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13 @chapter Tweaking output
15 This chapter discusses how to modify output. LilyPond is extremely
16 configurable; virtually every fragment of output may be changed.
21 * The Internals Reference manual::
22 * Appearance of objects::
23 * Placement of objects::
24 * Collisions of objects::
29 @section Tweaking basics
32 * Introduction to tweaks::
33 * Objects and interfaces::
34 * Naming conventions of objects and properties::
38 @node Introduction to tweaks
39 @subsection Introduction to tweaks
41 @q{Tweaking} is a LilyPond term for the various methods available
42 to the user for modifying the actions taken during interpretation
43 of the input file and modifying the appearance of the printed
44 output. Some tweaks are very easy to use; others are more
45 complex. But taken together the methods available for tweaking
46 permit almost any desired appearance of the printed music to be
49 In this section we cover the basic concepts required to understand
50 tweaking. Later we give a variety of ready-made commands which can
51 simply be copied to obtain the same effect in your own scores, and
52 at the same time we show how these commands may be constructed so
53 that you may learn how to develop your own tweaks.
55 Before starting on this Chapter you may wish to review the section
56 @ref{Contexts and engravers}, as Contexts, Engravers, and the
57 Properties contained within them are fundamental to understanding
58 and constructing Tweaks.
60 @node Objects and interfaces
61 @subsection Objects and interfaces
68 Tweaking involves modifying the internal operation and structures
69 of the LilyPond program, so we must first introduce some terms
70 which are used to describe those internal operations and
73 The term @q{Object} is a generic term used to refer to the
74 multitude of internal structures built by LilyPond during the
75 processing of an input file. So when a command like @code{\new
76 Staff} is encountered a new object of type @code{Staff} is
77 constructed. That @code{Staff} object then holds all the
78 properties associated with that particular staff, for example, its
79 name and its key signature, together with details of the engravers
80 which have been assigned to operate within that staff's context.
81 Similarly, there are objects to hold the properties of all other
82 contexts, such as @code{Voice} objects, @code{Score} objects,
83 @code{Lyrics} objects, as well as objects to represent all
84 notational elements such as bar lines,
85 note heads, ties, dynamics, etc. Every object has its own set of
88 Some types of object are given special names. Objects which
89 represent items of notation on the printed output such as
90 note heads, stems, slurs, ties, fingering, clefs, etc are called
91 @q{Layout objects}, often known as @q{Graphical Objects}, or
92 @q{Grobs} for short. These are still objects in the generic sense
93 above, and so they too all have properties associated with them,
94 such as their position, size, color, etc.
96 Some layout objects are still more specialized. Phrasing slurs,
97 crescendo hairpins, ottava marks, and many other grobs are not
98 localized in a single place -- they have a starting point, an
99 ending point, and maybe other properties concerned with their
100 shape. Objects with an extended shape like these are called
103 It remains to explain what @q{Interfaces} are. Many objects,
104 even though they are quite different, share common features
105 which need to be processed in the same way.
106 For example, all grobs have a color, a size, a position, etc,
107 and all these properties are processed in the same way during
109 interpretation of the input file. To simplify these internal
110 operations these common actions and properties are grouped
111 together in an object called a @code{grob-interface}. There
112 are many other groupings of common properties like this, each
113 one given a name ending in @code{interface}. In total there
114 are over 100 such interfaces. We shall see later why this is
115 of interest and use to the user.
117 These, then, are the main terms relating to objects which we
118 shall use in this chapter.
120 @node Naming conventions of objects and properties
121 @subsection Naming conventions of objects and properties
123 We met some object naming conventions previously, in
124 @ref{Contexts and engravers}. Here for reference is a list
125 of the most common object and property types together with
126 the conventions for naming them and a couple of examples of
127 some real names. We have used @q{A} to stand for any capitalized
128 alphabetic character and @q{aaa} to stand for any number of
129 lower-case alphabetic characters. Other characters are used
132 @multitable @columnfractions .33 .33 .33
133 @headitem Object/property type
134 @tab Naming convention
137 @tab Aaaa or AaaaAaaaAaaa
138 @tab Staff, GrandStaff
140 @tab Aaaa or AaaaAaaaAaaa
143 @tab Aaaa_aaa_engraver
144 @tab Clef_engraver, Note_heads_engraver
146 @tab aaa-aaa-interface
147 @tab grob-interface, break-aligned-interface
148 @item Context Properties
149 @tab aaa or aaaAaaaAaaa
150 @tab alignAboveContext, skipBars
151 @item Layout Object Properties
152 @tab aaa or aaa-aaa-aaa
153 @tab direction, beam-thickness
156 As we shall see shortly, the properties of different types of
157 object are modified by different commands, so it is useful to
158 be able to recognize the type of object from the names of its
162 @node Tweaking methods
163 @subsection Tweaking methods
165 @strong{\override command}
167 @cindex override command
170 We have already met the commands @code{\set} and @code{\with},
171 used to change the properties of @strong{contexts} and to remove
172 and add @strong{engravers}, in
173 @ref{Modifying context properties}, and @ref{Adding
174 and removing engravers}. We now must meet some more important
177 The command to change the properties of @strong{layout objects} is
178 @code{\override}. Because this command has to modify
179 internal properties deep within LilyPond its syntax is not
180 as simple as the commands you have met so far. It needs to
181 know precisely which property of which object in which context
182 has to be modified, and what its new value is to be. Let's see
185 The general syntax of this command is:
188 \override @var{Context}.@var{LayoutObject} #'@var{layout-property} = #@var{value}
192 This will set the property with the name @var{layout-property}
193 of the layout object with the name
194 @var{LayoutObject}, which is a member of the @var{Context}
195 context, to the value @var{value}.
197 The @var{Context} can be omitted (and usually is) when the
198 required context is unambiguously implied and is one of lowest
199 level contexts, i.e., @code{Voice}, @code{ChordNames} or
200 @code{Lyrics}, and we shall omit it in many of the following
201 examples. We shall see later when it must be specified.
203 Later sections deal comprehensively with properties and their
204 values, but to illustrate the format and use of these commands
205 we shall use just a few simple properties and values which are
208 For now, don't worry about the @code{#'}, which must precede the
209 layout property, and the @code{#}, which must precede the value.
210 These must always be present in exactly this form. This is the
211 most common command used in tweaking, and most of the rest of
212 this chapter will be directed to presenting examples of how it is
213 used. Here is a simple example to change the color of the
216 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=1]
218 \override NoteHead #'color = #red
220 \override NoteHead #'color = #green
224 @strong{\revert command}
226 @cindex revert command
229 Once overridden, the property retains its new value until it is
230 overridden again or a @code{\revert} command is encountered.
231 The @code{\revert} command has the following syntax and causes
232 the value of the property to revert to its original default
233 value; note, not its previous value if several @code{\override}
234 commands have been issued.
237 \revert @var{Context}.@var{LayoutObject} #'@var{layout-property}
240 Again, just like @var{Context} in the @code{\override} command,
241 @var{Context} is often not needed. It will be omitted
242 in many of the following examples. Here we revert the color
243 of the note head to the default value for the final two notes:
245 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=1]
247 \override NoteHead #'color = #red
249 \override NoteHead #'color = #green
251 \revert NoteHead #'color
255 @strong{\once prefix}
257 Both the @code{\override} and the @code{\set} commands may be
258 prefixed by @code{\once}. This causes the following
259 @code{\override} or @code{\set} command to be effective only
260 during the current musical moment before the property reverts
261 back to its default value. Using the same example, we can
262 change the color of a single note like this:
264 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=1]
266 \once \override NoteHead #'color = #red
268 \once \override NoteHead #'color = #green
272 @strong{\overrideProperty command}
274 @cindex overrideProperty command
275 @funindex \overrideProperty
277 There is another form of the override command,
278 @code{\overrideProperty}, which is occasionally required.
279 We mention it here for completeness, but for details see
280 @ruser{Difficult tweaks}.
281 @c Maybe explain in a later iteration -td
283 @strong{\tweak command}
285 @cindex tweak command
288 The final tweaking command which is available is @code{\tweak}.
289 This should be used to change the properties of objects which
290 occur at the same musical moment, such as the notes within a
291 chord. Using @code{\override} would affect all the notes
292 within a chord, whereas @code{\tweak} affects just the following
293 item in the input stream.
295 Here's an example. Suppose we wish to change the size of the
296 middle note head (the E) in a C major chord. Let's first see what
297 @code{\once \override} would do:
299 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=1]
301 \once \override NoteHead #'font-size = #-3
306 We see the override affects @emph{all} the note heads in the chord.
307 This is because all the notes of a chord occur at the same
308 @emph{musical moment}, and the action of @code{\once} is to
309 apply the override to all layout objects of the type specified
310 which occur at the same musical moment as the @code{\override}
313 The @code{\tweak} command operates in a different way. It acts
314 on the immediately following item in the input stream. However,
315 it is effective only on objects which are created directly from
316 the input stream, essentially note heads and articulations;
317 objects such as stems and accidentals are created later and
318 cannot be tweaked in this way. Furthermore, when it is applied
319 to note heads these @emph{must} be within a chord, i.e., within
320 single angle brackets, so to tweak a single note the @code{\tweak}
321 command must be placed inside single angle brackets with the
324 So to return to our example, the size of the middle note of
325 a chord would be changed in this way:
327 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=1]
329 <c \tweak #'font-size #-3 e g>4
332 Note that the syntax of @code{\tweak} is different from that
333 of the @code{\override} command. Neither the context nor the
334 layout object should be specified; in fact, it would generate
335 an error to do so. These are both implied by the following
336 item in the input stream. So the general syntax of the
337 @code{\tweak} command is simply
340 \tweak #'@var{layout-property} = #@var{value}
343 A @code{\tweak} command can also be used to modify just one in
344 a series of articulations, as shown here:
346 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
348 -\tweak #'color #red ^Red
349 -\tweak #'color #green _Green
353 Note that the @code{\tweak} command must be preceded by an
354 articulation mark as if it were an articulation itself.
356 @cindex tuplets, nested
357 @cindex triplets, nested
358 @cindex bracket, tuplet
359 @cindex tuplet bracket
360 @cindex triplet bracket
361 @funindex TupletBracket
363 The @code{\tweak} command must also be used to change the
364 appearance of one of a set of nested tuplets which begin at the
365 same musical moment. In the following example, the long tuplet
366 bracket and the first of the three short brackets begin at the
367 same musical moment, so any @code{\override} command would apply
368 to both of them. In the example, @code{\tweak} is used to
369 distinguish between them. The first @code{\tweak} command
370 specifies that the long tuplet bracket is to be placed above the
371 notes and the second one specifies that the tuplet number is to be
372 printed in red on the first short tuplet bracket.
374 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
375 \tweak #'direction #up
378 \times 2/3 { c8[ c8 c8] }
379 \times 2/3 { c8[ c8 c8] }
380 \times 2/3 { c8[ c8 c8] }
384 If nested tuplets do not begin at the same moment, their
385 appearance may be modified in the usual way with
386 @code{\override} commands:
388 @c NOTE Tuplet brackets collide if notes are high on staff
390 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
391 \times 2/3 { c8[ c c]}
392 \once \override TupletNumber
393 #'text = #tuplet-number::calc-fraction-text
397 \once \override TupletNumber #'transparent = ##t
398 \times 2/3 { c8[ c c] }
399 \times 2/3 { c8[ c c]}
406 @ruser{The tweak command}.
409 @node The Internals Reference manual
410 @section The Internals Reference manual
412 @cindex Internals Reference
415 * Properties of layout objects::
416 * Properties found in interfaces::
417 * Types of properties::
420 @node Properties of layout objects
421 @subsection Properties of layout objects
423 @cindex properties of layout objects
424 @cindex properties of grobs
425 @cindex grobs, properties of
426 @cindex layout objects, properties of
428 Suppose you have a slur in a score which, to your mind,
429 appears too thin and you'd like to draw it a little heavier.
430 How do you go about doing this? You know from the statements
431 earlier about the flexibility of LilyPond that such a thing
432 should be possible, and you would probably guess that an
433 @code{\override} command would be needed. But is there a
434 heaviness property for a slur, and if there is, how might it
435 be modified? This is where the Internals Reference manual
436 comes in. It contains all the information you might need to
437 construct this and all other @code{\override} commands.
439 Before we look at the Internals Reference a word of warning.
440 This is a @strong{reference} document, which means there is
441 little or no explanation contained within it: its purpose is
442 to present information precisely and concisely. This
443 means it might look daunting at first sight. Don't worry!
444 The guidance and explanation presented here will enable you
445 to extract the information from the Internals Reference for
446 yourself with just a little practice.
448 @cindex override example
449 @cindex Internals Reference, example of using
451 Let's use a concrete example with a simple fragment of real
454 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
459 g[( e]) e d[( f]) a |
463 The man who feels love's sweet e -- mo -- tion
468 Suppose now that we decide we would like the slurs to be a
469 little heavier. Is this possible? The slur is certainly a
470 layout object, so the question is, @q{Is there a property
471 belonging to a slur which controls the heaviness?} To answer
472 this we must look in the Internals Reference, or IR for short.
474 The IR for the version of LilyPond you are using may be found
475 on the LilyPond website at @uref{http://lilypond.org}. Go to the
476 documentation page and click on the Internals Reference link.
477 For learning purposes you should use the standard HTML version,
478 not the @q{one big page} or the PDF. For the next few
479 paragraphs to make sense you will need to actually do this
482 Under the heading @strong{Top} you will see five links. Select
483 the link to the @emph{Backend}, which is where information about
484 layout objects is to be found. There, under the heading
485 @strong{Backend}, select the link to @emph{All layout objects}.
486 The page that appears lists all the layout objects used in your
487 version of LilyPond, in alphabetic order. Select the link to
488 Slur, and the properties of Slurs are listed.
490 An alternative way of finding this page is from the Notation
491 Reference. On one of the pages that deals with slurs you may find a
492 link to the Internals Reference. This link will take you directly to
493 this page, but if you have an idea about the name of the layout object
494 to be tweaked, it is easier to go straight to the IR and search there.
496 This Slur page in the IR tells us first that Slur objects are created
497 by the Slur_engraver. Then it lists the standard settings. Note
498 these are @strong{not} in alphabetic order. Browse down them looking
499 for a property that might control the heaviness of slurs, and you
503 @code{thickness} (number)
505 Line thickness, generally measured in @code{line-thickness}
508 This looks a good bet to change the heaviness. It tells us that
509 the value of @code{thickness} is a simple @emph{number},
510 that the default value is 1.2, and that the units are
511 in another property called @code{line-thickness}.
513 As we said earlier, there are few to no explanations in the IR,
514 but we already have enough information to try changing the
515 slur thickness. We see that the name of the layout object
516 is @code{Slur}, that the name of the property to change is
517 @code{thickness} and that the new value should be a number
518 somewhat larger than 1.2 if we are to make slurs thicker.
520 We can now construct the @code{\override} command by simply
521 substituting the values we have found for the names, omitting
522 the context. Let's use a very large value for the thickness
523 at first, so we can be sure the command is working. We get:
526 \override Slur #'thickness = #5.0
529 Don't forget the @code{#'} preceding the
530 property name and and @code{#} preceding the new value!
532 The final question is, @q{Where should this command be
533 placed?} While you are unsure and learning, the best
534 answer is, @q{Within the music, before the first slur and
535 close to it.} Let's do that:
537 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
541 % Increase thickness of all following slurs from 1.2 to 5.0
542 \override Slur #'thickness = #5.0
544 g[( e]) e d[( f]) a |
548 The man who feels love's sweet e -- mo -- tion
554 and we see that the slur is indeed heavier.
556 So this is the basic way of constructing @code{\override}
557 commands. There are a few more complications that we
558 shall meet in later sections, but you now know all the
559 essentials required to make up your own -- but you will
560 still need some practice. This is provided in the examples
563 @subheading Finding the context
564 @cindex context, finding
566 But first, what if we had needed to specify the Context?
567 What should it be? We could guess that slurs are in
568 the Voice context, as they are clearly closely associated
569 with individual lines of music, but can we be sure? To
570 find out, go back to the top of the IR page describing the
571 Slur, where it says @q{Slur objects are created by: Slur
572 engraver}. So slurs will be created in whichever context
573 the @code{Slur_engraver} is in. Follow the link to the
574 @code{Slur_engraver} page. At the very bottom it tells
575 us that @code{Slur_engraver} is part of five Voice contexts,
576 including the standard voice context, @code{Voice}, so our
577 guess was correct. And because @code{Voice} is one of the
578 lowest level contexts which is implied unambiguously by
579 the fact that we are entering notes, we can omit it in this
582 @subheading Overriding once only
584 @cindex overriding once only
585 @cindex once override
588 As you can see, @emph{all} the slurs are thicker in the
589 final example above. But what if we
590 wanted just the first slur to be thicker? This is achieved
591 with the @code{\once} command. Placed immediately before
592 the @code{\override} command it causes it to change only the
593 slur which begins on the @strong{immediately following} note.
595 immediately following note does not begin a slur the command
596 has no effect at all -- it is not remembered until a slur
597 is encountered, it is simply discarded. So the command with
599 repositioned as follows:
601 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
606 % Increase thickness of immediately following slur only
607 \once \override Slur #'thickness = #5.0
609 g[( e]) e d[( f]) a |
613 The man who feels love's sweet e -- mo -- tion
619 Now only the first slur is made heavier.
621 The @code{\once} command can also be used before the @code{\set}
624 @subheading Reverting
627 @cindex default properties, reverting
630 Finally, what if we wanted just the first two slurs to be
631 heavier? Well, we could use two commands, each preceded by
632 @code{\once} placed immediately before each of the notes where
635 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
640 % Increase thickness of immediately following slur only
641 \once \override Slur #'thickness = #5.0
643 % Increase thickness of immediately following slur only
644 \once \override Slur #'thickness = #5.0
645 g[( e]) e d[( f]) a |
649 The man who feels love's sweet e -- mo -- tion
655 or we could omit the @code{\once} command and use the
656 @code{\revert} command
657 to return the @code{thickness} property to its default value
658 after the second slur:
660 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
665 % Increase thickness of all following slurs from 1.2 to 5.0
666 \override Slur #'thickness = #5.0
669 % Revert thickness of all following slurs to default of 1.2
670 \revert Slur #'thickness
675 The man who feels love's sweet e -- mo -- tion
681 The @code{\revert} command can be used to return any property
682 changed with @code{\override} back to its default value.
683 You may use whichever method best suits what you want to do.
685 That concludes our introduction to the IR, and the basic
686 method of tweaking. Several examples follow in the later
687 sections of this Chapter, partly to introduce you to some of the
688 additional features of the IR, and partly to give you more
689 practice in extracting information from it. These examples will
690 contain progressively fewer words of guidance and explanation.
693 @node Properties found in interfaces
694 @subsection Properties found in interfaces
696 @cindex interface properties
697 @cindex properties in interfaces
699 Suppose now that we wish to print the lyrics in italics. What
700 form of @code{\override} command do we need to do this?
701 We first look in the IR page listing @q{All layout objects}, as
702 before, and look for an object that might control lyrics. We
703 find @code{LyricText}, which looks right. Clicking on this shows
704 the settable properties for lyric text. These include the
705 @code{font-series} and @code{font-size}, but nothing that might
706 give an italic shape.
707 This is because the shape property is one that is common to all
708 font objects, so, rather than including it in every layout
709 object, it is grouped together with other similar common
710 properties and placed in an @strong{Interface}, the
711 @code{font-interface}.
713 So now we need to learn how to find the properties of interfaces,
714 and to discover what objects use these interface properties.
716 Look again at the IR page which describes LyricText. At the bottom of
717 the page is a list of clickable interfaces which LyricText supports.
718 The list has several items, including @code{font-interface}. Clicking
719 on this brings up the properties associated with this interface, which
720 are also properties of all the objects which support it, including
723 Now we see all the user-settable properties which control fonts,
724 including @code{font-shape(symbol)}, where @code{symbol} can be
725 set to @code{upright}, @code{italics} or @code{caps}.
727 You will notice that @code{font-series} and @code{font-size}
728 are also listed there.
729 This immediately raises the question: Why are the common font
730 properties @code{font-series} and @code{font-size} listed under
731 @code{LyricText} as well as under the interface
732 @code{font-interface} but @code{font-shape} is not? The answer
733 is that @code{font-series} and @code{font-size} are changed
734 from their global default values when a @code{LyricText} object
735 is created, but @code{font-shape} is not. The entries in
736 @code{LyricText} then tell you the values for those two
737 properties which apply to @code{LyricText}. Other objects
738 which support @code{font-interface} will set these
739 properties differently when they are created.
741 Let's see if we can now construct the @code{\override} command
742 to change the lyrics to italics. The object is @code{LyricText},
743 the property is @code{font-shape} and the value is
744 @code{italic}. As before, we'll omit the context.
746 As an aside, although it is an important one, note that because the
747 values of @code{font-shape} are symbols they must be introduced with a
748 single apostrophe, @code{'}. That is why apostrophes are needed
749 before @code{thickness} in the earlier example and @code{font-shape}.
750 These are both symbols too. Symbols are then read internally by
751 LilyPond. Some of them are the names of properties, like
752 @code{thickness} or @code{font-shape}, others are used as values that
753 can be given to properties, like @code{italic}. Note the distinction
754 from arbitrary text strings, which would appear as @code{"a text
755 string"}; for more details about symbols and strings, see @ref{Scheme
758 Ok, so the @code{\override} command we need to print the lyrics
762 \override LyricText #'font-shape = #'italic
766 and this should be placed just in front of and close to the
767 lyrics which it should affect, like this:
769 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
774 g[( e]) e d[( f]) a |
778 \override LyricText #'font-shape = #'italic
779 The man who feels love's sweet e -- mo -- tion
785 and the lyrics are all printed in italics.
787 @subheading Specifying the context in lyric mode
788 @cindex context, specifying in lyric mode
790 In the case of lyrics, if you try specifying the context in the
791 format given earlier the command will fail. A syllable
792 entered in lyricmode is terminated by either a space,
793 a newline or a digit. All other characters are included
794 as part of the syllable. For this reason a space or newline
795 must appear before the terminating @code{@}} to prevent it being
796 included as part of the final syllable. Similarly,
797 spaces must be inserted before and after the
798 period or dot, @q{.}, separating the context name from the
799 object name, as otherwise the two names are run together and
800 the interpreter cannot recognize them. So the command should be:
803 \override Lyrics . LyricText #'font-shape = #'italic
806 @warning{In lyrics always leave whitespace between the final
807 syllable and the terminating brace.}
809 @warning{In overrides in lyrics always place spaces around
810 the dot between the context name and the object name.}
814 Learning Manual: @ref{Scheme tutorial}.
817 @node Types of properties
818 @subsection Types of properties
820 @cindex Property types
822 So far we have seen two types of property: @code{number} and
823 @code{symbol}. To be valid, the value given to a property
824 must be of the correct type and obey the rules for that type.
825 The type of property is always shown in brackets after the
826 property name in the IR. Here is a list of the types you may
827 need, together with the rules for that type, and some examples.
828 You must always add a hash symbol, @code{#}, of course,
829 to the front of these values when they are entered in the
830 @code{\override} command.
832 @multitable @columnfractions .2 .45 .35
833 @headitem Property type
837 @tab Either True or False, represented by #t or #f
838 @tab @code{#t}, @code{#f}
839 @item Dimension (in staff space)
840 @tab A positive decimal number (in units of staff space)
841 @tab @code{2.5}, @code{0.34}
843 @tab A valid direction constant or its numerical equivalent (decimal
844 values between -1 and 1 are allowed)
845 @tab @code{LEFT}, @code{CENTER}, @code{UP},
848 @tab A positive whole number
849 @tab @code{3}, @code{1}
851 @tab A set of values separated by spaces, enclosed in parentheses
852 and preceded by an apostrophe
853 @tab @code{'(left-edge staff-bar)}, @code{'(1)},
854 @code{'(1.0 0.25 0.5)}
856 @tab Any valid markup
857 @tab @code{\markup @{ \italic "cresc." @}}
859 @tab A fraction of a whole note constructed with the
861 @tab @code{(ly:make-moment 1 4)},
862 @code{(ly:make-moment 3 8)}
864 @tab Any positive or negative decimal value
865 @tab @code{3.5}, @code{-2.45}
866 @item Pair (of numbers)
867 @tab Two numbers separated by a @q{space . space} and enclosed
868 in brackets preceded by an apostrophe
869 @tab @code{'(2 . 3.5)}, @code{'(0.1 . -3.2)}
871 @tab Any of the set of permitted symbols for that property,
872 preceded by an apostrophe
873 @tab @code{'italic}, @code{'inside}
875 @tab A procedure, or @code{#f} to cause no action
876 @tab @code{bend::print}, @code{ly:text-interface::print},
879 @tab A list of three items enclosed in parentheses and preceded
880 by apostrophe-hash, @code{'#}.
881 @tab @code{'#(#t #t #f)}
886 Learning Manual: @ref{Scheme tutorial}.
889 @node Appearance of objects
890 @section Appearance of objects
892 Let us now put what we have learned into practice with a few
893 examples which show how tweaks may be used to change the
894 appearance of the printed music.
897 * Visibility and color of objects::
899 * Length and thickness of objects::
902 @node Visibility and color of objects
903 @subsection Visibility and color of objects
905 In the educational use of music we might wish to print a score
906 with certain elements omitted as an exercise for the student,
907 who is required to supply them. As a simple example,
908 let us suppose the exercise is to supply the missing bar lines
909 in a piece of music. But the bar lines are normally inserted
910 automatically. How do we prevent them printing?
912 Before we tackle this, let us remember that object properties are
913 grouped in what are called @emph{interfaces} -- see @ref{Properties
914 found in interfaces}. This is simply to group together those
915 properties that may be used together to tweak a graphical object -- if
916 one of them is allowed for an object, so are the others. Some objects
917 then use the properties in some interfaces, others use them from other
918 interfaces. The interfaces which contain the properties used by a
919 particular grob are listed in the IR at the bottom of the page
920 describing that grob, and those properties may be viewed by looking at
923 We explained how to find information about grobs in
924 @ref{Properties of layout objects}. Using the same approach,
925 we go to the IR to find the layout object which prints
926 bar lines. Going via @emph{Backend} and @emph{All layout objects}
928 is a layout object called @code{BarLine}. Its properties include
929 two that control its visibility: @code{break-visibility} and
930 @code{stencil}. Barline also supports a number of interfaces,
931 including the @code{grob-interface}, where we find the
932 @code{transparent} and the @code{color} properties. All
933 of these can affect the visibility of bar lines (and, of course,
934 by extension, many other layout objects too.) Let's consider
935 each of these in turn.
938 @cindex stencil property
940 This property controls the appearance of the bar lines by specifying
941 the symbol (glyph) which should be printed. In common
942 with many other properties, it can be set to print nothing by
943 setting its value to @code{#f}. Let's try it, as before, omitting
944 the implied Context, @code{Voice}:
946 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
949 \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
956 The bar lines are still printed. What is wrong? Go back to the
957 IR and look again at the page giving the properties of BarLine.
958 At the top of the page it says @qq{Barline objects are created
959 by: Bar_engraver}. Go to the @code{Bar_engraver} page.
961 it gives a list of Contexts in which the bar engraver operates.
962 All of them are of the type @code{Staff}, so the reason the
963 @code{\override} command failed to work as expected is because
964 @code{Barline} is not in the default @code{Voice} context.
966 is specified wrongly, the command simply does not work. No
967 error message is produced, and nothing is logged in the log
968 file. Let's try correcting it by adding the correct context:
970 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
973 \override Staff.BarLine #'stencil = ##f
980 Now the bar lines have vanished.
982 @subheading break-visibility
984 @cindex break-visibility property
986 We see from the @code{BarLine} properties in the IR that the
987 @code{break-visibility} property requires a vector of three
989 These control respectively whether bar lines are printed at
990 the end of a line, in the middle of lines, and at the beginning
991 of lines. For our example we want all bar lines to be suppressed,
992 so the value we need is @code{'#(#f #f #f)}.
993 Let's try that, remembering
994 to include the @code{Staff} context. Note also that in writing
995 this value we have @code{#'#} before the opening bracket.
996 The @code{'#} is required as part of the value to introduce a
997 vector, and the first @code{#} is required, as always, to precede
998 the value itself in the @code{\override} command.
1000 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1003 \override Staff.BarLine #'break-visibility = #'#(#f #f #f)
1005 g, a16 b8 c d4 e16 |
1010 And we see this too removes all the bar lines.
1012 @subheading transparent
1013 @cindex transparent property
1015 We see from the properties specified in the @code{grob-interface}
1016 page in the IR that the @code{transparent} property is a boolean.
1018 should be set to @code{#t} to make the grob transparent.
1019 In this next example let us make the time signature invisible
1020 rather than the bar lines.
1021 To do this we need to find the grob name for the time signature.
1023 the @q{All layout objects} page in the IR to find the properties
1024 of the @code{TimeSignature} layout object. This is produced by
1025 the @code{Time_signature_engraver} which you can check also lives
1026 in the @code{Staff} context and also supports the
1027 @code{grob-interface}. So the command to make the time signature
1030 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1033 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'transparent = ##t
1035 g, a16 b8 c d4 e16 |
1041 The time signature is gone, but this command leaves a gap where
1042 the time signature should be. Maybe this is what is wanted for
1043 an exercise for the student to fill it in, but in other
1044 circumstances a gap might be undesirable. To remove it, the
1045 stencil for the time signature should be set to @code{#f}
1048 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1051 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
1053 g, a16 b8 c d4 e16 |
1059 and the difference is obvious: setting the stencil to @code{#f}
1060 removes the object entirely; making the object @code{transparent}
1061 leaves it where it is, but makes it invisible.
1064 @cindex color property
1066 Finally let us try making the bar lines invisible by coloring
1067 them white. (There is a difficulty with this in that the
1068 white bar line may or may not blank out the staff lines where
1069 they cross. You may see in some of the examples below that this
1070 happens unpredictably. The details of why this is so and how to
1071 control it are covered in @ruser{Painting objects white}. But at
1072 the moment we are learning about color, so please just accept this
1073 limitation for now.)
1075 The @code{grob-interface} specifies that the
1076 color property value is a list, but there is no
1077 explanation of what that list should be. The list it
1078 requires is actually a list of values in internal units,
1079 but, to avoid having to know what these are, several ways
1080 are provided to specify colors. The first way is to use one
1081 of the @q{normal} colors listed in the first table in
1082 @ruser{List of colors}. To set the bar lines to white
1085 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1088 \override Staff.BarLine #'color = #white
1090 g, a16 b8 c d4 e16 |
1096 and again, we see the bar lines are not visible. Note that
1097 @emph{white} is not preceded by an apostrophe -- it is not
1098 a symbol, but a @emph{function}. When called, it provides
1099 the list of internal values required to set the color to
1100 white. The other colors in the normal list are functions
1101 too. To convince yourself this is working you might like
1102 to change the color to one of the other functions in the
1108 The second way of changing the color is to use the list of
1109 X11 color names in the second list in @ruser{List of colors}.
1110 However, these must be preceded by another function, which
1111 converts X11 color names into the list of internal values,
1112 @code{x11-color}, like this:
1114 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1117 \override Staff.BarLine #'color = #(x11-color 'white)
1119 g, a16 b8 c d4 e16 |
1125 Note that in this case the function @code{x11-color} takes
1126 a symbol as an argument, so the symbol must be preceded by
1127 an apostrophe and the two enclosed in brackets.
1132 There is yet a third function, one which converts RGB values into
1133 internal colors -- the @code{rgb-color} function. This takes
1134 three arguments giving the intensities of the red, green and
1135 blue colors. These take values in the range 0 to 1. So to
1136 set the color to red the value should be @code{(rgb-color 1 0 0)}
1137 and to white it should be @code{(rgb-color 1 1 1)}:
1139 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1142 \override Staff.BarLine #'color = #(rgb-color 1 1 1)
1144 g, a16 b8 c d4 e16 |
1149 Finally, there is also a grey scale available as part of the
1150 X11 set of colors. These range from black, @code{'grey0'},
1151 to white, @code{'grey100}, in steps of 1. Let's illustrate
1152 this by setting all the layout objects in our example to
1153 various shades of grey:
1155 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1158 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #(x11-color 'grey30)
1159 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'color = #(x11-color 'grey60)
1160 \override Staff.Clef #'color = #(x11-color 'grey60)
1161 \override Voice.NoteHead #'color = #(x11-color 'grey85)
1162 \override Voice.Stem #'color = #(x11-color 'grey85)
1163 \override Staff.BarLine #'color = #(x11-color 'grey10)
1165 g, a16 b8 c d4 e16 |
1171 Note the contexts associated with each of the layout objects.
1172 It is important to get these right, or the commands will not
1173 work! Remember, the context is the one in which the appropriate
1174 engraver is placed. The default context for engravers can be
1175 found by starting from the layout object, going from there to
1176 the engraver which produces it, and on the engraver page in the
1177 IR it tells you in which context the engraver will normally be
1181 @node Size of objects
1182 @subsection Size of objects
1184 Let us begin by looking again at the earlier example
1185 see @ref{Nesting music expressions}) which showed
1186 how to introduce a new temporary staff, as in an @rglos{ossia}.
1188 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1189 \new Staff ="main" {
1196 alignAboveContext = "main" }
1204 Ossia are normally written without clef and time signature, and
1205 are usually printed slightly smaller than the main staff. We
1206 already know now how to remove the clef and time signature --
1207 we simply set the stencil of each to @code{#f}, as follows:
1209 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1210 \new Staff ="main" {
1217 alignAboveContext = "main"
1220 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
1221 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
1231 where the extra pair of braces after the @code{\with} clause are
1232 required to ensure the enclosed overrides and music are applied
1235 But what is the difference between modifying the staff context by
1236 using @code{\with} and modifying the stencils of the clef and the
1237 time signature with \override? The main difference is that
1238 changes made in a @code{\with} clause are made at the time the
1239 context is created, and remain in force as the @strong{default}
1240 values for the duration of that context, whereas
1241 @code{\set} or @code{\override} commands embedded in the
1242 music are dynamic -- they make changes synchronized with
1243 a particular point in the music. If changes are unset or
1244 reverted using @code{\unset} or @code{\revert} they return to
1245 their default values, which will be the ones set in the
1246 @code{\with} clause, or if none have been set there, the normal
1249 Some context properties
1250 can be modified only in @code{\with} clauses. These are those
1251 properties which cannot sensibly be changed after the context
1252 has been created. @code{alignAboveContext} and its partner,
1253 @code{alignBelowContext}, are two such properties -- once the
1254 staff has been created its alignment is decided and it would
1255 make no sense to try to change it later.
1257 The default values of layout object properties can also be set
1258 in @code{\with} clauses. Simply use the normal @code{\override}
1259 command leaving out the context name, since this is unambiguously
1260 defined as the context which the @code{\with} clause is modifying.
1261 If fact, an error will be generated if a context is specified
1264 So we could replace the example above with
1266 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1267 \new Staff ="main" {
1274 alignAboveContext = "main"
1275 % Don't print clefs in this staff
1276 \override Clef #'stencil = ##f
1277 % Don't print time signatures in this staff
1278 \override TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
1287 Finally we come to changing the size of layout objects.
1289 Some layout objects are created as glyphs selected from
1290 a typeface font. These include note heads, accidentals, markup,
1291 clefs, time signatures, dynamics and lyrics.
1292 Their size is changed by modifying the
1293 @code{font-size} property, as we shall shortly see. Other
1294 layout objects such as slurs and ties -- in general, spanner
1295 objects -- are drawn individually, so there is no
1297 associated with them. These objects generally derive their
1298 size from the objects to which they are attached, so usually
1299 there is no need to change their size manually. Still other
1300 properties such as the length of stems and bar lines, thickness
1301 of beams and other lines, and the separation of staff lines all
1302 need to be modified in special ways.
1304 Returning to the ossia example, let us first change the font-size.
1305 We can do this in two ways. We can either change the size of the
1306 fonts of each object type, like @code{NoteHead}s with commands
1310 \override NoteHead #'font-size = #-2
1313 or we can change the size of all fonts by setting a special
1314 property, @code{fontSize}, using @code{\set}, or by including
1315 it in a @code{\with} clause (but without the @code{\set}).
1321 Both of these statements would cause the font size to be reduced
1322 by 2 steps from its previous value, where each
1323 step reduces or increases the size by approximately 12%.
1325 Let's try it in our ossia example:
1327 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1328 \new Staff ="main" {
1335 alignAboveContext = "main"
1336 \override Clef #'stencil = ##f
1337 \override TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
1338 % Reduce all font sizes by ~24%
1348 This is still not quite right. The note heads and flags are
1349 smaller, but the stems are too long in proportion and the
1350 staff lines are spaced too widely apart. These need to be
1351 scaled down in proportion to the font reduction. The next
1352 sub-section discusses how this is done.
1354 @node Length and thickness of objects
1355 @subsection Length and thickness of objects
1361 @cindex size, changing
1362 @cindex stem length, changing
1363 @cindex staff line spacing, changing
1365 Distances and lengths in LilyPond are generally measured in
1366 staff-spaces, the distance between adjacent lines in the staff,
1367 (or occasionally half staff spaces) while most @code{thickness}
1368 properties are measured in units of an internal property called
1369 @code{line-thickness.} For example, by default, the lines of
1370 hairpins are given a thickness of 1 unit of @code{line-thickness},
1371 while the @code{thickness} of a note stem is 1.3. Note, though,
1372 that some thickness properties are different; for example, the
1373 thickness of beams is measured in staff-spaces.
1375 So how are lengths to be scaled in proportion to the font size?
1376 This can be done with the help of a special function called
1377 @code{magstep} provided for exactly this purpose. It takes
1378 one argument, the change in font size (#-2 in the example above)
1379 and returns a scaling factor suitable for reducing other
1380 objects in proportion. It is used like this:
1382 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1383 \new Staff ="main" {
1390 alignAboveContext = "main"
1391 \override Clef #'stencil = ##f
1392 \override TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
1394 % Reduce stem length and line spacing to match
1395 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #(magstep -2)
1405 Since the length of stems and many other length-related properties
1406 are always calculated relative to the
1407 value of the @code{staff-space} property these are automatically
1408 scaled down in length too. Note that this affects only the
1409 vertical scale of the ossia -- the horizontal scale is determined
1410 by the layout of the main music in order to remain synchronized
1411 with it, so it is not affected by any of these changes in size.
1412 Of course, if the scale of all the main music were changed in this
1413 way then the horizontal spacing would be affected. This is
1414 discussed later in the layout section.
1416 This, then, completes the creation of an ossia. The sizes and
1417 lengths of all other objects may be modified in analogous ways.
1419 For small changes in scale, as in the example above, the
1420 thickness of the various drawn lines such as bar lines,
1421 beams, hairpins, slurs, etc does not usually require global
1422 adjustment. If the thickness of any particular layout object
1423 needs to be adjusted this can be best achieved by overriding its
1424 @code{thickness} property. An example of changing the thickness
1425 of slurs was shown above in @ref{Properties of layout objects}.
1426 The thickness of all drawn objects (i.e., those not produced
1427 from a font) may be changed in the same way.
1430 @node Placement of objects
1431 @section Placement of objects
1434 * Automatic behavior::
1435 * Within-staff objects::
1436 * Outside staff objects::
1440 @node Automatic behavior
1441 @subsection Automatic behavior
1443 There are some objects in musical notation that belong to
1444 the staff and there are other objects that should be
1445 placed outside the staff. These are called within-staff
1446 objects and outside-staff objects respectively.
1448 Within-staff objects are those that are located on the staff
1449 -- note heads, stems, accidentals, etc. The positions of
1450 these are usually fixed by the music itself -- they are
1451 vertically positioned on specific lines of the staff or are
1452 tied to other objects that are so positioned. Collisions of
1453 note heads, stems and accidentals in closely set chords are
1454 normally avoided automatically. There are commands and
1455 overrides which can modify this automatic behavior, as we
1458 Objects belonging outside the staff include things such as
1459 rehearsal marks, text and dynamic markings. LilyPond's rule for
1460 the vertical placement of outside-staff objects is to place them
1461 as close to the staff as possible but not so close that they
1462 collide with any other object. LilyPond uses the
1463 @code{outside-staff-priority} property to determine the order in
1464 which the objects should be placed, as follows.
1466 First, LilyPond places all the within-staff objects.
1467 Then it sorts the outside-staff objects according to their
1468 @code{outside-staff-priority}. The outside-staff objects are
1469 taken one by one, beginning with the object with the lowest
1470 @code{outside-staff-priority}, and placed so that they do not
1471 collide with any objects that have already been placed. That is,
1472 if two outside-staff grobs are competing for the same space, the
1473 one with the lower @code{outside-staff-priority} will be placed
1474 closer to the staff. If two objects have the same
1475 @code{outside-staff-priority} the one encountered first will be
1476 placed closer to the staff.
1478 In the following example all the markup texts have the same
1479 priority (since it is not explicitly set). Note that @q{Text3}
1480 is automatically positioned close to the staff again, nestling
1483 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1490 Staves are also positioned, by default, as closely together as
1491 possible (subject to a minimum separation). If notes project
1492 a long way towards an adjacent staff they will force the
1493 staves further apart only if an overlap of the notation
1494 would otherwise occur. The following example demonstrates
1495 this @q{nestling} of the notes on adjacent staves:
1497 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1500 \relative c' { c a, }
1503 \relative c'''' { c a, }
1509 @node Within-staff objects
1510 @subsection Within-staff objects
1512 We have already seen how the commands @code{\voiceXXX} affect
1513 the direction of slurs, ties, fingering and
1514 everything else which depends on the direction of the stems.
1515 These commands are essential when writing polyphonic music to
1516 permit interweaving melodic lines to be distinguished.
1517 But occasionally it may be necessary to override this automatic
1518 behavior. This can be done for whole sections of music or even
1519 for an individual note. The property which controls this
1520 behavior is the @code{direction} property of each layout object.
1521 We first explain what this does, and then introduce a number of
1522 ready-made commands which avoid your having to code explicit
1523 overrides for the more common modifications.
1525 Some layout objects like slurs and ties curve, bend or point
1526 either up or down; others like stems and flags also move to
1527 right or left when they point up or down. This is controlled
1528 automatically when @code{direction} is set.
1530 The following example shows in bar 1 the default behavior of
1532 with those on high notes pointing down and those on low notes
1533 pointing up, followed by four notes with all stems forced down,
1534 four notes with all stems forced up, and finally four notes
1535 reverted back to the default behavior.
1537 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1539 \override Stem #'direction = #DOWN
1541 \override Stem #'direction = #UP
1543 \revert Stem #'direction
1547 Here we use the constants @code{DOWN} and @code{UP}.
1548 These have the values @code{-1} and @code{+1} respectively, and
1549 these numerical values may be used instead. The value @code{0}
1550 may also be used in some cases. It is simply treated as meaning
1551 @code{UP} for stems, but for some objects it means @q{center}.
1552 There is a constant, @code{CENTER} which has the value @code{0}.
1554 However, these explicit overrides are not usually used, as there
1555 are simpler equivalent predefined commands available.
1556 Here is a table of the commonest. The meaning of each is stated
1557 where it is not obvious.
1559 @multitable @columnfractions .2 .2 .25 .35
1564 @item @code{\arpeggioArrowDown}
1565 @tab @code{\arpeggioArrowUp}
1566 @tab @code{\arpeggioNormal}
1567 @tab Arrow is at bottom, at top, or no arrow
1568 @item @code{\dotsDown}
1570 @tab @code{\dotsNeutral}
1571 @tab Direction of movement to avoid staff lines
1572 @item @code{\dynamicDown}
1573 @tab @code{\dynamicUp}
1574 @tab @code{\dynamicNeutral}
1576 @item @code{\phrasingSlurDown}
1577 @tab @code{\phrasingSlurUp}
1578 @tab @code{\phrasingSlurNeutral}
1579 @tab Note: distinct from slur commands
1580 @item @code{\slurDown}
1582 @tab @code{\slurNeutral}
1584 @item @code{\stemDown}
1586 @tab @code{\stemNeutral}
1588 @item @code{\textSpannerDown}
1589 @tab @code{\textSpannerUp}
1590 @tab @code{\textSpannerNeutral}
1591 @tab Text entered as spanner is below/above staff
1592 @item @code{\tieDown}
1594 @tab @code{\tieNeutral}
1596 @item @code{\tupletDown}
1597 @tab @code{\tupletUp}
1598 @tab @code{\tupletNeutral}
1599 @tab Tuplets are below/above notes
1602 Note that these predefined commands may @strong{not} be
1603 preceded by @code{\once}. If you wish to limit the
1604 effect to a single note you must either use the equivalent
1605 @code{\once \override} command or use the predefined command
1606 followed after the affected note by the corresponding
1607 @code{\xxxNeutral} command.
1609 @subheading Fingering
1610 @cindex fingering, placement
1612 The placement of fingering on single notes can also be controlled
1613 by the @code{direction} property, but changing @code{direction}
1614 has no effect on chords. As we shall see, there are special
1615 commands which allow the fingering of individual notes
1616 of chords to be controlled, with the fingering being placed
1617 above, below, to the left or to the right of each note.
1619 First, here's the effect of @code{direction} on the fingering
1620 attached to single notes. The first bar shows the default
1621 behaviour, and the following two bars shows the effect of
1622 specifying @code{DOWN} and @code{UP}:
1624 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
1626 \override Fingering #'direction = #DOWN
1628 \override Fingering #'direction = #UP
1632 However, overriding the @code{direction} property is not the
1633 easiest way of manually setting the fingering above or below
1634 the notes; using @code{_} or @code{^} instead of @code{-} before
1635 the fingering number is usually preferable. Here is the previous
1636 example using this method:
1638 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
1644 The @code{direction} property is ignored for chords, but the
1645 directional prefixes, @code{_} and @code{^} do work. By default,
1646 the fingering is automatically placed both above and below the
1647 notes of a chord, as shown:
1649 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
1656 but this may be overriden to manually force all or any of the
1657 individual fingering numbers above or below:
1659 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
1665 Even greater control over the placement of fingering of the
1666 individual notes in a chord is possible by using the
1667 @code{\set fingeringOrientations} command. The format of this
1671 @code{\set fingeringOrientations = #'([up] [left/right] [down])}
1675 @code{\set} is used because @code{fingeringOrientations} is a
1676 property of the @code{Voice} context, created and used by the
1677 @code{New_fingering_engraver}.
1679 The property may be set to a list of one to three values.
1680 It controls whether fingerings may be placed above (if
1681 @code{up} appears in the list), below (if @code{down} appears),
1682 to the left (if @code{left} appears, or to the right
1683 (if @code{right} appears). Conversely, if a location is not
1684 listed, no fingering is placed there. LilyPond takes these
1685 constraints and works out the best placement for the fingering
1686 of the notes of the following chords. Note that @code{left} and
1687 @code{right} are mutually exclusive -- fingering may be placed
1688 only on one side or the other, not both.
1690 @warning{To control the placement of the fingering of a single
1691 note using this command it is necessary to write it as a single
1692 note chord by placing angle brackets round it.}
1694 Here are a few examples:
1696 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=1]
1697 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(left)
1699 < c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 > 4
1700 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(left)
1702 < c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 > 4
1703 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(up left down)
1705 < c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 > 4
1706 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(up left)
1708 < c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 > 4
1709 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(right)
1711 < c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 > 4
1715 If the fingering seems a little crowded the @code{font-size}
1716 could be reduced. The default value can be seen from the
1717 @code{Fingering} object in the IR to be @code{-5}, so let's
1720 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=1]
1721 \override Fingering #'font-size = #-7
1722 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(left)
1724 < c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 > 4
1725 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(left)
1727 < c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 > 4
1728 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(up left down)
1730 < c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 > 4
1731 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(up left)
1733 < c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 > 4
1734 \set fingeringOrientations = #'(right)
1736 < c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 > 4
1739 @node Outside staff objects
1740 @subsection Outside staff objects
1742 Outside-staff objects are automatically placed to avoid collisions.
1743 Objects with the lower value of the @code{outside-staff-priority}
1744 property are placed nearer to the staff, and other outside-staff
1745 objects are then raised as far as necessary to avoid collisions.
1746 The @code{outside-staff-priority} is defined in the
1747 @code{grob-interface} and so is a property of all layout objects.
1748 By default it is set to @code{#f} for all within-staff objects,
1749 and to a numerical value appropriate to each outside-staff object
1750 when the object is created. The following table shows
1751 the default numerical values for some of the commonest
1752 outside-staff objects which are, by default, placed in the
1753 @code{Staff} or @code{Voice} contexts.
1755 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .3
1756 @headitem Layout Object
1758 @tab Controls position of:
1759 @item @code{MultiMeasureRestText}
1761 @tab Text over full-bar rests
1762 @item @code{TextScript}
1765 @item @code{OttavaBracket}
1767 @tab Ottava brackets
1768 @item @code{TextSpanner}
1771 @item @code{DynamicLineSpanner}
1773 @tab All dynamic markings
1774 @item @code{VoltaBracketSpanner}
1777 @item @code{TrillSpanner}
1779 @tab Spanning trills
1782 Here is an example showing the default placement of some of
1785 @cindex text spanner
1786 @funindex \startTextSpan
1787 @funindex \stopTextSpan
1788 @cindex ottava bracket
1790 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=1]
1791 % Set details for later Text Spanner
1792 \override TextSpanner #'bound-details #'left #'text
1793 = \markup { \small \bold Slower }
1794 % Place dynamics above staff
1796 % Start Ottava Bracket
1801 % Add Dynamic Line Spanner
1807 c\ff c \stopTextSpan
1808 % Stop Ottava Bracket
1813 This example also shows how to create Text Spanners --
1814 text with extender lines above a section of music. The
1815 spanner extends from the @code{\startTextSpan} command to
1816 the @code{\stopTextSpan} command, and the format of the
1817 text is defined by the @code{\override TextSpanner} command.
1818 For more details see @ruser{Text spanners}.
1820 It also shows how ottava brackets are created.
1822 Note that bar numbers, metronome marks and rehearsal marks
1823 are not shown. By default these are created in the
1824 @code{Score} context and their @code{outside-staff-priority}
1825 is ignored relative to the layout objects which are created
1826 in the @code{Staff} context.
1827 If you wish to place bar numbers, metronome marks or rehearsal
1828 marks in accordance with the value of their
1829 @code{outside-staff-priority} the @code{Bar_number_engraver},
1830 @code{Metronome_mark_engraver} or @code{Mark_engraver} respectively
1831 should be removed from the @code{Score} context and placed in the
1832 top @code{Staff} context. If this is done, these marks will be
1833 given the following default @code{outside-staff-priority} values:
1835 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3
1836 @headitem Layout Object @tab Priority
1837 @item @code{RehearsalMark} @tab @code{1500}
1838 @item @code{MetronomeMark} @tab @code{1000}
1839 @item @code{BarNumber} @tab @code{ 100}
1842 If the default values of @code{outside-staff-priority} do not
1843 give you the placing you want, the priority of any of the objects
1844 may be overridden. Suppose we would
1845 like the ottava bracket to be placed below the text spanner in the
1846 example above. All we need to do is to look up the priority of
1847 @code{OttavaBracket} in the IR or in the tables above, and reduce
1848 it to a value lower than that of a @code{TextSpanner}, remembering
1849 that @code{OttavaBracket} is created in the @code{Staff} context:
1851 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=1]
1852 % Set details for later Text Spanner
1853 \override TextSpanner #'bound-details #'left #'text
1854 = \markup { \small \bold Slower }
1855 % Place dynamics above staff
1857 %Place following Ottava Bracket below Text Spanners
1858 \once \override Staff.OttavaBracket #'outside-staff-priority = #340
1859 % Start Ottava Bracket
1864 % Add Dynamic Line Spanner
1870 c\ff c \stopTextSpan
1871 % Stop Ottava Bracket
1876 Changing the @code{outside-staff-priority} can also be used to
1877 control the vertical placement of individual objects, although
1878 the results may not always be desirable. Suppose we would
1879 like @qq{Text3} to be placed above @qq{Text4} in the example
1880 under Automatic behavior, above (see @ref{Automatic behavior}).
1881 All we need to do is to look up the priority of @code{TextScript}
1882 in the IR or in the tables above, and increase the priority of
1883 @qq{Text3} to a higher value:
1885 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1888 \once \override TextScript #'outside-staff-priority = #500
1893 This certainly lifts @qq{Text3} above @qq{Text4} but it also
1894 lifts it above @qq{Text2}, and @qq{Text4} now drops down.
1895 Perhaps this is not so good. What we would really like to do
1896 is to position all the annotation at the same distance above
1897 the staff? To do this, we clearly
1898 will need to space the notes out horizontally to make more
1899 room for the text. This is done using the @code{textLengthOn}
1902 @subheading \textLengthOn
1904 @funindex \textLengthOn
1905 @cindex notes, spreading out with text
1907 By default, text produced by markup takes up no horizontal space
1908 as far as laying out the music is concerned. The @code{\textLengthOn}
1909 command reverses this behavior, causing the notes to be spaced
1910 out as far as is necessary to accommodate the text:
1912 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1913 \textLengthOn % Cause notes to space out to accommodate text
1920 The command to revert to the default behavior is
1921 @code{\textLengthOff}. Remember @code{\once} only works with
1922 @code{\override}, @code{\set}, @code{\revert} or @code{unset},
1923 so cannot be used with @code{\textLengthOn}.
1925 Markup text will also avoid notes which project above the staff.
1926 If this is not desired, the automatic displacement upwards may
1927 be turned off by setting the priority to @code{#f}. Here's an
1928 example to show how markup text interacts with such notes.
1930 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1931 % This markup is short enough to fit without collision
1935 % This is too long to fit, so it is displaced upwards
1939 % Turn off collision avoidance
1940 \once \override TextScript #'outside-staff-priority = ##f
1944 % Turn off collision avoidance
1945 \once \override TextScript #'outside-staff-priority = ##f
1946 \textLengthOn % and turn on textLengthOn
1947 c,,2^"Long Text " % Spaces at end are honored
1952 @subheading Dynamics
1954 Dynamic markings will normally be positioned beneath the
1955 staff, but may be positioned above with the @code{dynamicUp}
1956 command. They will be positioned vertically relative to the
1957 note to which they are attached, and will float below (or above)
1958 all within-staff objects such as phrasing slurs and bar numbers.
1959 This can give quite acceptable results, as this example
1962 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=1]
1967 bes4.~\f\< \( bes4 bes8 des4\ff\> c16 bes\! |
1968 ees,2.~\)\mf ees4 r8 |
1971 However, if the notes and attached dynamics are close
1972 together the automatic placement will avoid collisions
1973 by displacing later dynamic markings further away, but this may
1974 not be the optimum placement, as this rather artificial example
1977 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
1983 Should a similar situation arise in @q{real} music, it may
1984 be preferable to space out the notes
1985 a little further, so the dynamic markings can all fit at the
1986 same vertical distance from the staff. We were able to do this
1987 for markup text by using the @code{\textLengthOn} command, but there
1988 is no equivalent command for dynamic marks. So we shall have to
1989 work out how to do this using @code{\override} commands.
1991 @subheading Grob sizing
1994 @cindex sizing grobs
1995 @cindex @code{X-offset}
1996 @cindex @code{Y-offset}
1997 @cindex @code{X-extent}
1998 @cindex @code{Y-extent}
2000 First we must learn how grobs are sized. All grobs have a
2001 reference point defined within them which is used to position
2002 them relative to their parent object. This point in the grob
2003 is then positioned at a horizontal distance, @code{X-offset},
2004 and at a vertical distance, @code{Y-offset}, from its parent.
2005 The horizontal extent of the object is given by a pair of
2006 numbers, @code{X-extent}, which say where the left and right
2007 edges are relative to the reference point. The vertical extent
2008 is similarly defined by a pair of numbers, @code{Y-extent}.
2009 These are properties of all grobs which support the
2010 @code{grob-interface}.
2012 @cindex @code{extra-spacing-width}
2014 By default, outside-staff objects are given a width of zero so
2015 that they may overlap in the horizontal direction. This is done
2016 by the trick of adding infinity to the leftmost extent and
2017 minus infinity to the rightmost extent by setting the
2018 @code{extra-spacing-width} to @code{'(+inf.0 . -inf.0)}. So
2019 to ensure they do not overlap in the horizontal direction we
2020 must override this value of @code{extra-spacing-width} to
2021 @code{'(0 . 0)} so the true width shines through. This is
2022 the command to do this for dynamic text:
2025 \override DynamicText #'extra-spacing-width = #'(0 . 0)
2029 Let's see if this works in our previous example:
2031 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
2033 \override DynamicText #'extra-spacing-width = #'(0 . 0)
2038 Well, it has certainly stopped the dynamic marks being
2039 displaced, but two problems remain. The marks should be
2040 spaced a little further apart and it would be better
2041 if they were all the same distance from the staff.
2042 We can solve the first problem easily. Instead of making
2043 the @code{extra-spacing-width} zero we could add a little
2044 more to it. The units are the space between two staff
2045 lines, so moving the left edge half a unit to the left and the
2046 right edge half a unit to the right should do it:
2048 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
2050 % Extend width by 1 staff space
2051 \override DynamicText #'extra-spacing-width = #'(-0.5 . 0.5)
2056 This looks better, but maybe we would prefer the dynamic marks
2057 to be aligned along the same baseline rather than going up and
2058 down with the notes. The property to do this is
2059 @code{staff-padding} which is covered in the following section.
2062 @node Collisions of objects
2063 @section Collisions of objects
2067 * Fixing overlapping notation::
2068 * Real music example::
2071 @node Moving objects
2072 @subsection Moving objects
2074 This may come as a surprise, but LilyPond is not perfect. Some
2075 notation elements can overlap. This is unfortunate, but in fact
2076 rather rare. Usually the need to move objects is for clarity or
2077 aesthetic reasons -- they would look better with a little more
2078 or a little less space around them.
2080 There are three main approaches to resolving overlapping
2081 notation. They should be considered in the following order:
2085 The @strong{direction} of one of the overlapping objects may
2086 be changed using the predefined commands listed above for
2087 within-staff objects (see @ref{Within-staff objects}).
2088 Stems, slurs, beams, ties, dynamics, text and tuplets may be
2089 repositioned easily in this way. The limitation is that you
2090 have a choice of only two positions, and neither may be
2094 The @strong{object properties}, which LilyPond uses
2095 when positioning layout objects, may be modified using
2096 @code{\override}. The advantages
2097 of making changes to this type of property are (a) that some
2098 other objects will be moved automatically if necessary to make
2099 room and (b) the single override can apply to all instances of
2100 the same type of object. Such properties include:
2107 This has already been covered in some detail -- see
2108 @ref{Within-staff objects}.
2111 @code{padding}, @code{left-padding},
2112 @code{right-padding}, @code{staff-padding}
2114 @cindex left-padding property
2115 @cindex padding property
2116 @cindex right-padding property
2117 @cindex staff-padding property
2118 As an object is being positioned the value of its @code{padding}
2119 property specifies the gap that must be left between itself and
2120 the nearest edge of the object against which it is being
2121 positioned. Note that it is the @code{padding} value of the object
2122 @strong{being placed} that is used;
2123 the @code{padding} value of the object which is already placed is
2124 ignored. Gaps specified by @code{padding} can be applied
2125 to all objects which support the @code{side-position-interface}.
2127 Instead of @code{padding}, the placement of groups of accidentals
2128 is controlled by @code{left-padding} and @code{right-padding}.
2129 These properties are to be found in the @code{AccidentalPlacement}
2130 object which, note, lives in the @strong{staff} context. In the
2131 type-setting process the note heads are type-set first and then
2132 the accidentals, if any, are added to the left of the note heads
2133 using the @code{right-padding} property to determine the separation
2134 from the note heads. So only the @code{right-padding} property of the
2135 @code{AccidentalPlacement} object has any effect on the placement
2138 The @code{staff-padding} property is closely related to the
2139 @code{padding} property: @code{padding}
2140 controls the minimum amount of space between any object which
2141 supports the @code{side-position-interface} and the nearest
2142 other object (generally the note or the staff lines);
2143 @code{staff-padding} applies only to those objects which are always
2144 set outside the staff -- it controls the minimum amount of space
2145 that should be inserted between that object and the staff. Note
2146 that @code{staff-padding} has no effect on objects which are
2147 positioned relative to the note rather than the staff, even though
2148 it may be overridden without error for such objects -- it is simply
2151 To discover which padding property is required for the object
2152 you wish to reposition, you
2153 need to return to the IR and look up the object's properties.
2154 Be aware that the padding properties might not be located in the
2155 obvious object, so look in objects that appear to be related.
2157 All padding values are measured in staff spaces. For most
2158 objects, this value is set by default to be around 1.0 or less
2159 (it varies with each object). It may be overridden if a larger
2160 (or smaller) gap is required.
2163 @code{self-alignment-X}
2165 @cindex self-alignment-X property
2166 This property can be used to align the object to the left, to
2167 the right, or to center it with respect to the parent object's
2168 reference point. It may be used with all objects which support
2169 the @code{self-alignment-interface}. In general these are objects
2170 that contain text. The values are @code{LEFT}, @code{RIGHT}
2171 or @code{CENTER}. Alternatively, a numerical value between
2172 @code{-1} and @code{+1} may be specified, where @code{-1} is
2173 left-aligned, @code{+1} is right-aligned, and numbers in between
2174 move the text progressively from left-aligned to right-aligned.
2175 Numerical values greater than @code{1} may be specified to move
2176 the text even further to the left, or less than @code{-1} to
2177 move the text even further to the right. A change of @code{1}
2178 in the value corresponds to a movement of half the text's length.
2181 @code{extra-spacing-width}
2183 @cindex extra-spacing-width property
2184 This property is available for all objects which support the
2185 @code{item-interface}. It takes two numbers, the first is added
2186 to the leftmost extent and the second is added to the rightmost
2187 extent. Negative numbers move the edge to the left, positive to
2188 the right, so to widen an object the first number must be negative,
2189 the second positive. Note that not all objects honor both
2190 numbers. For example, the @code{Accidental} object only takes
2191 notice of the first (left edge) number.
2194 @code{staff-position}
2196 @cindex staff-position property
2197 @code{staff-position} is a property of the
2198 @code{staff-symbol-referencer-interface}, which is supported by
2199 objects which are positioned relative to the staff. It specifies
2200 the vertical position of the object relative to the center line
2201 of the staff in half staff-spaces. It is useful in resolving
2202 collisions between layout objects like multi-measure rests, ties
2203 and notes in different voices.
2208 @cindex force-hshift property
2210 Closely spaced notes in a chord, or notes occurring at the same
2211 time in different voices, are arranged in two, occasionally more,
2212 columns to prevent the note heads overlapping. These are called
2213 note columns, and an object called @code{NoteColumn} is created
2214 to lay out the notes in that column.
2216 The @code{force-hshift}
2217 property is a property of a @code{NoteColumn} (actually of the
2218 @code{note-column-interface}). Changing it permits a note column
2219 to be moved in units appropriate to a note column, viz. the note
2220 head width of the first voice note. It should be used in
2221 complex situations where the normal @code{\shiftOn} commands (see
2222 @ref{Explicitly instantiating voices}) do
2223 not resolve the note conflict. It is preferable to the
2224 @code{extra-offset} property for this purpose as there is no need
2225 to work out the distance in staff-spaces, and moving the notes
2226 into or out of a @code{NoteColumn} affects other actions such as
2232 Finally, when all else fails, objects may be manually repositioned
2233 relative to the staff center line vertically, or by
2234 displacing them by any distance to a new position. The
2235 disadvantages are that the correct values for the repositioning
2236 have to be worked out, often by trial and error, for every object
2237 individually, and, because the movement is done after LilyPond has
2238 placed all other objects, the user is responsible for avoiding any
2239 collisions that might ensue. But the main difficulty with this
2240 approach is that the repositioning values may need to be reworked
2241 if the music is later modified. The properties that can be used
2242 for this type of manual repositioning are:
2246 @cindex extra-offset property
2247 This property applies to any layout object
2248 supporting the @code{grob-interface}. It takes a pair of
2249 numbers which specify the extra displacement in the horizontal and
2250 vertical directions. Negative numbers move the object to
2251 the left or down. The units are staff-spaces. The extra
2252 displacement is made after the typesetting of objects is
2253 finished, so an object may be repositioned anywhere without
2254 affecting anything else.
2257 @cindex positions property
2258 This is most useful for manually adjusting the slope and height
2259 of beams, slurs, and tuplets. It takes a pair of numbers
2260 giving the position of the left and right ends of the beam, slur,
2261 etc. relative to the center line of the staff. Units are
2262 staff-spaces. Note, though, that slurs and phrasing slurs cannot
2263 be repositioned by arbitrarily large amounts. LilyPond first
2264 generates a list of possible positions for the slur and by default
2265 finds the slur that @qq{looks best}. If the @code{positions}
2266 property has been overridden the slur that is closest to the
2267 requested positions is selected from the list.
2272 A particular object may not have all of these properties.
2273 It is necessary to go to the IR to look up which properties
2274 are available for the object in question.
2276 Here is a list of the objects which are most likely to be
2277 involved in collisions, together with the name of the object which
2278 should be looked up in the IR in order to discover which properties
2279 should be used to move them.
2281 @multitable @columnfractions .5 .5
2282 @headitem Object type @tab Object name
2283 @item Articulations @tab @code{Script}
2284 @item Beams @tab @code{Beam}
2285 @item Dynamics (vertically) @tab @code{DynamicLineSpanner}
2286 @item Dynamics (horizontally) @tab @code{DynamicText}
2287 @item Fingerings @tab @code{Fingering}
2288 @item Rehearsal / Text marks @tab @code{RehearsalMark}
2289 @item Slurs @tab @code{Slur}
2290 @item Text e.g. @code{^"text"} @tab @code{TextScript}
2291 @item Ties @tab @code{Tie}
2292 @item Tuplets @tab @code{TupletBracket}
2296 @node Fixing overlapping notation
2297 @subsection Fixing overlapping notation
2299 Let's now see how the properties in the previous section can
2300 help to resolve overlapping notation.
2302 @subheading padding property
2303 @cindex padding property
2305 The @code{padding} property can be set to increase
2306 (or decrease) the distance between symbols that are printed
2307 above or below notes.
2309 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
2311 \override Script #'padding = #3
2315 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
2316 % This will not work, see below:
2317 \override MetronomeMark #'padding = #3
2321 \override Score.MetronomeMark #'padding = #3
2326 Note in the second example how important it is to figure out what
2327 context handles a certain object. Since the @code{MetronomeMark}
2329 is handled in the @code{Score} context, property changes in the
2330 @code{Voice} context will not be noticed. For more details, see
2331 @ruser{Modifying properties}.
2333 If the @code{padding} property of an object is increased when that
2334 object is in a stack of objects being positioned according to
2335 their @code{outside-staff-priority}, then that object and all
2336 objects outside it are moved.
2339 @subheading left-padding and right-padding
2340 @cindex left-padding property
2341 @cindex right-padding property
2343 The @code{right-padding} property affects the spacing between the
2344 accidental and the note to which it applies. It is not often
2345 required, but the following example shows one situation where it
2346 is needed. Suppose we wish to show a chord containing both
2347 a B-natural and a B-flat. To avoid ambiguity we would like to
2348 precede the notes with both a natural and a flat sign. Here
2349 are a few attempts to do this:
2351 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
2357 None work, with the second two showing bad collisions between
2360 One way of achieving this is to override the accidental stencil
2361 with a markup containing the natural and flat symbols in the
2362 order we would like, like this:
2364 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
2365 naturalplusflat = \markup { \natural \flat }
2367 \once \override Accidental
2368 #'stencil = #ly:text-interface::print
2369 \once \override Accidental #'text = #naturalplusflat
2370 \once \override Score.AccidentalPlacement #'right-padding = #1.5
2376 This necessarily uses an override for the accidental stencil which
2377 will not be covered until later. The stencil type must be a
2378 procedure, here changed to print the contents of the @code{text}
2379 property of @code{Accidental}, which itself is set to be a natural
2380 sign followed by a flat sign. These are then moved further away
2381 from the note head by overriding @code{right-padding}.
2385 @subheading staff-padding property
2386 @cindex staff-padding property
2388 @code{staff-padding} can be used to align objects such as dynamics
2389 along a baseline at a fixed height above the staff, rather than
2390 at a height dependent on the position of the note to which they
2391 are attached. It is not a property of
2392 @code{DynamicText} but of @code{DynamicLineSpanner}.
2393 This is because the baseline should apply equally to @strong{all}
2394 dynamics, including those created as extended spanners.
2395 So this is the way to align the dynamic marks in the example
2396 taken from the previous section:
2398 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2]
2400 % Extend width by 1 unit
2401 \override DynamicText #'extra-spacing-width = #'(-0.5 . 0.5)
2402 % Align dynamics to a base line 2 units above staff
2403 \override DynamicLineSpanner #'staff-padding = #2
2408 @subheading self-alignment-X property
2409 @cindex self-alignment-X property
2411 The following example shows how this can resolve the collision
2412 of a string fingering object with a note's stem by aligning the
2413 right edge with the reference point of the parent note:
2415 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=3]
2418 \once \override StringNumber #'self-alignment-X = #RIGHT
2422 @subheading staff-position property
2423 @cindex staff-position property
2425 Multimeasure rests in one voice can collide with notes in another.
2426 Since these rests are typeset centered between the bar lines, it
2427 would require significant effort for LilyPond to figure out which
2428 other notes might collide with it, since all the current collision
2429 handling between notes and between notes and rests is done only
2430 for notes and rests that occur at the same time. Here's an
2431 example of a collision of this type:
2433 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right, relative=1]
2434 << {c c c c} \\ {R1} >>
2437 The best solution here is to move the multimeasure rest down,
2438 since the rest is in voice two.
2439 The default in @code{\voiceTwo} (i.e. in the second voice of a
2440 @code{<<@{...@} \\ @{...@}>>} construct)
2441 is that @code{staff-position} is set to -4 for MultiMeasureRest,
2442 so we need to move it, say, four half-staff spaces down to
2445 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right, relative=1]
2449 \override MultiMeasureRest #'staff-position = #-8
2454 This is better than using, for example, @code{extra-offset},
2455 because the ledger line above the rest is inserted automatically.
2457 @subheading extra-offset property
2458 @cindex extra-offset property
2460 The @code{extra-offset} property provides complete control over the
2461 positioning of an object both horizontally and vertically.
2463 In the following example, the second fingering is moved a little to
2464 the left, and 1.8 staff space downwards:
2466 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
2469 \once \override Fingering
2470 #'extra-offset = #'(-0.3 . -1.8)
2475 @subheading positions property
2476 @cindex positions property
2478 The @code{positions} property allows the position and slope of
2479 tuplets, slurs, phrasing slurs and beams to be controlled
2480 manually. Here's an example which has an ugly phrasing slur
2481 due to its trying to avoid the slur on the acciaccatura.
2483 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=1]
2484 r4 \acciaccatura e8\( d8 c ~c d c d\)
2488 We could simply move the phrasing slur above the notes, and this
2489 would be the preferred solution:
2491 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=1]
2494 \acciaccatura e8\( d8 c ~c d c d\)
2498 but if there were some reason why this could not be done the
2499 other alternative would be to move the left end of the phrasing
2500 slur down a little using the @code{positions} property. This
2501 also resolves the rather nasty shape.
2503 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=1]
2505 \once \override PhrasingSlur #'positions = #'(-4 . -3)
2507 e8\( d8 c ~c d c d\)
2510 Here's a further example taken from the opening of the left-hand
2511 staff of Chopin's Prelude Op 28 No. 2. We see that the beam
2512 collides with the upper notes:
2514 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right]
2517 << {b,8 ais, b, g,} \\ {e, g e, g} >>
2518 << {b,8 ais, b, g,} \\ {e, g e, g} >>
2523 This can be resolved by manually moving both ends of the beam
2524 up from their position at 2 staff-spaces above the center line to,
2527 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right]
2531 \override Beam #'positions = #'(3 . 3)
2536 << {b,8 ais, b, g,} \\ {e, g e, g} >>
2541 Note that the override continues to apply in the first voice of
2542 the second block of quavers, but not to any of the beams in the
2545 @subheading force-hshift property
2546 @cindex force-hshift property
2547 @c FIXME: formatting stuff (ie not important right now IMO)
2548 @c @a nchor Chopin finally corrected TODOgp
2550 We can now see how to apply the final corrections to the Chopin
2551 example introduced at the end of @ref{I'm hearing Voices}, which
2552 was left looking like this:
2554 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right]
2555 \new Staff \relative c'' {
2558 { c2 aes4. bes8 } \\
2570 The lower two notes of the first chord (i.e,
2571 those in the third voice) should not be shifted away from the
2572 note column of the higher two notes. To correct this we set
2573 @code{force-hshift}, which is a property of
2574 @code{NoteColumn}, of these notes to zero.
2575 The lower note of the second chord is best placed just to the
2576 right of the higher notes. We achieve this by setting
2577 @code{force-hshift} of this note to 0.5, ie half a note head's
2578 width to the right of the note column of the higher notes.
2580 Here's the final result:
2582 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right]
2583 \new Staff \relative c'' {
2586 { c2 aes4. bes8 } \\
2589 \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #0 <ees c>2
2590 \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #0.5 des2
2598 @node Real music example
2599 @subsection Real music example
2601 We end this section on Tweaks by showing the steps to be taken to
2602 deal with a tricky example which needs several tweaks to produce
2603 the desired output. The example has been deliberately chosen to
2604 illustrate the use of the Notation Reference to resolve unusual
2605 problems with notation. It is not representative of more usual
2606 engraving process, so please do not let these difficulties put
2607 you off! Fortunately, difficulties like these are not very common!
2609 The example is from Chopin's Première Ballade, Op. 23, bars 6 to
2610 9, the transition from the opening Lento to Moderato.
2611 Here, first, is what we want the output to look like, but to avoid
2612 over-complicating the example too much we have left out the
2613 dynamics, fingering and pedalling.
2615 @c The following should appear as music without code
2616 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2617 rhMusic = \relative c'' {
2620 \once \override Tie #'staff-position = #3.5
2624 \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
2625 \mergeDifferentlyDottedOn
2626 bes2.^\markup {\bold "Moderato"} r8
2628 {c,8[ d fis bes a] | }
2630 % Reposition the c2 to the right of the merged note
2631 {c,8~ \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #1.0
2632 % Move the c2 out of the main note column so the merge will work
2635 % Stem on the d2 must be down to permit merging
2636 {s8 \stemDown \once \override Stem #'transparent = ##t d2}
2640 \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOff
2641 \mergeDifferentlyDottedOff
2645 lhMusic = \relative c' {
2647 <d g, d>1)\arpeggio |
2654 \new Staff = "RH" <<
2658 \new Staff = "LH" <<
2667 We note first that the right hand part in the third bar
2668 requires four voices. These are the five beamed eighth notes,
2669 the tied C, the half-note D which is merged with the eighth note
2670 D, and the dotted quarter note F-sharp, which is also merged with
2671 the eighth note at the same pitch. Everything else is in a single
2672 voice, so the easiest way is to introduce these four voices
2673 temporarily at the time they are needed. If you have forgotten
2674 how to do this, look at @ref{I'm hearing Voices}. Let us begin
2675 by entering the notes as two variables and setting up the staff
2676 structure in a score block, and see what LilyPond produces by
2679 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2680 rhMusic = \relative c'' {
2685 % Start polyphonic section of four voices
2687 {c,8 d fis bes a | }
2698 lhMusic = \relative c' {
2707 \new Staff = "RH" <<
2711 \new Staff = "LH" <<
2720 All the notes are right, but the appearance is far from
2721 satisfactory. The tie clashes with the change in time signature,
2722 the beaming in the third bar is wrong, the notes are not
2723 merged together, and several notation elements are missing.
2724 Let's first deal with the easier things.
2725 We can correct the beaming by inserting a beam
2726 manually, and we can easily add the left hand slur and the right
2727 hand phrasing slur, since these were all covered in the Tutorial.
2730 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2731 rhMusic = \relative c'' {
2736 % Start polyphonic section of four voices
2738 {c,8[ d fis bes a] | }
2749 lhMusic = \relative c' {
2758 \new Staff = "RH" <<
2762 \new Staff = "LH" <<
2771 The first bar is now correct. The second bar contains an arpeggio
2772 and is terminated by a double bar line. How do we do these, as they
2773 have not been mentioned in this Learning Manual? This is where
2774 we need to turn to the Notation Reference. Looking up @q{arpeggio}
2775 and @q{bar line} in the
2776 index quickly shows us that an arpeggio is produced by appending
2777 @code{\arpeggio} to a chord, and a double bar line is produced by
2778 the @code{\bar "||"} command. That's easily done. We next need
2779 to correct the collision of the tie with the time signature. This
2780 is best done by moving the tie upwards. Moving objects was covered
2781 earlier in @ref{Moving objects}, which says that objects positioned
2782 relative to the staff can be moved by overriding their
2783 @code{staff-position} property, which is specified in half staff
2784 spaces relative to the center line of the staff. So the following
2785 override placed just before the first tied note would move the tie
2786 up to 3.5 half staff spaces above the center line:
2788 @code{\once \override Tie #'staff-position = #3.5}
2790 This completes bar two, giving:
2792 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2793 rhMusic = \relative c'' {
2795 \once \override Tie #'staff-position = #3.5
2800 % Start polyphonic section of four voices
2802 {c,8[ d fis bes a] | }
2813 lhMusic = \relative c' {
2815 <d g, d>1)\arpeggio |
2822 \new Staff = "RH" <<
2826 \new Staff = "LH" <<
2835 On to bar three and the start of the Moderato section. The
2836 tutorial showed how to add embolded text with the @code{\markup}
2837 command, so adding @q{Moderato} in bold is easy.
2838 But how do we merge notes in different voices together? This is
2839 where we need to turn to the Notation Reference for help. A search
2840 for @qq{merge} in the Notation Reference index quickly leads us to
2841 the commands for merging differently headed and differently
2842 dotted notes in @ruser{Collision resolution}. In our
2843 example we need to merge both types of note for the duration
2844 of the polyphonic section in bar 3, so using the information
2845 we find in the Notation Reference we add
2848 \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
2849 \mergeDifferentlyDottedOn
2853 to the start of that section and
2856 \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOff
2857 \mergeDifferentlyDottedOff
2863 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2864 rhMusic = \relative c'' {
2866 \once \override Tie #'staff-position = #3.5
2870 bes2.^\markup {\bold "Moderato"} r8
2871 \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
2872 \mergeDifferentlyDottedOn
2873 % Start polyphonic section of four voices
2875 {c,8[ d fis bes a] | }
2883 \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOff
2884 \mergeDifferentlyDottedOff
2888 lhMusic = \relative c' {
2890 <d g, d>1)\arpeggio |
2897 \new Staff = "RH" <<
2901 \new Staff = "LH" <<
2910 These overrides have merged the two F-sharp notes, but not the two
2911 on D. Why not? The answer is there in the same section in the
2912 Notation Reference -- notes being merged must have stems in
2913 opposite directions and two notes cannot be merged successfully if
2914 there is a third note in the same note column. Here the two D's
2915 both have upward stems and there is a third note -- the C. We know
2916 how to change the stem direction using @code{\stemDown}, and
2917 the Notation Reference also says how to move the C -- apply a shift
2918 using one of the @code{\shift} commands. But which one?
2919 The C is in voice two which has shift off, and the two D's are in
2920 voices one and three, which have shift off and shift on,
2921 respectively. So we have to shift the C a further level still
2922 using @code{\shiftOnn} to avoid it interfering with the two D's.
2923 Applying these changes gives:
2925 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2926 rhMusic = \relative c'' {
2928 \once \override Tie #'staff-position = #3.5
2932 bes2.^\markup {\bold "Moderato"} r8
2933 \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
2934 \mergeDifferentlyDottedOn
2935 % Start polyphonic section of four voices
2937 {c,8[ d fis bes a] | }
2939 % Move the c2 out of the main note column so the merge will work
2940 {c,8~ \shiftOnn c2 | }
2942 % Stem on the d2 must be down to permit merging
2943 {s8 \stemDown d2 | }
2947 \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOff
2948 \mergeDifferentlyDottedOff
2952 lhMusic = \relative c' {
2954 <d g, d>1)\arpeggio |
2961 \new Staff = "RH" <<
2965 \new Staff = "LH" <<
2974 Nearly there. Only two problems remain: The downward stem on the
2975 merged D should not be there, and the C would be better positioned
2976 to the right of the D's. We know how to do both of these from the
2977 earlier tweaks: we make the stem transparent, and move the C with
2978 the @code{force-hshift} property. Here's the final result:
2980 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2981 rhMusic = \relative c'' {
2984 \once \override Tie #'staff-position = #3.5
2988 bes2.^\markup {\bold "Moderato"} r8
2989 \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
2990 \mergeDifferentlyDottedOn
2992 {c,8[ d fis bes a] | }
2994 % Reposition the c2 to the right of the merged note
2995 {c,8~ \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #1.0
2996 % Move the c2 out of the main note column so the merge will work
2999 % Stem on the d2 must be down to permit merging
3000 {s8 \stemDown \once \override Stem #'transparent = ##t d2}
3004 \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOff
3005 \mergeDifferentlyDottedOff
3009 lhMusic = \relative c' {
3011 <d g, d>1)\arpeggio |
3018 \new Staff = "RH" <<
3022 \new Staff = "LH" <<
3032 @node Further tweaking
3033 @section Further tweaking
3036 * Other uses for tweaks::
3037 * Using variables for tweaks::
3038 * Other sources of information::
3039 * Avoiding tweaks with slower processing::
3040 * Advanced tweaks with Scheme::
3043 @node Other uses for tweaks
3044 @subsection Other uses for tweaks
3046 @cindex transparent property, use of
3047 @cindex objects, making invisible
3048 @cindex removing objects
3049 @cindex objects, removing
3050 @cindex hiding objects
3051 @cindex invisible objects
3052 @cindex tying notes across voices
3054 @subheading Tying notes across voices
3056 The following example demonstrates how to connect notes in
3057 different voices using ties. Normally, only two notes in the
3058 same voice can be connected with ties. By using two voices,
3059 with the tied notes in one of them
3061 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2]
3062 << { b8~ b8\noBeam }
3068 and blanking the first up-stem in that voice, the tie appears to
3071 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
3074 \once \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
3082 To make sure that the just-blanked stem doesn't squeeze the tie
3083 too much, we can lengthen the stem by setting the
3084 @code{length} to @code{8},
3086 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
3089 \once \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
3090 \once \override Stem #'length = #8
3098 @subheading Simulating a fermata in MIDI
3100 @cindex stencil property, use of
3101 @cindex fermata, implementing in MIDI
3103 For outside-staff objects it is usually better to override the
3104 object's @code{stencil} property rather than its @code{transparent}
3105 property when you wish to remove it from the printed output.
3106 Setting the @code{stencil} property of an object to @code{#f} will
3107 remove that object entirely from the printed output. This means it
3108 has no effect on the placement of other objects placed relative to
3111 For example, if we wished to change the metronome setting in order
3112 to simulate a fermata in the MIDI output we would not want the
3113 metronome markings to appear in the printed output, and we would
3114 not want it to influence the spacing between the two systems or
3115 the positions of adjacent annotations on the staff. So setting
3116 its @code{stencil} property to @code{#f} would be the best way.
3117 We show here the effect of the two methods:
3119 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3122 % Visible tempo marking
3125 \once \override Score.MetronomeMark #'transparent = ##t
3126 % Invisible tempo marking to lengthen fermata in MIDI
3129 % New tempo for next section
3138 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3141 % Visible tempo marking
3144 \once \override Score.MetronomeMark #'stencil = ##f
3145 % Invisible tempo marking to lengthen fermata in MIDI
3148 % New tempo for next section
3158 Both methods remove the metronome mark which lengthens the fermata
3159 from the printed output, and both affect the MIDI timing as
3160 required, but the transparent metronome mark in the first line
3161 forces the following tempo indication too high while the
3162 second (with the stencil removed) does not.
3164 @node Using variables for tweaks
3165 @subsection Using variables for tweaks
3167 Override commands are often long and tedious to type, and they
3168 have to be absolutely correct. If the same overrides are to be
3169 used many times it may be worth defining variables to hold them.
3170 Suppose we wish to emphasize certain words in lyrics by printing
3171 them in bold italics. The @code{\italic} and @code{\bold}
3172 commands only work within lyrics if they are also embedded in
3173 @code{\markup}, which makes them tedious to enter, so as an
3174 alternative can we instead use the @code{\override} and
3175 @code{\revert} commands?
3178 @code{\override Lyrics . LyricText #'font-shape = #'italic}
3179 @code{\override Lyrics . LyricText #'font-series = #'bold}
3181 @code{\revert Lyrics . LyricText #'font-shape}
3182 @code{\revert Lyrics . LyricText #'font-series}
3185 These would also be extremely tedious to enter if there were many
3186 words requiring emphasis. So instead we define these as two
3187 variables, and use them as follows, although normally we would
3188 perhaps choose shorter names for the variables to make them
3191 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
3193 \override Lyrics . LyricText #'font-shape = #'italic
3194 \override Lyrics . LyricText #'font-series = #'bold
3197 \revert Lyrics . LyricText #'font-shape
3198 \revert Lyrics . LyricText #'font-series
3201 global = { \time 4/4 \partial 4 \key c \major}
3202 SopranoMusic = \relative c' { c4 | e4. e8 g4 g | a a g }
3203 AltoMusic = \relative c' { c4 | c4. c8 e4 e | f f e }
3204 TenorMusic = \relative c { e4 | g4. g8 c4. b8 | a8 b c d e4 }
3205 BassMusic = \relative c { c4 | c4. c8 c4 c | f8 g a b c4 }
3206 VerseOne = \lyrics { E -- | ter -- nal \emphasize Fa -- ther, \normal | strong to save, }
3207 VerseTwo = \lyricmode { O | \emphasize Christ, \normal whose voice the | wa -- ters heard, }
3208 VerseThree = \lyricmode { O | \emphasize Ho -- ly Spi -- rit, \normal | who didst brood }
3209 VerseFour = \lyricmode { O | \emphasize Tri -- ni -- ty \normal of | love and pow'r }
3215 \new Voice = "Soprano" { \voiceOne \global \SopranoMusic }
3216 \new Voice = "Alto" { \voiceTwo \AltoMusic }
3217 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Soprano" { \VerseOne }
3218 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Soprano" { \VerseTwo }
3219 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Soprano" { \VerseThree }
3220 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Soprano" { \VerseFour }
3224 \new Voice = "Tenor" { \voiceOne \TenorMusic }
3225 \new Voice = "Bass" { \voiceTwo \BassMusic }
3233 @node Other sources of information
3234 @subsection Other sources of information
3236 The Internals Reference documentation contains a lot of information
3237 about LilyPond, but even more information can be gathered by
3238 looking at the internal LilyPond files. To explore these, you must
3239 first find the directory appropriate to your system. The location
3240 of this directory depends (a) on whether you obtained LilyPond
3241 by downloading a precompiled binary from lilypond.org
3242 or whether you installed it from a package manager (i.e.
3243 distributed with Linux, or installed under fink or cygwin) or
3244 compiled it from source, and (b) on which operating system it is
3247 @strong{Downloaded from lilypond.org}
3253 @file{@var{INSTALLDIR}/lilypond/usr/share/lilypond/current/}
3258 @file{@var{INSTALLDIR}/LilyPond.app/Contents/Resources/share/lilypond/current/}
3259 by either @code{cd}-ing into this directory from the
3260 Terminal, or control-clicking on the LilyPond application and
3261 selecting @q{Show Package Contents}.
3265 Using Windows Explorer, navigate to
3266 @file{@var{INSTALLDIR}/LilyPond/usr/share/lilypond/current/}
3270 @strong{Installed from a package manager or compiled from source}
3273 @file{@var{PREFIX}/share/lilypond/@var{X.Y.Z}/}, where
3274 @var{PREFIX} is set by your package manager or @code{configure}
3275 script, and @var{X.Y.Z} is the LilyPond version number.
3279 Within this directory the two interesting subdirectories are
3282 @item @file{ly/} - contains files in LilyPond format
3283 @item @file{scm/} - contains files in Scheme format
3286 Let's begin by looking at some files in @file{ly/}.
3287 Open @file{ly/property-init.ly} in a text editor. The one
3288 you normally use for @code{.ly} files will be fine. This file
3289 contains the definitions of all the standard LilyPond built-in
3290 commands, such as @code{\stemUp} and @code{\slurDotted}. You will
3291 see that these are nothing more than definitions of variables
3292 containing one or a group of @code{\override} commands. For
3293 example, @code{/tieDotted} is defined to be:
3297 \override Tie #'dash-period = #0.75
3298 \override Tie #'dash-fraction = #0.1
3302 If you do not like the default values these built-in commands can
3303 be redefined easily, just like any other variable, at the
3304 head of your input file.
3306 The following are the most useful files to be found in
3309 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .6
3312 @item @file{ly/engraver-init.ly}
3313 @tab Definitions of engraver Contexts
3314 @item @file{ly/paper-defaults.ly}
3315 @tab Specifications of paper-related defaults
3316 @item @file{ly/performer-init.ly}
3317 @tab Definitions of performer Contexts
3318 @item @file{ly/property-init.ly}
3319 @tab Definitions of all common built-in commands
3322 Other settings (such as the definitions of markup commands) are
3323 stored as @code{.scm} (Scheme) files. The Scheme programming
3324 language is used to provide a programmable interface into
3325 LilyPond internal operation. Further explanation of these files
3326 is currently outside the scope of this manual, as a knowledge of
3327 the Scheme language is required. Users should be warned that
3328 a substantial amount of technical knowledge or time is required
3329 to understand Scheme and these files (see @ref{Scheme tutorial}).
3331 If you have this knowledge, the Scheme files which may be of
3334 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .6
3337 @item @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}
3338 @tab Sub-beaming defaults
3339 @item @file{scm/define-grobs.scm}
3340 @tab Default settings for grob properties
3341 @item @file{scm/define-markup-commands.scm}
3342 @tab Specify all markup commands
3343 @item @file{scm/midi.scm}
3344 @tab Default settings for MIDI output
3345 @item @file{scm/output-lib.scm}
3346 @tab Settings that affect appearance of frets, colors,
3347 accidentals, bar lines, etc
3348 @item @file{scm/parser-clef.scm}
3349 @tab Definitions of supported clefs
3350 @item @file{scm/script.scm}
3351 @tab Default settings for articulations
3356 @node Avoiding tweaks with slower processing
3357 @subsection Avoiding tweaks with slower processing
3359 LilyPond can perform extra checks while it processes input files. These
3360 checks will take extra time to perform, but fewer manual tweaks
3361 may be required to obtain an acceptable result. If a text script
3362 or part of the lyrics extends over the margins these checks will
3363 compress that line of the score just enough to fit within the
3366 To be effective under all circumstances these checks must be enabled
3367 by placing the overrides in a Score @code{\with} block, rather than
3368 in-line in music, as follows:
3372 % Makes sure text scripts and lyrics are within the paper margins
3373 \override PaperColumn #'keep-inside-line = ##t
3374 \override NonMusicalPaperColumn #'keep-inside-line = ##t
3380 @node Advanced tweaks with Scheme
3381 @subsection Advanced tweaks with Scheme
3383 Although many things are possible with the @code{\override} and
3384 @code{\tweak} commands, an even more powerful way of modifying
3385 the action of LilyPond is available through a programmable
3386 interface to the LilyPond internal operation. Code written in
3387 the Scheme programming language can be incorporated directly in
3388 the internal operation of LilyPond. Of course, at least a basic
3389 knowledge of programming in Scheme is required to do this, and an
3390 introduction is provided in the @ref{Scheme tutorial}.
3392 As an illustration of one of the many possibilities, instead of
3393 setting a property to a constant it can be set to a Scheme
3394 procedure which is then called whenever that property is accessed
3395 by LilyPond. The property can then be set dynamically to a value
3396 determined by the procedure at the time it is called. In this
3397 example we color the note head in accordance with its position on
3400 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3401 #(define (color-notehead grob)
3402 "Color the notehead according to its position on the staff."
3403 (let ((mod-position (modulo (ly:grob-property grob 'staff-position) 7)))
3405 ;; Return rainbow colors
3406 ((1) (x11-color 'red )) ; for C
3407 ((2) (x11-color 'orange )) ; for D
3408 ((3) (x11-color 'yellow )) ; for E
3409 ((4) (x11-color 'green )) ; for F
3410 ((5) (x11-color 'blue )) ; for G
3411 ((6) (x11-color 'purple )) ; for A
3412 ((0) (x11-color 'violet )) ; for B
3418 % Arrange to obtain color from color-notehead procedure
3419 \override NoteHead #'color = #color-notehead
3426 Some -- where o -- ver the Rain -- bow, way up high,
3430 Further examples showing the use of these programmable interfaces
3431 can be found in @ref{Tweaking with Scheme}.