TODO
-need to rethink paper size stuff?
-
pipethrough(date) sucks.
paragraphs have too much space.
-in stead <-> instead
)
COMMENT(
- Mainly written by Han-Wen Nienhuys,
+ Mainly written by Han-Wen Nienhuys,
- with help of (among others)
+ with help of (among others)
- * Jan Nieuwenhuizen
+ * Jan Nieuwenhuizen
- * Lambert Meertens,
+ * Lambert Meertens,
- * Adrian Mariano
+ * Adrian Mariano
- * Mats Bengtsson
+ * Mats Bengtsson
)
whenlatex(notableofcontents())
whentexinfo(notableofcontents())
-article(Mudela, the Music-Definition Language)
+article(Mudela -- Using LilyPond to typeset music)
(Han-Wen Nienhuys and Jan Nieuwenhuizen)
(nop()PIPETHROUGH(date "+%B %d, %Y")()()nop())
music. LilyPond is a program that can print music from a
specification that you, the user, supply. Using LilyPond may be a bit
quaint in the beginning, because you have to give that specification
-using a em(language) named mudela. This chapter is a gentle
-introduction Mudela.
+using a em(language). This document is a gentle introduction to that
+language, which is called Mudela, an abbreviation for Music Definition
+Language.
-We will demonstrate the working of Mudela by presenting a examples of
+We will demonstrate the working of Mudela by presenting examples of
input alongside with the resulting output. We will comment on these
examples using English terms for notation, so if you are not familiar
with these terms, you should consult the glossary that is distributed
label(sec:firsttune)
To demonstrate what LilyPond input looks like, we start off with a
-full fledged (yet simple) example. It is somewhat convoluted version of one of the menuets in J.~S.~Bach's ``Clavierbuchlein".
+full fledged, yet simple, example. It is somewhat convoluted version
+of one of the menuets in bind(J.)bind(S.)Bach's em(Clavierbuchlein).
mudela(verbatim)(
% lines preceded by a percent are comments.
\include "paper16.ly"
\score {
- \notes % let's start music
- \relative c'' { % octave quotes are relative now
- \key G;
- \time 3/4; % set the time signature.
-
- d4 [g,8 a b c] d4 g, g |
- e'4 [c8 d e fis] g4 g, g |
- c4 [d8 c b a] b4 [c8 b a g] |
- a4 [b8 a g fis] g2. |
-
- \bar ":|"; % a repeat sign
-
-
- b'4 [g8 a b g]
- a4 [d,8 e fis d] |
- g4 [e8 fis g d] cis4 [b8 cis] a4 |
- [a8-. b-. cis-. d-. e-. fis-. ]
- % try some super and subscripts.
- g4 fis e |
- fis a, r8 cis8
- d2.-\fermata
- \bar "|.";
+ \notes
+ \relative c'' {
+ \key g;
+ \time 3/4;
+
+ d4 [g,8 a b c] d4 g, g |
+ e'4 [c8 d e fis] g4 g, g |
+ c4 [d8( )c b a( ] )b4 [c8 b a g] |
+ a4 [b8 a g fis] g2. |
+
+ \bar ":|";
+
+ b'4 [g8 a b g]
+ a4 [d,8 e fis d] |
+ g4 [e8 fis g d] cis4 [b8 cis] a4 |
+ [a8-. b-. cis-. d-. e-. fis-. ]
+ g4 fis e |
+ fis a, r8 cis8
+ d2.-\fermata
+ \bar "|.";
}
\paper {
- linewidth = 10.0 \cm; % standard settings are too wide for a book
+ linewidth = 14.0 \cm; % standard settings are too wide for a book
}
})
it with LilyPond and view the output. Details of this procedure may
vary from system to system. On a Unix system, you should enter the
input in a file ending in file(.ly), such as file(menuet.ly). To
-create the output, one would issue
-verb(
- ly2dvi menuet
-)
-file(ly2dvi) is a little program that does the job of calling the LilyPond
-and
-TeX() and adjusting page margins.
+create the output, one would issue code(ly2dvi menuet).
+
+file(ly2dvi) is a little program that does the job of calling the
+LilyPond and TeX() and adjusting page margins.
If all goes well, this will create the output file file(menuet.dvi).
-To view this output, isssue the command
-verb(
- xdvi menuet
-)
+To view this output, issue the command code(xdvi menuet). Now that we
+are familiar with the procedure to view the output, we will analyse
+the input itself, line by line.
-[running on W32?]
+verb(% lines preceded by a percent are comments.)COMMENT(
+
+)The percent sign (code(%)) introduces a line comment. If you want
+make larger comments, you can use block comments. These are delimited
+by code(%{) and code(%})
-Now for some explanation of the input itself, we will dissect the
-input line by line
verb(\input "paper16.ly")
By default, LilyPond will use definitions for a staff of 20 point
high. If you want smaller output (e.g., 16 point), you have to import
the setting for that size. You can do this by including a file.
-code(\include "file") is replaced by the contents of the code(file).
+code(\include "file") is replaced by the contents of code(file).
verb(\score {
-)
+) COMMENT(
-A mudela file combines music with directions for outputting that
+) A mudela file combines music with directions for outputting that
music. The music is combined with the output directions by putting
them into a code(\score) block.
verb(
- \notes % get ready for notes
-)
-This makes LilyPond ready for accepting notes. The percent sign
-(code(%)) introduces a line comment. If you want make larger
-comments, you can use block comments. These are delimited by code(%{)
-and code(%})
+ \notes
+) COMMENT(
+)This makes LilyPond ready for accepting notes.
verb(
- \relative c'' % octave quotes are relative now
-)
-As we will see, pitches are combinations of octave, note name and
-chromatic alteration. In this scheme, the octave is indicated by using raised
-quotes (') and lowered" quotes (commas: code(,)). The central C is denoted
-by code(c'). The C one octave higher is code(c''). One and two
-octaves below central C is denoted by code(c) and code(c,)
-respectively.
+ \relative c''
+)COMMENT(
+
+) As we will see, pitches are combinations of octave, note name and
+chromatic alteration. In this scheme, the octave is indicated by
+using raised quotes (`code (')') and ``lowered'' quotes (commas:
+`code(,)'). The central C is denoted by code(c'). The C one octave
+higher is code(c''). One and two octaves below central C is denoted
+by code(c) and code(c,) respectively.
If you have to indicate the pitches in a long piece that is written in
either a high or very low octave, you would have to type very many
high-quote an extra octave is added. The lowered quote will substract
an octave. Because the first note obviously has no predecessor, you
have to give the (absolute) pitch of the note to start with.
+COMMENT(
-verb(
+)verb(
{ % sequential music follows
-) COMMENT(
+)COMMENT(
) The brace indicates that what follows is sequential music, i.e.,
notes that are to be played and printed after each other. This is in
verb(
- \time 3/4; % set the time signature.
+ \time 3/4; % set the time signature.
) COMMENT(
) This command changes the time signature of the current piece: this
prints a 3/4 sign. The 3/4 value is also used to generate bar lines
in the right spots.
verb(
- \key G;
+ \key g;
) COMMENT(
-) This command changes the current key to G-major. Notice that in the
-output, the key comes before the time signature, like it should be.
+) This command changes the current key to G-major. Although
+this command comes after the code(\time) command, in the
+output, the key comes before the time signature: LilyPond knows about
+music typesetting conventions.
verb(
- d4
+ d4
) COMMENT(
) This is a code(d) note. The relative music was started with a
-code(c''), the real pitch of this note is code(d''). The 4 is
-designates the duration of the note (it is a quarter note).
-verb(
- [g,8
-)
-The open bracket starts a beam. This bracket is connected to the
-following note, which is an eighth pitch code(g') (remember relative mode)
-verb(
- a b
-)
-These are notes with pitch code(a') and code(b'). Because their
+code(c''), the real pitch of this note is code(d''). The 4
+designates the duration of the note (it is a quarter note). COMMENT(
+
+)verb(
+ [g,8
+)COMMENT(
+
+)The open bracket starts a beam. This bracket is connected to the
+following note, which is an eighth with pitch code(g') (remember
+relative mode for pitches!)
+COMMENT(
+
+)verb(
+ a b
+)COMMENT(
+
+)These are notes with pitch code(a') and code(b'). Because their
duration is the same as the code(g), there is no need to enter the
duration (It is not illegal to enter it anyway. Then you would have
to enter code(a8 b8))
-verb(
- c]
-)
-This ends the beam started 4 notes before at the c. In the output,
-you will notice a measure bar following this note. You do not have to
-enter anything to make LilyPond create a bar. Instead Lily deduce
-where bars have to be by comparing durations of notes with the current
-time signature.
-verb(
- d4 g, g |
-)
-3 more notes. The code(|) is a "barcheck". When processing the
+COMMENT(
+
+)verb(
+ c]
+) COMMENT(
+
+) This ends the beam started four notes earlier, at the code(g). In
+the output, you will notice a measure bar following this note. You do
+not have to enter anything to make LilyPond create a bar. Instead
+Lily will deduce where bars have to be by comparing durations of notes with
+the current time signature. COMMENT(
+
+)verb(
+ d4 g, g |
+) COMMENT(
+
+) Three more notes: The code(|) is a "barcheck". When processing the
music, LilyPond will check that barchecks are found at the start of
-a bar precisely. This makes it easy to spot where one left out a
-note.
+a bar precisely. This makes it easy to spot where notes are forgotten.
verb(
- e'4 [c8 d e fis]
-)
-Up till now, no notes were chromaticall altered. Here is the first
-one that is: code(fis). Mudela by default uses Dutch note names, and
-``Fis'' is the Dutch note name for ``F
-sharp''. However, there is no sharp sign in the output. The program
-keeps track of key signatures, and will only print accidentals if they
-are needed.
-
-The next 2 lines are not very interesting, nothing happens what we
-haven't seen already. The next line introduces a small new feature:
+ e'4 [c8 d e fis]
+) COMMENT(
+
+) So far, no notes were chromatically altered. Here is the first one
+that is: code(fis). Mudela by default uses Dutch note names, and
+``Fis'' is the Dutch note name for ``F sharp''. However, there is no
+sharp sign in the output. The program keeps track of key signatures,
+and will only print accidentals if they are needed.
verb(
- a4 [b8 a g fis] g2. |
-)
-A duration that is to be augmented with a duration dot, is notated
-with a number followed by periods, as many as you want augmentation
-dots.
+ c4 [d8( )c b a( ] )b4 [c8 b a g] |
+) COMMENT(
+
+) The next line shows something new: a slur is a symbol that is
+printed over several notes. In mudela, one enters a slur by marking
+the beginning and ending note of the slur with an opening and closing
+parenthesis respectively. In the line shown above this is done for
+two slurs. Note that parentheses (slur markers) are between the
+notes, and the brackets (beam markers) around the notes. As you can
+see, the brackets and parentheses do not have to nest.
+
verb(
- \bar ":|"; % a repeat sign
+ a4 [b8 a g fis] g2. |
+) COMMENT(
+
+) A duration that is to be augmented with a duration dot, is notated
+with a duration number followed by periods, as many as you want
+augmentation dots.COMMENT(
+
+)verb(
+ \bar ":|"; % a repeat sign
+) COMMENT(
+
)
Lily can not detect where you want your music to be repeated, so you
have to instruct her: a special bar symbol can be entered by the
rest of the notes, analogously with code(\key) and code(\time).
verb(
cis'4 [b8 cis] a4 |
+) COMMENT(
+
)
This line shows that Lily will print an accidental if that is needed:
the first C sharp will be printed with an accidental, the second without.
verb(
- [a8-. b-. cis-. d-. e-. fis-. ]
- % try some super and subscripts.
+ [a8-. b-. cis-. d-. e-. fis-. ] % try some super and subscripts.
+) COMMENT(
+
)
There is more to music than just pitches and rhythms. An important
aspect is articulation. You can enter articulation signs either in an
-abbreviated form, e.g., by using code(-.) for staccato as shown above.
+abbreviated form, by a dash and the the character for the
+articulation to use, e.g. code(-.) for staccato as shown above.
+COMMENT(
+
+)verb(
+ fis a, r8 cis8
+) COMMENT(
-verb(
- fis a, r8 cis8
)
Rests are denoted by the special notename code(r). You can also make
an invisible rest by using the special notename code(s).
-verb(d2.-\fermata)
-Finally, all articulations has a verbose form, like code(\fermata).
-The ``command'' COMMENT(Hi Adrian :-)
-code(\fermata) is not part of the core of the language (most of the
-other discussed elements are), but it is an abbreviation of a more
-complicated description of a fermata. code(\fermata) refers to that
-abbreviation and is therefore called an em(identifier).
+verb(
+ d2.-\fermata
+) COMMENT(
+
+) Finally, all articulations have a verbose form, like code(\fermata).
+The ``command'' COMMENT(Hi Adrian :-) code(\fermata) is not part of
+the core of the language (most of the other discussed elements are),
+but it is an abbreviation of a more complicated description of a
+fermata. code(\fermata) refers to that abbreviation and is therefore
+called an em(identifier).
verb(
- }
+ }
+) COMMENT(
+
)
This ends the sequential music.
verb(\paper {
- linewidth = 10.0\cm;
+ linewidth = 10.0\cm;
})
This specifies a conversion from music to notation output. Most of
the details of this conversions (font sizes, dimensions, etc.) have
(approximately 4 inches).
verb(
- }
+ }
)
Finally, the last brace ends the code(\score) block.
There are a couple of things to note here. The input format tries to
capture the meaning of em(music), and not notation. Therefore the
-format contains musical concepts like pitches and durations, in stead
+format contains musical concepts like pitches and durations, instead
of symbols and positions. Second, the format tries to be
-em(context-free): a note will remain to sound the same regardless of
-the current time signature, the key nop(etc.)COMMENT(footnote The
-code(\relative) mode is a concession to this, but a )
-
+em(context-free): a note will sound the same regardless of the current
+time signature, the key nop(etc.)
The purpose of LilyPond informally is explained by the term `music
typesetter'. As you may have figured out by now, this is not a really
prettier output by using LilyPond.
-As you can see, the most interesting parts of the input is music
+As you can see, the most interesting part of the input is music
itself, in this case the sequence of notes. We will therefore focus
on entering music for now. Consequently, when we mean
verb(\score {
- \notes { XXXX }
+ \notes { XXXX }
\paper { }
-})
-we will leave out the the repetitive details and just print
+})COMMENT(
+
+) we will leave out the the repetitive details for now and just print
code(XXXX).
\notes {
c'\longa c'\breve
c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64 c'2. c'8. c'16
- }
- \paper {
- linewidth = -1.0;
- \translator { \StaffContext
- \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver";
- \remove "Bar_engraver";
- }}}
-
+ }
+ \paper {
+ linewidth = -1.0;
+ \translator { \type "Score_engraver";
+ \name "Score";
+ \consists "Note_heads_engraver";
+ \consists "Stem_engraver";
+ \consists "Rhythmic_column_engraver";
+ }}}
+
)
subsect(Basic pitches)
non-English convention for entering altered pitches: a note is made
sharp by adding the suffix `--is' to its name, and flat by adding the
suffix `--es'. For a double sharp another `--is' suffix is added, for
-flats another `--es' suffix. The names for the alterations of C are
-given in bind(Table)ref(notename-tab).
+flats another `--es' nop(suffix.) footnote(Variations on this
+convention are used in a number of germanic languages, notably Dutch,
+German, Swedish, and Norwegian.) The names for the alterations of C
+are given in bind(Table)ref(notename-tab).
latexcommand(\begin{table}[h])
center(
label(notename-tab)
latexcommand(\end{table})
-Variations on this convention are used in a number of germanic
-languages, notably Dutch, German, Swedish, and Norwegian.
-
Throughout this document we will continue to use these names.footnote(
Mudela defaults to Dutch notenames. To make (Dutch) pronunciation
easier, the a-flat and e-flat are contracted to code(as) and
code(es). Similarly, the a double flat and e double flat are
contracted to code(ases) and code(eses). For consistency, the dutch
names also include code(aes), code(aeses), code(ees) and
- code(eeses)) consistency
+ code(eeses))
If you are not comfortable with these names, you can make your own.
Note names for different languages are included with the example
}
)
+There is one thing to note, in sequences of chords, the (relative)
+pitch of a is taken with reference to the first note of the previous
+chord.
+
You can nest simultaneous and sequential music in any way you want,
-e.g.,
-mudela(verbatim,fragment)(
- < { c''4 c''4 }
- { c8 <c e> c <c e> } >
+e.g., COMMENT(
+
+)mudela(verbatim,fragment,center)(
+ < { g''4 g''4 }
+ { c'8 <c' e'> c' <c' e'> } >
+)COMMENT(
+
)
As you can see, LilyPond has some difficulty typesetting this
elegantly. To adequately solve this, you have to persuade LilyPond to
make separate stems for both sequential music lists. This is a topic
that is covered in bind(Section)ref(sec:polyphonic).
+[Chords and relative mode]
+
sect(Adding nuances: articulation and dynamics)
smallest grains of nuance: the articulation of a single note. Articulation
is entered by writing a dash and the name of the desired articulation
mark. You have to add a backslash in front of the name to distinguish
-it from the name of a note. mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+it from the name of a note. COMMENT(
+
+)mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
c''4-\staccato
- c''4-\tenuto )
+ c''4-\tenuto )COMMENT(
-Typing a lot of staccato notes in this syntax will get tedious very
+) Typing a lot of staccato notes in this syntax will get tedious very
quickly. Therefore, Mudela has some handy abbreviations for
articulation marks such as staccato and tenuto. They are shown in the
-following example:
+following example: COMMENT(
-mudela()(
+)mudela()(
\score{ <
- \property Score.textstyle = typewriter
- \type Staff \notes {
- c''4-.
- c''4--
- c''4-+
- c''4-|
- c''4->
- c''4-^
- }
- \type Lyrics\lyrics {
- "."4 "-" "+" "|" ">" "\^{ }" }
- >
- \paper { linewidth = 12.\cm; }
-})
-
-Text and digits for fingering can be entered in the same manner: add a
+ \property Score.textstyle = typewriter
+ \type Staff \notes {
+ c''4-.
+ c''4--
+ c''4-+
+ c''4-|
+ c''4->
+ c''4-^
+ }
+ \type Lyrics\lyrics {
+ "."4 "-" "+" "|" ">" "\^{ }" }
+ >
+ \paper { linewidth = 12.\cm; }
+})COMMENT(
+
+)Text and digits for fingering can be entered in the same manner: add a
dash and the text or digit to be printed:
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- c''4-1 g''4-5 c''-"Sul tasto" )
-Currently, the meaning of the
+COMMENT(
+
+)mudela(fragment,verbatim)(c''4-1 g''4-5 c''-"Sul tasto" )
+COMMENT(Currently, the meaning of the
syntax `note-dash-digit/articulation/text' is just ``add a superscript to this
-note.'' This is not in line with our goal to em(define) music with
+note.'' This is not in line with our goal to em (define) music with
Mudela. We hope that this will be fixed in a future version of the
language. In the meantime you can abuse this: the super- and
subscripts can be forced into up or down position respectively by entering an
-a caret (code(^)) or an underscore, code(_) instead of the dash:
-mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
+a caret (code(^)) or an underscore, code (_) instead of the dash:
+mudela (fragment,verbatim,center) (
c'4-^ c'4^^ c'''4-^ c'''4_^
-)
+))
Dynamic markings are another way to add a nuance to a note. They are
entered by adding the name for the dynamic sign after the note. You
should not enter a dash between the name and the note.footnote(This
is inconsistent. We hope that this will be fixed in a later
- version of the language.)
-mudela(verbatim,fragment)(
+ version of the language.)COMMENT(
+
+)mudela(verbatim,fragment)(
c4 \ff c4 \fp c4 c4 \ppp c4 c4 \sfz
+)COMMENT(
+UGH
+
)
-COMMENT(UGH)
sect(Bridging the notes: beams, slurs and ties)
-Up till now most of the typesetting concerned simple fixed symbols
-only. Now we turn to variable symbols: symbols that run from one note
-to another. In LilyPond terminology, such a symbol is called a
-em(spanner). To print a spanner, you have to attach a marker to the
-note that begins it and to the one that ends it.
+Music typesetting does not use fixed symbols only. A lot of symbols
+are variable: they run from one note to another. In LilyPond
+terminology, such a symbol is called a em(spanner). To print a
+spanner, you have to attach a marker to the note that begins it and to
+the one that ends it. These are the spanners that are entered like
+this:
-
-The first example of such a symbol is the slur. For the slur, the
-start marker is the opening parenthesis. It won't be a surprise that
-the stopping marker is the closing parenthesis.
+description(
+dit(The slur)
+ The slur has the opening parenthesis as
+start marker is. The stopping marker is the closing parenthesis.
For example:
mudela(fragment,center,verbatim)( c'4( )c'4 )
-Notice that the parentheses should be between the notes.footnote(The
-location of the parentheses might be changed in a future version of
-the language.)
-
-It is your job to make sure that each slur that you start also ends.
-If it doesn't end, then Bad Things are likely to happen. The slur is
-quite flexible: you can nest nop(slurs,)footnote(This is inconsistent
-when compared to the syntax for articulation hints. This will be
-fixed some time, we hope.) and you can connect a note with a slur on
-both the left and the right side:
+ The slur is quite flexible: you can nest nop(slurs,)footnote(This is
+inconsistent when compared to the syntax for articulation hints. This
+will be fixed some time, we hope.) and you can connect a note with a
+slur on both the left and the right side:
mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
c'4(( )c''4 )c'4( )g'4
)
-Another spanner is the beam (see bind(Figure)ref(mud:beam)). Strictly
-speaking, a beam is not a musical concept. The pattern of a beam can
-be derived from the structure of the time signature and the durations
-of the notes. It is merely a device that helps you understand the
-rhythms notated. Unfortunately, LilyPond is not smart enough to insert
-beams into your music on her own. You will have to instruct her by
-marking the starting and stopping point of the beam with `code([)' and
-`code(])' respectively, e.g.
+dit(Beam)
-latexcommand(\begin{figure}[h])
- center(
- mudela(fragment,verbatim, center)([c'8 c'] [c'16 c' c' c'] [c'16. c'32 c' c'16.] )
- latexcommand(\caption{Some beams})
- label(mud:beam)
- )
-latexcommand(\end{figure})
+Another spanner is the beam. The starting marker is the opening
+bracket, then ending marker is the closing bracket. The brackets have
+to be em(around) the beamed notes. footnote(Strictly speaking, a
+beam is not a musical concept: beaming doesn't change the meaning of
+music, it only clarifies the rhythmic structure. One might argue that
+beams should not be present in a ``music'' language. Unfortunately,
+LilyPond is not smart enough to insert beams into music on its own.
-LilyPond has code that guesses what the pattern should look like, so
-that you don't have to specify the beaming for complicated
-patterns.footnote(Unfortunately the algorithm used is not foolproof yet:
- code([c8. c32 c32]) will produce incorrect results.)
+LilyPond does have code that guesses what the pattern should look
+like, so that you don't have to specify the beaming for complicated
+patterns. Alas, the algorithm used is not foolproof
+yet: code([c8. c32 c32]) will produce incorrect results.)
-Again, it is your responsibility to make sure that you end every beam
-that you start.
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+[c'8 c'] [c'16 c' c' c'] [c'16. c'32 c' c'16.]
+)
-A third spanner is similar to the slur: the tie. The tie looks like a
-slur, but a slur connects whole chords, whereas the tie connects
-note heads. Tied notes should be played as one long note.
-In analogy with TeX()'s tie (which ties together words with a
-space), LilyPond's tie is entered as a tilde, `code(~)'.
+dit(The tie) The tie is similar to the slur: it looks like a
+slur, but a slur connects whole chords, whereas the tie connects note
+heads. Tied notes should be played as one long note. In analogy with
+TeX()'s tie (which ties together words with a space), LilyPond's tie
+is entered as a tilde, `code(~)'.
The input convention for the tilde is somewhat peculiar when used in
conjunction with chords. Internally, the extra information that is
one. The following example demonstrates the use of ties:
mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
c''1 ~ c''4
- <c'1 ~ g' es''> <c'4 g' es''>
+ <c'2. ~ g' es''> <c'4 g' es''>
+)
+
+dit(Hairpins)
+Crescendi and decrescendi can be printed in hairpin style. The
+starting marker for the crescendo is code(\<), and for the decrescendo
+code(\>). Both have code(\!) as the ending marker.
+mudela(fragment, verbatim)(
+ \relative c'' { c4 \< \! c4 \> \! c2
+ < c1
+ { s4 \< \! s4 \> \! s2 } > }
+)
+This example shows a trick: by attaching the markings to space rests
+that run parallel to the whole note, you can have dynamic markings
+within a note.
+
)
+It is your job to make sure that each spanner that you start, also
+ends. If it doesn't, then Bad Things are likely to happen. If you end
+spanners that are not started, LilyPond will warn you about illegal
+ending markers.
+
sect(Commands)
label(sec:commands)
commands between the music. The general form of these commands is
COMMENT(
-)center( em(keyword) sc(arguments) )
+)center(code(\keyword argument argument ... ;))
+
+These are the commands that are currently supported:
+description(
+dit(code(\bar) var(bartype))
+ This command makes LilyPond print special bar
+ lines and repeat symbols. You can also use it to allow line breaks
+ when entering cadenzas. The argument var(bartype) is a string that
+ describes what kind of bar line to print.
+
+mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+ \bar "|:"; c'4 \bar ":|:"; c'4 \bar ":|"; c'4 \bar "||";
+ c'4 \bar "empty"; c'4 \bar "|.";
+)
+
+ The command `code(\bar "empty")' does not create any visible bar
+ line, but it tells LilyPond to allow a linebreak at that
+ position. The `code(\bar)' command prints the specified symbol
+ immediately. If you give a `code(\bar)' command at the end of a
+ measure then the specified symbol replaces the automatic bar line;
+ otherwise the specified symbol appears in the middle of the measure.
+ The code(\bar) command does not affect metric structure.
-em(keyword)s are words that have a special meaning to the parser of
-Mudela. Because the parser must be able to distinguish the keywords
-from note names, they have to be preceded by a so-called escape
-character, the backslash, `code(\)'. To separate the arguments from
-any notes that might follow the arguments, you have to end your
-command with a semicolon. An added benefit of this construction is
-that the commands stand out between your notes, because of the
-backslashes.
+dit(code(\cadenza) var(togglevalue)) This command toggles the
+automatic printing of barlines. `code(\cadenza 1)' turns off the
+automatically generated bar lines. They are switched on again with
+`code(\cadenza 0)'. Then a bar line is printed, and LilyPond will act
+as if you are again at the start of a measure.
-So the general form actually is `code(\keyword argument argument ... ;)'
-Let us review these commands:
-description(
+This is useful when typesetting music without a meter (such as an ad
+ libitum cadenza).
+
dit(code(\clef) var(clefname)) This command sets the current clef for notation,
i.e., a clef symbol is printed and the notes following this command
are shifted vertically. The argument is a string, the name of the
\clef "treble"; c'4
\clef "alto"; c'4
)
+
dit(code(\key) var(pitch) var(type)) This command changes the current
key signature. The key signature is printed at the start of every
line. The var(type) argument is set to code(\major) or code(\minor)
`code(\key)' command, this command can produce arbitrary key
signatures, which can be useful for unconventional keys or modes. The
key signature is given in the form of a list of notes. The notes will
-be printed in the key signature in the order that they appear on the list.
-For example, the key
-of C-minor can be specified as `code(\keysignature bes es as)'. The
-command `code(\keysignature fis es bis)' provides a more exotic
-example.
+be printed in the key signature in the order that they appear on the
+list. For example, the key of C-minor can be specified as
+`code(\keysignature bes es as)'. The command `code(\keysignature fis
+es bis)' provides a more exotic example.
dit(code(\time) var(numerator)code(/)var(denominator))
- This command changes the current time signature. LilyPond uses the
- time signature to
- calculate where to place the bars that start a measure. These bars
- in turn are the places where a system can be broken into lines.
-
- The default value for this time signature is common time (4/4). You
- can also tell this from the Twinkle ``Twinkle Little
-Star'' example in bind(Figure)ref(fig:twinkle1). This
-song actually has a 2/4 time signature, so a metrically more correct
- version would start with as follows:
- mudela(fragment,center,verbatim)(
- \time 2/4; c'4 c' g' g'
- )
-
+ This command changes the current time signature.
+ The default value for this time signature is common time (4/4).
-dit(code(\cadenza) var(togglevalue)) When typesetting music without a
-regular meter (such as an ad libitum cadenza), no bar lines should be
-printed. In LilyPond you can achieve this by issuing the command
-`code(\cadenza 1)': it turns off the automatically
-generated bar lines.
+dit(code(\partial) var(duration))
+ This command allows you to make
+ upsteps at the start of a piece.
+ The var(duration) argument has the same form as the duration of a
+ note.
-You switch them on again with `code(\cadenza 0)', and then a bar line
-is printed. LilyPond will act as if you are again at the start of a
-measure.
-
-dit(code(\bar) var(bartype))
- This command lets you print special bar
- lines and repeat symbols. You can also use it to allow line breaks
- when entering cadenzas. The argument var(bartype) is a string that
- describes what kind of bar line to print.
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- \bar "|:"; c'4 \bar ":|:"; c'4 \bar ":|"; c'4 \bar "||";
- c'4 \bar "empty"; c'4 \bar "|.";
-)
- The command `code(\bar "empty")' does not create any visible bar
- line, but it does tells LilyPond to allow a linebreak
- at that position. The `code(\bar)' command prints the specified
- symbol immediately. If you give a `code(\bar)' command at the end
- of a measure then
- the specified symbol replaces the automatic bar line; otherwise
- the specified symbol appears in the middle of the measure. The
- code(\bar) command does not affect metric structure.
-
-
-
-dit(code(\partial) var(duration)) some music starts with a measure that
-isn't fully filled, a so-called upstep. The code(\partial) command
-allows you to make
-upsteps. The argument is a duration similar to the duration of a note.
The `code(\partial)' command cannot be used to generate partial
measures in the middle of the music.
Example:
[d'8 dis'] e' c''4 e'8 c''4
)
- dit(code(\grouping) var(durationslist)) sets the metric structure of the measure.
+dit(code(\grouping) var(durationslist)) sets the metric structure of the measure.
Its effect can best be shown by an example:
mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
\time 5/16;
(2+2), 8/8 in 3+3+2)
)
-The commands that are described above aren't really music, but they
-can be used in the same places as notes. This makes the grammar of the
-language simpler. It is possible to put a command into a chord.
-For example, the following two snippets of Mudela produce identical output.
-verb(
- <c4 e g \time 2/4;>
- \time 2/4; <c4 e g>
-)
+The commands described above aren't really music, but they can best be
+thought as as notes with no duration. Since they are grammatically
+equivalent to notes, these commands can be used in the same places as
+notes:
sect(Notation context)
-This section is about translation contexts, a topic of LilyPond that
+COMMENT(This section is about translation contexts, a topic of LilyPond that
is somewhat advanced. You don't have to understand this to use
LilyPond to print simple music. If you don't want to typeset fancy
polyphonic music or tweak the LilyPond notation engine, you can skip
-the next two sections.
+the next two sections.)
-In bind(Section)ref(tutorial:more-staffs) it was explained, that there
+In bind(Section)ref(tutorial:more-staffs) it was explained that there
are more ways to notate a simple chord: as a single voice on a single
staff or in multiple staffs (and we'll soon see, that you can typeset
-it as multiple voices on a staff). Obviously the concept of staff is not
-really something musical. But what is it
+it as multiple voices on a staff). Obviously the concept of staff is
+not really something musical. But what is it then?
-The most simplistic explanation is: a staff is a peculiarity of the
-notation system. In other words, a staff is a graphic device, a
-special picture of five lines on which one can print note heads. To
-avoid confusion, we will call this view on the concept of staff
-`staff symbol' from now on.
+The most simplistic explanation is: a staff is a graphic peculiarity
+of the notation system. In other words, a staff is a graphic device,
+a special picture of five lines on which one can print note heads. We
+will call this view on the concept of staff `staff symbol' from now
+on.
-There is more to it than meets the eye and mind. A staff
+But
+there is more to a staff than just the symbol. A staff
contains---besides a staff symbol--- some more components:
itemize(
-it()A staff can have a key signature (printed at the left)
+it()A staff can have a key signature (printed at the left)
it()A staff can have a time signature (printed at the left)
it()A staff has bar lines
it()A staff has a clef (printed at the left)
+) COMMENT(
+
)
-To explain what a staff really is, we'll try to print music without
-these components. If these components aren't printed, it is still
+To explain what a staff really is, we'll try to print music without
+these components. Without those, it is still
possible to print music:
mudela()(\score{
\notes \relative c' { \time 2/4; g'4 c,4 a'4 f4 e c d2 }
\remove "Key_engraver";
}
}
-})
+})COMMENT(
-As you can see, one can still make out the general form of the melody
-and the rhythm that is to be played, but the notation is difficult to
-read and the musical information is not complete. The stress pattern
-in the notes can't be deduced from this output. For this, we need a
-time signature:
+) As you can see, you can still make out the general form of the
+melody and the rhythm that is to be played, but the notation is
+difficult to read. Moreover, the musical information is not complete.
+The stress pattern in the notes can't be deduced from this output.
+For this, we need a time signature:
mudela()(
\score {
\remove "Clef_engraver";
\remove "Key_engraver";
}}
- })
+ }) COMMENT(
-Technically speaking you know where the strong and weak beats are, but
+)Technically speaking you know where the strong and weak beats are, but
it is difficult to find them quickly. Bar lines help you in finding
-the location within the measure of the notes:
+the location of the notes within the measure:
mudela()(
\score {
\notes \relative c' { \time 2/4; g'4 c,4 a'4 f4 e c d2 }
\remove "Key_engraver";
}
}
-})
+})COMMENT(
+)
This makes the output decidedly easier to read, but you still don't
know what the pitches of the notes above are. So this is still not
enough. But suppose you see the following notation:
\paper {
linewidth = -1.;
}
-})
+})COMMENT(
-Now you know the pitch of the notes: you look at the start of the line
+) Now you know the pitch of the notes: you look at the start of the line
and see a clef, with this clef, you can determine the notated pitches.
You have found the em(context) in which the notation is to be
interpreted!
and its notation: you, the reader, use context to deduce music from
notation. Because LilyPond is a notation writer instead of a reader,
context works the other way around for Lily: with context a piece of
-music can be converted to notation. The components of a staff form
-context, and context is needed to read and write notation. This
-motivates the following definition.
-
-quote(
-A bf(notation context) is a conversion from music to notation.
-)
+music can be converted to notation.
-The example focused mainly on on staffs, but a staff is not the only
-type of notation context. Notation contexts may be nested: you can
-print polyphonic music by putting multiple `Voice' contexts in one
-`Staff' context. The arguments of the code(\type) command (Staff,
-GrandStaff) were in fact all names of different contexts.
-The notions of ``current clef'' and ``current position within the
-measure'' are all properties of notation contexts. Commands like
-code(\clef) and code(\cadenza) change these properties.
+We see that a staff forms context, and that context is needed to
+convert between notation and music. In LilyPond we turn around this
+reasoning: LilyPond has a notion of notation context, and the staff is
+just one example of a notation context. In fact, the arguments of the
+code(\type) command (Staff, GrandStaff) were all names of different
+contexts.
+We make one final observation before listing the standard notation
+contexts. A score can contain many staffs; A staff can contain many
+voices. This suggests that notation contexts are objects that can be
+nested.
The following is a list of the contexts that are supported by
-LilyPond:
+LilyPond. Each notation context is characterised by its name, the
+notation elements it creates, and the contexts that it can contain.
description(
-
dit(Voice) The code(Voice) context is a context that corresponds to a
voice on a staff. This context handles the conversion of noteheads,
dynamic signs, stems, beams, super- and subscripts, slurs, ties and rests
dit(Staff) The code(Staff) context handles clefs, bar lines, keys,
- accidentals. A code(Staff) context can contain multiple code(Voice)
+ accidentals. A code(Staff) context can contain code(Voice)
contexts.
dit(RhythmicStaff) The code(RhythmicStaff) context is like the staff,
dit(GrandStaff) A code(GrandStaff) context contains code(Staff)
contexts, and it adds a brace to the output at the
nop(left.)footnote(This is a major deficiency in the current
- implementation. Currently stems,
- slurs and beams cannot be printed across two staffs.
-In reality, a grand staff is a hybrid of one big staff and two stacked staffs.)
+ implementation. Currently stems, slurs and beams cannot be printed
+ across two staffs. In reality, a grand staff is a hybrid of one big
+ staff and two stacked staffs.)
- A code(GrandStaff) context can contain multiple
+ A code(GrandStaff) context can contain
code(Staff)s. Typically, it will contain two code(Staff)s, one
treble staff, and one bass staff. The bar lines of the contained
staffs are connected vertically.
administration of time signatures. It also makes sure that items
such as clefs, time signatures, and key-signatures are aligned across staffs.
- The code(Score) can contain code(Staff), code(StaffGroup), code(Lyrics), code(GrandStaff) and
- code(RhythmicStaff) contexts.
+ The code(Score) can contain code(Staff), code(StaffGroup),
+ code(Lyrics), code(GrandStaff) and code(RhythmicStaff) contexts.
COMMENT(do ChoireStaff)
)
- Later on, in bind(Section)ref(tutorial:engravers) we will
-explain how you can create your own contexts.
+If you are familiar with structured documents, you might see the
+analogy of a context with a stylesheet: a stylesheet is neither
+presentation nor information, but rather a recipe em(how) a specific
+piece of information should be presented. The big difference with
+stylesheets is that in music notation the elements provided by context
+are essential to understanding what is notated.
+
+The notions of ``current clef'' and ``current position within the
+measure'' are all properties of notation contexts. Commands like
+code(\clef) and code(\cadenza) change these properties, and this
+explains why they are fundamentally different from musical expressions
+like notes and rests.
-If you are familiar with structured documents (like HTML, SGML or
-LaTeX()), you might see the analogy of a context with a stylesheet: a
-stylesheet is neither presentation nor information, but rather a
-recipe em(how) a specific piece of information should be presented.
-Analogously, a notation context is neither music nor notation, but the
-conversion between the two. The big difference with text is that in
-music notation the elements provided by context are essential to
-understanding what is notated.
+A notation context is not a primitive element of LilyPond, but rather
+ Later on, in bind(Section)ref(tutorial:engravers) we will explain
+ how you can create your own contexts.
-sect(Nested music: more than one staff)
+sect(Nested music: multiple staffs)
label(tutorial:more-staffs)
Now we explain how to typeset music that runs in multiple staffs.
\type GrandStaff <e'4 {\clef bass; g4^""} >
)
- The music consists of two notes. Perhaps this is sheet music for a
-piano player, and one note is meant to be played with the left hand,
-and the other with the right hand. That music would sound the same if
-it were written as a single chord on a single staff, i.e.,
-mudela(fragment)(
- <g4 e'4>
-)
-
+In this example the music consists of two notes. The above would
+sound the same if it were written as a single chord on a single staff,
+i.e., COMMENT(
-This is another example where we can see that there can be a difference
-between a musical idea, and the way it is expressed in notation.
+)mudela(fragment)(
+ <g4 e'4>
+)COMMENT(
-The Mudela construct for multiple staffs reflects the similarity
+) The Mudela construct for multiple staffs reflects the similarity
between the two examples: to get multiple staffs in Mudela you enter a
chord, with an additional instruction to tell LilyPond that the chord
does not represent notes stacked together, but staffs stacked
verb(
\type Staff e'4
-)
+)COMMENT(
-The same can be done for the other note, i.e.,
+) The same can be done for the other note, i.e.,
verb(
\type Staff g4
-)
+) COMMENT(
-If you want to stack these staffs, you must create a chord of both:
+) If you want to stack these staffs, you must create a chord of both:
verb(
< \type Staff e'4
)
This looks reasonable, but the effect of this input is not what you
-might expect (try it!). When interpreting this chord LilyPond will
-start with the first entry, so a (nameless) staff is searched. Such a
-staff is not found, so it is created. On this staff the code(e) note
-is put. When the second code(\type) entry is read, LilyPond will
-start looking for a nameless staff. The staff that contains the
-code(e) is found, and the code(g) is put there as well.
+might expect:
+mudela(fragment)(
+ < \type Staff e'4
+ \type Staff g4
+ >
+)COMMENT(
-The correct solution is to label both code(\type) constructs with
-different names, for example code(trebleStaff) and code(bassStaff).
-This makes LilyPond distinguish between them, and create two staffs:
+) Since there are no names specified for the desired staffs, LilyPond
+thinks your wishes are fullfilled by putting the code(g) on the same
+staff as the code(e). The correct solution is to label both staffs
+with different names, for example code(trebleStaff) and
+code(bassStaff). This makes LilyPond distinguish between them, and
+create two staffs:
mudela(verbatim,fragment)(
< \type Staff = trebleStaff e'4
\type Staff = bassStaff g4
>
-)
+)COMMENT(
-The names that you choose do not matter just as long as they are
+) The names that you choose do not matter just as long as they are
different. This is almost right, except for the brace at the left and
-the clef of the second staff. The bass clef will be taken care of in
-the next section. If you want a brace, then you have to tell LilyPond
-that the chord you just formed is to be interpreted as a so-called
-grand staff. This is also done with the code(\type) command.
-mudela(verbatim,fragment)(
- \type GrandStaff <
- \type Staff = treblestaff e'4
- \type Staff = bassstaff g4
- >
-)
-
+the clef of the second staff. If you want a brace, then you have to
+tell LilyPond that the chord you just formed is to be interpreted as a
+so-called grand staff. This is also done with the code(\type)
+command. The bass clef is made with a clef command: COMMENT(
+) mudela(verbatim,fragment)(
+ \type GrandStaff <
+ \type Staff = treblestaff e'4
+ \type Staff = bassstaff { \clef "bass"; g4 }
+ >)COMMENT(
+)
sect(Polyphonic music (or: Notation context properties))
label(sec:polyphonic)
-
-In the last section we explained that a notation context can have
-properties that influence the conversion from music to notation. A
-simple example of such a property is the clef: the type of clef partially
-determines the vertical position of note heads in a staff. Some of
-these properties can be modified by commands such as code(\clef) and
-code(\time). But there is more: notation contexts also have
-properties are settable in a generic fashion. We will demonstrate
-this feature by printing multiple voices on a staff.
-
-In polyphonic (keyboard) music and orchestral scores often more than
-one voice is printed on one staff. We'll explain how to achieve this
-effect with LilyPond. The effect is not unlike the two stacked staffs
-from bind(Section)ref(tutorial:more-staffs), except that we don't want
-to stack staffs but voices. Thus, the general template is the following:
+In the section on notation contexts we explained that a notation
+context can have properties that influence the conversion from music
+to notation. A simple example of such a property is the clef: the
+type of a clef helps determines the vertical position of note heads in
+a staff. Some of these properties can be modified by commands such as
+code(\clef) and code(\time). But there is more: notation contexts
+also have properties are settable in a generic fashion. We will
+demonstrate this feature by printing multiple voices on a staff.
+
+Printing more than one voice on a staff, is not unlike printing
+multiple staffs stacked together. This suggests that the template
+to follow is this:
verb(
\type Staff <
\type Voice = one ...
\type Voice = two ...
>
-)
+) COMMENT(
-On the ellipsis there should be music going from left to right, in
-otherr words, there should be sequential music, notes enclosed in
-braces. Let us try the following simple melodies:
+) On the ellipsis there should be music going from left to right, in
+other words, notes enclosed in braces. Let us try the following
+simple melodies:
mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
\type "Staff" <
As you can see the result is not quite perfect. The notes on the last
two beats look like plain chords and not like separate voices. What
really happened was that the stems of the upper and lower voices were
-printed on top of each other. If you have tried running this example, you will probably
-have noticed a complaint about ``too many
-clashing notecolumns'' during the LilyPond run.
-This complaint refers to the overlapping stems.
+printed on top of each other.
-To remedy this, engravers traditionally make the stems of the upper
-and lower voice point in different directions: the stems of the lower
+To remedy this, engravers traditionally make the stems of the lower
voice point down, and the stems of the upper up, as shown in
bind(Figure)ref(tutorial:multi-voice-fig).
Surely the direction of a single stem is a property of the stem as a
graphical object. But the fact that all of the stems in a voice point
in the same direction is not directly graphical. Since this is a
-property shared by all the stems in the voice, it is logical to
-consider this property to be a property of the context code(Voice).
-And this is how it's done in LilyPond: the context code(Voice) has an
-attribute whose value is the direction to use
-for stems. You can change it to `up'
-by issuing the following phrase:footnote(The name code(ydirection) is
-no mistake. The property also controls the up/down directions of
-super-/subscripts, slurs, ties, etc.)
-
+property shared by all the stems in the voice, this property is a
+property of the context code(Voice). The context code(Voice) has an
+attribute whose value is the direction to use for stems. You can
+change it to `up' by issuing the following phrase:
verb(
\property "Voice"."ydirection" = "1"
)
This command should be read as ``change the property called
code(ydirection) within the current code(Voice) context to the value
code(-1).'' For the property code(ydirection) the value code(1) means
-`up', and code(-1) means `down'. The proper way to code the
-polyphonic example is given in bind(Figure)ref(tutorial:multi-voice-fig).
+`up', and code(-1) means `down'. So, the
+proper way to code the polyphonic example is given in
+bind(Figure)ref(tutorial:multi-voice-fig).
latexcommand(\begin{figure}[h])
mudela(fragment,verbatim,center)(
label(tutorial:multi-voice-fig)
latexcommand(\end{figure})
+As you can see, this property also controls the directions of slurs,
+which explains the name code(ydirection).COMMENT(hmm)
+
+
Other properties can also be set, and they can be within different
contexts. In general, you can set a property by specifying
code(\property) var(contexttype)code(.)var(propertyname) code(=)
-var(value). Both var(ContextType), var(PropertyName) and var(Value)
+var(value). Both var(contexttype), var(propertyname) and var(value)
should be strings.
The effect of a property is pretty much hardwired into the
can be set are the layout of slurs and beams. The initialisation file
file(property.ly) explains most properties.
-We conclude this section with another example of a context property.
-Polyphonic music that has three or four voices can't be printed by
-simply changing the directions of the stems for each voice, obviously.
-Traditionally, some chords are shifted horizontally to print if this many
-voices have to be printed.
-LilyPond can also do this, and the property that controls the
-horizontal shifting is called code(hshift). The notes in a
-code(Voice) context that has code(hshift) set to a true value (i.e.,
-non-zero or non-empty), will be shifted horizontally in the case of a
-collision. The following example demonstrates the effect.
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- \type "Staff" <
- \type "Voice" = "one" {
- \property Voice.ydirection = "1"
- r4 as'4 () as'4 g'4 }
- \type "Voice" = "two" {
- \property Voice.ydirection = "1"
- \property Voice.hshift = 1
- g'2 f'4 e'4 }
- \type "Voice" = "three" {
- \property Voice.ydirection = "-1"
- [d'8 dis'] [d' cis'] [c' b] c'4
- }
- >
-)
-
sect(Lyrics)
label(tutorial:lyrics)
-Now for something completely different: Lyrics. Lyrics are also
-considered to be music, although a lyric by itself does not have any
-pitch. Producing lyrics has two aspects. First, you have to enter the
-text, i.e., the syllables along with their durations.
-After this, you have to specify how to convert these to graphics.
+Since a lyrics can have durations just like notes, we consider them to
+be music too. Entering lyrics in mudela has two aspects. First, you
+have to enter the text, i.e., the syllables along with their
+durations. After this, you have to specify how to convert these to
+graphics.
Lyrics consist of syllables, which are strings together with
durations. Previously we only entered note names, so for entering
lyrics we have to instruct LilyPond that what we enter are not note
-names but words---or rather: strings. This instruction is the keyword
+names but strings. This instruction is the keyword
code(\lyrics). After entering this keyword you can enter a musical
construct---sequential music, simultaneous music, code(\type)
-entries, etc.--- but with syllables in stead of pitches. For example:
-verb( \lyrics { 'got8 me on my knees4, Le-8 lie! })
+entries, etc.--- but with syllables instead of pitches. For example:
+COMMENT(
-The effect of code(\lyrics) can be compared with the effect of the
-doublequote character, code("), for it also changes the lexical
-meaning of spaces and characters. This mode is another example of a
-handy input feature of the language.
+)verb(\lyrics { 'got8 me on my knees4, Le-8 lie! })COMMENT(
-Next comes the conversion to notation. LilyPond can't (yet) figure
+) Next comes the conversion to notation. LilyPond can't (yet) figure
out that lyrics need different treatment than notes. As a result, the
default conversion will try to put the text you entered as note heads
-onto a staff, and this will fail. This default must be overriden with
-a code(\type) keyword. Printing syllables of text in a line is done
-by a context called code(Lyrics). You can select this context with
-the code(\type) keyword. Here is a simple example:
+onto a staff, and this will fail. This default must be overridden
+with a code(\type) keyword. Printing syllables of text in a line is
+done by a context called code(Lyrics). You can select this context
+with the code(\type) keyword. Here is a simple example:
+COMMENT(
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- \type Lyrics \lyrics { 'got8 me on my knees,4 Le-8 lie! })
+)mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+\type Lyrics \lyrics { 'got8 me on my knees,4 Le-8 lie! })COMMENT(
-The result is technically more or less correct, but without a melody it
-just doesn't work, so let's add a blob of cream:
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
+)The result is technically correct, but it needs a melody to make it
+performable: COMMENT(
+
+)mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
<
\type Staff { c''8. c''16 bes'8. a'16 g'4 f'8 g'4. }
\type Lyrics \lyrics { 'got8. me16 on8. my16 knees,4 Le-8 lie!4. }
>
-)
-
-The strings that makes up each syllable in the lyrics block are passed
-along to TeX() verbatim, so if you are proficient with TeX() you can
-do various nifty things. Just keep in mind that a syllable either
-starts with a letter (a character in the range `code(a)' to `code(z)'
-or `code(A)' to `code(Z)'), or it is a string enclosed quotes. It ends
-with either a number for the duration, or a space. A last feature
-that should be mentioned is the space-lyric: if you want to enter
-a single ``syllable'' that consists of multiple words, i.e., words
-separated by spaces, you should use an
-underscore instead of a space. All these tricks are demonstrated in
-the following example:
+) COMMENT(
+) The strings that makes up each syllable in the lyrics block are
+passed along to TeX() verbatim, so if you are proficient with TeX()
+you can do various nifty things. Just keep in mind that a syllable
+either starts with a letter (a character in the range `code(a)' to
+`code(z)' or `code(A)' to `code(Z)'), or it is a string enclosed
+quotes. It ends with either a number for the duration, or a space.
+These tricks are demonstrated in the following example:
COMMENT( urg
-\type Lyrics \lyrics { 'got_m\textbf{e}4 on8. m$\cal_Y$16 knees,4 Le-8 lie!4.}
-\type Lyrics \lyrics { 'got_m{\bf e}4 on8. m$\cal_Y$16 knees,4 Le-8 lie!4.}
-)
+\type Lyrics \lyrics { 'got8 m\textbf{e}8 on8. m$\cal_Y$16 knees,4 Le-8 lie!4.}
+\type Lyrics \lyrics { 'got8 m{\bf e}4 on8. m$\cal_Y$16 knees,4 Le-8 lie!4.}
+)COMMENT(
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(<
+)mudela(fragment,verbatim)(<
\type Staff { c''8. c''16 bes'8. a'16 g'4 f'8 g'4. }
- \type Lyrics \lyrics { 'got_me4 on8. m$\cal_Y$16 "3s,"4 Le-8 lie!4.}
+ \type Lyrics \lyrics { 'got8 me8 on8. m$\cal_Y$16 "3s,"4 Le-8 lie!4.}
>
-)
+)COMMENT(
+
+)
COMMENT(Groen is de kleur van geluk.)
COMMENT(Dat geldt zeker voor Bj"ork)
)
-
Another interesting feature of this example are the assignments within
the paper block. Some blocks, such as code(\paper), have a scope of
their own. In the case of the code(\paper) block, these variables
influence the characteristics of the output. As is shown, you can
-tune quantities like the stemlength, and enter simple expressions.
-The purpose of the negative linewidth is to prevent the music from
-being justified. The identifiers that are meaningful are for the
-paper block is strongly implementation dependent, so they will not be
-listed here. Moreover, since most of the values are predefined to
-sensible defaults, there usually is no need to tune these values.
+tune quantities like the stemlength, and enter simple
+nop(expressions.)footnote(The purpose of the negative linewidth is to
+prevent the music from being justified.) The identifiers that are
+meaningful are for the paper block is strongly implementation
+dependent, so they will not be listed here. Moreover, since most of
+the values are predefined to sensible defaults, there usually is no
+need to tune these values.
Recall the properties of a context, that could be set with
code(\property). It is a very general mechanism to tune the output of
shift = \property Voice.hshift = "1"
\score {
\type "Staff" \notes <
- \type "Voice" = "one" {
- \stemup
- r4 as'4 () as'4 g'4 }
- \type "Voice" = "two" {
- \stemup
- \shift
- g'2 f'4 e'4 }
- \type "Voice" = "three" {
- \stemdown
- [d'8 dis'] [d' cis'] [c' b] c'4
- }
- >
+ \type "Voice" = "one" { \stemup r4 as'4 () as'4 g'4 }
+ \type "Voice" = "two" { \stemup \shift g'2 f'4 e'4 }
+ \type "Voice" = "three" { \stemdown [d'8 dis'] [d' cis'] [c' b] c'4 } >
\paper{ linewidth = -1.0\pt; }
-}
-)
+})
-Several abbreviations like code(\stemup) are defined in the
-standard initialisation file file(property.ly). Setting or changing
-context properties can have a similar effect as the commands that were
+Several abbreviations like code(\stemup) are defined in the standard
+initialisation file file(property.ly). Setting or changing context
+properties can have a similar effect as the commands that were
discussed in bind(Section)ref(sec:commands). Don't be fooled by the
-similarity in appearance between a declared property-setting entry
-and a real command. Real commands are hardcoded into the language
-and they have to be terminated by semicolons.
+similarity in appearance between a declared property-setting entry and
+a real command like code(\clef) or code(\bar). Real commands are
+hardcoded into the language and they have to be terminated by
+semicolons.
-You can also use identifiers to break up the heavy nesting that can occur
-in the code(\score) block. Another useful application is
+You can also use identifiers to break up the heavy nesting that can
+occur in the code(\score) block. Another useful application is
parametrisation of the music: if you use identifiers in the
code(\score) block, you can make variations of the music by simply
redefining those identifiers. One particular application of this is
part extraction: by using identifiers and redefining them, one can
-print extracted parts and a full orchestral score from the same
-music definition.
+print extracted parts and a full orchestral score from the same music
+definition.
sect(Sound output)
label(tutorial:sound)
You get output by combining music with definition a conversion to
-output. Up till now we have only focused on the graphic output of
-traditional engraving. But there is no reason why that should be the
-only form of output for music. LilyPond currently supports one other
-conversion: the conversion from abstract music to sound. You can have
-LilyPond play the music that you entered. The format that is used
-for this output is MIDI.
+output. LilyPond currently supports one other conversion besides
+notation: the conversion from abstract music to sound. You can have
+LilyPond play the music that you entered. The format that is used for
+this output is MIDI. The result is not very pretty, but it is useful
+for prooflistening your files: typing errors stand out when you
+listen, especially if they involve accidentals.
The only information that you need to enter is the
- nop(tempo)footnote(Unfortunately,
-this the only thing that can be tuned at this
-time. This is a limitation: the tempo of music can vary throughout
-the music.) for the performance. The syntax for the tempo is
-code(\tempo )var(duration) = var(beatsperminute);), for example:
-verb(
+tempo. (Unfortunately, at this time, this the only thing that can be
+tuned. The syntax for the tempo is code(\tempo )var(duration) =
+var(beatsperminute);), for example: COMMENT(
+
+
+)verb(
\score {
...music...
\midi { \tempo 4 = 76; }
-}) COMMENT (
-
-) The most useful purpose of this sound output is to prooflisten your
-files: typing errors stand out when you listen, especially if they
-involve accidentals. The output was implemented in a very rudimentary
-manner, so it is probably not worth listening to for any other reason.
+}) COMMENT(
+)
sect(Contexts revisited: engravers)
label(tutorial:engravers)
of LilyPond: redefining (notation) contexts. We previously explained
that a context
itemize(
+it()has a name
it()is a conversion from music to notation,
it()can contain other contexts
it()handles specific notation constructs
This characterization almost automatically explains what the definition of a
context should look like:
itemize(
+it() It should have a name
it()It should be part of the ``notation output definition,'' i.e., the
code(\paper) block
it()
handled.
)
-In practice, the context definition
-looks like this:
+LilyPond can create notation for a large number of symbols. This code
+is split up into basic building blocks. Each building block is called
+an em(engraver), and an engraver generally handles only one notation
+construct: the code(Clef_engraver) takes care of the clefs, the
+code(Time_signature_engraver) takes care of printing time signatures.
+
+A notation context is formed by a group of engravers. A special class
+in LilyPond---the code(Engraver_group_engraver)---allows engravers to
+cooperate in a group. A variant of this grouping object is the
+code(Line_group_engraver_group), which puts the output of all the
+engravers (clefs, bars, etc) into a compound object, so that these
+symbols can be treated as a whole.
+
+This explains the following definition, which is a simplified Staff context:
verb(
\translator
{
- \type "Engraver_group_engraver";
-
- \name "ContextName";
-
- \accepts "...";
- \accepts "...";
- \accepts "...";
-
-
-
- \consists " ... ";
- \consists " ... ";
- \consists " ... ";
-
- propertyname = "value";
- propertyname = "value";
-
-} )
+ \type "Line_group_engraver_group";
+ \name Staff ;
+
+ \consists "Bar_engraver";
+ \consists "Clef_engraver";
+ \consists "Key_engraver";
+ \consists "Local_key_engraver";
+ \consists "Time_signature_engraver";
+ \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver";
+
+ defaultClef = treble;
+
+ \accepts "Voice";
+}) COMMENT(
+
+) This context, named Staff, puts its graphic objects into a compound
+object (a so-called ``Line group''). At Staff level, bars, clefs,
+keys, accidentals, time signatures and the staff symbol are handled.
+A staff can contain a Voice context. You can also preset properties
+of contexts: for instance, the clef that is printed upon starting a
+Staff, is the treble clef.
+You can also declare contexts, and reference them. This is useful in
+combination with code(\remove "..."): code(\remove) does the opposite
+of code(\consists).
-The code(\translator) keyword opens the block for translation (or
-context) definition. The code(\type) keyword explains to Lily that
-the context should be formed by taking an (empty) instance of
-code(Engraver_group_engraver). The code(Engraver_group_engraver) is a
-C++ class from the source code to Lily. The code(\accepts) entries
-explain what kind of contexts this context could contain. If we were
-to define a context for a staff, the definition would typically
-contain code(\accepts "Voice";).
+The real context definitions are in the standard initialisation
+file file(engraver.ly).
-The code(\consists) entries specify which notation constructs should
-be handled. This needs a little explanation: LilyPond contains the
-code for quite a large number of basic building blocks for notation
-generation, and each building block handles only one notation
-construct. The name of such a building block is `engraver'. You can
-specify which notation construct a context should handle by specifying
-which engravers should be part of the context. The code(\consists
-"Foobar") entry really means ``add an instance of code(Foobar) to the
-translation group.''
+As a practical example, we will show how to typeset polymetric music,
+i.e., music where the meter can differ for each staff. The solution
+is not very complicated: normally all timing information (time
+signature, rhythmic grouping) is synchronised across each staff. This
+is done by having only one administration for timing information: in
+the default configuration there is only one code(Timing_engraver), in
+the code(Score) context.
-You can also declare contexts, and reference them. This is useful in
-combination with code(\remove "..."): code(\remove) does the opposite
-of code(\consists)
-
-Finally, one can pre-set some properties in a context definition. A
-new context inherits these pre-set properties, when it is created,
-e.g., when LilyPond processes the code(\type) construct.
-
-As a practical example, we will show you how to typeset polymetric
-music, i.e., music where the meter can differ for each staff. The
-solution is not very complicated: normally all timing information
-(time signature, rhythmic grouping) is synchronised across each staff.
-In LilyPond this is expressed by having only one registration for
-timing information for all staffs. To be precise, there is only one
-code(Timing_engraver), and it is located in the top level context, the
-code(Score) context.
-
-All staffs use the information in the global code(Timing_engraver) for
-generating bar lines and time signatures. In polymetric music, this
-timing information can be different for every staff, so we should
-redefine the code(Staff) context to include and the code(Score)
-context to exclude the code(Timing_engraver).
+All staffs use the information in the code(Timing_engraver) for
+generating bar lines and time signatures. So, we can have different
+timing for every staff, by moving the code(Timing_engraver) into the
+ Staff context.
mudela(verbatim)(
-polymetricpaper = \paper {
- \translator {
- \ScoreContext
- \remove "Timing_engraver";
- }
- \translator {
- \StaffContext
- defaultClef = bass;
-
- \consists "Timing_engraver";
- }
-}
-\score {
- \notes <
- \type Staff = one { \time 2/4; c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
- \type Staff = two { \time 3/4; c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
- >
- \paper { \polymetricpaper
- linewidth = -1.;
+ \score {
+ \notes <
+ \type Staff = one { \time 2/4; c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
+ \type Staff = two { \time 3/4; c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
+ >
+ \paper {
+ linewidth = -1.;
+ \translator {
+ \ScoreContext
+ \remove "Timing_engraver";
+ }
+ \translator {
+ \StaffContext
+ \consists "Timing_engraver";
+ }
}
}
)
-As you can see, we used the identifier code(polymetricpaper) to break
-up the large score block. More of these context definitions appear in
-the standard initialisation file file(engraver.ly).
sect(Urtexts and context selection)
label(tutorial:urtext)
contexts than the current context from within the music. For example,
from within the music that you enter for staff code(One), one could
enter a small piece of music, and send it to staff code(Two), e.g.,
-COMMENT (
+COMMENT(
) mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
<
)
-Another useful application of this feature is making Urtexts.
-em(Urtext) is the German word for `original text'. The Urtext
-edition of a piece of music, is an edition that reflects the original
-writing of the composer. Such editions are useful for musicologists,
-and performers that want to perform authentic interpretations. However,
-for mere mortals, the Urtext can be quite hard to read. It might not
-contain fingering and beaming, and typically it is full of footnotes.
-Moreover, common interpretations may have emerged---after the composer
-died. For this reason, the music that can be had as Urtext usually is also
-available in enhanced and edited editions.
-
-The mechanism of context selection can be used to fabricate an Urtext
-and an edited edition from em(one source). We will use the first few
-bars of bind(J.)bind(S.)Bach's lovely Cello suite bind(no.)I to
-demonstrate this. The example makes heavy use of space rests: a space
-rest takes up time, like a rest does, but it doesn't print anything.
-It can be used as a placeholder, to attach articulation marks to. It
-is entered as a note with the name code(s).
+
+The mechanism of context selection can be used to fabricate an
+nop(Urtext)footnote(em(Urtext) is the German word for `original text'.
+The Urtext edition of a piece of music, is an edition that reflects
+the original writing of the composer. Such editions are useful for
+musicologists, and performers that want to perform authentic
+interpretations. However, for mere mortals, the Urtext can be quite
+hard to read. It might not contain fingering and beaming, and
+typically it is full of footnotes. Moreover, common interpretations
+may have emerged---after the composer died. For this reason, the
+music that can be had as Urtext usually is also available in enhanced
+and edited editions. ) and an edited edition from em(one source). We
+will use the first few bars of bind(J.)bind(S.)Bach's first Cello
+suite to demonstrate this. The example makes heavy use of space
+rests; here they are used as a placeholder to attach articulation
+marks to.
mudela(verbatim)(
bach = \notes \relative c { [g16 d' b' a] [b d, b' d,] }
\staffStuff
>
}
- \paper {}
+ \paper { linewidth = -1.;}
}
)
sect(Transposing)
label(tutorial:more-grammar)
-COMMENT(In this section, we will complete the grammar for Music that was
-sketched earlier. )
+
One of the things that you can do with music is
em(transposing) it. If you want to transpose a piece of music, then
you should prefix the keyword code(\transpose) along with the pitch
)
Don't try to switch staffs when you are in the middle of a slur or
-beam, though. It doesn't work yet.
+beam, though: the spanners won't switch along.
sect(Hairy durations: triplets)
+OUTDATED
+
In the previous section we explained an operation that changes the
pitches of music, transposition. In this section we will explain an
operation that modifies the duration of the notes that you enter.
When notes are part of a triplet, then the real of duration of the
notes are 2/3 part of what their shape indicates:
mudela(fragment)(
-\[/3 c'4 c'4 c'4 \]/1
+\times 2/3 { c'4 c'4 c'4 }
)
To support this notion, Mudela allows you to modify the duration of a
notes, you get a triplet.footnote(We added a normal staff in the example to
show the difference.)
mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
-< \type Staff = staffA { c'8*2/3 c'8*2/3 c'8*2/3 c'4}
+< \type Staff = staffA { \times 2/3 { c'8 c'8 c'8 } c'4}
\type Staff = staffB { c''8 c''8 c''4 } >)
LilyPond knows that these notes are no normal eighth notes, but the
stead of beams, you can use `code(\[2/3])' and `code(\]1/1)'.
mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
< \type Staff = staffA {
- [2/3 c'8 c'8 c'8 ]1/1
- \[2/3 c'8 c'8 c'8 \]1/1
+ \times 2/3 { [ c'8 c'8 c'8 }
+ \times 2/3 { c'8 c'8 c'8 }
}
\type Staff = staffB { [c''8 c''8 c''8 c''8] }
>)
mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
< \type Staff = staffA {
\time 7/8;
- [7/6 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 ]1/1
+ \times 7/6 { [c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8] }
}
\type Staff = staffB {
\time 7/8;
mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
< \type Staff = staffA {
- [/3 c'8 c'8 c'8 ]/1 c'4
+ \times 2/3 { c'8 c'8 c'8 } c'4
}
\type Staff = staffB { [c''8 c''8] c''4 } >
)
grammar for Music.
-sect(Shortcuts for octaves)
-label(sec:relativeoctaves)
-
-Plain Mudela contains a lot of quotes to get the octaves right. This
-need for quotes can be reduced: most of the pitch intervals in
-conventional music are small. Therefore, it makes sense to leave out
-the quotes when the interval is small. We have built a mode that does
-exactly this. It is called the relative mode for octaves. You can
-switch it on by entering code(\relative). Then LilyPond will
-interpret every note as if they mean the note with the same name
-closest to the previous. You have to specify the first pitch because
-the first note of a list obviously has no predecessor. So, you can
-enter a scale without using octavation quotes, e.g.,
-
-mudela(fragment,verbatim)(
- \relative c' { c d e f g a b c }
-)
-
-For chords, the relative mode works slightly differently. In a
-sequence of chords, the first note of a chord gives the starting point
-for the next chord. We can demonstrate this with our twinkle twinkle example
-verb(
- \relative c' {
- c4 c <c g'> <c e g>
- <c e a> <b d a'> <b2 d g>
- <a4 d f> <bes d f> <bes c e> <g c e>
- <e a d> <a, g' cis'> <d2 f d'>
- }
-)
-
-LilyPond converts any music with code(\relative) prepended to absolute
-music immediately when it is read. Internally it is stored it in
-absolute pitches. Since the tutorial mainly deals with how to specify
-musical information, and not how to enter it conveniently, the
-tutorial doesn't use it.
-
-
-sect(Large pieces)
-label(tutorial:large-pieces)
-
-In our quest for a clean and powerfull music language, we took the effort
-of entering some larger pieces of music as well. From this we learned
-certain things that lead to direct improvements of Mudela, such as the
-relative mode. We also gained some practial experience, that resulted in a
-compilation of tips that may be of use to you.
-
-Entering a large piece of music will often imply the need to produce a
-conductor's score, as well as individual parts for all instruments. This
-can most easily be achieved making use of identifiers and including mudela
-files.
-
-subsect(Identifiers)
-
-Briefly introduced before, identifiers are your biggest help in structurising
-a large piece of music. As an example, we'll consider a string quartet.
-In short, it will look like this: verb(
- global = \notes{ }
- violinoOne = \notes \relative c { .. }
- violinoTwo = \notes \relative c { .. }
- viola = \notes \relative c { .. }
- violoncello = \notes \relative c { .. }
-)
-
-The code(\global) part contains everything that is global, i.e., the
-same, for each instrument. This may include time signature, key, repeat
-signs, different bar types, time signature- and key changes, rehearsal
-marks, etc.
-
-For each instrument, you'll have something vaguely resembling verb(
- violinoOneStaff = \type Staff = violinoOne <
- \property Staff.midi_instrument = "violin"
- \property Staff.instrument = "Violino I"
- \property Staff.instr = "Vl. I"
- \global
- \violinoOne
- >
-)
-
-
-[Versions, relative mode,
- barchecks, splitting of files]
-subsect(Grouping of staffs)
-subsect(Versioning)
sect(Titling)
label(tutorial:titling)
projects / lilypond.git / blobdiff