2 @c This file is part of lilypond.tely
5 @c * more details about running lilypond; error messages,
6 @c compiling/viewing (emacs?)
7 @c * where to go from First steps+More basics?
9 @c Your first LilyPond score in 10 minutes?
14 This tutorial starts with a short introduction to the LilyPond music
15 language. After this first contact we will show you how to produce
16 printed output. Then you will be able to create and print your own
20 Many people learn programs by trying and fiddling around with the
21 program. This is also possible with LilyPond. If you click on a
22 picture in the HTML version of this manual, you will see the exact
23 LilyPond input that was used to generate that image.
26 @lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright,relative=2]
27 c-\markup { \bold \huge { Click here. } }
31 By cutting and pasting the full input into a test file, you have a
32 starting template for experiments. If you like learning in this way,
33 you will probably want to print out or bookmark
37 @ref{Cheat sheet}, which is a table listing all commands for quick
42 * Running LilyPond for the first time::
43 * More about pitches::
45 * Automatic and manual beams::
47 * Music expressions explained::
49 * Adding articulation marks to notes::
50 * Combining notes into chords::
51 * Basic rhythmical commands::
52 * Commenting input files::
56 * Single staff polyphony::
58 * Organizing larger pieces::
59 * An orchestral part::
66 The first example demonstrates how to enter the most elementary piece
67 of music, a scale. A note can be entered by typing its name, from
68 @samp{a} through @samp{g}. So, if you enter
75 the result looks like this
77 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=1]
81 The duration of a note is specified by a number after the note name.
82 @samp{1} for a @rglos{whole note}, @samp{2} for a @rglos{half note},
83 @samp{4} for a @rglos{quarter note} and so on
89 @c FIXME: have NOTIME also remove Score.timing?
90 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=2]
91 \set Score.timing = ##f
92 \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
93 { a1 a2 a4 a16 a32 s16_" " }
96 If you do not specify a @rglos{duration}, the duration last entered is
97 used for the next notes. The duration of the first note in input
104 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=2]
105 \set Score.timing = ##f
106 { a a8 a a2 a s16_" " }
110 Rests are entered just like notes, but with the name @samp{r}
117 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime]
118 \set Score.timing = ##f
122 Add a dot @samp{.} after the duration to get a @rglos{dotted note}
128 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,relative=1]
129 \set Score.timing = ##f
130 { a2. a4 a8. a16 s16_" " }
133 The @rglos{meter} (or @rglos{time signature}) can be set with the
142 @c A clef here may lead to confusion, remove it.
143 @lilypond[fragment,quote]
144 \override Staff.Clef #'transparent = ##t
153 The @rglos{clef} can be set using the @code{\clef} command
155 @c what is more common name treble or violin?
156 @c in Dutch, it is violin.
157 @c in English it is definitely treble.
165 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime]
166 \set Score.timing = ##f
178 Remember to enclose the notes and commands in curly braces
179 @code{@{@tie{}@dots{}@tie{}@}} to convert it to printable output.
181 @lilypond[fragment,quote,noindent,linewidth=55\staffspace]
190 For more elaborate information on
194 @item Entering pitches and durations
196 @ref{Pitches}, and @ref{Durations}.
201 @item Time signatures and other timing commands
202 see @ref{Time signature}.
207 @node Running LilyPond for the first time
208 @section Running LilyPond for the first time
210 @c cheesy title to avoid clash with chapter name.
212 @c FIXME: let's not be so casual about Emacs and VIM, but rather
213 @c instruct (how) to use them; let advanced user figure-out what
217 @c We don't have enough space to explain either VIM
218 @c or Emacs non-advanced users, and I fear that both editors will only
219 @c confuse newbies. I vote for keeping the material in footnotes.
223 In the last section we explained what kind of things you could enter
224 in a LilyPond file. In this section we will explain what commands to
225 run and how to view or print the output. If you have not used
226 LilyPond before, want to test your setup, or want to run an example
227 file yourself, read this section. The instructions that follow are
228 for Unix-like systems. Some additional instructions for Microsoft
229 Windows are given at the end of this section.
231 Begin by opening a terminal window and starting a text editor. For
232 example, you could open an xterm and execute
233 @code{joe}.@footnote{There are macro files for VIM addicts, and there
234 is a @code{LilyPond-mode} for Emacs addicts. If they have not been
235 installed already, refer to
236 @c FIXME lousy reference.
237 the file @file{INSTALL.txt}.} In your text editor, enter the following
238 input and save the file as @file{test.ly}
245 To process @file{test.ly}, proceed as follows
252 You will see something resembling
255 lilypond (GNU LilyPond) 2.2.0
257 Now processing `/home/fred/ly/test.ly'
259 Interpreting music...[1]
260 @emph{... more interesting stuff ... }
261 DVI output to `test.dvi'...
262 PDF output to `test.pdf'...
263 PS output to `test.ps'...
267 @cindex Viewing music
270 The result is the file @file{test.pdf}@footnote{For @TeX{}
271 aficionados: there is also a @file{test.dvi} file. It can be viewed
272 with @code{xdvi}. The DVI uses a lot of PostScript specials, which do
273 not show up in the magnifying glass. The specials also mean that the
274 DVI file cannot be processed with @code{dvilj}. Use @code{dvips} for
279 } which you can print or with the standard facilities of your
280 operating system.@footnote{If your system does not have any tools
281 installed, you can try
282 @uref{http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost/,Ghostscript}, a freely available
283 package for viewing and printing PDF and PostScript files.}
285 On Windows, start up a text-editor@footnote{Any simple or
286 programmer-oriented editor will do, for example Notepad. Do not use a
287 word processor, since these insert formatting codes that will confuse
294 Save it on the desktop as @file{test.ly} and make sure that it is not
295 called @file{test.ly.TXT}. Double clicking @file{test.ly} will process
296 the file and show the resulting PDF file.
299 @node More about pitches
300 @section More about pitches
302 A @rglos{sharp} (@texisharp{}) pitch is made by adding @samp{is} to
303 the name, a @rglos{flat} (@texiflat{}) pitch by adding @samp{es}. As
304 you might expect, a @rglos{double sharp} or @rglos{double flat} is
305 made by adding @samp{isis} or @samp{eses}@footnote{This syntax
306 derived from note naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages,
307 like German and Dutch.}
313 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime]
314 \set Score.timing = ##f
315 \transpose c c' { cis1 ees fisis aeses s16_" " }
318 @cindex key signature, setting
319 The key signature is set with the command @code{\key}, followed by
320 a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}
329 @lilypond[fragment,quote,notime,fragment]
337 Key signatures together with the pitches (including alterations) are
338 used to determine when to print accidentals. This is a
339 feature that often causes confusion to newcomers, so let us explain it
343 LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
344 layout. The alteration (flat, natural or sharp) of a note is part of
345 the pitch, and is therefore musical content. Whether an accidental (a
346 flat, natural or sharp @emph{sign}) is printed in front of the
347 corresponding note is a question of layout. Layout is something that
348 follows rules, so accidentals are printed automatically according to
349 those rules. The pitches in your music are works of art, so they will
350 not be added automatically, and you must enter what you want to hear.
354 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment]
360 no note has an explicit accidental, but you still must enter
368 The code @samp{d} does not mean `print a black dot just below the
369 staff.' Rather, it means: `a note with pitch D-natural.' In the key
370 of A-flat, it does get an accidental
372 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment]
382 Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more effort
383 when typing, but the advantage is that transposing is easier, and
384 accidentals can be printed according to different conventions. See
385 @ref{Accidentals}, for some examples how accidentals can be printed
386 according to different rules.
389 For more information on
394 see @ref{Accidentals}.
397 see @ref{Key signature}.
402 @section Entering ties
405 A tie is created by appending a tilde @samp{~} to the first note
408 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment,verbatim,relative=3]
412 For more information on Ties see @ref{Ties}.
416 @node Automatic and manual beams
417 @section Automatic and manual beams
419 @cindex beams, by hand
420 Beams are drawn automatically
422 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
427 If you do not like where beams are put, they can be entered by
428 hand. Mark the first note to be beamed with @samp{[} and the last one
431 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
435 For more information on beams, see @ref{Beaming}.
438 Here are key signatures, accidentals and ties in action
447 fis4 fis8 fis8 eis4 a8 gis~
454 ugr: removing the ignore block, leaving the comment line below
455 @c TODO: use relative mode, verbatim, junk \transpose and above @example
459 @lilypond[fragment,quote,noindent,linewidth=50\staffspace]
466 fis4 fis8 fis8 eis4 a8 gis~
475 There are some interesting points to note in this example. Bar lines
476 and beams are drawn automatically. Line breaks are calculated
477 automatically; it does not matter where the line breaks are in the
478 source file. Finally, the order in which time, key and clef changes
479 are entered is not relevant: in the printout, these are ordered
480 according to standard notation conventions.
485 @section Octave entry
488 @c Tim wants to move this quotes example just before the: quotes-do not-work
489 @c score, but we'd need to remove quotes from the other two (key and
492 @c better to have this just before the `octaves are bad' snipped
493 @c but we'd need to remove the ', from \key and tie
494 To raise a note by an octave, add a high quote @code{'} (apostrophe) to
495 the note name, to lower a note one octave, add a `low quote' @code{,}
496 (a comma). Middle C is @code{c'}
499 c'4 c'' c''' \clef bass c c,
502 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment]
503 c'4 c'' c''' \clef bass c c,
506 An example of the use of quotes is in the following Mozart fragment
508 @lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
511 cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
512 b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8
516 The last example shows that music in a high register needs lots of quotes.
517 This makes the input less readable, and it is a source of errors. The
518 solution is to use `relative octave' mode. This is the
519 most convenient way to copy existing music.
521 In relative mode, a note without octavation quotes (i.e. the @code{'}
522 or @code{,} after a note) is chosen so it it is closest to the
523 previous one. For example, @samp{c f} goes up while @samp{c g} goes
526 To use relative mode, add @code{\relative} before the piece of
527 music. The first note is taken relative to the middle C
528 @c no , for this sentence
533 @lilypond[quote,notime,fragment,verbatim]
540 Since most music has small intervals, pieces can be written almost
541 without octavation quotes in relative mode. The previous example is
544 @lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim]
548 cis'8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
553 @c needed better, maybe even redundant explanation
554 @c added another example below.
555 @c grappig: Pa vond het heel logies, en slim toen-i eenmaal begreep.
556 @c in eerste instantie drong het `relative' niet door zonder extra uitleg.
557 Larger intervals are made by adding octavation quotes.
559 @lilypond[quote,notime,verbatim,fragment]
565 In summary, quotes or commas no longer determine the absolute height
566 of a note in @code{\relative} mode. Rather, the height of a note is
567 relative to the previous one, and changing the octave of a single note
568 shifts all following notes an octave up or down.
570 For more information on Relative octaves see @ref{Relative octaves},
571 and @ref{Octave check}.
574 @node Music expressions explained
575 @section Music expressions explained
578 In input files, music is represent by so-called @emph{music
579 expression}. We have already seen in the previous examples;
580 a single note is a music expression
582 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
586 Enclosing group of notes in braces creates a new music
589 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
593 Putting a bunch of music expressions (notes) in braces, means that
594 they should be played in sequence. The result again is a music
595 expression, which can be grouped with other expressions sequentially.
596 Here, the expression from the previous example is combined with two
599 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
603 This technique is useful for non-monophonic music. To enter music
604 with more voices or more staves, we also combine expressions in
605 parallel. Two voices that should play at the same time, are entered
606 as a simultaneous combination of two sequences. A `simultaneous'
607 music expression is formed by enclosing expressions in @code{<<} and
608 @code{>>}. In the following example, three sequences (all containing
609 two other notes) are combined simultaneously
611 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=3]
619 This mechanism is similar to mathematical
620 formulas: a big formula is created by composing small formulas. Such
621 formulas are called expressions, and their definition is recursive, so
622 you can make arbitrarily complex and large expressions. For example,
631 ((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
635 @cindex music expression
636 This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is contained
637 in the next one. The simplest expressions are numbers, and larger
638 ones are made by combining expressions with operators (like @samp{+},
639 @samp{*} and @samp{/}) and parentheses. Like mathematical expressions,
640 music expressions can be nested arbitrarily deep, which is necessary
641 for complex music like polyphonic scores.
643 Note that this example only has one staff, whereas
644 the previous example had three seperate staves. That is because this
645 example begins with a single note. To determine the number of staves,
646 LilyPond looks at the first element. If it's a single note, there's one
647 staff; if there's a simultaneous expression, there's more than one staff.
649 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
652 << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
656 Music files with deep nesting can be confusing to enter and
657 maintain. One convention that helps against this confusion is
658 indenting. When entering a file with deep nesting of braces and
659 angles, it is customary to use an indent that indicates the nesting
660 level. Formatting music like this eases reading and helps you insert
661 the right number of closing braces at the end of an expression. For
675 Some editors have special support for entering LilyPond, and can help
676 indenting source files. See @ref{Editor support} for more information.
681 To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
682 staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it. These
683 @code{Staff} elements are then combined parallel with @code{<<} and
684 @code{>>}, as demonstrated here
686 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim]
688 \new Staff { \clef treble c'' }
689 \new Staff { \clef bass c }
694 The command @code{\new} introduces a `notation context.' A notation
695 context is an environment in which musical events (like notes or
696 @code{\clef} commands) are interpreted. For simple pieces, such
697 notation contexts are created automatically. For more complex pieces, it
698 is best to mark contexts explicitly. This ensures that each fragment
701 There are several types of contexts: @code{Staff}, @code{Voice} and
702 @code{Score} handle melodic notation. Other contexts are also
703 @code{Lyrics} (for setting lyric texts) and @code{ChordNames} (for
704 printing chord names).
707 In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
708 creates a bigger music expression. In this way it resembles the minus
709 sign in mathematics. The formula @math{(4+5)} is an expression, so
710 @math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.
712 We can now typeset a melody with two staves
714 @c TODO: (c) status of this Paul McCartney (?) song (let's all stand together)
716 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,raggedright]
733 For more information on context see the description in
734 @ref{Interpretation contexts}.
738 @node Adding articulation marks to notes
739 @section Adding articulation marks to notes
745 Common accents can be added to a note using a dash (@samp{-}) and a
748 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
749 c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
753 Similarly, fingering indications can be added to a note using a dash
754 (@samp{-}) and the digit to be printed
756 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
760 Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but you
761 can specify a direction using @samp{^} (up) or @samp{_} (down). You can
762 also use multiple articulations on the same note. In most cases, it's
763 best to let LilyPond determine the articulation directions.
765 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
766 c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
769 Dynamic signs are made by adding the markings (with a backslash) to
772 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
780 Crescendi and decrescendi are started with the commands @code{\<} and
781 @code{\>}. An ending dynamic, for example @code{\f}, will finish the
782 crescendo, or the command @code{\!} can be used
784 @lilypond[fragment,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
792 A slur is a curve drawn across many notes, and indicates legato
793 articulation. The starting note and ending note are marked with
794 @samp{(} and @samp{)}, respectively
796 @lilypond[fragment,quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
797 d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
800 @cindex slurs versus ties
801 A slur looks like a tie, but it has a different meaning. A tie simply
802 makes the first note sound longer, and can only be used on pairs of
803 notes with the same pitch. Slurs indicate the articulations of notes,
804 and can be used on larger groups of notes. Slurs and ties can be
807 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2]
808 c2~( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2)
811 @cindex phrasing slurs
812 Slurs to indicate phrasing can be entered with @code{\(} and
813 @code{\)}, so you can have both legato slurs and phrasing slurs at the
816 @lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
817 a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis, c\)
821 For more information on
826 see @ref{Fingering instructions}.
828 see @ref{Articulations}.
832 see @ref{Phrasing slurs}.
839 @node Combining notes into chords
840 @section Combining notes into chords
843 Chords can be made by surrounding pitches with angle brackets.
844 Angle brackets are the symbols @samp{<} and @samp{>}.
846 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
851 You can combine markings like beams and ties with chords. They must
852 be placed outside the angled brackets
854 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
855 r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>
859 r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g> <c f a>8\!)
862 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment]
864 r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g> <c f a>8\!)
870 @node Basic rhythmical commands
871 @section Basic rhythmical commands
875 @cindex partial measure
876 A pickup is entered with the keyword @code{\partial}. It
877 is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4} is a quarter note upstep
878 and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note
880 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
887 Tuplets are made with the @code{\times} keyword. It takes two
888 arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The duration of the piece
889 of music is multiplied by the fraction. Triplets make notes occupy
890 2/3 of their notated duration, so a triplet has 2/3 as its fraction
892 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,verbatim,fragment]
893 \times 2/3 { f8 g a }
899 Grace notes are also made by prefixing a music expression with the
900 keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}
904 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
905 c4 \appoggiatura b16 c4
906 c4 \acciaccatura b16 c4
911 For more information on
916 see @ref{Grace notes},
920 see @ref{Partial measures}.
925 @node Commenting input files
926 @section Commenting input files
930 @cindex block comment
931 A comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input; it is
932 ignored while parsing, so it has no effect on the printed output.
933 There are two types of comments. The percent symbol @samp{%}
934 introduces a line comment; after @code{%} the rest of the line is
935 ignored. A block comments marks a whole section of music
936 input. Anything that is enclosed in @code{%@{} and @code{%@}} is
937 ignored. The following fragment shows possible uses for comments
940 % notes for twinkle twinkle follow
944 This line, and the notes below
945 are ignored, since they are in a
954 There is a special statement that is a kind of comment. The @code{\version}
955 statement marks for which version of LilyPond the file was written.
956 To mark a file for version 2.1.17, use
963 These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more
964 smoothly. Changes in the syntax are handled with a special program,
965 @file{convert-ly} (see @ref{Invoking convert-ly}), and it uses
966 @code{\version} to determine what rules to apply.
969 @node Printing lyrics
970 @section Printing lyrics
973 @c TODO: (c) status of the Queen fragment.
977 Lyrics are entered by separating each syllable with a space
985 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,raggedright]
987 r4 c \times 2/3 { f g g }
988 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
992 The lyrics can be set to these notes, combining both with the
993 @code{\addlyrics} keyword
995 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,raggedright]
998 r4 c \times 2/3 { f g g }
999 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
1001 \addlyrics { I want to break free }
1006 @cindex extender line
1008 This melody ends on a @rglos{melisma}, a single syllable (`free')
1009 sung to more than one note. This is indicated with an @emph{extender
1010 line}. It is entered as two underscores, i.e.,
1013 @{ I want to break free __ @}
1016 @lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright]
1019 r4 c \times 2/3 { f g g }
1020 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
1022 \addlyrics { I want to break free __ }
1026 Similarly, hyphens between words can be entered as two dashes,
1027 resulting in a centered hyphen between two syllables
1030 Twin -- kle twin -- kle
1033 @lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright]
1039 \addlyrics { Twin -- kle twin -- kle }
1043 More options, like putting multiple lines of lyrics below a melody are
1044 discussed in @ref{Vocal music}.
1048 @section A lead sheet
1054 In popular music, it is common to denote accompaniment with chord names.
1055 Such chords can be entered like notes,
1057 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright]
1058 \chords { c2 f4. g8 }
1062 Now each pitch is read as the root of a chord instead of a note.
1063 This mode is switched on with @code{\chords}
1066 Other chords can be created by adding modifiers after a colon. The
1067 following example shows a few common modifiers
1069 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1070 \chords { c2 f4:m g4:maj7 gis1:dim7 }
1073 For lead sheets, chords are not printed on staves, but as names on a
1074 line of themselves. Hence, we have to override the context with
1075 @code{\new}, rendering the music expression in a @code{ChordNames}
1078 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1079 \new ChordNames \chords { c2 f4.:m g4.:maj7 gis8:dim7 }
1083 When put together, chord names, lyrics and a melody form
1084 a lead sheet, for example,
1088 \new ChordNames \chords @{ @emph{chords} @}
1090 \addlyrics @{ @emph{the text} @}
1095 @lilypond[quote,raggedright]
1097 \new ChordNames \chords { r2 c:sus4 f }
1099 r4 c' \times 2/3 { f g g }
1100 \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
1102 \addlyrics { I want to break free __ }
1106 A complete list of modifiers and other options for layout can be found
1111 @section Adding titles
1113 Bibliographic information is entered in a separate block, the
1114 @code{\header} block. The name of the piece, its composer, etc., are
1115 entered as an assignment, within @code{\header
1116 @{@tie{}@dots{}@tie{}@}}. The @code{\header} block is usually put at
1117 the top of the file. For example,
1122 composer = "Igor Stravinsky"
1129 When the file is processed the title and composer are printed above
1130 the music. More information on titling can be found in @ref{Creating
1134 @node Single staff polyphony
1135 @section Single staff polyphony
1138 @cindex multiple voices
1139 @cindex voices, more -- on a staff
1140 When different melodic lines are combined on a single staff they are
1141 printed as polyphonic voices; each voice has its own stems, slurs and
1142 beams, and the top voice has the stems up, while the bottom voice has
1145 Entering such parts is done by entering each voice as a sequence (with
1146 @code{@{...@}}), and combining those simultaneously, separating the
1147 voices with @code{\\}
1149 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1150 << { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
1154 For polyphonic music typesetting, spacer rests can also be convenient;
1155 these are rests that do not print. They are useful for filling up
1156 voices that temporarily do not play. Here is the same example with a
1157 spacer rest (@code{s}) instead of a normal rest (@code{r}),
1159 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1160 << { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
1165 Again, these expressions can be nested arbitrarily
1167 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1175 { <c, g>1 ~ <c g>4 } \\
1181 More features of polyphonic typesetting in the notation manual are
1182 described in @ref{Polyphony}.
1186 @section Piano staves
1188 @cindex staff switch, manual
1189 @cindex cross staff voice, manual
1190 @cindex @code{\context}
1191 Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a brace. Printing
1192 such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in @ref{More staves},
1195 << \new Staff @{ @dots{} @}
1196 \new Staff @{ @dots{} @} >>
1200 but now this entire expression must be interpreted as a
1204 \new PianoStaff << \new Staff @dots{} >>
1207 Here is a small example
1209 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=1,fragment]
1211 \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 c g' g }
1212 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
1216 More information on formatting piano music is in @ref{Piano music}.
1219 @node Organizing larger pieces
1220 @section Organizing larger pieces
1222 When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
1223 larger files, the @code{\score} blocks get a lot bigger, because the
1224 music expressions are longer, and, in the case of polyphonic pieces,
1225 more deeply nested. Such large expressions can become unwieldy.
1227 By using variables, also known as identifiers, it is possible to break
1228 up complex music expressions. An identifier is assigned as follows
1231 namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
1235 The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic}, can be used
1236 later by preceding the name with a backslash, i.e., @code{\namedMusic}.
1237 In the next example, a two-note motive is repeated two times by using
1238 variable substitution
1240 @lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim,nofragment]
1244 { \seufzer \seufzer }
1247 The name of an identifier should have alphabetic characters only; no
1248 numbers, underscores or dashes. The assignment should be outside of
1251 It is possible to use variables for many other types of objects in the
1257 aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
1260 Depending on its contents, the identifier can be used in different
1261 places. The following example uses the above variables
1271 More information on the possible uses of identifiers is in the
1272 technical manual, in @ref{Input variables and Scheme}.
1273 @c fixme: the ref is too technical.
1276 @node An orchestral part
1277 @section An orchestral part
1279 In orchestral music, all notes are printed twice. Once in a part for
1280 the musicians, and once in a full score for the conductor. Identifiers can
1281 be used to avoid double work. The music is entered once, and stored in
1282 a variable. The contents of that variable is then used to generate
1283 both the part and the score.
1285 It is convenient to define the notes in a special file. For example,
1286 suppose that the file @file{horn-music.ly} contains the following part
1287 of a horn/bassoon duo
1290 hornNotes = \relative c @{
1297 Then, an individual part is made by putting the following in a file
1300 \include "horn-music.ly"
1302 instrument = "Horn in F"
1306 \transpose f c' \hornNotes
1313 \include "horn-music.ly"
1317 substitutes the contents of @file{horn-music.ly} at this position in
1318 the file, so @code{hornNotes} is defined afterwards. The command
1319 @code{\transpose f@tie{}c'} indicates that the argument, being
1320 @code{\hornNotes}, should be transposed by a fifth downwards. Sounding
1321 @samp{f} is denoted by notated @code{c'}, which corresponds with
1322 tuning of a normal French Horn in@tie{}F. The transposition can be seen
1323 in the following output
1325 @lilypond[quote,raggedright]
1326 \transpose f c' \relative c {
1332 In ensemble pieces, one of the voices often does not play for many
1333 measures. This is denoted by a special rest, the multi-measure
1334 rest. It is entered with a capital @samp{R} followed by a duration
1335 (1@tie{}for a whole note, 2@tie{}for a half note, etc.). By multiplying the
1336 duration, longer rests can be constructed. For example, this rest
1337 takes 3@tie{}measures in 2/4 time
1343 When printing the part, multi-rests
1344 must be condensed. This is done by setting a run-time variable
1347 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
1351 This command sets the property @code{skipBars} in the
1352 @code{Score} context to true (@code{##t}). Prepending the rest and
1353 this option to the music above, leads to the following result
1355 @lilypond[quote,raggedright]
1356 \transpose f c' \relative c {
1358 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
1365 The score is made by combining all of the music together. Assuming
1366 that the other voice is in @code{bassoonNotes} in the file
1367 @file{bassoon-music.ly}, a score is made with
1370 \include "bassoon-music.ly"
1371 \include "horn-music.ly"
1374 \new Staff \hornNotes
1375 \new Staff \bassoonNotes
1382 @lilypond[quote,raggedright]
1390 r4 d,8 f | gis4 c | b bes |
1391 a8 e f4 | g d | gis f
1396 More in-depth information on preparing parts and scores can be found
1397 in the notation manual; see @ref{Orchestral music}.
1399 Setting run-time variables (`properties') is discussed in
1400 @ref{Changing context properties on the fly}.
1407 * discuss expectations (?)
1411 * overview of chapters?