1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @c This file is part of lilypond-learning.tely
4 Translation of GIT committish: FILL-IN-HEAD-COMMITTISH
6 When revising a translation, copy the HEAD committish of the
7 version that you are working on. See TRANSLATION for details.
12 - unless you have a really good reason, use either
13 @l ilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
15 @l ilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
17 Don't use any other relative=X commands (make it a non-fragment
18 example), and don't use fragment without relative=2.
19 - use "aes" and "ees" instead of "as" and "aes". I know it's not
20 correct Dutch naming, but let's not confuse people with this
21 until we get to the Basic notation chapter.
26 @c old info that will probably be removed.
28 @c * more details about running lilypond; error messages,
29 @c compiling/viewing (emacs?)
30 @c * where to go from First steps+More basics?
32 @c wherever possible, do not include index entries here; the
33 @c index should point to stuff in the reference manual. -gp
35 @c Your first LilyPond score in 10 minutes?
40 This tutorial starts with an introduction to the LilyPond music
41 language and how to produce printed music. After this first
42 contact we will explain how to create common musical notation.
45 Many people learn programs by trying and fiddling around with the
46 program. This is also possible with LilyPond. If you click on a
47 picture in the HTML version of this manual, you will see the exact
48 LilyPond input that was used to generate that image. Try it on
52 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
54 c-\markup { \bold \huge { Click here. } }
58 By cutting and pasting everything in the @qq{ly snippet} section,
59 you have a starting template for experiments. If you like
60 learning in this way, you will probably want to print out or
61 bookmark the @ruser{Cheat sheet}, which is a table listing of the
62 most common commands for quick reference.
68 * Single staff notation::
69 * Multiple notes at once::
78 This section gives a basic introduction to working with LilyPond.
83 * Working on text files::
84 * How to read the tutorial::
88 @node Compiling a file
89 @subsection Compiling a file
91 The first example demonstrates how to start working with LilyPond.
92 To create sheet music, we write a text file that specifies the
93 notation. For example, if we write
102 the result looks like this
104 @c in this case we don't want verbatim
105 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
111 @warning{Every piece of LilyPond input needs to have
112 @strong{@{ curly braces @}} placed around the input. The braces
113 should also be surrounded by a space unless they are at the
114 beginning or end of a line to avoid ambiguities. These may be
115 omitted in some examples in this manual, but don't forget them in
118 @cindex Case sensitive
119 In addition, LilyPond input is @strong{case sensitive}. @code{
120 @{c d e @}} is valid input; @code{@{ C D E @}} will produce an
125 @subheading Entering music and viewing output
127 In this section we will explain what commands to run and how to
128 view or print the output.
130 @subsubheading MacOS X
132 If you double click @code{LilyPond.app}, it will open with an
133 example file. Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your
134 Desktop, and then process it with the menu command @samp{Compile >
135 Typeset File}. The resulting PDF file will be displayed on your
138 Be warned that the first time you ever run LilyPond, it will take
139 a minute or two because all of the system fonts have to be
142 For future use of LilyPond, you should begin by selecting @q{New}
143 or @q{Open}. You must save your file before typesetting it. If
144 any errors occur in processing, please see the log window.
146 @subsubheading Windows
148 On Windows, if you double-click in the LilyPond icon on the
149 Desktop, it will open a simple text editor with an example file.
150 Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your Desktop and then
151 double-click on the file to process it (the file icon looks like a
152 note). After some seconds, you will get a file @file{test.pdf} on
153 your desktop. Double-click on this PDF file to view the typeset
154 score. An alternative method to process the @file{test.ly} file
155 is to drag and drop it onto the LilyPond icon using your mouse
158 To edit an existing @file{.ly} file, right-click on it and
159 select @qq{Edit source}. To get an empty file to start from, run
160 the editor as described above and use @qq{New} in
163 Double-clicking the file does not only result in a PDF file, but
164 also produces a @file{.log} file that contains some information on
165 what LilyPond has done to the file. If any errors occur, please
168 Note that there are several other text editors available, with
169 better support for LilyPond, see @rprogram{Text editor support},
170 for more information.
174 Begin by opening a terminal window and starting a text editor.
175 For example, you could open an xterm and execute
176 @code{joe}@footnote{There are macro files for VIM addicts, and
177 there is a @code{LilyPond-mode} for Emacs addicts. If they have
178 not been installed already, refer to the file @file{INSTALL.txt}.
179 The easiest editing environment is @file{LilyPondTool}. See
180 @rprogram{Text editor support}, for more information.}. In your
181 text editor, enter the following input and save the file as
191 To process @file{test.ly}, proceed as follows
198 You will see something resembling
205 Interpreting music... [1]
206 Preprocessing graphical objects...
207 Calculating line breaks... [2]
208 Layout output to `test.ps'...
209 Converting to `test.pdf'...
213 @cindex Viewing music
216 The result is the file @file{test.pdf} which you can print or view
217 with the standard facilities of your operating system.@footnote{If
218 your system does not have any such tools installed, you can try
219 @uref{http://@/www@/.cs@/.wisc@/.edu/@/~ghost/,Ghostscript}, a
220 freely available package for viewing and printing PDF and
224 @node Simple notation
225 @subsection Simple notation
227 LilyPond will add some notation elements automatically. In the
228 next example, we have only specified four pitches, but LilyPond
229 has added a clef, time signature, and rhythms.
231 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
238 This behavior may be altered, but in most cases these automatic
244 The easiest way to enter notes is by using @code{\relative} mode.
245 In this mode, the @rglos{interval} between the previous note and
246 the current note is assumed to be within a @rglos{fourth}. We
247 begin by entering the most elementary piece of music, a
250 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
257 The initial note is @rglos{middle C}. Each successive note is
258 within a fourth of the previous note -- in other words, the first
259 @samp{c} is the closest C to middle C. This is followed by the
260 closest D to the previous note. We can create melodies which have
263 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
271 As you may notice, this example does not start on middle C. The
272 first note -- the @samp{d} -- is the closest D to middle C.
274 To add intervals that are larger than a fourth, we can raise the
275 octave by adding a single quote @code{'} (or apostrophe) to the
276 note name. We can lower the octave by adding a comma @code{,} to
279 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
287 To change a note by two (or more!) octaves, we use multiple
288 @code{''} or @code{,,} -- but be careful that you use two single
289 quotes @code{''} and not one double quote @code{"}@tie{}! The
290 initial value in @code{\relative c'} may also be modified like
294 @subheading Durations (rhythms)
296 The @rglos{duration} of a note is specified by a number after the
297 note name. @samp{1} for a @rglos{whole note}, @samp{2} for a
298 @rglos{half note}, @samp{4} for a @rglos{quarter note} and so on.
299 Beams are added automatically.
301 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
305 a16 a a a a32 a a a a64 a a a a a a a a2
310 If you do not specify a duration, the previous duration is used
311 for the next note. The duration of the first note defaults to a
314 To create @rglos{dotted note}s, add a dot @samp{.} to the duration
317 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
327 A @rglos{rest} is entered just like a note with the name @samp{r}:
329 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
337 @subheading Time signature
339 The @rglos{time signature}) can be set with the @code{\time}
342 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
356 The @rglos{clef} can be set using the @code{\clef} command:
358 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
372 @subheading All together
374 Here is a small example showing all these elements together:
376 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
388 @item Entering pitches and durations
389 see @ruser{Pitches}, and @ruser{Durations}.
392 @item Time signatures and other timing commands
393 see @ruser{Time signature}.
400 @node Working on text files
401 @subsection Working on text files
403 LilyPond input files are similar to source files in many common
404 programming languages. They are case sensitive, and white-space
405 is generally equivalent. Expressions are formed with curly braces
406 @{ @}, and comments are denoted with @code{%} or @code{%@{ ...
409 If the previous sentence sounds like nonsense, don't worry! We'll
410 explain what all these terms mean:
414 @cindex Case sensitive
415 @item @strong{Case sensitive}:
416 it matters whether you enter a letter in lower case (i.e. @code{a,
417 b, s, t}) or upper case (i.e. @code{A, B, S, T}). Notes are
418 lower case: @code{@{ c d e @}} is valid input; @code{@{ C D E @}}
419 will produce an error message.
421 @item @strong{Whitespace insensitive}:
422 it does not matter how many spaces (or new lines) you add.
423 @code{@{ c d e @}} means the same thing as @code{@{ c @tie{}
424 @tie{} @tie{} d e @}} and @example @{ c d e
428 Of course, the previous example is hard to read. A good rule of
429 thumb is to indent code blocks with either a tab or two spaces:
437 @item @strong{Expressions:}
438 Every piece of LilyPond input needs to have @strong{@{ curly
439 braces @}} placed around the input. These braces tell LilyPond
440 that the input is a single music expression, just like parenthesis
441 @samp{()} in mathematics. The braces should be surrounded by a
442 space unless they are at the beginning or end of a line to avoid
445 A function (such as @code{\relative @{ @}}) also counts as a
446 single music expression.
450 @cindex block comment
451 @item @strong{Comments}:
452 A comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input; it
453 is ignored while parsing, so it has no effect on the printed
454 output. There are two types of comments. The percent symbol
455 @samp{%} introduces a line comment; anything after @samp{%} on
456 that line is ignored. A block comment marks a whole section of
457 music input as a comment. Anything that is enclosed in @code{%@{}
458 and @code{%@}} is ignored. (Comments do not nest.) The following
459 fragment shows possible uses for comments
462 % notes for twinkle twinkle follow
466 This line, and the notes below
467 are ignored, since they are in a
476 There are more tips for constructing input files in
477 @ruser{Suggestions for writing LilyPond files}.
480 @node How to read the tutorial
481 @subsection How to read the tutorial
483 As we saw in @ruser{Working on text files}, LilyPond input must be
484 surrounded by @{ @} marks or a @code{\relative c'' @{ ... @}}.
485 For the rest of this manual, most examples will omit this.
487 If you are reading the HTML documentation and wish to see the
488 exact exact LilyPond code that was used to create the example,
489 simply click on the picture. If you are not reading the HTML
490 version, you could copy and paste the displayed input, but you
491 @strong{must} add the @code{\relative c'' @{ @}} like this:
495 ... example goes here...
499 Why omit the braces? Most examples in this manual can be inserted
500 into the middle of a longer piece of music. For these examples,
501 it does not make sense to add @code{\relative c'' @{ @}} -- you
502 should not place a @code{\relative} inside another
503 @code{\relative}, so you would not be able to copy a small
504 documentation example and paste it inside a longer piece of your
508 @node Single staff notation
509 @section Single staff notation
511 This section introduces common notation that is used for one voice
515 * Relative note names::
516 * Accidentals and key signatures::
518 * Articulation and dynamics::
519 * Automatic and manual beams::
520 * Advanced rhythmic commands::
524 @node Relative note names
525 @subsection Relative note names
527 As we saw in @ruser{Simple notation}, LilyPond calculates the
528 pitch of each note relative to the previous one@footnote{There is
529 another mode of entering pitches, @ruser{Absolute note names}, but
530 in practice relative mode is much easier and safer to use.}. If
531 no extra octave marks (@code{'} and @code{,}) are added, it
532 assumes that each pitch is within a fourth of the previous note.
534 LilyPond examines pitches based on the note names -- in other
535 words, an augmented fourth is @emph{not} the same as a diminished
536 fifth. If we begin at a C, then an F-sharp will be placed a
537 higher than the C, while a G-flat will be placed lower than the C.
539 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
547 @item Relative octaves
548 see @ruser{Relative octaves}.
550 see @ruser{Octave check}.
556 @node Accidentals and key signatures
557 @subsection Accidentals and key signatures
559 @subheading Accidentals
561 A @rglos{sharp} pitch is made by adding @samp{is} to the name, and
562 a @rglos{flat} pitch by adding @samp{es}. As you might expect, a
563 @rglos{double sharp} or @rglos{double flat} is made by adding
564 @samp{isis} or @samp{eses}@footnote{This syntax derived from note
565 naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages, like German
566 and Dutch. To use other names for accidentals, see @ruser{Note
567 names in other languages}.}
569 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
570 cis1 ees fisis, aeses
573 @cindex key signature, setting
574 @subheading Key signatures
576 The key signature is set with the command @code{\key} followed by
577 a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}.
579 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
588 @subheading Warning: key signatures and pitches
590 To determine whether to print an accidental, LilyPond examines the
591 pitches and the key signature. The key signature only affects the
592 @emph{printed} accidentals, not the actual pitches! This is a
593 feature that often causes confusion to newcomers, so let us
594 explain it in more detail.
596 LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
597 layout. The alteration (flat, natural or sharp) of a note is part
598 of the pitch, and is therefore musical content. Whether an
599 accidental (a @emph{printed} flat, natural or sharp sign) is
600 printed in front of the corresponding note is a question of
601 layout. Layout is something that follows rules, so accidentals
602 are printed automatically according to those rules. The pitches
603 in your music are works of art, so they will not be added
604 automatically, and you must enter what you want to hear.
608 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
614 No note has a printed accidental, but you must still add the
615 @samp{is} to @code{cis} and @code{fis}.
617 The code @samp{e} does not mean @qq{print a black dot just below
618 the first line of the staff.} Rather, it means: @qq{there is a
619 note with pitch E-natural.} In the key of A-flat major, it
620 @emph{does} get an accidental:
622 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
627 Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more
628 effort when typing, but the advantage is that transposing is
629 easier, and accidentals can be printed according to different
630 conventions. See @ruser{Automatic accidentals}, for some examples
631 how accidentals can be printed according to different rules.
637 see @ruser{Accidentals}, and @ruser{Automatic accidentals}.
639 see @ruser{Key signature}.
645 @subsection Ties and slurs
649 A @rglos{tie} is created by appending a tilde @samp{~} to the
650 first note being tied
652 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
660 A @rglos{slur} is a curve drawn across many notes. The starting
661 note and ending note are marked with @samp{(} and @samp{)}
664 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
665 d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
668 @cindex slurs, phrasing
669 @cindex phrasing slurs
670 @subheading Phrasing slurs
672 Slurs to indicate longer phrasing can be entered with @code{\(}
673 and @code{\)}. You can have both legato slurs and phrasing slurs
674 at the same time, but you cannot have simultaneous slurs or
675 simultaneous phrasing slurs.
677 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
678 a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis,\)
683 @cindex slurs versus ties
684 @subheading Warnings: slurs vs. ties
686 A slur looks like a @rglos{tie}, but it has a different meaning.
687 A tie simply makes the first note longer, and can only be used on
688 pairs of notes with the same pitch. Slurs indicate the
689 articulations of notes, and can be used on larger groups of notes.
690 Slurs and ties can be nested.
692 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
693 c2~( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2)
704 see @ruser{Phrasing slurs}.
709 @node Articulation and dynamics
710 @subsection Articulation and dynamics
715 @subheading Articulations
717 Common @rglos{articulation}s can be added to a note using a dash
718 @samp{-} and a single character:
720 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
721 c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
725 @subheading Fingerings
726 Similarly, fingering indications can be added to a note using a
727 dash (@samp{-}) and the digit to be printed:
729 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
733 Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but
734 you can specify a direction using @samp{^} (up) or @samp{_}
735 (down). You can also use multiple articulations on the same note.
736 However, in most cases it is best to let LilyPond determine the
737 articulation directions.
739 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
740 c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
744 Dynamic signs are made by adding the markings (with a backslash)
747 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
755 Crescendi and decrescendi are started with the commands @code{\<}
756 and @code{\>}. An ending dynamic, for example @code{\f}, will
757 finish the (de)crescendo, or the command @code{\!} can be used
759 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
767 see @ruser{Articulations}.
769 see @ruser{Fingering instructions}.
771 see @ruser{Dynamics}.
776 @node Automatic and manual beams
777 @subsection Automatic and manual beams
779 @cindex beams, by hand
780 All @rglos{beam}s are drawn automatically:
782 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
783 a8 ais d ees r d c16 b a8
787 If you do not like the automatic beams, they may be overridden
788 manually. Mark the first note to be beamed with @samp{[} and the
789 last one with @samp{]}.
791 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
792 a8[ ais] d[ ees r d] a b
798 @item Automatic beams
799 see @ruser{Automatic beams}.
801 see @ruser{Manual beams}.
806 @node Advanced rhythmic commands
807 @subsection Advanced rhythmic commands
811 @cindex partial measure
812 @subheading Partial measure
814 A pickup (or @rglos{anacrusis}) is entered with the keyword
815 @code{\partial}. It is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4}
816 is a quarter note pickup and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note.
818 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
827 Tuplets are made with the @code{\times} keyword. It takes two
828 arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The duration of the
829 piece of music is multiplied by the fraction. Triplets make notes
830 occupy 2/3 of their notated duration, so a triplet has 2/3 as its
833 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
834 \times 2/3 { f8 g a }
836 \times 2/3 { f,8 g16[ a g a] }
843 @subheading Grace notes
845 Grace notes are created with the @code{\grace} command, although
846 they can also be created by prefixing a music expression with the
847 keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}
849 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
850 c2 \grace { a32[ b] } c2
851 c2 \appoggiatura b16 c2
852 c2 \acciaccatura b16 c2
859 see @ruser{Grace notes},
863 see @ruser{Partial measures}.
868 @node Multiple notes at once
869 @section Multiple notes at once
871 This section introduces having more than one note at the same
872 time: multiple instruments, multiple staves for a single
873 instrument (i.e. piano), and chords.
875 Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occurring
876 in a piece of music. Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more
877 than one voice on the same staff.
880 * Music expressions explained::
883 * Combining notes into chords::
884 * Single staff polyphony::
888 @node Music expressions explained
889 @subsection Music expressions explained
891 In LilyPond input files, music is represented by @emph{music
892 expressions}. A single note is a music expression:
894 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
898 Enclosing a note in braces creates a @emph{compound music
899 expression}. Here we have created a compound music expression
902 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
906 Putting a group of music expressions (e.g. notes) in braces means
907 that they are in sequence (i.e. each one follows the previous
908 one). The result is another music expression:
910 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
914 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: multiple staves
916 This technique is useful for polyphonic music. To enter music
917 with more voices or more staves, we combine expressions in
918 parallel. To indicate that two voices should play at the same
919 time, simply enter a simultaneous combination of music
920 expressions. A @q{simultaneous} music expression is formed by
921 enclosing expressions inside @code{<<} and @code{>>}. In the
922 following example, three sequences (all containing two separate
923 notes) are combined simultaneously:
925 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
935 Note that we have indented each level of the input with a
936 different amount of space. LilyPond does not care how much (or
937 little) space there is at the beginning of a line, but indenting
938 LilyPond code like this makes it much easier for humans to read.
940 @warning{each note is relative to the previous note in
941 the input, not relative to the @code{c''} in the initial
942 @code{\\relative} command.}
945 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: single staff
947 To determine the number of staves in a piece, LilyPond looks at
948 the first expression. If it is a single note, there is one staff;
949 if there is a simultaneous expression, there is more than one
952 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
955 << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
960 @cindex music expression
961 @subheading Analogy: mathematical expressions
963 This mechanism is similar to mathematical formulas: a big formula
964 is created by composing small formulas. Such formulas are called
965 expressions, and their definition is recursive so you can make
966 arbitrarily complex and large expressions. For example,
975 ((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
978 This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is
979 contained in the next (larger) one. The simplest expressions are
980 numbers, and larger ones are made by combining expressions with
981 operators (like @samp{+}, @samp{*} and @samp{/}) and parentheses.
982 Like mathematical expressions, music expressions can be nested
983 arbitrarily deep, which is necessary for complex music like
987 @node Multiple staves
988 @subsection Multiple staves
990 As we saw in @ruser{Music expressions explained}, LilyPond input
991 files are constructed out of music expressions. If the score
992 begins with simultaneous music expressions, LilyPond creates
993 multiples staves. However, it is easier to see what happens if we
994 create each staff explicitly.
996 To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
997 staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it. These
998 @code{Staff} elements are then combined in parallel with @code{<<}
1001 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1004 \new Staff { \clef treble c }
1005 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
1010 The command @code{\new} introduces a @q{notation context.} A
1011 notation context is an environment in which musical events (like
1012 notes or @code{\clef} commands) are interpreted. For simple
1013 pieces, such notation contexts are created automatically. For
1014 more complex pieces, it is best to mark contexts explicitly.
1016 There are several types of contexts. @code{Score}, @code{Staff},
1017 and @code{Voice} handle melodic notation, while @code{Lyrics} sets
1018 lyric texts and @code{ChordNames} prints chord names.
1020 In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
1021 creates a bigger music expression. In this way it resembles the
1022 minus sign in mathematics. The formula @math{(4+5)} is an
1023 expression, so @math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.
1025 Time signatures entered in one staff affects all other
1026 staves@footnote{This behavior may be changed if desired; see
1027 @ruser{Polymetric notation}, for details.}. On the other hand, the
1028 key signature of one staff does @emph{not} affect other staves.
1030 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1033 \new Staff { \clef treble \time 3/4 c }
1034 \new Staff { \clef bass \key d \major c,, }
1043 @subsection Piano staves
1045 @cindex staff switch, manual
1046 @cindex cross staff voice, manual
1047 Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a brace.
1048 Printing such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in
1049 @ruser{Multiple staves}, but now this entire expression is
1050 inserted inside a @code{PianoStaff}:
1059 Here is a small example
1061 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1064 \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 e g g, }
1065 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
1072 See @ruser{Piano music}.
1076 @node Combining notes into chords
1077 @subsection Combining notes into chords
1080 Chords can be made by surrounding pitches with single angle
1081 brackets. Angle brackets are the symbols @samp{<} and @samp{>}.
1083 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1084 r4 <c e g>4 <c f a>2
1087 You can combine markings like beams and ties with chords. They
1088 must be placed outside the angle brackets
1090 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1091 r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>2
1094 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1095 r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g>4 <c f a>\!)
1099 @node Single staff polyphony
1100 @subsection Single staff polyphony
1103 @cindex multiple voices
1104 @cindex voices, more -- on a staff
1105 When different melodic lines are combined on a single staff they
1106 are printed as polyphonic voices; each voice has its own stems,
1107 slurs and beams, and the top voice has the stems up, while the
1108 bottom voice has them down.
1110 Entering such parts is done by entering each voice as a sequence
1111 (with @code{@{...@}}) and combining these simultaneously,
1112 separating the voices with @code{\\}
1114 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
1121 For polyphonic music typesetting, spacer rests can also be
1122 convenient; these are rests that do not print. They are useful
1123 for filling up voices that temporarily do not play. Here is the
1124 same example with a spacer rest (@samp{s}) instead of a normal
1127 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
1135 Again, these expressions can be nested arbitrarily.
1137 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1145 { <c g>1 ~ <c g>4 } \\
1153 See @ruser{Basic polyphony}.
1160 This section introduces vocal music and simple song sheets.
1163 * Setting simple songs::
1164 * Aligning lyrics to a melody::
1165 * Lyrics to multiple staves::
1169 @node Setting simple songs
1170 @subsection Setting simple songs
1174 Here is the start of the melody to a nursery
1175 rhyme, @qq{Girls and boys come out to play}:
1177 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1181 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1185 The lyrics can be set to these notes, combining both with the
1186 @code{\addlyrics} keyword. Lyrics are entered by separating each
1187 syllable with a space.
1189 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1194 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1197 Girls and boys come out to play,
1202 Note the curly brackets delimiting both the music and the lyrics,
1203 and the angle brackets @code{<< ... >>} around the whole piece to
1204 show that the music and lyrics are to occur at the same time.
1206 @node Aligning lyrics to a melody
1207 @subsection Aligning lyrics to a melody
1210 @cindex extender line
1214 The next line in the nursery rhyme is @q{The moon doth shine as
1215 bright as day}. Let's extend it:
1217 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1222 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1223 g8 a4 b8 c b a d4 b8 g4.
1226 Girls and boys come out to play,
1227 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
1232 We see the extra lyrics do not align properly with the notes. The
1233 word @q{shine} should be sung on two notes, not one. This is
1234 called a @rglos{melisma}, a single syllable sung to more than one
1235 note. There are several ways to spread a syllable over multiple
1236 notes, the simplest being to add a slur across them (see @ref{Ties
1239 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1244 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1245 g8 a4 b8 c([ b)] a d4 b8 g4.
1248 Girls and boys come out to play,
1249 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
1254 Here we have also used manual beaming (the square brackets @code{[
1255 ]} ) to generate the beaming which is customarily used with lyrics
1256 (see @ref{Automatic and manual beams}).
1258 If a syllable extends over several notes or a single very long
1259 note an @emph{extender line} is usually drawn from the syllable
1260 extending under all the notes for that syllable. It is entered as
1261 two underscores @code{__}. Here is an example from the first
1262 three bars of Dido's Lament, from Purcell's Dido and Æneas:
1264 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1270 b c4.( bes8 a4. g8 fis4.) g8 fis1
1274 am laid __ in earth,
1279 None of the examples so far have involved words containing more
1280 than one syllable. Such words are usually split one syllable to a
1281 note, with hyphens between syllables. Such hyphens are entered as
1282 two dashes, resulting in a centered hyphen between the syllables.
1283 Here is an example showing this and everything we have learned so
1284 far about aligning lyrics to notes.
1286 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1287 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1288 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1294 d4 g4 g a8( b) g4 g4
1298 A -- way in a __ man -- ger,
1299 no __ crib for a bed, __
1304 Some lyrics, especially those in Italian, require the opposite:
1305 setting more than one syllable to a single note. This is
1306 achieved by linking the syllables together with a single
1307 underscore @code{_} (with no spaces), or enclosing them in
1308 quotes. Here's an example from Rossini's Figaro, where
1309 @q{al} has to be sung on the same note as the @q{go} of
1310 @q{Largo} in Figaro's aria @q{Largo al factotum}:
1312 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1313 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1314 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1320 c4.~ c8 d b c([ d)] b c d b c
1323 Lar -- go_al fac -- to -- tum del -- la cit -- tĂ
1331 More options, such as inserting explicit rhythms into lyrics,
1332 inserting lyric ties (e.g., between @q{go al}) above,
1333 alternative ways of handling melismata,
1334 and adding extra verses,
1335 are discussed in @ruser{Vocal music}.
1338 @node Lyrics to multiple staves
1339 @subsection Lyrics to multiple staves
1341 The simple approach using @code{\addlyrics} can be used for
1342 placing lyrics under more than one staff. Here is an
1343 example from Handel's Judas Maccabæus:
1345 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1351 \relative c'' { \key f \major
1352 c8 c([ bes)] a a([ g)] f f'4. b, c4.~ c4
1355 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn, __
1357 \relative c' { \key f \major
1358 r8 r4. r4 c8 a'([ g)] f f([ e)] d e([ d)] c bes'4
1361 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn,
1366 but scores any more complex than this simple example are
1367 better produced by separating out the staff structure
1368 from the notes and lyrics with identifiers. These are
1369 discussed later (see @ref{Organizing pieces with identifiers}).
1373 More options, such as putting multiple stanzas below the score,
1374 setting choral music, and lyrics to divided voices,
1375 are discussed in @ruser{Vocal music}.
1380 @section Final touches
1382 This is the final section of the tutorial; it demonstrates how to
1383 add the final touches to simple pieces, and provides an
1384 introduction to the rest of the manual.
1389 * Absolute note names::
1390 * Organizing pieces with identifiers::
1391 * After the tutorial::
1392 * How to read the manual::
1396 @node Version number
1397 @subsection Version number
1400 The @code{\version} statement records the version of LilyPond that
1401 was used to write the file:
1408 by convention, this is placed at the top of your LilyPond file.
1410 These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more
1411 smoothly. Changes in the syntax are handled with a special
1412 program, @file{convert-ly} (see @rprogram{Updating files with
1413 convert-ly}), and it uses @code{\version} to determine what rules
1418 @subsection Adding titles
1420 The title, composer, opus number, and similar information are
1421 entered in the @code{\header} block. This exists outside of the
1422 main music expression; the @code{\header} block is usually placed
1423 underneath the @ruser{Version number}.
1434 @dots{} music @dots{}
1438 When the file is processed, the title and composer are printed
1439 above the music. More information on titling can be found in
1440 @ruser{Creating titles}.
1443 @node Absolute note names
1444 @subsection Absolute note names
1446 So far we have always used @code{\relative} to define pitches.
1447 This is the easiest way to enter most music, but another way of
1448 defining pitches exists: absolute mode.
1450 If you omit the @code{\relative}, LilyPond treats all pitches as
1451 absolute values. A @code{c'} will always mean middle C, a
1452 @code{b} will always mean the note one step below middle C, and a
1453 @code{g,} will always mean the note on the bottom staff of the
1456 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1464 Here is a four-octave scale:
1466 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1481 As you can see, writing a melody in the treble clef involves a lot
1482 of quote @code{'} marks. Consider this fragment from Mozart:
1484 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1488 cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
1489 b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8
1493 All these quotes makes the input less readable and it is a source
1494 of errors. With @code{\relative}, the previous example is much
1497 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1501 cis8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
1506 If you make a mistake with an octave mark (@code{'} or @code{,})
1507 while working in @code{\relative} mode, it is very obvious -- many
1508 notes will be in the wrong octave. When working in absolute mode,
1509 a single mistake will not be as visible, and will not be as easy
1512 However, absolute mode is useful for music which has large
1513 intervals, and is extremely useful for computer-generated LilyPond
1517 @node Organizing pieces with identifiers
1518 @subsection Organizing pieces with identifiers
1520 When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
1521 larger files, the music expressions get a lot bigger. In
1522 polyphonic music with many staves, the input files can become very
1523 confusing. We can reduce this confusion by using
1526 With identifiers (also known as variables or macros), we can break
1527 up complex music expressions. An identifier is assigned as
1531 namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
1534 The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic} can be used
1535 later by placing a backslash in front of the name
1536 (@code{\namedMusic}, just like a normal LilyPond command).
1537 Identifiers must be defined @emph{before} the main music
1540 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1541 violin = \new Staff { \relative c'' {
1544 cello = \new Staff { \relative c {
1557 The name of an identifier must have alphabetic characters only: no
1558 numbers, underscores, or dashes.
1560 It is possible to use variables for many other types of objects in
1561 the input. For example,
1566 aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
1569 Depending on its contents, the identifier can be used in different
1570 places. The following example uses the above variables:
1581 @node After the tutorial
1582 @subsection After the tutorial
1584 After finishing the tutorial, you should probably try writing a
1585 piece or two. Start with one of the @ruser{Templates}, and add
1586 notes. If you need any notation that was not covered in the
1587 tutorial, look at the Notation Reference, starting with
1588 @ruser{Basic notation}. If you want to write for an instrument
1589 ensemble that is not covered in the templates, take a look at
1590 @ruser{Extending the templates}.
1592 Once you have written a few short pieces, read the rest of the
1593 Learning Manual (chapters 3-5). There's nothing wrong with
1594 reading it now, of course! However, the rest of the Learning
1595 Manual assumes that you are familiar with LilyPond input. You may
1596 wish to skim these chapters right now, and come back to them after
1597 you have more experience.
1600 @node How to read the manual
1601 @subsection How to read the manual
1603 As we saw in @ruser{How to read the tutorial}, many examples in
1604 the tutorial omitted a @code{\relative c'' @{ ... @}} around the
1607 In the rest of the manual, we are much more lax about the printed
1608 examples: sometimes they may have omitted a @code{\relative c'' @{
1609 ... @}}, but other times a different initial pitch may be used
1610 (such as @code{c'} or @code{c,,}), and in some cases the whole
1611 example is in absolute note mode! However, ambiguities like this
1612 only exist where the pitches are not important. In any example
1613 where the pitch matters, we have explicitly stated
1614 @code{\relative} or absolute-mode @code{@{ @}}.
1616 If you are still confused about the exact LilyPond input that was
1617 used in an example, read the HTML version (if you are not already
1618 doing so) and click on the picture of the music. This will
1619 display the exact input that LilyPond used to generate this
1622 For information about the structure of the rest of the manual, see
1623 @ruser{About this manual}.