1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @c This file is part of lilypond-learning.tely
4 Translation of GIT committish: FILL-IN-HEAD-COMMITTISH
6 When revising a translation, copy the HEAD committish of the
7 version that you are working on. See TRANSLATION for details.
13 Tutorial guidelines: (different from policy.txt!)
14 - unless you have a really good reason, use either
15 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
17 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
19 Don't use any other relative=X commands (make it a non-fragment
20 example), and don't use fragment without relative=2.
22 - use "aes" and "ees" instead of "as" and "es". I know it's not
23 correct Dutch naming, but let's not confuse people with this
24 until we get to the Basic notation chapter.
26 - Add "Music Glossary: @rglos{foo}" to the _top_ of the relevant
27 portions of the tutorial.
35 This tutorial starts with an introduction to the LilyPond music
36 language and explains how to produce printed music. After this first
37 contact we will explain how to create beautiful printed music
38 containing common musical notation.
42 * Single staff notation::
43 * Multiple notes at once::
52 This section gives a basic introduction to working with LilyPond.
57 * Working on input files::
58 * How to read the manual::
62 @node Compiling a file
63 @subsection Compiling a file
65 @qq{Compiling} is the term used for processing an input file
66 in LilyPond format to produce a file which can be printed and
67 (optionally) a MIDI file which can be played. LilyPond input
68 files are simple text files. The first example
69 shows what a simple input file looks like.
71 To create sheet music, we write an input file that specifies the
72 notation. For example, if we write:
81 the result looks like this:
83 @c in this case we don't want verbatim
90 @warning{Notes and lyrics in LilyPond input must always be
91 surrounded by @strong{@{ curly braces @}}. The braces
92 should also be surrounded by a space unless they are at the
93 beginning or end of a line to avoid ambiguities. The braces may
94 be omitted in some examples in this manual, but don't forget them
95 in your own music! For more information about the display of
96 examples in the manual, see @ref{How to read the manual}.}
98 @cindex case sensitive
99 In addition, LilyPond input is @strong{case sensitive}.
100 @w{@code{@{ c d e @}}} is valid input; @w{@code{@{ C D E @}}} will
101 produce an error message.
105 @subheading Entering music and viewing output
108 @cindex viewing music
110 In this section we will explain what commands to run and how to
111 view or print the output.
113 Note that there are several other text editors available with
114 better support for LilyPond. For more information, see
115 @rprogram{Text editor support}.
117 @warning{The first time you ever run LilyPond, it may take a
118 minute or two because all of the system fonts have to be analyzed
119 first. After this, LilyPond will be much faster!}
121 @subsubheading MacOS X
123 If you double click @command{LilyPond.app}, it will open with an
124 example file. Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your
125 Desktop, and then process it with the menu command
126 @w{@code{Compile > Typeset File}}. The resulting PDF file will be
127 displayed on your screen.
129 For future use of LilyPond, you should begin by selecting @q{New}
130 or @q{Open}. You must save your file before typesetting it. If
131 any errors occur in processing, please see the log window.
134 @subsubheading Windows
136 On Windows, if you double-click in the LilyPond icon on the
137 Desktop, it will open a simple text editor with an example file.
138 Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your Desktop and then
139 double-click on the file to process it (the file icon looks like a
140 note). After some seconds, you will get a file @file{test.pdf} on
141 your desktop. Double-click on this PDF file to view the typeset
142 score. An alternative method to process the @file{test.ly} file
143 is to drag and drop it onto the LilyPond icon using your mouse
146 To edit an existing @file{.ly} file, right-click on it and
147 select @qq{Edit source}. To get an empty file to start from, run
148 the editor as described above and use @qq{New} in
149 the @qq{File} menu, or right-click on the desktop and select
150 @qq{New..Text Document}, change its name to a name of your choice
151 and change the file extension to @code{.ly}. Double-click the
152 icon to type in your LilyPond source code as before.
154 Double-clicking the file does not only result in a PDF file, but
155 also produces a @file{.log} file that contains some information on
156 what LilyPond has done to the file. If any errors occur, please
161 Create a text file called @file{test.ly} and enter:
169 To process @file{test.ly}, proceed as follows:
176 You will see something resembling:
180 GNU LilyPond @version{}
183 Interpreting music...
184 Preprocessing graphical objects...
185 Finding the ideal number of pages...
186 Fitting music on 1 page...
188 Layout output to `test.ps'...
189 Converting to `test.pdf'...
193 @node Simple notation
194 @subsection Simple notation
196 LilyPond will add some notation elements automatically. In the
197 next example, we have only specified four pitches, but LilyPond
198 has added a clef, time signature, and rhythms.
200 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
207 This behavior may be altered, but in most cases these automatic
213 Music Glossary: @rglos{pitch}, @rglos{interval},
214 @rglos{scale}, @rglos{middle C}, @rglos{octave},
217 The easiest way to enter notes is by using @code{\relative} mode.
218 In this mode, the octave is chosen automatically by assuming the
219 following note is always to be placed closest to the previous
220 note, i.e., it is to be placed in the octave which is within three
221 staff spaces of the previous note. We begin by entering the most
222 elementary piece of music, a @notation{scale}, in which every note
223 is within just one staff space of the previous note.
225 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
226 \relative c' { % set the starting point to middle C
232 The initial note is @notation{middle C}. Each successive note is
233 placed closest to the previous note -- in other words, the first
234 @code{c} is the closest C to middle C. This is followed by the
235 closest D to the previous note. We can create melodies which have
236 larger intervals, still using only @code{\relative} mode:
238 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
246 It is not necessary for the first note of the melody to start on
247 the note which specifies the starting pitch. In the previous
248 example, the first note -- the @code{d} -- is the closest D to
251 By adding (or removing) quotes @code{'} or commas @code{,} from
252 the @w{@code{\relative c' @{}} command, we can change the starting
255 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
256 \relative c'' { % one octave above middle C
261 Relative mode can be confusing initially, but is the easiest way
262 to enter most melodies. Let us see how this relative calculation
263 works in practice. Starting from a B, which is on the middle line
264 in a treble clef, you can reach a C, D and E within 3 staff spaces
265 going up, and an A, G and F within 3 staff spaces going down. So
266 if the note following a B is a C, D or E it will be assumed to be
267 above the B, and an A, G or F will be assumed to be below.
269 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
271 b c % c is 1 staff space up, so is the c above
272 b d % d is 2 up or 5 down, so is the d above
273 b e % e is 3 up or 4 down, so is the e above
274 b a % a is 6 up or 1 down, so is the a below
275 b g % g is 5 up or 2 down, so is the g below
276 b f % f is 4 up or 3 down, so is the f below
280 Exactly the same happens even when any of these notes are
281 sharpened or flattened. @notation{Accidentals} are
282 @strong{totally ignored} in the calculation of relative position.
283 Precisely the same staff space counting is done from a note at any
284 other position on the staff.
286 To add intervals that are larger than three staff spaces, we can
287 raise the @notation{octave} by adding a single quote @code{'} (or
288 apostrophe) to the note name. We can lower the octave by adding a
289 comma @code{,} to the note name.
291 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
299 To change a note by two (or more!) octaves, we use multiple
300 @code{''} or @code{,,} -- but be careful that you use two single
301 quotes @code{''} and not one double quote @code{"}@tie{}! The
302 initial value in @w{@code{\relative c'}} may also be modified like
304 @c " - keeps quotes in order for context-sensitive editor -td
306 @subheading Durations (rhythms)
308 Music Glossary: @rglos{beam}, @rglos{duration},
309 @rglos{whole note}, @rglos{half note}, @rglos{quarter note},
312 The @notation{duration} of a note is specified by a number after
313 the note name. @code{1} for a @notation{whole note}, @code{2} for
314 a @notation{half note}, @code{4} for a @notation{quarter note} and
315 so on. @notation{Beams} are added automatically.
317 If you do not specify a duration, the previous duration is used
318 for the next note. The duration of the first note defaults to a
321 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
325 a16 a a a a32 a a a a64 a a a a a a a a2
329 To create @notation{dotted notes}, add a dot @code{.} to the
330 duration number. The duration of a dotted note must be stated
331 explicitly (i.e., with a number).
333 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
343 Music Glossary: @rglos{rest}.
345 A @notation{rest} is entered just like a note with the name
348 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
356 @subheading Time signature
358 Music Glossary: @rglos{time signature}.
360 The @notation{time signature} can be set with the @code{\time}
363 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
377 Music Glossary: @rglos{clef}.
379 The @notation{clef} can be set using the @code{\clef} command:
381 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
395 @subheading All together
397 Here is a small example showing all these elements together:
399 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
411 Notation Reference: @ruser{Writing pitches},
412 @ruser{Writing rhythms}, @ruser{Writing rests},
413 @ruser{Time signature}, @ruser{Clef}.
416 @node Working on input files
417 @subsection Working on input files
419 LilyPond input files are similar to source files in many common
420 programming languages. They are case sensitive, and white-space
421 is generally ignored. Expressions are formed with curly braces
422 @{ @}, and comments are denoted with @code{%} or
423 @w{@code{%@{ ... %@}}}.
425 If the previous sentences sound like nonsense, don't worry! We'll
426 explain what all these terms mean:
430 @cindex case sensitive
432 @strong{Case sensitive}:
433 it matters whether you enter a letter in lower case (e.g.
434 @w{@code{a, b, s, t}}) or upper case (e.g. @w{@code{A, B, S, T}}).
435 Notes are lower case: @w{@code{@{ c d e @}}} is valid input;
436 @w{@code{@{ C D E @}}} will produce an error message.
439 @strong{Whitespace insensitive}:
440 it does not matter how many spaces (or new lines) you add.
441 @w{@code{@{ c d e @}}} means the same thing as
442 @w{@code{@{ c @tie{}} @tie{} @tie{} d e @}} and:
450 Of course, the previous example is hard to read. A good rule of
451 thumb is to indent code blocks with either a tab or two spaces:
460 @strong{Expressions}:
461 every piece of LilyPond input needs to have @strong{@{ curly
462 braces @}} placed around the input. These braces tell LilyPond
463 that the input is a single music expression, just like parentheses
464 @code{()} in mathematics. The braces should be surrounded by a
465 space unless they are at the beginning or end of a line to avoid
468 A LilyPond command followed by a simple expression in braces (such
469 as @w{@code{\relative @{ @}}}) also counts as a single music
474 @cindex block comment
477 a comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input; it
478 is ignored while parsing, so it has no effect on the printed
479 output. There are two types of comments. The percent symbol
480 @code{%} introduces a line comment; anything after @code{%} on
481 that line is ignored. By convention, a line comment is placed
482 @emph{above} the code it refers to.
486 % this comment refers to the Bs
490 A block comment marks a whole section of music input as a comment.
491 Anything that is enclosed in @code{%@{} and @code{%@}} is ignored.
492 However, block comments do not @q{nest}. This means that you
493 cannot place a block comment inside another block comment. If you
494 try, the first @code{%@}} will terminate @emph{both} block
495 comments. The following fragment shows possible uses for
499 % notes for twinkle twinkle follow
503 This line, and the notes below
504 are ignored, since they are in a
514 @node How to read the manual
515 @subsection How to read the manual
517 LilyPond input must be surrounded by @{ @} marks or a
518 @w{@code{\relative c'' @{ ... @}}}, as we saw in @ref{Working on
519 input files}. For the rest of this manual, most examples will
520 omit this. To replicate the examples, you may copy and paste the
521 displayed input, but you @strong{must} add the
522 @w{@code{\relative c'' @{ @}}} like this:
526 ... example goes here...
530 Why omit the braces? Most examples in this manual can be inserted
531 into the middle of a longer piece of music. For these examples,
532 it does not make sense to add @w{@code{\relative c'' @{ @}}} --
533 you should not place a @code{\relative} inside another
534 @code{\relative}! If we included @w{@code{\relative c'' @{ @}}}
535 around every example, you would not be able to copy a small
536 documentation example and paste it inside a longer piece of your
537 own. Most people want to add material to an existing piece, so we
538 format the manual this way.
541 @subheading Clickable examples
543 Many people learn programs by trying and fiddling around with the
544 program. This is also possible with LilyPond. If you click on a
545 picture in the HTML version of this manual, you will see the exact
546 LilyPond input that was used to generate that image. Try it on
552 c-\markup { \bold \huge { Click here. } }
556 By cutting and pasting everything in the @qq{ly snippet} section,
557 you have a starting template for experiments. To see exactly the
558 same output (line-width and all), copy everything from @qq{Start
559 cut-&-pastable section} to the bottom of the file.
563 There are more tips for constructing input files in
564 @ref{Suggestions for writing LilyPond input files}. But it might be
565 best to read through the rest of the tutorial first.
569 @node Single staff notation
570 @section Single staff notation
572 This section introduces common notation that is used for one voice
576 * Accidentals and key signatures::
578 * Articulation and dynamics::
580 * Automatic and manual beams::
581 * Advanced rhythmic commands::
585 @node Accidentals and key signatures
586 @subsection Accidentals and key signatures
588 @subheading Accidentals
590 Music Glossary: @rglos{sharp}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{double sharp},
591 @rglos{double flat}, @rglos{accidental}.
593 A @notation{sharp} pitch is made by adding @code{is} to the name,
594 and a @notation{flat} pitch by adding @code{es}. As you might
595 expect, a @notation{double sharp} or @notation{double flat} is
596 made by adding @code{isis} or @code{eses}. This syntax is derived
597 from note naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages,
598 like German and Dutch. To use other names for
599 @notation{accidentals}, see @ruser{Note names in other languages}.
601 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
602 cis1 ees fisis, aeses
605 @cindex key signature, setting
606 @subheading Key signatures
608 Music Glossary: @rglos{key signature}, @rglos{major},
611 The @notation{key signature} is set with the command @code{\key}
612 followed by a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}.
614 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
623 @subheading Warning: key signatures and pitches
625 Music Glossary: @rglos{accidental}, @rglos{key signature},
626 @rglos{pitch}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{natural}, @rglos{sharp},
627 @rglos{transposition}.
629 To determine whether to print an @notation{accidental}, LilyPond
630 examines the pitches and the @notation{key signature}. The key
631 signature only affects the @emph{printed} accidentals, not the
632 note's @notation{pitch}! This is a feature that often causes
633 confusion to newcomers, so let us explain it in more detail.
635 LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
636 layout. The alteration (@notation{flat}, @notation{natural sign} or
637 @notation{sharp}) of a note is part of the pitch, and is therefore
638 musical content. Whether an accidental (a @emph{printed} flat,
639 natural or sharp sign) is printed in front of the corresponding
640 note is a question of layout. Layout is something that follows
641 rules, so accidentals are printed automatically according to those
642 rules. The pitches in your music are works of art, so they will
643 not be added automatically, and you must enter what you want to
648 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
654 No note has a printed accidental, but you must still add
655 @code{is} and type @code{cis} and @code{fis} in the input file.
657 The code @code{e} does not mean @qq{print a black dot just on
658 the first line of the staff.} Rather, it means @qq{there is a
659 note with pitch E-natural.} In the key of A-flat major, it
660 @emph{does} get an accidental:
662 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
667 Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more
668 effort when typing, but the advantage is that
669 @notation{transposing} is easier, and accidentals can be printed
670 according to different conventions. For some examples how
671 accidentals can be printed according to different rules, see
672 @ruser{Automatic accidentals}.
676 Notation Reference: @ruser{Note names in other languages},
677 @ruser{Accidentals}, @ruser{Automatic accidentals},
678 @ruser{Key signature}.
680 Music Glossary: @rglos{Pitch names}.
684 @subsection Ties and slurs
689 Music Glossary: @rglos{tie}.
691 A @notation{tie} is created by appending a tilde @code{~} to the
692 first note being tied.
694 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
702 Music Glossary: @rglos{slur}.
704 A @notation{slur} is a curve drawn across many notes. The
705 starting note and ending note are marked with @code{(} and
706 @code{)} respectively.
708 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
709 d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
712 @cindex slurs, phrasing
713 @cindex phrasing slurs
714 @subheading Phrasing slurs
716 Music Glossary: @rglos{slur}, @rglos{phrasing}.
718 Slurs to indicate longer @notation{phrasing} can be entered with
719 @code{\(} and @code{\)}. You can have both @notation{slurs}
720 and phrasing slurs at the same time, but you cannot have
721 simultaneous slurs or simultaneous phrasing slurs.
723 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
724 a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis,\)
729 @cindex slurs versus ties
730 @subheading Warnings: slurs vs. ties
732 Music Glossary: @rglos{articulation}, @rglos{slur}, @rglos{tie}.
734 A @notation{slur} looks like a @notation{tie}, but it has a
735 different meaning. A tie simply makes the first note longer, and
736 can only be used on pairs of notes with the same pitch. Slurs
737 indicate the @notation{articulation} of notes, and can be used on
738 larger groups of notes. Slurs and ties can be nested.
740 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
741 c2~( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2)
746 Notation Reference: @ruser{Ties}, @ruser{Slurs},
747 @ruser{Phrasing slurs}.
750 @node Articulation and dynamics
751 @subsection Articulation and dynamics
756 @subheading Articulations
758 Music Glossary: @rglos{articulation}.
760 Common @notation{articulations} can be added to a note using a
761 dash @code{-} and a single character:
763 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
764 c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
768 @subheading Fingerings
770 Music Glossary: @rglos{fingering}.
773 Similarly, @notation{fingering} indications can be added to a note
774 using a dash (@code{-}) and the digit to be printed:
776 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
780 Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but
781 you can specify a direction by replacing the dash (@code{-}) with
782 @code{^} (up) or @code{_} (down). You can also use multiple
783 articulations on the same note. However, in most cases it is best
784 to let LilyPond determine the articulation directions.
786 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
787 c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
792 Music Glossary: @rglos{dynamics}, @rglos{crescendo},
795 @notation{Dynamic} signs are made by adding the markings (with a
796 backslash) to the note:
798 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
806 @notation{Crescendi} and @notation{decrescendi} are started with
807 the commands @code{\<} and @code{\>}. The next dynamics sign, for
808 example @code{\f}, will end the (de)crescendo, or the command
809 @code{\!} can be used:
811 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
817 Notation Reference: @ruser{Articulations and ornamentations},
818 @ruser{Fingering instructions}, @ruser{Dynamics}.
822 @subsection Adding text
824 Text may be added to your scores:
826 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
830 Extra formatting may be added with the @code{\markup} command:
832 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
833 c1^\markup{ \bold espr}
835 \dynamic f \italic \small { 2nd } \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
842 Notation Reference: @ruser{Writing text}.
845 @node Automatic and manual beams
846 @subsection Automatic and manual beams
848 Music Glossary: @rglos{beam}.
850 @cindex beams, by hand
851 All @notation{beams} are drawn automatically:
853 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
854 a8 ais d ees r d c16 b a8
857 If you do not like the automatic beams, they may be overridden
858 manually. To correct just an occasional beam mark the first note
859 to be beamed with @code{[} and the last one with @code{]}.
861 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
862 a8[ ais] d[ ees r d] a b
865 If you want to turn off automatic beaming entirely or for an
866 extended section of music, use the command @code{\autoBeamOff}
867 to turn off automatic beaming and @code{\autoBeamOn} to turn it
869 @c It will usually be necessary to manually beam music
872 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
881 Notation Reference: @ruser{Automatic beams}, @ruser{Manual beams}.
884 @node Advanced rhythmic commands
885 @subsection Advanced rhythmic commands
889 @cindex partial measure
890 @subheading Partial measure
892 Music Glossary: @rglos{anacrusis}.
894 A pickup (or @notation{anacrusis}) is entered with the keyword
895 @code{\partial}. It is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4}
896 is a quarter note pickup and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note.
898 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
907 Music Glossary: @rglos{note value}, @rglos{triplet}.
909 @notation{Tuplets} are made with the @code{\times} keyword. It
910 takes two arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The
911 duration of the piece of music is multiplied by the fraction.
912 Triplets make notes occupy 2/3 of their notated duration, so a
913 @notation{triplet} has 2/3 as its fraction
915 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
916 \times 2/3 { f8 g a }
918 \times 2/3 { f,8 g16[ a g a] }
925 @subheading Grace notes
927 Music Glossary: @rglos{grace notes}, @rglos{acciaccatura},
928 @rglos{appoggiatura}.
930 @notation{Grace notes} are created with the @code{\grace} command,
931 although they can also be created by prefixing a music expression
932 with the keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}:
934 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
935 c2 \grace { a32[ b] } c2
936 c2 \appoggiatura b16 c2
937 c2 \acciaccatura b16 c2
942 Notation Reference: @ruser{Grace notes}, @ruser{Tuplets},
946 @node Multiple notes at once
947 @section Multiple notes at once
949 This section introduces having more than one note at the same
950 time: multiple instruments, multiple staves for a single
951 instrument (i.e. piano), and chords.
953 Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occurring
954 in a piece of music. Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more
955 than one voice on the same staff.
958 * Music expressions explained::
961 * Combining notes into chords::
962 * Single staff polyphony::
966 @node Music expressions explained
967 @subsection Music expressions explained
969 In LilyPond input files, music is represented by @emph{music
970 expressions}. A single note is a music expression:
972 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
976 Enclosing a note in braces creates a @emph{compound music
977 expression}. Here we have created a compound music expression
980 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
984 Putting a group of music expressions (e.g. notes) in braces means
985 that they are in sequence (i.e. each one follows the previous
986 one). The result is another music expression:
988 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
993 @cindex music expression
994 @subheading Analogy: mathematical expressions
996 This mechanism is similar to mathematical formulas: a big formula
997 is created by composing small formulas. Such formulas are called
998 expressions, and they can contain other expressions, so you can
999 make arbitrarily complex and large expressions. For example,
1008 ((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
1011 This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is
1012 contained in the next (larger) one. The simplest expressions are
1013 numbers, and larger ones are made by combining expressions with
1014 operators (like @code{+}, @code{*} and @code{/}) and parentheses.
1015 Like mathematical expressions, music expressions can be nested
1016 arbitrarily deep, which is necessary for complex music like
1020 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: multiple staves
1022 Music Glossary: @rglos{polyphony}.
1024 This technique is useful for @notation{polyphonic} music. To
1025 enter music with more voices or more staves, we combine
1026 expressions in parallel. To indicate that two voices should play
1027 at the same time, simply enter a simultaneous combination of music
1028 expressions. A @q{simultaneous} music expression is formed by
1029 enclosing expressions inside @code{<<} and @code{>>}. In the
1030 following example, three sequences (all containing two separate
1031 notes) are combined simultaneously:
1033 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1043 Note that we have indented each level of the input with a
1044 different amount of space. LilyPond does not care how much (or
1045 little) space there is at the beginning of a line, but indenting
1046 LilyPond code like this makes it much easier for humans to read.
1048 @warning{each note is relative to the previous note in
1049 the input, not relative to the @code{c''} in the initial
1050 @code{@bs{}relative} command.}
1053 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: single staff
1055 To determine the number of staves in a piece, LilyPond looks at
1056 the beginning of the first expression. If is a single note, there
1057 is one staff; if there is a simultaneous expression, there is more
1060 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1063 << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
1067 @node Multiple staves
1068 @subsection Multiple staves
1070 LilyPond input files are constructed out of music expressions, as
1071 we saw in @ref{Music expressions explained}. If the score begins
1072 with simultaneous music expressions, LilyPond creates multiples
1073 staves. However, it is easier to see what happens if we create
1074 each staff explicitly.
1076 To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
1077 staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it. These
1078 @code{Staff} elements are then combined in parallel with @code{<<}
1081 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1084 \new Staff { \clef treble c }
1085 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
1090 The command @code{\new} introduces a @q{notation context.} A
1091 notation context is an environment in which musical events (like
1092 notes or @code{\clef} commands) are interpreted. For simple
1093 pieces, such notation contexts are created automatically. For
1094 more complex pieces, it is best to mark contexts explicitly.
1096 There are several types of contexts. @code{Score}, @code{Staff},
1097 and @code{Voice} handle melodic notation, while @code{Lyrics} sets
1098 lyric texts and @code{ChordNames} prints chord names.
1100 In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
1101 creates a bigger music expression. In this way it resembles the
1102 minus sign in mathematics. The formula @math{(4+5)} is an
1103 expression, so @math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.
1105 Time signatures entered in one staff affects all other staves by
1106 default. On the other hand, the key signature of one staff does
1107 @emph{not} affect other staves. This different default behavior
1108 is because scores with transposing instruments are more common
1109 than polyrhythmic scores.
1111 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1114 \new Staff { \clef treble \key d \major \time 3/4 c }
1115 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
1124 @subsection Staff groups
1130 Music Glossary: @rglos{brace}.
1132 Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a
1134 Printing such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in
1135 @ref{Multiple staves}. However, now this entire expression is
1136 inserted inside a @code{PianoStaff}:
1145 Here is a small example:
1147 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1150 \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 e g g, }
1151 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
1156 Other staff groupings are introduced with @code{\new GrandStaff},
1157 suitable for orchestral scores, and @w{@code{\new ChoirStaff}},
1158 suitable for vocal scores. These staff groups each form another
1159 type of context, one that generates the brace at the left end of
1160 every system and also controls the extent of bar lines.
1164 Notation Reference: @ruser{Keyboard instruments},
1165 @ruser{Displaying staves}.
1168 @node Combining notes into chords
1169 @subsection Combining notes into chords
1173 Music Glossary: @rglos{chord}.
1175 We saw earlier how notes can be combined into @notation{chords} by
1176 indicating they are simultaneous by enclosing them in double angle
1177 brackets. However, the normal way of indicating a chord is to
1178 surround the pitches with @emph{single} angle brackets. Note that
1179 all the notes in a chord must have the same duration, and that the
1180 duration is placed after the closing bracket.
1182 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1183 r4 <c e g>4 <c f a>2
1186 Think of chords as almost equivalent to single notes:
1187 almost everything you can attach to a single note can be attached
1188 to a chord, and everything must go @emph{outside} the angle
1189 brackets. For example, you can combine markings like beams and
1190 ties with chords. They must be placed outside the angle brackets.
1192 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1193 r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>2
1194 r4 <c e g>8( <c e g>\> <c e g>4 <c f a>\!)
1198 @node Single staff polyphony
1199 @subsection Single staff polyphony
1202 @cindex multiple voices
1203 @cindex voices, more -- on a staff
1204 When different melodic lines are combined on a single staff they
1205 are printed as polyphonic voices; each voice has its own stems,
1206 slurs and beams, and the top voice has the stems up, while the
1207 bottom voice has them down.
1209 Entering such parts is done by entering each voice as a sequence
1210 (with @w{@code{@{...@}}}) and combining these simultaneously,
1211 separating the voices with @code{\\}:
1213 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1220 For polyphonic music typesetting, spacer rests can also be
1221 convenient; these are rests that do not print. They are useful
1222 for filling up voices that temporarily do not play. Here is the
1223 same example with a spacer rest (@code{s}) instead of a normal
1226 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1234 Again, these expressions can be nested arbitrarily.
1236 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,relative=2]
1244 { <c g>1 ~ <c g>4 } \\
1252 Notation Reference: @ruser{Simultaneous notes}.
1258 This section introduces vocal music and simple song sheets.
1261 * Setting simple songs::
1262 * Aligning lyrics to a melody::
1263 * Lyrics to multiple staves::
1267 @node Setting simple songs
1268 @subsection Setting simple songs
1273 Music Glossary: @rglos{lyrics}.
1275 Here is the start of the melody to a nursery
1276 rhyme, @notation{Girls and boys come out to play}:
1278 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1282 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1286 The @notation{lyrics} can be set to these notes, combining both
1287 with the @code{\addlyrics} keyword. Lyrics are entered by
1288 separating each syllable with a space.
1290 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1295 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1298 Girls and boys come out to play,
1303 Note the curly brackets delimiting both the music and the lyrics,
1304 and the double angle brackets @w{@code{<< ... >>}} around the
1305 whole piece to show that the music and lyrics are to occur at the
1308 @node Aligning lyrics to a melody
1309 @subsection Aligning lyrics to a melody
1311 Music Glossary: @rglos{melisma}, @rglos{extender line}.
1314 @cindex extender line
1318 The next line in the nursery rhyme is @notation{The moon doth
1319 shine as bright as day}. Let's extend it:
1321 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1326 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1327 g8 a4 b8 c b a d4 b8 g4.
1330 Girls and boys come out to play,
1331 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
1336 We see the extra lyrics do not align properly with the notes. The
1337 word @notation{shine} should be sung on two notes, not one. This
1338 is called a @notation{melisma}, a single syllable sung to more
1339 than one note. There are several ways to spread a syllable over
1340 multiple notes, the simplest being to add a slur across them, for
1341 details, see @ref{Ties and slurs}:
1343 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1348 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1349 g8 a4 b8 c( b) a d4 b8 g4.
1352 Girls and boys come out to play,
1353 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
1358 The words now line up correctly with the notes, but the automatic
1359 beaming for the notes above @notation{shine as} does not look right.
1360 We can correct this by inserting manual beaming commands to override
1361 the automatic beaming here, for details, see @ref{Automatic and
1364 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1369 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1370 g8 a4 b8 c([ b]) a d4 b8 g4.
1373 Girls and boys come out to play,
1374 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
1379 As an alternative to using slurs, the melismata may be indicated
1380 in just the lyrics by using an underscore @code{_} for each note
1381 that should be included in the melisma:
1383 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1388 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1389 g8 a4 b8 c[ b] a d4 b8 g4.
1392 Girls and boys come out to play,
1393 The moon doth shine _ as bright as day;
1398 If a syllable extends over several notes or a single very long
1399 note an @notation{extender line} is usually drawn from the
1400 syllable extending under all the notes for that syllable. It is
1401 entered as two underscores @code{__}. Here is an example from the
1402 first three bars of @notation{Dido's Lament}, from Purcell's
1403 @notation{Dido and Æneas}:
1405 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1411 b c4.( bes8 a4. g8 fis4.) g8 fis1
1415 am laid __ in earth,
1420 None of the examples so far have involved words containing more
1421 than one syllable. Such words are usually split one syllable to a
1422 note, with hyphens between syllables. Such hyphens are entered as
1423 two dashes, resulting in a centered hyphen between the syllables.
1424 Here is an example showing this and everything we have learned so
1425 far about aligning lyrics to notes.
1427 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1428 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1429 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,noragged-right]
1435 d4 g4 g a8( b) g4 g4
1439 A -- way in a __ man -- ger,
1440 no __ crib for a bed, __
1445 Some lyrics, especially those in Italian, require the opposite:
1446 setting more than one syllable to a single note. This is
1447 achieved by linking the syllables together with a single
1448 underscore @code{_} (with no spaces), or enclosing them in quotes.
1449 Here's an example from Rossini's @notation{Figaro}, where
1450 @notation{al} has to be sung on the same note as the @notation{go} of
1451 @notation{Largo} in Figaro's aria @notation{Largo al factotum}:
1453 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1454 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1455 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,noragged-right]
1461 c4.~ c8 d b c([ d]) b c d b c
1464 Lar -- go_al fac -- to -- tum del -- la cit -- tĂ
1472 Notation Reference: @ruser{Vocal music}.
1475 @node Lyrics to multiple staves
1476 @subsection Lyrics to multiple staves
1478 The simple approach using @code{\addlyrics} can be used for
1479 placing lyrics under more than one staff. Here is an
1480 example from Handel's @notation{Judas Maccabæus}:
1482 @c TODO \partial has not been previously explained
1483 @c Change example or add explanation earlier
1485 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1493 c8 c([ bes]) a a([ g]) f f'4. b, c4.~ c4
1496 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn, __
1500 r8 r4. r4 c8 a'([ g]) f f([ e]) d e([ d]) c bes'4
1503 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn,
1509 but scores any more complex than this simple example are
1510 better produced by separating out the staff structure
1511 from the notes and lyrics with variables. These are
1512 discussed in @ref{Organizing pieces with variables}.
1516 Notation Reference: @ruser{Vocal music}.
1521 @section Final touches
1523 This is the final section of the tutorial; it demonstrates how to
1524 add the final touches to simple pieces, and provides an
1525 introduction to the rest of the manual.
1528 * Organizing pieces with variables::
1531 * Absolute note names::
1532 * After the tutorial::
1536 @node Organizing pieces with variables
1537 @subsection Organizing pieces with variables
1539 When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
1540 larger files, the music expressions get a lot bigger. In
1541 polyphonic music with many staves, the input files can become very
1542 confusing. We can reduce this confusion by using
1545 With variables (also known as identifiers or macros), we can break
1546 up complex music expressions. A variable is assigned as
1550 namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
1553 The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic} can be used
1554 later by placing a backslash in front of the name
1555 (@code{\namedMusic}, just like a normal LilyPond command).
1557 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1558 violin = \new Staff { \relative c'' {
1561 cello = \new Staff { \relative c {
1574 The name of a variable must have alphabetic characters only, no
1575 numbers, underscores, or dashes.
1577 Variables must be defined @emph{before} the main music
1578 expression, but may be used as many times as required anywhere after
1579 they have been defined. They may even be used in a later definition
1580 of another variable, giving a way of shortening the input if a
1581 section of music is repeated many times.
1583 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1584 tripletA = \times 2/3 { c,8 e g }
1585 barA = { \tripletA \tripletA \tripletA \tripletA }
1592 Variables may be used for many other types of objects in
1593 the input. For example,
1598 aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
1601 Depending on its contents, the variable can be used in different
1602 places. The following example uses the above variables:
1613 @node Version number
1614 @subsection Version number
1617 The @code{\version} statement records the version of LilyPond that
1618 was used to write the file:
1621 \version @w{"@version{}"}
1625 By convention, this is placed at the top of your LilyPond file.
1627 These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more
1628 smoothly. Changes in the syntax are handled with a special
1629 program, @file{convert-ly}, and it uses @code{\version} to
1630 determine what rules to apply. For details, see
1631 @rprogram{Updating files with convert-ly}.
1635 @subsection Adding titles
1637 The title, composer, opus number, and similar information are
1638 entered in the @code{\header} block. This exists outside of the
1639 main music expression; the @code{\header} block is usually placed
1640 underneath the @ref{Version number}.
1643 \version @w{"@version{}"}
1651 @dots{} music @dots{}
1655 When the file is processed, the title and composer are printed
1656 above the music. More information on titling can be found in
1657 @ruser{Creating titles}.
1660 @node Absolute note names
1661 @subsection Absolute note names
1663 So far we have always used @code{\relative} to define pitches.
1664 This is the easiest way to enter most music, but another way of
1665 defining pitches exists: absolute mode.
1667 If you omit the @code{\relative}, LilyPond treats all pitches as
1668 absolute values. A @code{c'} will always mean middle C, a
1669 @code{b} will always mean the note one step below middle C, and a
1670 @code{g,} will always mean the note on the bottom staff of the
1673 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1681 Here is a four-octave scale:
1683 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1698 As you can see, writing a melody in the treble clef involves a lot
1699 of quote @code{'} marks. Consider this fragment from Mozart:
1701 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1705 cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
1706 b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8
1710 All these quotes makes the input less readable and they are a source
1711 of errors. With @code{\relative}, the previous example is much
1712 easier to read and type:
1714 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1718 cis8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
1723 If you make a mistake with an octave mark (@code{'} or @code{,})
1724 while working in @code{\relative} mode, it is very obvious -- many
1725 notes will be in the wrong octave. When working in absolute mode,
1726 a single mistake will not be as visible, and will not be as easy
1729 However, absolute mode is useful for music which has large
1730 intervals, and is extremely useful for computer-generated LilyPond
1735 @node After the tutorial
1736 @subsection After the tutorial
1738 FIXME: rewrite slightly after the rest of the LM has been
1739 stabilized. Translators, ignore this section for now.
1741 After finishing the tutorial, you should probably try writing a
1742 piece or two. Start by adding notes to one of the
1743 @ref{Templates}. If you need any notation that was not covered in
1744 the tutorial, look at the Notation Reference, starting with
1745 @ruser{Musical notation}. If you want to write for an instrument
1746 ensemble that is not covered in the templates, take a look at
1747 @ref{Extending the templates}.
1749 Once you have written a few short pieces, read the rest of the
1750 Learning Manual (chapters 3-5). There's nothing wrong with
1751 reading it now, of course! However, the rest of the Learning
1752 Manual assumes that you are familiar with LilyPond input. You may
1753 wish to skim these chapters right now, and come back to them after
1754 you have more experience.