* Documentation/user/tutorial.itely (Commenting input files): add

[lilypond.git] / Documentation / user / tutorial.itely

@c -*-texinfo-*-
@c This file is part of lilypond.tely

@c TODO:
@c   * more details about running lilypond; error messages,
@c     compiling/viewing (emacs?)
@c   * where to go from  First steps+More basics?

@c Your first LilyPond score in 10 minutes?

@node Tutorial
@chapter Tutorial

This tutorial starts with a short introduction to the LilyPond music
language.  After this first contact we will show you how to to produce
printed output.  Then you will be able to create and print your own
sheets of music.

@ifhtml
Many people learn programs by trying and fiddling around with the
program.  This is also possible with LilyPond.  If you click on a
picture in the HTML version of this manual, you will see the exact
LilyPond input that was used to generate that image.
Try it on this image
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,relative=2]
  c-\markup { \bold \huge { Click here.  } }
@end lilypond
@end ifhtml

By cutting and pasting the full input into a test file, you have a
starting template for experiments.  If you like learning in this way,
you will probably want to print out or bookmark
@ifhtml
the
@end ifhtml
@ref{Cheat sheet}, which is a table listing all commands for quick
reference.

@menu
* First steps::                 
* Running LilyPond::            
* More about pitches::          
* Entering ties::               
* Automatic and manual beams::  
* Octave entry::                
* Music expressions explained::  
* More staves::                 
* Adding articulation marks to notes::  
* Combining notes into chords::  
* Basic rhythmical commands::   
* Commenting input files::      
* Printing lyrics::             
* A lead sheet::                
* Listening to output::         
* Titling::                     
* Single staff polyphony::      
* Piano staves::                
* Organizing larger pieces::    
* An orchestral part::          
* Integrating text and music::  
@end menu


@node First steps
@section First steps

The first example demonstrates how to enter the most elementary piece
of music, a scale.  A note can be entered by typing its name, from
@samp{a} through @samp{g}.  So, if you enter

@example
c d e f g a b
@end example

@noindent
the result looks like this

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1]
c d e f g a b
@end lilypond

The duration of a note is specified by a number after the note name.
@samp{1} for a @rglos{whole note}, @samp{2} for a @rglos{half note},
@samp{4} for a @rglos{quarter note} and so on

@example
a1 a2 a4 a16 a32
@end example

@lilypond[quote,notime]
\set Score.timing = ##f
\set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
\transpose c c' { a1 a2 a4 a16 a32 s16_" " }
@end lilypond

If you do not specify a @rglos{duration}, the duration last entered is
used; the duration of the first note defaults to a quarter
@c FIXME: let's omit the first note rule?
@c  The first note will be a quarter

@example
a a8 a a2 a
@end example

@lilypond[quote,notime]
\set Score.timing = ##f
\transpose c c' { a a8 a a2 a s16_" " }
@end lilypond


Rests are entered just like notes, but with the name ``@code{r}''

@cindex rests
@example
r2 r4 r8 r16
@end example

@lilypond[quote,fragment]
\set Score.timing = ##f
\set Staff.Clef = \turnOff
\set Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
r2 r4 r8 r16
s16_" "
@end lilypond
@separate

Add a dot @samp{.} after the duration to get a @rglos{dotted note}

@example
a2. a4 a8. a16
@end example

@lilypond[quote,notime]
\set Score.timing = ##f
\transpose c c' { a2. a4 a8. a16 s16_" " }
@end lilypond

The @rglos{meter} (or @rglos{time signature}) can be set with the
@code{\time} command

@example
\time 3/4
\time 6/8
\time 4/4
@end example

@c A clef here may lead to confusion, remove it.
@lilypond[quote]
\override Staff.Clef #'transparent = ##t 
\time 3/4
s4_" "
\time 6/8
s4_" "
\time 4/4
s16_" "
@end lilypond

The @rglos{clef} can be set using the @code{\clef} command

@c what is more common name treble or violin?
@c in Dutch, it is violin.
@c in English it is definitely treble.
@example
\clef treble
\clef bass
\clef alto
\clef tenor
@end example

@lilypond[quote,notime]
\set Score.timing = ##f
\clef violin
s4_" "
\clef bass
s4_" "
\clef alto
s4_" "
\clef tenor
s16_" "
@end lilypond

To recognize names like @code{c} and @code{d} as pitches, they have to
be entered inside a so-called @code{\notes} block.  This block is
formed by enclosing notes and commands are enclosed in curly braces
@code{@{ @dots{} @}} and adding the keyword @code{\notes} before the
opening brace

@example
\notes @{
  \time 3/4
  \clef bass
  c2 e4 g2.
  f4 e d c2 r4
@}
@end example

Now the piece of music is almost ready to be printed.  Enclose
the @code{\notes} block in a @code{\score} block

@example
\score @{
  \notes @{
    \time 3/4
    \clef bass
    c2 e4 g2.
    f4 e d c2 r4
  @}
@}
@end example

and the music will be converted to printable output.

@lilypond[quote,noindent]
\score {
  \notes {
     \time 3/4
     \clef bass
     c2 e4 g2.
     f4 e d c2 r4
  }
  \paper {
    linewidth = 55 * \staffspace
  }
}
@end lilypond

In many examples in this manual, both @code{\score} and @code{\notes}
and accompanying braces are left out for brevity.  However, they must
be present when feeding the file to LilyPond.

For more elaborate information on

@table @asis
@item  Entering pitches and durations
see 
@ref{Pitches} and @ref{Durations}.
@item Clefs
see @ref{Clef}
@item Rests
see @ref{Rests}.  
@item Time signatures and other timing commands
see  @ref{Time signature}.
@end table 


@node Running LilyPond
@section Running LilyPond

@c FIXME: let's not be so casual about Emacs and VIM, but rather
@c instruct (how) to use them; let advanced user figure-out what
@c commands to type?

@c
@c We don't have enough space to explain  either VIM
@c or Emacs non-advanced users, and I fear that both editors will only
@c confuse newbies. I vote for keeping the material in footnotes.
@c 
@c --hwn 

In the last section we explained what kind of things you could enter
in a LilyPond file.  In this section we will explain what commands to
run and how to view or print the output.  If you have not used
LilyPond before, want to test your setup, or want to run an example
file yourself, read this section.  The instructions that follow are
for Unix-like systems.  Some additional instructions for Microsoft
Windows are given at the end of this section.

Begin by opening a terminal window and starting a text editor.  For
example, you could open an xterm and execute
@code{joe}@footnote{There are macro files for VIM addicts, and there
is a @code{LilyPond-mode} for Emacs addicts.  If it has not been
installed already, refer to
@c FIXME lousy reference.
the file @file{INSTALL.txt}}. In your text editor, enter the following
input and save the file as @file{test.ly}

@example
\score @{
  \notes @{ c'4 e' g' @}
@} 
@end example

@noindent
To process @file{test.ly}, proceed as follows

@noindent
@example
lilypond test.ly
@end example

@noindent
You will see something resembling

@example
GNU LilyPond 1.8.0
Now processing: `/home/fred/ly/test.ly'
Parsing...
Interpreting music...[1]
 @emph{ ...  more interesting stuff ...  }
PDF output to `test.pdf'...
DVI output to `test.dvi'...
@end example
@cindex DVI file
@cindex Viewing music
@cindex xdvi

@noindent
The result is the file @file{test.pdf}@footnote{For @TeX{}
aficionados: there is also a @file{test.dvi} file.  It can be viewed
with @code{xdvi}.  The DVI uses a lot of PostScript specials, which do
not show up in the magnifying glass.  The specials also mean that the
DVI file cannot be processed with @code{dvilj}.  Use @code{dvips} for
printing.
@cindex dvips
@cindex dvilj
@cindex DVI driver
} which you can print or with the standard facilities of your
operating system.@footnote{If your system does not have any tools
installed, you can try @uref{Ghostscript,
http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost/}, a freely available package for
viewing and printing PDF and PostScript files.}

On Windows, start up a text-editor@footnote{Any simple or
programmer-oriented editor will do, for example Notepad.  Do not use a
word processor, its formatting codes will confuse LilyPond} and enter

@example
\score @{
  \notes @{ c'4 e' g' @}
@} 
@end example

Save it on the desktop as @file{test.ly} and make sure that it is not
called @file{test.ly.TXT}.  Double clicking @file{test.ly} will process
the file and show the resulting PDF file.


@node More about pitches
@section More about pitches 

A @rglos{sharp} (@texisharp{}) pitch is made by adding @samp{is} to
the name, a @rglos{flat} (@texiflat{}) pitch by adding @samp{es}.  As
you might expect, a @rglos{double sharp} or @rglos{double flat} is
made by adding @samp{isis} or @samp{eses}:@footnote{This syntax
derived from note naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages,
like German and Dutch.}

@example
cis1 ees fisis aeses
@end example

@lilypond[quote,notime]
\set Score.timing = ##f
\transpose c c' { cis1 ees fisis aeses s16_" " }
@end lilypond

@cindex key signature, setting
The key signature is set with the command ``@code{\key}'', followed by
a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}
@example
\key d \major
g1
\key c \minor
g
@end example

@lilypond[quote,fragment]
\set Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\key d \major
g'1
\key c \minor
g'
@end lilypond


Key signatures together with the pitches (including alterations) are
used together to determine when to print accidentals.  This is a
feature that often causes confusion to newcomers, so let us explain it
in more detail


LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
layout.  The alteration (flat, natural or sharp) of a note is part of
the pitch, and is therefore musical content.  Whether an accidental (a
flat, natural or sharp @emph{sign}) is a printed in front of the
corresponding note is a question of layout.  Layout is something that
follows rules, so accidentals are printed automatically according to
those rules.  The pitches in your music are works of art, so they will
not be added automatically, and you must enter what you want to hear.

In this example

@lilypond[quote,fragment]
\set Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\key d \major
d' cis' fis'
@end lilypond

@noindent
no note gets an explicit accidental, but still you enter

@example
\key d \major
d cis fis
@end example

The code @code{d} does not mean ``print a black dot just below the
staff.'' Rather, it means: ``a note with pitch D-natural.'' In the key
of A-flat, it does get an accidental

@lilypond[quote,fragment]
\set Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\key as \major
d'
@end lilypond

@example
\key as \major
d
@end example

Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more effort
when typing, but the advantage is that transposing is easier, and
music can be printed according to different conventions.  See
@ref{Accidentals} for some examples how accidentals can be printed
according to different rules.


For more information on
 
@table @asis
@item Accidentals
see @ref{Accidentals}

@item Key signature
see @ref{Key signature}
@end table

@node Entering ties
@section Entering ties

@cindex tie
A tie is created by adding a tilde ``@code{~}'' to the first note
being tied
@lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=3]
g4~ g a2~ a4
@end lilypond
@separate


For more information on Ties, see @ref{Ties}.



@node Automatic and manual beams
@section Automatic and manual beams

@cindex beams, by hand 
Beams are drawn automatically

@lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
a8 ais d es r d
@end lilypond
@separate

If you do not like where beams are put, they can be entered by
hand.  Mark the first note to be beamed with @code{[} and the last one
with @code{]}.

@lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
a8[ ais] d[ es r d]
@end lilypond
@separate

For more information on beams, see @ref{Beaming}.


Here are key signatures, accidentals and ties in action

@example
\score @{
  \notes @{
    \time 4/4
    \key g \minor
    \clef violin
    r4 r8 a8 gis4 b
    g8 d4.~ d e8
    fis4 fis8 fis8 eis4  a8 gis~
    gis2 r2
  @}
@}
@end example
@lilypond[quote]
\score {
  \notes \transpose c c' { 
    \time 4/4
    \key g \minor
    \clef violin
    r4 r8 a8 gis4 b
    a8 d4.~ d e8
    fis4 fis8 fis8 eis4  a8 gis~
    gis2 r2
  }
  \paper { linewidth = #(* 50 staffspace) }
}
@end lilypond
@cindex accidentals

There are some interesting points to note in this example.  Bar lines
and beams are drawn automatically.  Line breaks are calculated
automatically; it does not matter where the line breaks are in the
source file.  Finally, the order in which time, key and clef changes
are entered is not relevant: in the printout, these are ordered
according to standard notation conventions.



@node Octave entry
@section Octave entry


@c Tim wants to move this quotes example just before the: quotes-do not-work
@c score, but we'd need to remove quotes from the other two (key and
@c tie) examples...

@c better to have this just before the `octaves are bad' snipped
@c but we'd need to remove the ', from \key and tie 
To raise a note by an octave, add a high quote @code{'} (apostrophe) to
the note name, to lower a note one octave, add a ``low quote'' @code{,}
(a comma).  Middle C is @code{c'}

@example
c'4 c'' c''' \clef bass c c,
@end example

@lilypond[quote,fragment]
\set Score.timing = ##f
\set Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
c'4 c'' c''' \clef bass c c,
@end lilypond
@separate

An example of the use of quotes is in the following Mozart fragment
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
\key a \major
\time 6/8
cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8 
@end lilypond

This example shows that music in a high register needs lots of quotes.
This makes the input less readable, and it is a source of errors.  The
solution is to use ``relative octave'' mode.  In practice, this is the
most convenient way to copy existing music.  To use relative mode, add
@code{\relative} before the piece of music.  You must also give a note
from which relative starts, in this case @code{c''}.  If you do not
use octavation quotes (i.e.  do not add @code{'} or @code{,} after a
note), relative mode chooses the note that is closest to the previous
one.  For example, @code{c f} goes up while @code{c g} goes down

@example
\relative c'' @{
  c f c g c
@}
@end example

@lilypond[quote,fragment]
\set Score.timing = ##f
\set Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\relative c'' {
  c f c g c
}
@end lilypond
@separate


Since most music has small intervals, pieces can be written almost
without octavation quotes in relative mode.  The previous example is
entered as
@c
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
\relative c'' {
  \key a \major
  \time 6/8
  cis8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
  b8. cis16 b8 d4 d8
}
@end lilypond

@c needed better, maybe even redundant explanation
@c   added another example below.
@c grappig: Pa vond het heel logies, en slim toen-i eenmaal begreep.
@c in eerste instantie drong het `relative' niet door zonder extra uitleg.
Larger intervals are made by adding octavation quotes.
@example
\relative c'' @{
  c f, f c' c g' c,
@}
@end example

@lilypond[quote,fragment]
\set Score.timing = ##f
\set Staff.TimeSignature = \turnOff
\relative c'' {
  c f, f c' c g' c,
}
@end lilypond
@separate

In @code{\relative} mode, quotes or commas no longer determine the
absolute height of a note.  Rather, the height of a note is relative to
the previous one, and changing the octave of a single note shifts all
following notes an octave up or down.

For more information on Relative octaves see @ref{Relative octaves}
and @ref{Octave check}.


@node Music expressions explained
@section Music expressions explained


In input files, music is represent by so-called @emph{music
expression}.  We have already seen in the previous examples; 
a single note is a music expression

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=3]
a4
@end lilypond

Enclosing group of notes in braces creates a new music
expression
 
@lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=3]
{ a4 g4 }
@end lilypond

Putting a bunch of music expressions (notes) in braces, means that
they should be played in sequence.  The result again is a music
expression, which can be grouped with other expressions sequentially.
Here, the expression from the previous example is combined with two
notes

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=3]
{ { a4 g } f g } 
@end lilypond

This technique is useful for non-monophonic music.  To enter music
with more voices or more staves, we also combine expressions in
parallel.  Two voices that should play at the same time, are entered
as a simultaneous combination of two sequences.  A ``simultaneous''
music expression is formed by enclosing expressions in @code{<<} and
@code{>>}.  In the following example, three sequences (all containing
two notes) are combined simultaneously
 
@lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=3]
<<
   { a4 g }
   { f e }
   { d b }
>>
@end lilypond

This mechanism is similar to mathematical
formulas: a big formula is created by composing small formulas.  Such
formulas are called expressions, and their definition is recursive, so
you can make arbitrarily complex and large expressions.  For example,

@example
1

1 + 2
  
(1 + 2) * 3
  
((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
@end example
@cindex expression
@cindex music expression
This example shows a sequence of expressions, where each expression is
contained in the next one.  The simplest expressions are numbers and
operators (like +, * and /).  Parentheses are used to group
expressions.

Like mathematical expressions, music expressions can be nested
arbitrarily deep, e.g.
@lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2] 
{
  c <<c e>>
  << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
}
@end lilypond


@cindex indent
When spreading expressions over multiple lines, it is customary to use
an indent that indicates the nesting level.  Formatting music like this
eases reading, and helps you  insert the right number of closing
braces at the end of an expression.  For example,

@example
\score @{
  \notes <<
    @{
      @dots{}
    @}
    @{
      @dots{}
    @}
  >>
@}
@end example

Some editors have special support for entering LilyPond, and can help
indenting source files.  See @ref{Editor support} for more information.



@node More staves
@section More staves

To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it.  These
@code{Staff}'s are then combined parallel with @code{<<} and
@code{>>}, as demonstrated here

@lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim]
<<
  \new Staff { \clef violin c'' }
  \new Staff { \clef bass c }
>>
@end lilypond


The command @code{\new} introduces a ``notation context.'' A notation
context is an environment in which musical events (like notes or
@code{\clef} commands) are interpreted.  For simple pieces, such
notation contexts are created implicitly.  For more complex pieces, it
is best to mark contexts explicitly.  This ensures that each fragment
gets its own stave.

There are several types of contexts: @code{Staff}, @code{Voice} and
@code{Score} handle normal music notation.  Other staves are also
@code{Lyrics} (for setting lyric texts) and @code{ChordNames} (for
printing chord names).


In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
creates a bigger music expression.  In this way it resembles the minus
sign in mathematics.  The formula (4+5) is an expression, so -(4+5) is a bigger
expression.

We can now typeset a melody with two staves

@c TODO: (c) status of this Paul McCartney (?) song (let's all stand together)

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright]
\score {
  \notes <<
    \new Staff {
      \time 3/4
      \clef violin
      \relative c'' {
        e2 d4 c2 b4 a8[ a]
        b[ b] g[ g] a2. }  
    }
    \new Staff {
       \clef bass
       c2 e4  g2.
       f4 e d c2.
    }
  >>
}
@end lilypond

For more information on context see the description in
@ref{Interpretation contexts}.



@node Adding articulation marks to notes
@section Adding articulation marks to notes

@cindex articulation
@cindex accents
@cindex staccato

Common accents can be added to a note using a dash (`@code{-}') and a
single character
@lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
c-.  c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
@end lilypond
@separate

@cindex fingering
Similarly, fingering indications can be added to a note using a dash
(`@code{-}') and the digit to be printed
@c
@lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
  c-3 e-5 b-2 a-1
@end lilypond


Dynamic signs are made by adding the markings (with a backslash) to
the note
@lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
c\ff c\mf
@end lilypond
@separate

@cindex dynamics
@cindex decrescendo
@cindex crescendo

Crescendi and decrescendi are started with the commands @code{\<} and
@code{\>}.  An ending dynamic, for example @code{\f}, will finish the
crescendo, or the command @code{\!} can be used
@lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
c2\<  c2\ff\>  c2  c2\!
@end lilypond
@separate



@cindex slur

A slur is a curve drawn across many notes, and indicates legato
articulation.  The starting note and ending note are marked with a
``@code{(}'' and a ``@code{)}'' respectively

@lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
d4( c16)( cis d e c cis d e)( d4)
@end lilypond
@separate
@cindex slurs versus ties
A slur looks like a tie, but it has a different meaning.  A tie simply
makes the first note sound longer, and can only be used on pairs of
notes with the same pitch.  Slurs indicate the articulations of notes,
and can be used on larger groups of notes.  Slurs and ties are also
nested in practice

@lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2]
c2~( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2)
@end lilypond
@cindex phrasing slurs
Slurs to indicate phrasing can be entered with @code{\(} and
@code{\)}, so you can have both legato slurs and phrasing slurs at the
same time.

@lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
a8(\( ais b  c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis,  c\)
@end lilypond


For more information on
@table @asis
@item Fingering
  see @ref{Fingering instructions}
@item Articulations
  see @ref{Articulations}
@item Slurs
  see @ref{Slurs}
@item Phrasing slurs
  see  @ref{Phrasing slurs}
@item Dynamics
  see  @ref{Dynamics}
@item Fingering
@end table

@node Combining notes into chords
@section Combining notes into chords

@cindex chords
Chords can be made by surrounding pitches with angled brackets.
Angled brackets are the symbols @code{<} and @code{>}.

@lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
r4 <c e g>4 <c f a>8
@end lilypond
@separate


You can combine markings like beams and ties with chords.  They must
be placed outside the angled brackets
@lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>
@end lilypond

@example
r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g>  <c f a>8\!)
@end example
@lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment]
\slurUp
r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g>  <c f a>8\!)
@end lilypond
@separate




@node Basic rhythmical commands
@section  Basic rhythmical commands

@cindex pickup
@cindex anacruse
@cindex partial measure
A pickup is entered with the keyword @code{\partial}.  It
is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4} is a quarter note upstep
and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note
@lilypond[quote,relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
\partial 8
f8 c2 d e
@end lilypond
@cindex tuplets
@cindex triplets
Tuplets are made with the @code{\times} keyword.  It takes two
arguments: a fraction and a piece of music.  The duration of the piece
of music is multiplied by the fraction.  Triplets make notes occupy
2/3 of their notated duration, so  a triplet has  2/3 as its fraction
@c
@lilypond[quote,relative=1,verbatim,fragment]
\times 2/3 { f8 g a }
\times 2/3 { c r c }
@end lilypond
@cindex grace notes
@cindex accacciatura
Grace notes are also made by prefixing a music expression with the
keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}
@cindex appoggiatura
@cindex acciaccatura
      
@lilypond[quote,relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
c4 \appoggiatura b16 c4
c4 \acciaccatura b16 c4
@end lilypond

@noindent

For more information on
@table @asis
@item  Grace notes
see @ref{Grace notes},
@item Tuplets
see @ref{Tuplets},
@item Pickups
see @ref{Partial measures}.
@end table



@node Commenting input files
@section Commenting input files

@cindex comments
@cindex line comment
@cindex block comment
A comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input, it is
ignored and has no effect on the printed output.  There are two types
of comments.  The percent symbol @code{%} introduces a line comment;
the rest of the line is ignored.  A block comments marks a whole
section of music input, anything that is enclosed in @code{%@{} and
@code{%@}} is ignored.  The following fragment shows possible uses for
comments

@example
% notes for twinkle twinkle follow
c4 c  g' g  a a
 
%@{
    This line, and the notes below
    are ignored, since they are in a
    block comment.

    g g f f e e d d c2 
%@}
@end example

There is a special statement that really is a kind of comment. The
version statement marks for which version of LilyPond the file was
written. To mark a file for version 2.1.17, use

@example
\version "2.1.17"
@end example

These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more
smoothly. Changes in the syntax are handled with a special program,
@file{convert-ly} (see @ref{Invoking convert-ly}), and it uses
@code{\version} to determine what rules to apply.


@node Printing lyrics
@section Printing lyrics
@cindex lyrics

@c TODO: (c) status of the Queen fragment.

@cindex Lyrics
@cindex Songs
Lyrics are entered by separating each syllable with a space,

@example
  I want to break free
@end example

To prevent certain words (for example ``as'') as being read as a
pitch, the input-mode must be switched.  This is done with
@code{\lyrics}.  In @code{\lyrics} mode, all words are read as lyric
syllables.
@example
  \lyrics @{ I want to break free @}
@end example

@noindent
Again, the braces @code{@{@}} signify that the syllables are sung in
sequence.

By default, music expressions are interpreted in @code{Staff} context.  For
lyrics, this is obviously not desirable, so it is necessary
to explicitly specify a @code{Lyrics} context,

@example
\new Lyrics  \lyrics @{ I want to break free @}
@end example

The melody for this song is as follows

@lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=2]
c4
\times 2/3 { f4 g g } \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
@end lilypond

The lyrics can be set to these notes, combining both with the
@code{\lyricsto} keyword
@example
  \lyricsto "@var{name}" \new Lyrics @dots{}
@end example
where @var{name} identifies to which melody the lyrics should be
aligned.  In this case, there is only one melody, so we can leave it
empty.

The final result is 
@lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,raggedright]
\score  {
 \notes <<
   \partial 4
   \relative c' {
      c4
      \times 2/3 { f g g } \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
   }
   \lyricsto "" \new Lyrics \lyrics { I want to break free }
 >>
}
@end lilypond

@cindex melisma
@cindex extender line
@c synonyms?
This melody ends on a @rglos{melisma}, a single syllable (``free'')
sung to more than one note.  This is indicated with an @emph{extender
line}.  It is entered as two underscores, i.e.
@example
\lyrics @{ I want to break free __ @}
@end example 
@lilypond[quote,raggedright]
\score {
  <<
    \notes \relative c' \new Voice {
      \partial 8
      c8
      \times 2/3 { f g g } \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
    }
    \lyricsto "" \new Lyrics \lyrics { I want to break free __ }
   >>
}
@end lilypond

Similarly, hyphens between words can be entered as two dashes,
resulting in a centered hyphen between two syllables
@example
Twin -- kle twin -- kle
@end example
@lilypond[quote,raggedright]
\score {
  <<
    \notes \relative f' \context Voice = bla {
      \time 2/4
      f4 f c' c'
    }
    \new Lyrics \lyrics \lyricsto "bla" { Twin -- kle twin -- kle }
  >>
}
@end lilypond

More options, like putting multiple lines of lyrics below a melody are
discussed in @ref{Vocal music}.



@node A lead sheet
@section A lead sheet

@cindex Lead sheets
@cindex chords
@cindex chord names
 
In popular music, it is common to denote accompaniment as chord-names.
Such chords can  be entered like notes,

@example
c2 f4. g8
@end example

@noindent
but now, each pitch is read as the root of a chord instead of a note.
This mode is switched on with @code{\chords}

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright]
\score {
  \chords { c2 f4. g8 }
}
@end lilypond

Other chords can be created by adding modifiers after a colon.  The
following example shows a few common modifiers
@c
@lilypond[quote,verbatim]
\chords { c2 f4:m g4:maj7 gis1:dim7 }
@end lilypond

For lead sheets, chords are not printed on staves, but as names on a
line of themselves.  Hence, we have to override the context with
@code{\new}, rendering the music expression in a @code{ChordNames}
context

@lilypond[quote,verbatim]
 \new ChordNames \chords { c2 f4.:m g4.:maj7 gis8:dim7 }
@end lilypond

@cindex lead sheet
@separate
When put together,  chord names, lyrics and a melody form
a lead sheet, for example,

@example
\score @{
  <<
    \new ChordNames \chords @{ @emph{chords} @}
    \notes @emph{the melody}
    \lyricsto "" \new Lyrics \lyrics @{ @emph{the text} @}
  >>
@}
@end example
@lilypond[quote,raggedright]
\score {
  <<
    \partial 4
    \new ChordNames \chords { r8 c2:sus4 f } 
    \notes \relative c' {
      c4
      \times 2/3 { f g g } \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
    }
   \new Lyrics \lyricsto "" \lyrics { I want to break free __ }
  >>
}
@end lilypond


A complete list of modifiers and other options for layout can be found
in @ref{Chords}.

@node Listening to output
@section Listening to output

@cindex sound
@cindex MIDI

MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a standard for
connecting and controlling digital instruments.  A MIDI file is like a
tape recording of a MIDI instrument.

To create a MIDI from a music  piece of music, add a 
@code{\midi} block causes LilyPond to create a MIDI file, so you
can listen to the music you entered.  It is great for checking the
music: octaves that are off or accidentals that were mistyped stand
out very much when listening to the musical transcription.

The @code{\midi} block is added to @code{\score}, for example,
@example 
\score @{
    @var{..music..}
    \midi  @{ \tempo 4=72 @}
@}
@end example 

Here, the tempo is specified using the @code{\tempo} command.  In this
case the tempo of quarter notes is set to 72 beats per minute.  More
information on auditory output in the notation manual, @ref{Sound}.

If there is a @code{\midi} command in a @code{\score}, only MIDI will
be produced.  If notation is needed too, a @code{\paper} block must be
added too

@example 
\score @{
    @var{..music..}
    \midi  @{ \tempo 4=72 @}
    \paper @{ @}
@}
@end example 

@cindex paper block

@node Titling
@section Titling

Bibliographic information is entered in a separate block, the
@code{\header} block.  The name of the piece, its composer, etc.  are
entered as an assignment, within @code{\header @{ @dots{} @}}.  For
example,
@example 
\header @{
  title = "Eight miniatures" 
  composer = "Igor Stravinsky"
  tagline = "small is beautiful"
@}

\score @{ @dots{} @}
@end example

@cindex bibliographic information
@cindex titles
@cindex composer
@cindex Engraved by LilyPond

When the file is processed the title and composer are printed above
the music.  The `tagline' is a short line printed at bottom of the last
page which normally says ``Engraved by LilyPond, version @dots{}''.  In
the example above it is replaced by the line ``small is
beautiful.''@footnote{Nicely printed parts are good PR for us, so
please leave the tagline if you can.}

Normally, the @code{\header} is put at the top of the file.  However,
for a document that contains multiple pieces (e.g.  an etude book, or
an orchestral part with multiple movements), the header can be
put in the @code{\score} block as follows; in this case, the name of
each piece will be printed before each movement


@cindex Engraved by LilyPond
@cindex signature line
@cindex tag line

@example 
\header @{
  title = "Eight miniatures" 
  composer = "Igor Stravinsky"
  tagline = "small is beautiful"
@}

\score @{ @dots{}
  \header @{ piece = "Adagio" @}
@}
\score @{ @dots{}
  \header @{ piece = "Menuetto" @}
@}
@end example

More information on titling can be found in @ref{Invoking lilypond}.


@node Single staff polyphony
@section Single staff polyphony

@cindex polyphony
@cindex multiple voices
@cindex voices, more -- on a staff

When different melodic lines are combined on a single staff they are
printed as polyphonic voices: each voice has its own stems, slurs and
beams, and the top voice has the stems up, while the bottom voice has
them down.

Entering such parts is done by entering each voice as a sequence (with
@code{@{ ..  @}}), and combining those simultaneously, separating the
voices with @code{\\}

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=3]
<< { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
   { r4 g4 f2  f4 } >>
@end lilypond

For polyphonic music typesetting, spacer rests can also be convenient: these
are rests that do not print.  It is useful for filling up voices that
temporarily do not play.  Here is the same example with a spacer rest
instead of a normal rest
@lilypond[quote,relative=3]
<< { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
   { s4 g4 f2  f4 } >>
@end lilypond

Again, these expressions can be nested arbitrarily

@lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=3]
<<
  \new Staff <<
    { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
    { s4 g4 f2  f4 }
  >>
  \new Staff <<
    \clef bass
    { <c, g>1 ~ <c g>4 } \\
    { f4 d e2  ~ e4}
  >>
>>
@end lilypond

More features of polyphonic typesetting in the notation manual
in @ref{Polyphony}.

@node Piano staves
@section Piano staves

@cindex staff switch, manual
@cindex cross staff voice, manual
@cindex @code{\context}

Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a brace.  Printing
such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in @ref{More staves}
@example
<< \new Staff @{ @dots{} @}
   \new Staff @{ @dots{} @} >>
@end example
but now this entire expression must be interpreted as a
@code{PianoStaff}
@example
 \new PianoStaff << \new Staff @dots{} >>
@end example

Here is a full-fledged example

@lilypond[quote,relative=1,fragment]
\new PianoStaff <<
  \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 c g' g  }
  \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
>>
@end lilypond

More information on formatting piano music is in @ref{Piano music}.  

@node Organizing larger pieces
@section Organizing larger pieces

When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
larger files, the @code{\score} blocks get a lot bigger, because the
music expressions are longer, and, in the case of polyphonic pieces,
more deeply nested.  Such large expressions can become unwieldy.

By using variables, also known as identifiers, it is possible to break
up complex music expressions.  An identifier is assigned as follows
@c
@example
namedMusic = \notes @{ @dots{}
@end example

The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic}, can be used
later by preceding the name with a backslash, i.e.  @code{\namedMusic}.
In the next example, a two note motive is repeated two times by using
variable substitution

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim]
seufzer = \notes {
  e'4( dis'4)
}
\score {
  \new Staff { \seufzer \seufzer }
}
@end lilypond

The name of an identifier should have alphabetic characters only;
no numbers, underscores or dashes.  The assignment should be outside of
the @code{\score} block.

It is possible to use variables for many other types of objects in the
input.  For example,
@example
width = 4.5\cm
name = "Wendy"
aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
@end example
Depending on its contents, the identifier can be used in different
places.  The following example uses the above variables
@example
\score @{
  \notes @{ c4^\name @}
  \paper @{
    \aFivePaper
    linewidth = \width
  @}
@}
@end example

More information on the possible uses of identifiers is in the
technical manual, in TODO.


@node An orchestral part
@section An orchestral part

In orchestral music, all notes are printed twice: both in a part for
the musicians, and in a full score for the conductor.  Identifiers can
be used to avoid double work: the music is entered once, and stored in
a variable.  The contents of that variable is then used to generate
both the part and the score.

It is convenient  to define the notes in a  special file, for example,
suppose that the @file{horn-music.ly} contains the following part of a
horn/bassoon duo,
@example
hornNotes = \notes \relative c @{
  \time 2/4
  r4 f8 a cis4 f e d
@}
@end example

Then, an individual part is made by putting the following in a file

@example
\include "horn-music.ly"
\header @{
  instrument = "Horn in F"
@}
\score @{
  \notes \transpose f c' \hornNotes
@}
@end example

The line

@example
  \include "horn-music.ly"
@end example

@noindent
substitutes the contents of @file{horn-music.ly} at this position in
the file, so @code{hornNotes} is defined afterwards.  The command
@code{\transpose f c'} indicates that the argument, being
@code{\hornNotes}, should be transposed by a fifth downwards: sounding
@code{f} is denoted by notated @code{c'}, which corresponds with
tuning of a normal French Horn in F.  The transposition can be seen in
the following output

@lilypond[quote,raggedright]
\score {
  \notes \transpose f c' \notes \relative c {
    \time 2/4
    r4 f8 a cis4 f e d
  }
}
@end lilypond

In ensemble pieces, one of the voices often does not play for many
measures.  This is denoted by a special rest, the multi-measure
rest.  It is entered with a capital @code{R} followed by a duration (1
for a whole note, 2 for a half note, etc.) By multiplying the
duration, longer rests can be constructed.  For example, this rest
takes 3 measures in 2/4 time
@example
R2*3
@end example

When printing the part, multi-rests
must be condensed.  This is done by setting a run-time variable
@example
\set Score.skipBars = ##t
@end example


This commands sets the property @code{skipBars} property in the
@code{Score} context to true (@code{##t}).  Prepending the rest and
this option to the music above, leads to the following result

@lilypond[quote,raggedright]
\score {
  \notes \transpose f c' \relative c {
    \time 2/4
    \set Score.skipBars = ##t 
    R2*3
    r4 f8 a cis4 f e d
  }
}
@end lilypond


The score is made by combining all of the music in a @code{\score}
block.  Assuming that the other voice is in @code{bassoonNotes} in the
file @file{bassoon-music.ly}, a score is made with

@example
\include "bassoon-music.ly"
\include "horn-music.ly"

\score @{
  \simultaneous @{
    \new Staff \hornNotes
    \new Staff \bassoonNotes
  @}
@}
@end example

leading to 

@lilypond[quote,raggedright]
\score {
  \notes \relative c \simultaneous {
    \new Staff {
      \time 2/4 R2*3
      r4 f8 a cis4 f e d
    }
    \new Staff {
      \clef bass
      r4 d,8 f | gis4 c |  b bes |
      a8 e f4 |  g d | gis f
    }
  }
}
@end lilypond

More in-depth information on preparing parts and scores in the
notation manual, in @ref{Orchestral music}.

Setting run-time variables (``properties'') is discussed in ref-TODO.

@node Integrating text and music
@section Integrating text and music

@cindex La@TeX{}, music in
@cindex HTML, music in
@cindex Texinfo, music in

Some texts include music examples.  Examples are musicological
treatises, songbooks or manuals like this.  Such texts can be made by
hand, simply by importing a PostScript figure into the word processor.
However, there is an automated procedure to reduce the amount of work
involved  HTML, La@TeX{}, and Texinfo documents.

A script called @code{lilypond-book} will extract the music fragments,
run format them, and put back the resulting notation.  This program is
fully described in @ref{lilypond-book manual}.  Here we show a small
example.  The example also contains explanatory text, so we will not
comment on it further

@example
\documentclass[a4paper]@{article@}
\begin@{document@}

Documents for lilypond-book may freely mix music and text.  For
example,

\begin@{lilypond@}
  \score @{ \notes \relative c' @{
     c2 g'2 \times 2/3 @{ f8 e d @} c'2 g4
  @} @}
\end@{lilypond@}

If there is no \verb+\score+ block in the fragment,
\texttt@{lilypond-book@} will supply one

\begin@{lilypond@}
  c'4
\end@{lilypond@}

In this example two things happened: a
\verb+\score+ block was added, and the line width was set to natural
length.

Options are put in brackets.

\begin[staffsize=26,verbatim]@{lilypond@}
  c'4 f16
\end@{lilypond@}


Larger examples can be put in a separate file, and introduced with
\verb+\lilypondfile+.

\lilypondfile@{screech-boink.ly@}

\end@{document@}
@end example

Under Unix, you can view the results as follows
@example
$ cd input/tutorial
$ mkdir -p out/
$ lilypond-book --output=out/ lilybook.tex
lilypond-book (GNU LilyPond) 2.1.19
Reading `input/tutorial/lilybook.tex'
Reading `input/screech-boink.ly'
@var{lots of stuff deleted}
Writing `out/lilybook.tex'
$ cd out
$ latex lilybook
@var{lots of stuff deleted}
$ xdvi lilybook 
@end example

To convert the file into a nice PDF document, run the following
commands
@example
$ dvips -Ppdf -u +lilypond lilybook
$ ps2pdf lilybook.ps
@end example


Running lilypond-book and running latex creates a lot of temporary
files, which would clutter up the working directory.  To remedy this,
use the @code{output} option.  It will create the files in a separate
subdirectory @file{out}.

The result looks more or less like 

@separate

Documents for lilypond-book may freely mix music and text.  For
example

@lilypond[quote,raggedright]
\score {
  \notes \relative c' {
    c2 g'2 \times 2/3 { f8 e d } c'2 g4
  }
}
@end lilypond

If you have no @code{\score} block in the fragment,
@code{lilypond-book} will supply one

@lilypond[quote]
c'4
@end lilypond

In this example two things happened: a
@code{score} block was added, and the line width was set to natural
length.

Options are put in brackets.

@lilypond[quote,staffsize=26,verbatim]
c'4 f16
@end lilypond

Larger examples can be put in a separate file, and introduced with
@code{\lilypondfile}.

@lilypondfile[quote,noindent]{screech-boink.ly}