comma
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-@c TODO: add definition
-
-This is a placeholder for diminution (wrt mensural notation).
+This is a stub for diminution (@emph{wrt} mensural notation).
@seealso
S: hoppande rörelse,
FI: melodian hyppivä liike.
-Progressing melodically by intervals larger than a major second, as
-opposed to @ref{conjunct movement}.
+Progressing melodically by intervals larger than a major second, as contrasted
+with conjunct movement.
@lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
\key a \major
fis2 d4. \bar "||" }
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{conjunct movement}.
+
@node dissonance
@section dissonance
-@ref{dissonant interval}.
+Another name for @ref{dissonant interval}.
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{dissonant interval}, @ref{harmony}.
@node dissonant interval
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-[Latin: @q{division}: pl. @emph{divisiones}] In Gregorian chant, a
+[Latin: @q{division}; pl. @emph{divisiones}] In Gregorian chant, a
vertical stroke through part or all of the staff that serves to
structure a chant into phrases and sections. There are four types:
S: dominant,
FI: dominantti, huippusointu.
-The fifth @ref{scale degree} in @ref{functional harmony}.
+The fifth @emph{scale degree} in @emph{functional harmony}.
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}.
@node dominant ninth chord
Indicates the end of a section within a movement.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node double dotted note
@section double dotted note
A simultaneous trill on two notes, usually in the distance of a third.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node duple meter
@section duple meter
@seealso
-@ref{church mode}.
+@ref{church mode}, @ref{diatonic scale}.
@node eighth note
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-More properly synalepha [New Lat. > Gr. συναλοιφη, from Greek συναλοιφην @q{to
-smear together}].
+More properly @emph{synalepha} [New Lat. > Gr. @emph{συναλοιφη}, from Greek
+@emph{συναλοιφην} @q{to smear together}].
The singing of several syllables on a single note. Elision may be indicated
-by a lyric tie, which is looks like (and serves the same function) as a
-musical tie.
+by a lyric tie, which looks like (and serves the same function) as a musical
+tie.
@seealso
The traditional process of music printing is done through cutting in a
plate of metal. Now also the term for the art of music typesetting.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node enharmonic
@section enharmonic
>>
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node equal temperament
@section equal temperament
S: liksvävande temperatur,
FI: tasavireinen.
-Tuning system dividing the octave into 12 equal @ref{semitone}s
-(precisely 100 @ref{cent}s).
+A tuning system that divides the octave into 12 equal semitones (each of
+which is precisely equal to 100 cents).
@seealso
-@ref{temperament}.
+@ref{cent}, @ref{semitone}, @ref{temperament}.
@node expression mark
@itemize
-@item volume, dynamics (for example @ref{forte}, @ref{crescendo}),
+@item volume, dynamics (for example, @notation{forte},
+@notation{crescendo}),
-@item tempo (for example @ref{andante}, @ref{allegro}).
+@item tempo (for example, @notation{andante}, @notation{allegro}).
@end itemize
+@seealso
+
+@ref{allegro}, @ref{andante}, @ref{crescendo}, @ref{forte}.
+
@node extender line
@section extender line
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-The generic term for a line (or dash) of arbitrary length that extends
-text (without indicating the musical @emph{function} of that text).
+The generic term (in LilyPond) for a line (or dash) of arbitrary length that
+extends text (without indicating the musical @emph{function} of that text).
Used in many contexts, for example:
@seealso
-@ref{melisma}, @ref{sul G}, @ref{thorough bass}, @ref{octave mark}, @ref{octave
-marking}.
+@ref{melisma}, @ref{sul G}, @ref{thorough bass}, @ref{octave mark},
+@ref{octave marking}.
@node F
below central@w{ }C. Used on the third, fourth and fifth note line.
A digit@w{ }8 above the clef symbol indicates that the notes must be
played an octave higher (for example, bass recorder) while 8@w{ }below
-the clef symbol indicates playing an octave lower (for example, on
-double bass @ref{strings}).
+the clef symbol indicates playing an octave lower (for example, on the
+Double Bass).
@lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
\set Score.automaticBars = ##f
@seealso
-@ref{baritone clef}
-
-@c F: 'point d'orgue' on a note, 'point d'arret' on a rest.
+@ref{baritone clef}, @ref{strings}.
@node fall
@node fermata
@section fermata
+@c F: 'point d'orgue' on a note, 'point d'arret' on a rest.
+
ES: calderón,
I: corona,
F: point d'orgue, point d'arrêt,
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node fifth
@section fifth
Also called @q{thorough bass}.
-A method of indicating an accompaniment part by the bass notes only, together
-with figures designating the chief @ref{interval}s and @ref{chord}s to be played
-above the bass notes.
+A method of indicating an accompaniment part by the bass notes only,
+together with figures designating the chief intervals and chords to be
+played above the bass notes.
+
+TODO: Make the upper clef smaller, since it's usually "realized" in performance.
@lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
\context GrandStaff <<
>>
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{chord}, @ref{interval}.
+
@node fingering
@section fingering
S: fingersättning,
FI: sormitus.
-The methodical use of fingers in the playing of instruments.
+Figures to the side or above the note that methodically indicate which
+fingers to use while playing a passage.
+
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
@node flag
S: flagga,
FI: lippu, viiri.
-Ornament at the end of the stem of a note used for notes with values
-less than a quarter note. The number of flags determines the
-@ref{note value}.
+Ornament at the end of the stem of a note used for notes with values less
+than a quarter note. The number of flags determines the note value.
@lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
\set Score.automaticBars = ##f
%\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
\relative c'' {
- g8_"1/8" s8
- g16_"1/16" s8
- g32_"1/32" s8
- g64_"1/64" s8
+ g8_"8th" s8
+ g16_"16th" s8
+ g32_"32nd" s8
+ g64_"64th" s8
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{note value}.
+
@node flageolet
@section flageolet
@item @emph{fortissimo}, very loud (notated @notation{@b{ff}}).
@end itemize
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
+
@node fourth
@section fourth
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-Analogous to Frenched scores (@emph{q.v}), a Frenched staff has unneeded
-measures or sections removed. This would be useful for producing, for example,
-an @emph{ossia} staff.
+[Pl. @emph{Frenched staves}] Analogous to Frenched scores (@emph{q.v}), a
+Frenched staff has unneeded measures or sections removed. This is useful
+for producing, for example, an @emph{ossia} staff.
@seealso
@node Frenched staves
@section Frenched staves
-ES: pentagramas a la francesa,
-I: ?,
-F: ?,
-D: ?,
-NL: ?,
-DK: ?,
-S: ?,
-FI: ?.
-
-The plural of @ref{Frenched staff}, @emph{q.v.}.
+Plural of @ref{Frenched staff}.
@node fugue
S: funktionslära,
FI: harmoniajärjestelmä.
-A system of harmonic analysis. It is based on the idea that, in a
-given key, there are only three functionally different chords: tonic
-(T, the chord on the first note of the scale), subdominant (S, the
-chord on the fourth note), and dominant (D, the chord on the fifth
-note). Others are considered to be variants of the base chords.
+A system of harmonic analysis.
+
+It is based on the idea that, in a given key, there are only three
+functionally different chords: tonic (T, the chord on the first note of the
+scale), subdominant (S, the chord on the fourth note), and dominant (D, the
+chord on the fifth note). Others are considered to be variants of the base
+chords.
+
+TODO: what does the @q{p} mean in Sp, Dp, Tp?
@lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
\set Score.automaticBars = ##f
>>
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node G
@section G
S: g-klav,
FI: G-avain.
-A clef symbol indicating the G above middle@w{ }C. Used on the first
-and second note lines. A digit 8 above the clef symbol indicates that
-the notes must be played an octave higher while 8 below the clef
-symbol indicates playing or singing an octave lower (most tenor parts
-in choral scores are notated like that).
+A clef symbol that indicates G above middle@w{ }C. Used on the first and
+second note lines. A digit 8 above the clef symbol indicates that the notes
+must be played an octave higher while 8 below the clef symbol indicates
+playing or singing an octave lower (used most frequently to notate the tenor
+part in modern choral scores).
@lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
<<
>>
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node glissando
@section glissando
Letting the pitch slide fluently from one note to the other.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node grace notes
@section grace notes
S: grave,
FI: grave, raskaasti.
-Slow, solemn.
+[Italian] Slow, solemn.
+
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
@node gruppetto
@node half note
@section half note
-UK: minim,
-ES: blanca,
-I: minima,
-F: blanche,
-D: Halbe, halbe Note,
-NL: halve noot,
-DK: halvnode,
-S: halvnot,
-FI: puolinuotti.
+@itemize
+@item UK: minim,
+@item ES: blanca,
+@item I: minima,
+@item F: blanche,
+@item D: Halbe, halbe Note,
+@item NL: halve noot,
+@item DK: halvnode,
+@item S: halvnot,
+@item FI: puolinuotti.
+@end itemize
@seealso
@node half rest
@section half rest
-UK: minim rest,
-ES: silencio de blanca,
-I: pausa di minima,
-F: demi-pause,
-D: halbe Pause,
-NL: halve, rust,
-DK: halvnodespause,
-S: halvpaus,
-FI: puolitauko.
+@itemize
+@item UK: minim rest,
+@item ES: silencio de blanca,
+@item I: pausa di minima,
+@item F: demi-pause,
+@item D: halbe Pause,
+@item NL: halve, rust,
+@item DK: halvnodespause,
+@item S: halvpaus,
+@item FI: puolitauko.
+@end itemize
@seealso
A sequence of chords that terminates a musical phrase or section.
-@ref{functional harmony}.
-
@lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
\context PianoStaff <<
\context Staff = SA \relative c'' {
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{functional harmony}.
+
@node harmonics
@section harmonics
natural harmonics, which are those played on the open string; and
artificial harmonics, which are produced on stopped strings.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node harmony
@section harmony
}
@end lilypond
-Three note harmony @ref{chord}.
+For harmony that uses three or more notes, see @ref{chord}.
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{chord}.
@node hemiola
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-[From Greek: in Latin, @emph{sesquialtera}] The ratio 3:2. Refers to
-the use of three notes of equal value in the time normally occupied by
-of two notes of equal value. The resulting rhythm can be expressed in
-modern terms as a substitution (for example) of a bar in 3/2 for one
-of 6/4, or of a bar in 3/4 for one of 6/8. During the Baroque era,
-hemiola is most frequently as a special effect (or @emph{affect}) at
-cadences.
+[Greek: in Latin, @emph{sesquialtera}] The ratio 3:2.
+
+Most frequently, a proportion (@emph{q.v.}) of three notes of equal value in the
+time normally occupied by two. The resulting rhythm can be expressed in modern
+terms as a substitution (for example) of a bar in 3/2 for one of 6/4, or of a
+bar in 3/4 for one of 6/8. During the Baroque era, hemiola is most frequently
+as a special effect (or @emph{affect}) at cadences.
For example, this phrase in 6/4 time
@seealso
-@ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}, @ref{polymeter}.
+@ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}, @ref{polymeter}, @ref{proportion}.
@node homophony
S: homofoni,
FI: homofonia, yksiäänisyys.
-Music in which one voice leads melodically followed by the other
-voices more or less in the same rhythm. In contrast to
-@ref{polyphony}.
+Music in which one voice leads melodically supported by the other voices in
+the same rhythm (more or less). In contrast to @emph{polyphony}.
+@seealso
+
+@ref{polyphony}.
@node hymn meter
@section hymn meter
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-A group or list of numbers that indicate the number of syllables in a
-line of a hymn's verse. Different hymnals have different ways of noting
-the hymn meter -- consider a hymn having four lines in two couplets that
-alternate between eight and seven syllables. The @emph{English Hymnal}
-notes this as 87.@w{ }87. Other hymnals may note it as 8787, 87.87, or
-8@w{ }7@w{ }8@w{ }7.
+A group or list of numbers that indicate the number of syllables in a line
+of a hymn's verse. Different hymnals have different ways of noting the hymn
+meter: for example, consider a hymn that has four lines in two couplets
+alternating regularly between eight and seven syllables. The @emph{English
+Hymnal} notes this as 87.@w{ }87. Other hymnals may note it as 8787, 87.87,
+or 8@w{ }7@w{ }8@w{ }7.
Some frequently-used hymn meters have traditional names:
@itemize
-
@item 66.86 is called Short Meter (abbreviated SM or S.M.)
-
@item 86.86 is called Common Meter (CM or C.M.)
-
@item 88.88 is called Long Meter (LM or L.M.)
-
@end itemize
Some hymns and their tunes are doubled versions of a simpler meter: for
87.87D. The traditional names above also have doubled versions:
@itemize
-
@item 66.86.66.86 is Double Short Meter (DSM or D.S.M.)
-
@item 86.86.86.86 is Double Common Meter (DCM or D.C.M.)
-
@item 88.88.88.88 is Double Long Meter (DLM or D.L.M.)
-
@end itemize
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
@node interval
S: intervall,
FI: intervalli, kahden sävelen korkeusero.
-Difference in pitch between two notes. Intervals may be perfect,
-minor, major, diminished, or augmented. The augmented fourth and the
-diminished fifth are identical (@ref{enharmonic}) and are called
-@emph{tritonus} because they consist of three @ref{whole tone}s. The
-addition of such two intervals forms an octave.
+Difference in pitch between two notes. Intervals may be perfect, minor,
+major, diminished, or augmented. The augmented fourth and the diminished
+fifth are identical (or @emph{enharmonic}) and are called @emph{tritonus}
+because they consist of three whole tones. The addition of such two
+intervals forms an octave.
@lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
\set Score.automaticBars = ##f
>>
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{enharmonic}, @ref{whole tone}.
+
@node inversion
@section inversion
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-When the bass is not the same as the root, the chord is inverted. The number
-of inversions that a chord can have is one fewer than the number of
-constituent notes. Triads, for example, (having three constituent notes) can
-have three positions, two of which are inversions:
+When a chord sounds with a bass note that differs from the root of the
+chord, it is said to be @emph{inverted}. The number of inversions that a
+chord can have is one fewer than the number of constituent notes. For
+example, triads (which have three constituent notes) can have three
+positions, two of which are inversions:
-@table @code
+@table @dfn
@item Root position
The root note is in the bass, and above that are the third and the fifth. A
triad built on the first scale degree, for example, is marked @notation{I}.
unstable chord position.
@end table
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node inverted interval
@section inverted interval
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node just intonation
@section just intonation
Tuning system in which the notes are obtained by adding and subtracting
natural fifths and thirds.
+@seealso
+
@ref{temperament}.
S: tonart,
FI: tonaliteetti.
-According to the 12@w{ }tones of the @ref{chromatic scale} there are
+According to the 12@w{ }tones of the @emph{chromatic scale} there are
12@w{ }keys, one on@w{ }c, one on c-sharp, etc.
@seealso
-@ref{key signature}.
+@ref{chromatic scale}, @ref{key signature}.
@node key signature
The sharps or flats appearing at the beginning of each staff indicating the
key of the music.
+@seealso
+
@ref{accidental}.
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-[From French, @q{Let vibrate}]. Most frequently associated with harp
+[French: @q{Let vibrate}.] Most frequently associated with harp
parts. Marked @notation{l.v.} in the score.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node largo
@section largo
S: largo,
FI: largo, hitaasti, leveästi.
-Very slow in tempo, usually combined with great expressiveness.
-@emph{Larghetto} is less slow than largo.
+[Italian: @q{wide}.] Very slow in tempo, usually combined with great
+expressiveness. @emph{Larghetto} is less slow than largo.
@node leading note
S: ledton,
FI: johtosävel.
-The seventh @ref{scale degree}, a @ref{semitone} below the tonic; so
+The seventh @emph{scale degree}, a @emph{semitone} below the tonic; so
called because of its strong tendency to @q{lead up} (resolve upwards)
to the tonic scale degree.
+@seealso
+
+@ref{scale degree}, @ref{semitone}.
+
@node ledger line
@section ledger line
\relative c'' { a,1 s c'' }
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node legato
@section legato
FI: legato, sitoen.
To be performed (a) without any perceptible interruption between the
-notes, unlike (b) @emph{leggiero} or @emph{non-legato}, (c)
-@emph{portato}, and (d) @ref{staccato}.
+notes, unlike (b) @notation{leggiero} or @notation{non-legato}, (c)
+@notation{portato}, or (d) @notation{staccato}.
@lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
\set Score.automaticBars = ##f
>>
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{staccato}.
+
@node legato curve
@section legato curve
A ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that represents at least two
distinct notes. Ligatures originally appeared in the manuscripts of
-Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th century to denote ascending
-or descending sequences of notes. In early notation, ligatures were used
-for monophonic tunes (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way of
-performance in the sense of articulation. With the invention of the metric
+Gregorian chant notation around the 9th century to denote ascending or
+descending sequences of notes. In early notation, ligatures were used for
+monophonic tunes (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way of
+performance in the sense of articulation. With the invention of the metric
system of the white mensural notation, the need for ligatures to denote such
patterns disappeared.
FI: liljalampi.
A pond with lilies floating in it.
+
Also, the name of a music typesetting program.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node line
@section line
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-[From Italian, @q{place}]. Instruction to play the following passage at the
+[Italian: @q{place}.] Instruction to play the following passage at the
written pitch. Cancels octave mark (q.v.).
@seealso
@node longa
@section longa
-ES: longa,
-I: longa,
-F: longa,
-D: Longa,
-NL: longa,
-DK: longa,
-S: longa,
-FI: longa.
+@itemize
+@item US: long, longa,
+@item ES: longa,
+@item I: longa,
+@item F: longa,
+@item D: Longa,
+@item NL: longa,
+@item DK: longa,
+@item S: longa,
+@item FI: longa.
+@end itemize
-Note value: double length of @ref{breve}.
+Note value: double length of @notation{breve}.
@lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
\set Score.automaticBars = ##f
\relative c'' {
\override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
- g\longa
+ g\longa g\breve
}
@end lilypond
@seealso
-@ref{note value}.
+@ref{breve}, @ref{note value}.
@node lyric tie
S: ?,
FI: sanoitus.
+@c Definition?
+
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node major
@section major
S: medeltonstemperatur,
FI: keskisävelviritys.
-Temperament yielding acoustically pure thirds by decreasing the
-natural fifth by 16@w{ }@ref{cent}s. Due to the non-circular
-character of this @ref{temperament} only a limited set of keys are
-playable. Used for tuning keyboard instruments for performance of
-pre-1650 music.
+Temperament yielding acoustically pure thirds by decreasing the natural
+fifth by 16@w{ }cents. Due to the non-circular character of this
+temperament only a limited set of keys are playable. Used for tuning
+keyboard instruments for performance of pre-1650 music.
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{cent}, @ref{temperament}.
@node measure
S: takt,
FI: tahti.
-A group of @ref{beat}s (units of musical time) the first of which
-bears an accent. Such groups in numbers of two or more recur
-consistently throughout the composition and are marked from each other
-by bar-lines.
+A group of beats (units of musical time) the first of which bears an accent.
+Such groups in numbers of two or more recur consistently throughout the
+composition and are separated from each other by bar lines.
-@ref{meter}.
+@seealso
+
+@ref{bar line}, @ref{beat}, @ref{meter}.
@node measure repeat
@item The third @b{scale degree}.
-@item A @ref{chord} having its base tone a third from that of another
+@item A @emph{chord} having its base tone a third from that of another
chord. For example, the tonic chord may be replaced by its lower
mediant (variant tonic).
@end itemize
@seealso
-@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{relative key}.
+
+@ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{relative key}.
@node melisma
S: ?,
FI: melisma, laulettavan tavun sävelkuvio.
-A melisma (plural, from Greek: melismata) is a group of notes or tones
-sung on one syllable, especially as applied to liturgical chant.
+A melisma (Greek: plural @emph{melismata}) is a group of notes or tones sung
+on one syllable, especially as applied to liturgical chant.
+
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
@node melisma line
@itemize
- @item simple: groups of two.
+ @item simple: subdivided in groups of two.
@itemize
@end itemize
- @item compound: groups of three.
+ @item compound: subdivided in groups of three.
@itemize
aes4 bes8 aes ges4 aes f8 es \bar "||"}
@end lilypond
+(Aside: this is an example of @emph{Augenmusik}: the accidentals are thus in
+the source, with sharps in the accompaniment where the voice has flats and
+@emph{vice versa}.)
+
+
Compound duple meter (unknown):
@lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
S: me@-tro@-nom,
FI: metronomi.
-Device indicating the exact tempo of a piece.
+Device used to indicate the exact tempo of a piece.
Invented ca. 1812 by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkler of Amsterdam, but takes its name
from Johann Nepomuk Mälzel, who copied the device, added a scale of tempo
-divisions, and patented it as a "metronome". The inevitable lawsuit that
+divisions, and patented it as a @q{metronome}. The inevitable lawsuit that
followed acknowledged Winkler as the creator, but by then Mälzel had already
sold many of them, and people had taken to calling it a Mälzel Metronome.
sopranos
@end itemize
-@end itemize
+@end itemize
+
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
@node mezzo-soprano
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node minor
@section minor
of a @ref{sonata form} movement modulates to the dominant key if the
key is major and to the @ref{relative key} if the key is minor.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node mordent
@section mordent
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node movement
@section movement
consist of several -- more or less -- independant pieces called
movements.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node multi-measure rest
@section multi-measure rest
@ref{accidental}.
-@node neighbour tones
-@section neighbour tones
+@node neighbor tones
+@section neighbor tones
@seealso
and @ref{note} is strongly recommended. Briefly, one sees a note,
and hears a tone.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node note head
@section note head
S: nothuvud,
FI: nuotin pää.
-A head-like sign which indicates pitch by its position on a
-@ref{staff} provided with a @ref{clef}, and duration
-by a variety of shapes such as hollow or black heads with or without
-@ref{stem}s, @ref{flag}s, etc. For percussion
-instruments (often having no defined pitch) the note head may indicate the
-instrument.
+A head-like sign which indicates pitch by its position on a @notation{staff}
+provided with a @notation{clef}, and duration by a variety of shapes such as
+hollow or black heads with or without @notation{stems}, @notation{flags}, etc.
+For percussion instruments (often having no defined pitch) the note head may
+indicate the instrument.
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{clef}, @ref{flag}, @ref{staff}, @ref{stem}.
@node note names
S: notvärde,
FI: nuotin aika-arvo.
-Note values (durations) are measured as fractions, normally 1/2, of
-the next higher note value. The longest duration normally used is
-called @emph{brevis}, but sometimes (mostly in pre-baroque music) the
-double-length note value @emph{longa} or the quadruple-length note
-value @emph{maxima} are used.
+Note values (durations) are measured as fractions -- normally half -- of the
+next higher note value. The longest duration in current use is the
+@emph{breve}, but sometimes (especially music from the Baroque or earlier) the
+double-length note value @emph{longa} or the quadruple-length note value
+@emph{maxima} are used.
@c TODO -- add maxima to this example, in a way that doesn't break it.
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node octavation
@section octavation
score, usually only a few measures long, which presents another version
of the music, for example for small hands.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node part
@section part
tambourine, cymbals, chinese gong (tam-tam), triangle, celesta, glockenspiel,
and xylophone.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node perfect interval
@section perfect interval
A natural division of the melodic line, comparable to a sentence of speech.
+@seealso
+
+@ref{caesura}.
+
@node phrasing
@section phrasing
S: fra@-se@-ring,
FI: fraseeraus, jäsentäminen.
-The clear rendering in musical performance of the @ref{phrase}s of
-the melody. Phrasing may be indicated by a @ref{slur}.
+The clear rendering in musical performance of the @notation{phrases} of the
+melody. Phrasing may be indicated by a @notation{slur}.
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{phrase}, @ref{slur}.
@node piano
@emph{piano} (@b{p}) soft, @emph{pianissimo} (@b{pp}) very soft,
@emph{mezzo piano} (@b{mp}) medium soft.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node pickup
@section pickup
A technique for stringed instruments, abbr. @emph{pizz}. To play by plucking
the strings.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node polymeter
@section polymeter
@itemize
-@item The simultaneous use of two or more meters, in two or more parts.
+@item The @emph{simultaneous} use of two or more meters, in two or more
+parts.
@item The @emph{successive} use of different meters in one or more parts.
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-Using two or more metric frameworks simultaneously or in alternation.
+Characterized by @emph{polymeter}: using two or more metric frameworks
+simultaneously or in alternation.
@seealso
Music written in a combination of several simultaneous voices (parts)
of a more or less pronounced individuality.
+@seealso
+
@ref{counterpoint}.
@node portato
@section portato
+[Italian: past participle of @emph{portare}, @q{to carry}]
+
+A stroke in which each of several notes is separated slightly within a slur,
+without changing the bow's direction. It is used for passages of a
+@notation{cantabile} character.
+
@seealso
@ref{legato}.
S: presto,
FI: presto, hyvin nopeasti.
+[Italian]
+
Very quick, i.e., quicker than @ref{allegro}; @emph{prestissimo}
denotes the highest possible degree of speed.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node proportion
@section proportion
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-[From Latin @emph{proportio}] In mensural notation, a ratio that expresses the
-relationship between the note values that follow with those that precede; or
-between the note values of a passage and the @q{normal} relationship of note
-values to the metrical pulse.
+[Latin: @emph{proportio}.] Described in great detail by Gaffurius, in
+@emph{Practica musicae} (published in Milan in 1496). In mensural notation,
+proportion is:
+
+@enumerate
+
+@item A ratio that expresses the relationship between the note values that
+follow with those that precede;
+
+@item A ratio between the note values of a passage and the @q{normal}
+relationship of note values to the metrical pulse. (A special case of the
+first definition.)
+
+@end enumerate
+
+The most common proportions are:
+
+@itemize
+@item 2:1 (or simply 2), expressed by a vertical line through the
+mensuration sign (the origin of the @q{cut-time} time signature), or by
+turning the sign backwards
+@item 3:1 (or simply 3)
+@item 3:2 (@emph{sesquialtera})
+@end itemize
+
+To @q{cancel} any of these, the inverse proportion is applied. Thus:
+
+@itemize
+@item 1:2 cancels 2:1
+@item 1:3 cancels 3:1
+@item 2:3 cancels 3:2
+@item and so on.
+@end itemize
+
+Gaffurius enumerates five basic types of major:minor proportions and their
+inverses:
+
+@enumerate
+@item Multiplex, if the major number is an exact multiple of the minor (2:1,
+3:1, 4:2, 6:3); and its inverse, Submultiplex (1:2, 1:3, 2:4, 3:6)
+
+@item Epimoria or Superparticular [orig. @emph{Epimoria seu Superparticularis}],
+if the major number is one more than the minor (3:2, 4:3, 5:4); and its
+inverse, Subsuperparticular (2:3, 3:4, 4:5)
+
+@item Superpartiens, if the major number is one less than twice the minor
+(5:3, 7:4, 9:5, 11:6); and its inverse, subsuperpartiens (3:5, 4:7, 5:9, 6:11)
+
+@item Multiplexsuperparticular, if the major number is one more than twice the
+minor (5:2, 7:3, 9:4); and its inverse, Submultiplexsuperparticular (2:5, 3:7,
+4:9)
+
+@item Multiplexsuperpartiens, if the major number is one less than some other
+multiple (usually three or four) of the minor (8:3, 11:4, 14:5, 11:3); and its
+inverse, Submultiplexsuperpartiens (3:8, 4:11, 5:14, 3:11)
+
+@end enumerate
+
+He then continues to subdivide each type in various ways. For the multiplex
+proportions, for example, he indicates how many times greater the major number
+is than the minor:
+
+@itemize
+
+@item If two times greater, the proportion is @emph{dupla}. If inverted, it's
+called @emph{subdupla}. Examples: 2:1, 4:2, and 6:3.
+
+@item If three, @emph{tripla}; and its inversion, @emph{subtripla}. Example:
+3:1, 6:2, and 9:3.
+
+@item If four, @emph{quadrupla}; and its inversion, @emph{subquadrupla}.
+Example: 4:1, 8:2, and 12:3
+
+@end itemize
+
+Other proportions were possible, but whether they were frequently used is
+another question:
+
+@itemize
+
+@item 33:9, @emph{triplasuperbipartientetertias}
+@item 51:15, @emph{triplasuperbipartientequintas}
+
+@end itemize
@c TODO: add an example or two. O => 4/3, and its modern equivalent
@seealso
-@ref{mensural notation}
+@ref{mensural notation}.
@node Pythagorean comma
note is the @q{third} of the chord, and the last note is the @q{fifth} of
the chord. These are described below:
-@multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
-
-@headitem Chord name @tab Component intervals
+@multitable {Chord name} {Component intervals} {Example} {C, CM, Cma, Cmaj, CΔ}
+@headitem Chord name
+ @tab Component intervals
@tab Example
@tab Symbol
@item major triad @tab major third/perfect fifth
S: rallentando,
FI: rallerdando, hidastuen.
-Abbreviation "rall.".
+[Italian] A performance indication, abbreviated "rall.".
+
+@seealso
@ref{ritardando}.
S: parallelltonart,
FI: rinnakkaissävellaji.
-@ref{major} and @ref{minor} @ref{key}s with the same @ref{key signature}.
+Major and minor keys that have the same key signature.
@lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
\set Score.automaticBars = ##f
\set Score.automaticBars = ##f
%\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
\relative c' {
- \key es \major
+ \key c \minor
c1_"c minor" d es f g a! b! c \bar "||"
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+@ref{key}, @ref{key signature}, @ref{major}, @ref{minor}.
+
@node repeat
@section repeat
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node rest
@section rest
@end itemize
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node ritardando
@section ritardando
Gradually slackening in speed. Mostly abbreviated to rit.@: or ritard.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node ritenuto
@section ritenuto
Immediate reduction of speed.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node scale
@section scale
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-[From Italian, @emph{scordare}, @q{to mistune}.] Unconventional
+[Italian: @emph{scordare}, @q{to mistune}.] Unconventional
tuning of stringed instruments, particularly lutes or violins. Used
to:
Tunings that could be called @var{scordatura} first appeared early in
the 16th Century and became commonplace in the 17th.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node score
@section score
instrument is to play, each voice to sing, having each part arranged
one underneath the other on different staves @ref{staff}.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node second
@section second
@ref{whole tone}s, hence the size of a se@-cond depends on the scale
degrees in question.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node semitone
@section semitone
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-[From It, @q{in the same manner}] Performance direction: the music thus marked
+[Italian: @q{in the same manner}.] Performance direction: the music thus marked
is to be played in the same manner (i.e. with the same articulations, dynamics,
etc.) as the music that precedes it.
@item I: semicroma
@item F: double croche
@item D: Sechzehntel, Sechzehntelnote
-@item NL: zes@-ti@-ende noot
+@item NL: zestiende noot
@item DK: sekstendedelsnode
@item S: sextondelsnot
@item FI: kuudestoistaosanuotti
played @ref{legato}, e.g., with one stroke of the violin bow or with
one breath in singing.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node solmization
@section solmization
FI: suhteelliset laulunimet.
General term for systems of designating the degrees of the
-@ref{scale}, not by letters, but by syllables (@emph{do} (@emph{ut}),
+@notation{scale}, not by letters, but by syllables (@emph{do} (@emph{ut}),
@emph{re}, @emph{mi}, @emph{fa}, @emph{sol}, @emph{la}, @emph{si}
(@emph{ti})).
-@ref{scale degree}.
+@seealso
+
+@ref{scale}, @ref{scale degree}.
@node sonata
accompaniment, which consists of three or four independant pieces,
called movements.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node sonata form
@section sonata form
S: sonatform,
FI: sonaattimuoto.
-A form used frequently for single movements of the @ref{sonata},
-@ref{symphony}, quartet, etc. A movement written in sonata form falls
-into three sections called @emph{exposition}, @emph{development} and
-@emph{recapitulation}. In the exposition the composer introduces some
-musical ideas, consisting of a number of themes; in the development
-section the composer @q{develops} this material, and in the
-recapitulation the composer repeats the exposition, with certain
-modifications. The exposition contains a number of themes that fall
-into two groups, often called first and second subject. Other
-melodies occurring in each group are considered as continuations of
-these two. The second theme is in another key, normally in the key of
-the @ref{dominant} if the @ref{tonic} is @ref{major}, and in the
-@ref{relative key} if the tonic is @ref{minor}.
+A form used frequently for single movements of the @emph{sonata},
+@emph{symphony}, quartet, etc. A movement written in sonata form falls into
+three sections called @notation{exposition}, @notation{development} and
+@notation{recapitulation}. In the exposition the composer introduces some
+musical ideas, consisting of a number of themes; in the development section the
+composer @emph{develops} this material, and in the recapitulation the composer
+repeats the exposition, with certain modifications. The exposition contains a
+number of themes that fall into two groups, often called first and second
+subject. Other melodies occurring in each group are considered as continuations
+of these two. The second theme is in another key, normally in the key of the
+@notation{dominant} if the @notation{tonic} is @notation{major}, and in the
+@notation{relative key} if the tonic is @notation{minor}.
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{dominant}, @ref{major}, @ref{minor}, @ref{relative key}, @ref{sonata},
+@ref{symphony}, @ref{tonic}.
@node song texts
The highest female voice.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node staccato
@section staccato
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node staff
@section staff
indicating (in connection with a @ref{clef}) their pitch. Staves for
@ref{percussion} instruments may have fewer lines.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node staves
@section staves
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node stringendo
@section stringendo
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-[It, @q{pressing}]. Pressing, urging, or hastening the time, as to a
+[Italian: @q{pressing}.] Pressing, urging, or hastening the time, as to a
climax.
@seealso
commonly used in a symphony orchestra are violin, viola, violoncello,
and double bass.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node strong beat
@section strong beat
S: subdominant,
FI: subdominantti, alidominantti.
-The fourth @ref{scale degree}.
+The fourth @notation{scale degree}.
-@ref{functional harmony}.
+@seealso
+
+@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}.
@node submediant
S: submediant,
FI: alikeskisävel.
-The sixth @ref{scale degree}.
+The sixth @notation{scale degree}.
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}, @ref{superdominant}.
@node subtonic
The seventh @ref{scale degree}.
+@seealso
+
+@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}.
+
@node sul G
@section sul G
Indicates that the indicated passage (or note) should be played on the
G string.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node superdominant
@section superdominant
The sixth @ref{scale degree}.
+@seealso
+
+@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}, @ref{submediant}.
+
@node supertonic
@section supertonic
The second @ref{scale degree}.
+@seealso
+
+@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}.
+
@node symphony
@section symphony
S: symfoni,
FI: sinfonia.
-A symphony may be defined as a @ref{sonata} for orchestra.
+A symphony may be defined as a @emph{sonata} for orchestra.
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{sonata}.
+
@node syncopation
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node syntonic comma
@section syntonic comma
S: system,
FI: nuottijärjestelmä.
-The collection of staves (@ref{staff}), two or more, as used for writing
+The collection of staves (@notation{staff}), two or more, as used for writing
down of keyboard, chamber, choral, or orchestral music.
+@seealso
+
+@ref{staff}.
+
@node temperament
@section temperament
Systems of tuning in which the intervals deviate from the acoustically
pure intervals.
+@seealso
+
@ref{meantone temperament}, @ref{equal temperament}.
S: tempobeteckning,
FI: tempomerkintä.
-The rate of speed of a composition or a section thereof, ranging from
-the slowest to the quickest, as is indicated by tempo marks as
-@ref{largo}, @ref{adagio}, @ref{andante}, @ref{allegro}, and
-@ref{presto}.
+The rate of speed of a composition or a section thereof, ranging from the
+slowest to the quickest, as is indicated by tempo marks as @notation{largo},
+@notation{adagio}, @notation{andante}, @notation{allegro}, and
+@notation{presto}.
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{adagio}, @ref{allegro}, @ref{andante}, @ref{largo}, @ref{presto}.
+
@node tenor
S: tenor,
FI: tenori, korkea miesääni.
-The highest male voice (apart from @ref{countertenor}).
+The highest @q{natural} male voice (apart from @notation{countertenor}).
+
+@seealso
+
+@ref{countertenor}.
@node tenth
An indication that a particular note should be held for the whole
length, although this can vary depending on the composer and era.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node third
@section third
@item I: biscroma
@item F: triple croche
@item D: Zweiunddreissigstel, Zweiunddreissigstelnote
-@item NL: twee-endertig@-ste (32e) noot
+@item NL: twee@-endertig@-ste (32e) noot
@item DK: toogtredivtedelsnode
@item S: trettiotvåondelsnot
@item FI: kolmaskymmeneskahdesosanuotti
@item I: pausa di biscroma
@item F: huitième de soupir
@item D: Zweiunddreissigstel@-pause
-@item NL: twee-endertig@-ste (32e) rust
+@item NL: twee@-endertig@-ste (32e) rust
@item DK: toogtredivtedelspause
@item S: trettiotvåondelspaus
@item FI: kolmaskymmeneskahdesosatauko
@c Music from the 20th century may be based on atonal sounds. Meh, not so much
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node tonic
@section tonic
S: tonika,
FI: toonika.
-The first @ref{scale degree}.
+The first @notation{scale degree}.
@seealso
-@ref{functional harmony}.
+@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}.
@node transposing instrument
}
@end lilypond
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node treble clef
@section treble clef
(voices) or by the whole orchestra (choir), either at exactly the same
pitch or in a different octave.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node upbeat
@section upbeat
@itemize
-@item Human voices:
-
-@itemize
-
-@item @ref{soprano}
-
-@item @ref{mezzo-soprano}
-
-@item @ref{contralto}
+ @item Human voices:
-@item @ref{tenor}
-
-@item @ref{baritone}
+ @itemize
+ @item @ref{soprano}
+ @item @ref{mezzo-soprano}
+ @item @ref{contralto}
+ @item @ref{tenor}
+ @item @ref{baritone}
+ @item @ref{bass}
+ @end itemize
-@item @ref{bass}
+ @item A melodic layer or part of a polyphonic composition.
@end itemize
-@item A melodic layer or part of a polyphonic composition.
+@seealso
-@end itemize
+None yet.
@node volta
S: ?,
FI: ?.
-[From Italian, @q{time} (instance, not duration)]. An ending, such as a first
+[Italian: @q{time} (instance, not duration).] An ending, such as a first
or second ending. LilyPond extends this idea to any number, and allows any text
-(not just a number) -- to serve as the @q{volta} text.
+(not just a number) -- to serve as the @notation{volta} text.
+
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
@node weak beat
commonly used in a symphony orchestra are flute, oboe, clarinet,
saxophone, and bassoon.
+@seealso
+
+None yet.
+
@node Duration names notes and rests
@chapter Duration names notes and rests
@tab brevispaus
@item @strong{FI} @tab longa-nuotti
@tab longa-tauko
- @tab brevis-nuotti, kaksoiskokonuotti
- @tab brevis-tauko, kaksoiskokotauko
+ @tab brevis-nuotti, kaksoiskoko@-nuotti
+ @tab brevis-tauko, kaksoiskoko@-tauko
@end multitable
@tab fjärdedelspaus
@tab åttondelsnot
@tab åttondelspaus
-@item @strong{FI} @tab neljäsosanuotti
- @tab neljäsosatauko
- @tab kahdeksasosanuotti
- @tab kahdeksasosatauko
+@item @strong{FI} @tab neljäsosa@-nuotti
+ @tab neljäsosa@-tauko
+ @tab kahdeksasosa@-nuotti
+ @tab kahdeksasosa@-tauko
@end multitable
@item @strong{DE} @tab Sechzehntelnote
@tab Sechzehntelpause
@tab 16tel-Note
-@item @strong{NL} @tab zestiende noot
- @tab zestiende rust
+@item @strong{NL} @tab zes@-ti@-ende noot
+ @tab zes@-ti@-ende rust
@tab 16e noot
@item @strong{DK} @tab sekstendedelsnode
@tab sekstendedelspause
@item @strong{SE} @tab sextondelsnot
@tab sextondelspaus
@tab -
-@item @strong{FI} @tab kuudestoistaosanuotti
- @tab kuudestoistaosatauko
+@item @strong{FI} @tab kuudes@-toistaosa@-nuotti
+ @tab kuudes@-toistaosa@-tauko
@tab 16-osanuotti
@end multitable
@item @strong{FR} @tab triple croche
@tab huitième de soupir
@tab -
-@item @strong{DE} @tab Zweiunddreißigstelnote
- @tab Zweiunddreißigstelpause
+@item @strong{DE} @tab Zweiunddreißig@-stelnote
+ @tab Zweiunddreißig@-stelpause
@tab 32tel-Note
-@item @strong{NL} @tab tweeendertigste noot
- @tab tweeendertigste rust
+@item @strong{NL} @tab twee@-endertigste noot
+ @tab twee@-endertigste rust
@tab 32e noot
@item @strong{DK} @tab toogtredivtedelsnode
@tab toogtredivtedelspause
@tab -
-@item @strong{SE} @tab trettiotvåondelsnot
- @tab trettiotvåondelspaus
+@item @strong{SE} @tab trettio@-tvåondelsnot
+ @tab trettio@-tvåondelspaus
@tab -
-@item @strong{FI} @tab kolmaskymmeneskahdesosanuotti
- @tab kolmaskymmeneskahdesosatauko
+@item @strong{FI} @tab kolmas@-kymmenes@-kahdesosa@-nuotti
+ @tab kolmas@-kymmenes@-kahdesosa@-tauko
@tab 32-osanuotti
@end multitable
@item @strong{NL} @tab vierenzestigste noot
@tab vierenzestigste rust
@tab 64e noot
-@item @strong{DK} @tab fireogtredsindstyvendedelsnode
- @tab fireogtredsindstyvendedelspause
+@item @strong{DK} @tab fireog@-tredsindstyven@-dedelsnode
+ @tab fireog@-tredsindstyven@-dedelspause
@tab -
@item @strong{SE} @tab sextiofjärdedelsnot
@tab sextiofjärdedelspaus
@tab -
-@item @strong{FI} @tab kuudeskymmenesneljäsosanuotti
- @tab kuudeskymmenesneljäsosatauko
+@item @strong{FI} @tab kuudes@-kymmenes@-neljäsosa@-nuotti
+ @tab kuudes@-kymmenes@-neljäsosa@-tauko
@tab 64-osanuotti
@end multitable
@tab -
@item @strong{FR} @tab quintuple croche
@tab trente-deuxième de soupir @tab -
-@item @strong{DE} @tab Hundertundachtundzwanzigstel
- @tab Hundertundachtundzwanzigstel @tab 128tel-Note
-@item @strong{NL} @tab honderdachtentwintigste noot
- @tab honderdachtentwintigste rust
+@item @strong{DE} @tab Hundert@-achtundzwanzigstel@-note
+ @tab Hundert@-achtundzwanzigstel@-pause @tab 128tel-Note
+@item @strong{NL} @tab honderd@-acht@-en@-twintigste noot
+ @tab honderd@-acht@-en@-twintigste rust
@tab 128e noot
-@item @strong{DK} @tab hundredeotteogtyvendedelsnode
- @tab hundredeotteogtyvendedelspause
+@item @strong{DK} @tab hundrede@-otte@-og@-tyvendedels@-node
+ @tab hundrede@-otte@-og@-tyvendedels@-pause
@tab -
@item @strong{SE} @tab hundratjugoåttondelsnot
@tab hundratjugoåttondelspaus
@tab -
-@item @strong{FI} @tab sadaskahdeskymmeneskahdeksasosanuotti
- @tab sadaskahdeskymmeneskahdeksasosatauko
+@item @strong{FI} @tab sadas@-kahdes@-kymmenes@-kahdeksasosa@-nuotti
+ @tab sadas@-kahdes@-kymmenes@-kahdeksasosa@-tauko
@tab 128-osanuotti
@end multitable
@tab -
@item @strong{FR} @tab sextuple croche
@tab soixante-quatrième de soupir @tab -
-@item @strong{DE} @tab Zweihundertundsechsundfünfzigstelnote
- @tab Zweihundertundsechsundfünfzigstel @tab 256tel-Note
-@item @strong{NL} @tab tweehonderdzesenvijftigste noot
- @tab tweehonderdzesenvijftigste rust
+@item @strong{DE} @tab Zweihundert@-sechsundfünfzigstel@-note
+ @tab Zweihundert@-sechsundfünfzigstelpause @tab 256tel-Note
+@item @strong{NL} @tab tweehonderd@-zesenvijftigste noot
+ @tab tweehonderd@-zesenvijftigste rust
@tab 256e noot
-@item @strong{DK} @tab tohundredeseksoghalvtredsendedelsnode
- @tab tohundredeseksoghalvtredsendedelspause
+@item @strong{DK} @tab tohundrede@-seks@-og@-halvtredsendedels@-node
+ @tab tohundrede@-seks@-og@-halvtredsendedels@-pause
@tab -
-@item @strong{SE} @tab tvåhundrafemtiosjättedelsnot
- @tab tvåhundrafemtiosjättedelspaus
+@item @strong{SE} @tab tvåhundra@-femtiosjättedelsnot
+ @tab tvåhundra@-femtiosjättedelspaus
@tab -
-@item @strong{FI} @tab kahdessadasviideskymmeneskuudesosanuotti
- @tab kahdessadasviideskymmeneskuudesosatauko
+@item @strong{FI} @tab kahdes@-sadas@-viides@-kymmenes@-kuudesosa@-nuotti
+ @tab kahdes@-sadas@-viides@-kymmenes@-kuudesosa@-tauko
@tab 256-osanuotti
@end multitable
@c -iss/-ess endings for Swedish per Mats Bengtsson
@c @columnfractions .105 .145 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125 -->
-@multitable {@strong{e-sharp} = f} {sol sostenido} {sol bemolle} {sol bémol} {Gis} {gis} {gis} {giss} {gis}
+@multitable {g-sharp} {sol sostenido} {sol diesis} {sol dièse} {Gis} {gis} {gis} {giss} {gis}
@headitem EN
@tab ES @tab I @tab F @tab D
@tab NL @tab DK @tab S @tab FI
@item Leuchtmann, Horst, ed. @cite{Polyglottes Wörterbuch der musikalischen
Terminologie}. Kassel, 1980.
-@item Randall, Don, ed. @cite{The New Harvard Dictionary of Music}.
-Cambridge: Belknap Press (Harvard University Press), 1986.
-
-@item Riemann, Hugo. @cite{Musik-lexicon}. Berlin, 1929.
-
@item Hornby, Albert Sydney. @cite{Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of
Current English}, 3rd ed. London: Oxford University Press, 1974.
@item Porter, Noah. @cite{Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary}.
Springfield, Massachusetts: G. & C. Merriam Company, 1913.
+@item Randall, Don, ed. @cite{The New Harvard Dictionary of Music}.
+Cambridge: Belknap Press (Harvard University Press), 1986.
+
+@item Riemann, Hugo. @cite{Musik-lexicon}. Berlin, 1929.
+
@end itemize
@bye
@menu
* Chorded notes::
+* Simultaneous expressions::
* Clusters::
@end menu
@cindex chords
@cindex brackets, angle
+@cindex angle brackets
@cindex relative pitch in chords
+
@funindex <
@funindex >
@funindex <...>
-A chord is formed by a enclosing a set of pitches between @code{<} and
-@code{>}. A chord may be followed by a duration and/or a set of
-articulations, just like simple notes:
+A chord is formed by enclosing a set of pitches between @code{<}
+and @code{>}. A chord may be followed by a duration and/or a set
+of articulations, just like simple notes:
@lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=1]
<c e g>2 <c f a>4-> <e g c>-.
@end lilypond
-Relative mode can be used for pitches in chords. The octave of each
-pitch is chosen using the preceding pitch as a reference except in the
-case of the first pitch in a chord: the reference for the first pitch is
-the @emph{first} pitch of the preceding chord.
+Relative mode can be used for pitches in chords. The octave of each
+pitch is chosen using the preceding pitch as a reference except in
+the case of the first pitch in a chord: the reference for the first
+pitch is the @emph{first} pitch of the preceding chord.
For more information about chords, see @ref{Chord notation}.
Snippets:
@rlsr{Simultaneous notes}.
-@ignore
-@knownissues
+@node Simultaneous expressions
+@unnumberedsubsubsec Simultaneous expressions
-For some reason, music expressions like @code{<< @{ g8 e8 @} a4 >>}
-that should automatically turn into chords, appear split in two
-staves. To avoid this, use explicit chords instead as in
-@code{<g a>8 <e a>8}.
-@end ignore
+One or more music expressions enclosed in double angle brackets are
+taken to be simultaneous. If the first expression begins with a
+single note or if the whole simultaneous expression appears
+explicitly within a single voice, the whole expression is placed on
+a single staff; otherwise the elements of the simultaneous
+expression are placed on separate staves.
+
+The following examples show simultaneous expressions on one staff:
+
+@lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
+\new Voice { % explicit single voice
+ << {a4 b g2} {d4 g c,2} >>
+}
+@end lilypond
+
+@lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
+% single first note
+a << {a4 b g} {d4 g c,} >>
+@end lilypond
+
+This can be useful if the simultaneous sections have identical
+rhythms, but attempts to attach notes with different durations
+to the same stem will cause errors.
+
+The following example shows how simultaneous expressions can
+generate multiple staves implicitly:
+
+@lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
+% no single first note
+<< {a4 b g2} {d4 g2 c,4} >>
+@end lilypond
+
+Here different rhythms cause no problems.
@node Clusters
@cindex cluster
@cindex note cluster
+
@funindex \makeClusters
@funindex makeClusters
-A cluster indicates a continuous range of pitches to be played. They
-can be denoted as the envelope of a set of notes. They are entered by
-applying the function @code{\makeClusters} to a sequence of chords,
-e.g.,
+A cluster indicates a continuous range of pitches to be played.
+They can be denoted as the envelope of a set of notes. They are
+entered by applying the function @code{\makeClusters} to a sequence
+of chords, e.g.,
@lilypond[quote,relative=2,verbatim]
\makeClusters { <g b>2 <c g'> }
they appear too narrow.
Clusters do not have a stem and cannot indicate durations by
-themselves. Separate clusters would need a separating rest between
-them.
+themselves, but the length of the printed cluster is determined by
+the durations of the defining chords. Separate clusters need a
+separating rest between them.
-Clusters do not produce MIDI output.
+Clusters do not produce MIDI output.
@node Multiple voices
@subsection Multiple voices
@cindex polyphony, single-staff
@cindex voice
@cindex lyrics assigned to one voice
+
@funindex \voiceOne
@funindex voiceOne
@funindex \voiceOne ... \voiceFour
@funindex \oneVoice
@funindex oneVoice
-The basic structure of code needed to achieve multiple, independent
+@strong{@i{Explicitly instantiating voices}}
+
+The basic structure needed to achieve multiple independent
voices in a single staff is illustrated in the following example:
@lilypond[quote,relative=3,verbatim]
>>
@end lilypond
-Here, voices are instantiated explicitly and are given a name. The
-@code{\voiceOne} ... @code{\voiceFour} commands set up the voices so
-that first and third voices get stems up, second and fourth voices get
-stems down, third and fourth voice note heads are horizontally
-shifted, and rests in the respective voices are automatically moved to
-avoid collisions. Using the @code{\oneVoice} command, all the voice
-settings are put back to the neutral directions typical of a
-single-voice passage.
-
-We can make a voice to be in the same @code{Voice} context before
-and after a temporary polyphonic passage. For example, the following
-construct keeps a voice alive throughout the polyphonic section. Said
-voice is the first one inside of the two-voice section, and the extra
-voice is the second one.
+Here, voices are instantiated explicitly and are given names. The
+@code{\voiceOne} ... @code{\voiceFour} commands set up the voices
+so that first and third voices get stems up, second and fourth
+voices get stems down, third and fourth voice note heads are
+horizontally shifted, and rests in the respective voices are
+automatically moved to avoid collisions. The @code{\oneVoice}
+command returns all the voice settings to the neutral default
+directions.
+
+@strong{@i{Temporary polyphonic passages}}
+
+A temporary polyphonic passage can be created with the following
+construct:
@example
-<< @{ \voiceOne ... @} \new Voice @{ \voiceTwo ... @} >> \oneVoice
+<< @{ \voiceOne ... @}
+ \new Voice @{ \voiceTwo ... @}
+>> \oneVoice
@end example
-Using the name given when created, this allows lyrics to be assigned
-to one consistent voice.
+Here, the first expression within a temporary polyphonic passage is
+placed into the @code{Voice} context which was in use immediately
+before the polyphonic passage, and that same @code{Voice} context
+continues after the temporary section. Other expressions within
+the angle brackets are assigned to distinct temporary voices.
+This allows lyrics to be assigned to one continuing voice before,
+during and after a polyphonic section:
@lilypond[quote, verbatim, relative=2]
<<
}
\new Voice {
\voiceTwo
- e d
+ d2
}
>>
\oneVoice
- e
+ e4
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
This is my song.
>>
@end lilypond
-Here, the @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceTwo} commands help to make clear what
-settings does each voice receive.
+Here, the @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceTwo} commands are
+required to define the settings of each voice.
+
+@strong{@i{The double backslash construct}}
-The @code{<<@{...@} \\ @{...@}>>} construction, where the two (or
-more) voices are separated by double backslashes, can be used as a
-simplified method to print multiple voices in a single staff. Our
-first example could be typeset as follows:
+The @code{<< @{...@} \\ @{...@} >>} construct, where the two (or
+more) expressions are separated by double backslashes, behaves
+differently to the similar construct without the double backslashes:
+@emph{all} the expressions within this contruct are assigned
+to new @code{Voice} contexts. These new @code{Voice} contexts
+are created implicitly and are given the fixed names @code{"1"},
+@code{"2"}, etc.
+
+The first example could be typeset as follows:
@lilypond[quote,relative=3,verbatim]
<<
>>
@end lilypond
-This syntax is simpler and can be used where it does not matter that
-temporary voices are created and then discarded. These implicitly
-created voices are given the settings equivalent to the effect of the
-@code{\voiceOne} ... @code{\voiceFour} commands, in the order in which
-they appear in the code. In the following example, the intermediate
-voice has stems up, therefore we enter it in the third place, so it
-becomes voice three which has the stems up as desired.
+This syntax can be used where it does not matter that temporary
+voices are created and then discarded. These implicitly created
+voices are given the settings equivalent to the effect of the
+@code{\voiceOne} ... @code{\voiceFour} commands, in the order in
+which they appear in the code.
+
+In the following example, the intermediate voice has stems up,
+therefore we enter it in the third place, so it becomes voice
+three, which has the stems up as desired. Spacer rests are
+used to avoid printing doubled rests.
@lilypond[quote,relative=3,verbatim]
<<
- { r8 g g g g f16 es f8 d }
+ { r8 g g g g f16 ees f8 d }
\\
- { es,8 r es r d r d r }
+ { ees,8 r ees r d r d r }
\\
{ d'8 s c s bes s a s }
>>
@end lilypond
-@noindent
-Spacer rests are often used to avoid having too many rests, as seen in the
-example above.
-
-In all but simplest works it is advisable to create explicit
-@code{Voice} contexts using the @code{\new} and @code{\context}
-commands as it is explained in @rlearning{Contexts and engravers} and
+In all but the simplest works it is advisable to create explicit
+@code{Voice} contexts as explained in @rlearning{Contexts and engravers} and
@rlearning{Explicitly instantiating voices}.
+@strong{@i{Identical rhythms}}
+
In the special case that we want to typeset parallel pieces of music
that have the same rhythm, we can combine them into a single
@code{Voice} context, thus forming chords. To achieve this, enclose
-them in a simple simultaneous music construction and make it to be an
-explicit voice:
+them in a simple simultaneous music construct within an explicit voice:
@lilypond[quote,relative=2,verbatim]
\new Voice <<
>>
@end lilypond
-To revert the standard presentation, the @code{\voiceNeutralstyle}
-command is used.
+The @code{\voiceNeutralstyle} command is used to revert to the
+standard presentation.
@predefined
@funindex \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOff
@funindex mergeDifferentlyHeadedOff
-Note heads with equal durations are automatically merged, while
-note heads with unequal durations are not merged. Rests opposite
-a stem are shifted vertically.
+The note heads of notes in different voices with the same pitch,
+same note head and opposite stem direction are automatically
+merged, but notes with different note heads or the same stem
+direction are not. Rests opposite a stem in a different voice
+are shifted vertically.
@lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
<<
>>
@end lilypond
-Note heads with different note heads may be merged, with the
+Notes with different note heads may be merged, with the
exception of half-note heads and quarter-note heads:
@lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
@end lilypond
-The collision on the second measure happens because
-@code{\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn} cannot successfully complete the
-merge when three or more notes line up in the same column -- in
-fact, you will obtain a warning for this reason. To allow the
-merge to work properly, apply a @code{\shift} to the note that
-should not be merged. Here, @code{\shiftOn} is applied to move
-the top @code{g} out of the column, and
-@code{\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn} works properly.
+The half note and eighth note at the start of the second measure
+are incorrectly merged because @code{\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn}
+cannot successfully complete the merge when three or more notes
+line up in the same column, and in this case a warning is given.
+To allow the merge to work properly a @code{\shift} must be applied
+to the note that should not be merged. Here, @code{\shiftOn} is
+applied to move the top @notation{g} out of the column, and
+@code{\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn} then works properly.
@lilypond[quote,relative=2,verbatim]
<<
gets a slightly wrong offset because of the different width of the
half note head symbol.
-@c investigate! Sometimes it works, sometimes not. --FV
+@ignore
+@c TODO investigate! Sometimes it works, sometimes not. --FV
The requirements for successfully merging different note heads that
are at the same time differently dotted are not clear.
+@end ignore
There is no support for chords where the same note occurs with
different accidentals in the same chord. In this case, it is
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