1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @c This file is part of lilypond-learning.tely
4 Translation of GIT committish: FILL-IN-HEAD-COMMITTISH
6 When revising a translation, copy the HEAD committish of the
7 version that you are working on. See TRANSLATION for details.
12 - unless you have a really good reason, use either
13 @l ilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
15 @l ilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
17 Don't use any other relative=X commands (make it a non-fragment
18 example), and don't use fragment without relative=2.
19 - use "aes" and "ees" instead of "as" and "aes". I know it's not
20 correct Dutch naming, but let's not confuse people with this
21 until we get to the Basic notation chapter.
26 @c old info that will probably be removed.
28 @c * more details about running lilypond; error messages,
29 @c compiling/viewing (emacs?)
30 @c * where to go from First steps+More basics?
32 @c wherever possible, do not include index entries here; the
33 @c index should point to stuff in the reference manual. -gp
35 @c Your first LilyPond score in 10 minutes?
40 This tutorial starts with an introduction to the LilyPond music
41 language and how to produce printed music. After this first
42 contact we will explain how to create common musical notation.
45 Many people learn programs by trying and fiddling around with the
46 program. This is also possible with LilyPond. If you click on a
47 picture in the HTML version of this manual, you will see the exact
48 LilyPond input that was used to generate that image. Try it on
52 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
54 c-\markup { \bold \huge { Click here. } }
58 By cutting and pasting everything in the @qq{ly snippet} section,
59 you have a starting template for experiments. If you like
60 learning in this way, you will probably want to print out or
61 bookmark the @ruser{Cheat sheet}, which is a table listing of the
62 most common commands for quick reference.
68 * Single staff notation::
69 * Multiple notes at once::
78 This section gives a basic introduction to working with LilyPond.
83 * Working on text files::
84 * How to read the tutorial::
88 @node Compiling a file
89 @subsection Compiling a file
91 The first example demonstrates how to start working with LilyPond.
92 To create sheet music, we write a text file that specifies the
93 notation. For example, if we write
102 the result looks like this
104 @c in this case we don't want verbatim
105 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
111 @warning{Every piece of LilyPond input needs to have
112 @strong{@{ curly braces @}} placed around the input. The braces
113 should also be surrounded by a space unless they are at the
114 beginning or end of a line to avoid ambiguities. The braces may
115 be omitted in some examples in this manual, but don't forget them
118 @cindex Case sensitive
119 In addition, LilyPond input is @strong{case sensitive}. @code{
120 @{ c d e @}} is valid input; @code{@{ C D E @}} will produce an
125 @subheading Entering music and viewing output
127 In this section we will explain what commands to run and how to
128 view or print the output.
130 @subsubheading MacOS X
132 If you double click @code{LilyPond.app}, it will open with an
133 example file. Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your
134 Desktop, and then process it with the menu command @samp{Compile >
135 Typeset File}. The resulting PDF file will be displayed on your
138 Be warned that the first time you ever run LilyPond, it will take
139 a minute or two because all of the system fonts have to be
142 For future use of LilyPond, you should begin by selecting @q{New}
143 or @q{Open}. You must save your file before typesetting it. If
144 any errors occur in processing, please see the log window.
146 @subsubheading Windows
148 On Windows, if you double-click in the LilyPond icon on the
149 Desktop, it will open a simple text editor with an example file.
150 Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your Desktop and then
151 double-click on the file to process it (the file icon looks like a
152 note). After some seconds, you will get a file @file{test.pdf} on
153 your desktop. Double-click on this PDF file to view the typeset
154 score. An alternative method to process the @file{test.ly} file
155 is to drag and drop it onto the LilyPond icon using your mouse
158 To edit an existing @file{.ly} file, right-click on it and
159 select @qq{Edit source}. To get an empty file to start from, run
160 the editor as described above and use @qq{New} in
163 Double-clicking the file does not only result in a PDF file, but
164 also produces a @file{.log} file that contains some information on
165 what LilyPond has done to the file. If any errors occur, please
168 Note that there are several other text editors available, with
169 better support for LilyPond, see @rprogram{Text editor support},
170 for more information.
174 Begin by opening a terminal window and starting a text editor.
175 For example, you could open an xterm and execute
176 @code{joe}@footnote{There are macro files for VIM addicts, and
177 there is a @code{LilyPond-mode} for Emacs addicts. If they have
178 not been installed already, refer to the file @file{INSTALL.txt}.
179 The easiest editing environment is @file{LilyPondTool}. See
180 @rprogram{Text editor support}, for more information.}. In your
181 text editor, enter the following input and save the file as
191 To process @file{test.ly}, proceed as follows
198 You will see something resembling
205 Interpreting music... [1]
206 Preprocessing graphical objects...
207 Calculating line breaks... [2]
208 Layout output to `test.ps'...
209 Converting to `test.pdf'...
213 @cindex Viewing music
216 The result is the file @file{test.pdf} which you can print or view
217 with the standard facilities of your operating system.@footnote{If
218 your system does not have any such tools installed, you can try
219 @uref{http://@/www@/.cs@/.wisc@/.edu/@/~ghost/,Ghostscript}, a
220 freely available package for viewing and printing PDF and
224 @node Simple notation
225 @subsection Simple notation
227 LilyPond will add some notation elements automatically. In the
228 next example, we have only specified four pitches, but LilyPond
229 has added a clef, time signature, and rhythms.
231 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
238 This behavior may be altered, but in most cases these automatic
244 The easiest way to enter notes is by using @code{\relative} mode.
245 In this mode, the @rglos{interval} between the previous note and
246 the current note is assumed to be within a @rglos{fourth}. We
247 begin by entering the most elementary piece of music, a
250 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
257 The initial note is @rglos{middle C}. Each successive note is
258 within a fourth of the previous note -- in other words, the first
259 @samp{c} is the closest C to middle C. This is followed by the
260 closest D to the previous note. We can create melodies which have
263 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
271 As you may notice, this example does not start on middle C. The
272 first note -- the @samp{d} -- is the closest D to middle C.
274 To add intervals that are larger than a fourth, we can raise the
275 octave by adding a single quote @code{'} (or apostrophe) to the
276 note name. We can lower the octave by adding a comma @code{,} to
279 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
287 To change a note by two (or more!) octaves, we use multiple
288 @code{''} or @code{,,} -- but be careful that you use two single
289 quotes @code{''} and not one double quote @code{"}@tie{}! The
290 initial value in @code{\relative c'} may also be modified like
294 @subheading Durations (rhythms)
296 The @rglos{duration} of a note is specified by a number after the
297 note name. @samp{1} for a @rglos{whole note}, @samp{2} for a
298 @rglos{half note}, @samp{4} for a @rglos{quarter note} and so on.
299 Beams are added automatically.
301 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
305 a16 a a a a32 a a a a64 a a a a a a a a2
310 If you do not specify a duration, the previous duration is used
311 for the next note. The duration of the first note defaults to a
314 To create @rglos{dotted note}s, add a dot @samp{.} to the duration
317 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
327 A @rglos{rest} is entered just like a note with the name @samp{r}:
329 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
337 @subheading Time signature
339 The @rglos{time signature}) can be set with the @code{\time}
342 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
356 The @rglos{clef} can be set using the @code{\clef} command:
358 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
372 @subheading All together
374 Here is a small example showing all these elements together:
376 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
388 @item Entering pitches and durations
389 see @ruser{Pitches}, and @ruser{Durations}.
392 @item Time signatures and other timing commands
393 see @ruser{Time signature}.
400 @node Working on text files
401 @subsection Working on text files
403 LilyPond input files are similar to source files in many common
404 programming languages. They are case sensitive, and white-space
405 is generally equivalent. Expressions are formed with curly braces
406 @{ @}, and comments are denoted with @code{%} or @code{%@{ ...
409 If the previous sentence sounds like nonsense, don't worry! We'll
410 explain what all these terms mean:
414 @cindex Case sensitive
415 @item @strong{Case sensitive}:
416 it matters whether you enter a letter in lower case (i.e. @code{a,
417 b, s, t}) or upper case (i.e. @code{A, B, S, T}). Notes are
418 lower case: @code{@{ c d e @}} is valid input; @code{@{ C D E @}}
419 will produce an error message.
421 @item @strong{Whitespace insensitive}:
422 it does not matter how many spaces (or new lines) you add.
423 @code{@{ c d e @}} means the same thing as @code{@{ c @tie{}
424 @tie{} @tie{} d e @}} and
432 Of course, the previous example is hard to read. A good rule of
433 thumb is to indent code blocks with either a tab or two spaces:
441 @item @strong{Expressions:}
442 Every piece of LilyPond input needs to have @strong{@{ curly
443 braces @}} placed around the input. These braces tell LilyPond
444 that the input is a single music expression, just like parenthesis
445 @samp{()} in mathematics. The braces should be surrounded by a
446 space unless they are at the beginning or end of a line to avoid
449 A function (such as @code{\relative @{ @}}) also counts as a
450 single music expression.
454 @cindex block comment
455 @item @strong{Comments}:
456 A comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input; it
457 is ignored while parsing, so it has no effect on the printed
458 output. There are two types of comments. The percent symbol
459 @samp{%} introduces a line comment; anything after @samp{%} on
460 that line is ignored. A block comment marks a whole section of
461 music input as a comment. Anything that is enclosed in @code{%@{}
462 and @code{%@}} is ignored. (Comments do not nest.) The following
463 fragment shows possible uses for comments
466 % notes for twinkle twinkle follow
470 This line, and the notes below
471 are ignored, since they are in a
480 There are more tips for constructing input files in
481 @ruser{Suggestions for writing LilyPond files}.
484 @node How to read the tutorial
485 @subsection How to read the tutorial
487 As we saw in @ruser{Working on text files}, LilyPond input must be
488 surrounded by @{ @} marks or a @code{\relative c'' @{ ... @}}.
489 For the rest of this manual, most examples will omit this.
491 If you are reading the HTML documentation and wish to see the
492 exact exact LilyPond code that was used to create the example,
493 simply click on the picture. If you are not reading the HTML
494 version, you could copy and paste the displayed input, but you
495 @strong{must} add the @code{\relative c'' @{ @}} like this:
499 ... example goes here...
503 Why omit the braces? Most examples in this manual can be inserted
504 into the middle of a longer piece of music. For these examples,
505 it does not make sense to add @code{\relative c'' @{ @}} -- you
506 should not place a @code{\relative} inside another
507 @code{\relative}, so you would not be able to copy a small
508 documentation example and paste it inside a longer piece of your
512 @node Single staff notation
513 @section Single staff notation
515 This section introduces common notation that is used for one voice
519 * Relative note names::
520 * Accidentals and key signatures::
522 * Articulation and dynamics::
523 * Automatic and manual beams::
524 * Advanced rhythmic commands::
528 @node Relative note names
529 @subsection Relative note names
531 As we saw in @ruser{Simple notation}, LilyPond calculates the
532 pitch of each note relative to the previous one@footnote{There is
533 another mode of entering pitches, @ruser{Absolute note names}, but
534 in practice relative mode is much easier and safer to use.}. If
535 no extra octave marks (@code{'} and @code{,}) are added, it
536 assumes that each pitch is within a fourth of the previous note.
538 LilyPond examines pitches based on the note names -- in other
539 words, an augmented fourth is @emph{not} the same as a diminished
540 fifth. If we begin at a C, then an F-sharp will be placed a
541 higher than the C, while a G-flat will be placed lower than the C.
543 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
551 @item Relative octaves
552 see @ruser{Relative octaves}.
554 see @ruser{Octave check}.
560 @node Accidentals and key signatures
561 @subsection Accidentals and key signatures
563 @subheading Accidentals
565 A @rglos{sharp} pitch is made by adding @samp{is} to the name, and
566 a @rglos{flat} pitch by adding @samp{es}. As you might expect, a
567 @rglos{double sharp} or @rglos{double flat} is made by adding
568 @samp{isis} or @samp{eses}@footnote{This syntax derived from note
569 naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages, like German
570 and Dutch. To use other names for accidentals, see @ruser{Note
571 names in other languages}.}
573 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
574 cis1 ees fisis, aeses
577 @cindex key signature, setting
578 @subheading Key signatures
580 The key signature is set with the command @code{\key} followed by
581 a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}.
583 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
592 @subheading Warning: key signatures and pitches
594 To determine whether to print an accidental, LilyPond examines the
595 pitches and the key signature. The key signature only affects the
596 @emph{printed} accidentals, not the actual pitches! This is a
597 feature that often causes confusion to newcomers, so let us
598 explain it in more detail.
600 LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
601 layout. The alteration (flat, natural or sharp) of a note is part
602 of the pitch, and is therefore musical content. Whether an
603 accidental (a @emph{printed} flat, natural or sharp sign) is
604 printed in front of the corresponding note is a question of
605 layout. Layout is something that follows rules, so accidentals
606 are printed automatically according to those rules. The pitches
607 in your music are works of art, so they will not be added
608 automatically, and you must enter what you want to hear.
612 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
618 No note has a printed accidental, but you must still add the
619 @samp{is} to @code{cis} and @code{fis}.
621 The code @samp{e} does not mean @qq{print a black dot just below
622 the first line of the staff.} Rather, it means: @qq{there is a
623 note with pitch E-natural.} In the key of A-flat major, it
624 @emph{does} get an accidental:
626 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
631 Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more
632 effort when typing, but the advantage is that transposing is
633 easier, and accidentals can be printed according to different
634 conventions. See @ruser{Automatic accidentals}, for some examples
635 how accidentals can be printed according to different rules.
641 see @ruser{Accidentals}, and @ruser{Automatic accidentals}.
643 see @ruser{Key signature}.
649 @subsection Ties and slurs
653 A @rglos{tie} is created by appending a tilde @samp{~} to the
654 first note being tied
656 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
664 A @rglos{slur} is a curve drawn across many notes. The starting
665 note and ending note are marked with @samp{(} and @samp{)}
668 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
669 d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
672 @cindex slurs, phrasing
673 @cindex phrasing slurs
674 @subheading Phrasing slurs
676 Slurs to indicate longer phrasing can be entered with @code{\(}
677 and @code{\)}. You can have both legato slurs and phrasing slurs
678 at the same time, but you cannot have simultaneous slurs or
679 simultaneous phrasing slurs.
681 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
682 a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis,\)
687 @cindex slurs versus ties
688 @subheading Warnings: slurs vs. ties
690 A slur looks like a @rglos{tie}, but it has a different meaning.
691 A tie simply makes the first note longer, and can only be used on
692 pairs of notes with the same pitch. Slurs indicate the
693 articulations of notes, and can be used on larger groups of notes.
694 Slurs and ties can be nested.
696 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
697 c2~( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2)
708 see @ruser{Phrasing slurs}.
713 @node Articulation and dynamics
714 @subsection Articulation and dynamics
719 @subheading Articulations
721 Common @rglos{articulation}s can be added to a note using a dash
722 @samp{-} and a single character:
724 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
725 c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
729 @subheading Fingerings
730 Similarly, fingering indications can be added to a note using a
731 dash (@samp{-}) and the digit to be printed:
733 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
737 Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but
738 you can specify a direction using @samp{^} (up) or @samp{_}
739 (down). You can also use multiple articulations on the same note.
740 However, in most cases it is best to let LilyPond determine the
741 articulation directions.
743 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
744 c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
748 Dynamic signs are made by adding the markings (with a backslash)
751 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
759 Crescendi and decrescendi are started with the commands @code{\<}
760 and @code{\>}. An ending dynamic, for example @code{\f}, will
761 finish the (de)crescendo, or the command @code{\!} can be used
763 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
771 see @ruser{Articulations}.
773 see @ruser{Fingering instructions}.
775 see @ruser{Dynamics}.
780 @node Automatic and manual beams
781 @subsection Automatic and manual beams
783 @cindex beams, by hand
784 All @rglos{beam}s are drawn automatically:
786 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
787 a8 ais d ees r d c16 b a8
791 If you do not like the automatic beams, they may be overridden
792 manually. Mark the first note to be beamed with @samp{[} and the
793 last one with @samp{]}.
795 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
796 a8[ ais] d[ ees r d] a b
802 @item Automatic beams
803 see @ruser{Automatic beams}.
805 see @ruser{Manual beams}.
810 @node Advanced rhythmic commands
811 @subsection Advanced rhythmic commands
815 @cindex partial measure
816 @subheading Partial measure
818 A pickup (or @rglos{anacrusis}) is entered with the keyword
819 @code{\partial}. It is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4}
820 is a quarter note pickup and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note.
822 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
831 Tuplets are made with the @code{\times} keyword. It takes two
832 arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The duration of the
833 piece of music is multiplied by the fraction. Triplets make notes
834 occupy 2/3 of their notated duration, so a triplet has 2/3 as its
837 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
838 \times 2/3 { f8 g a }
840 \times 2/3 { f,8 g16[ a g a] }
847 @subheading Grace notes
849 Grace notes are created with the @code{\grace} command, although
850 they can also be created by prefixing a music expression with the
851 keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}
853 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
854 c2 \grace { a32[ b] } c2
855 c2 \appoggiatura b16 c2
856 c2 \acciaccatura b16 c2
863 see @ruser{Grace notes},
867 see @ruser{Partial measures}.
872 @node Multiple notes at once
873 @section Multiple notes at once
875 This section introduces having more than one note at the same
876 time: multiple instruments, multiple staves for a single
877 instrument (i.e. piano), and chords.
879 Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occurring
880 in a piece of music. Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more
881 than one voice on the same staff.
884 * Music expressions explained::
887 * Combining notes into chords::
888 * Single staff polyphony::
892 @node Music expressions explained
893 @subsection Music expressions explained
895 In LilyPond input files, music is represented by @emph{music
896 expressions}. A single note is a music expression:
898 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
902 Enclosing a note in braces creates a @emph{compound music
903 expression}. Here we have created a compound music expression
906 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
910 Putting a group of music expressions (e.g. notes) in braces means
911 that they are in sequence (i.e. each one follows the previous
912 one). The result is another music expression:
914 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
918 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: multiple staves
920 This technique is useful for polyphonic music. To enter music
921 with more voices or more staves, we combine expressions in
922 parallel. To indicate that two voices should play at the same
923 time, simply enter a simultaneous combination of music
924 expressions. A @q{simultaneous} music expression is formed by
925 enclosing expressions inside @code{<<} and @code{>>}. In the
926 following example, three sequences (all containing two separate
927 notes) are combined simultaneously:
929 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
939 Note that we have indented each level of the input with a
940 different amount of space. LilyPond does not care how much (or
941 little) space there is at the beginning of a line, but indenting
942 LilyPond code like this makes it much easier for humans to read.
944 @warning{each note is relative to the previous note in
945 the input, not relative to the @code{c''} in the initial
946 @code{\\relative} command.}
949 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: single staff
951 To determine the number of staves in a piece, LilyPond looks at
952 the first expression. If it is a single note, there is one staff;
953 if there is a simultaneous expression, there is more than one
956 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
959 << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
964 @cindex music expression
965 @subheading Analogy: mathematical expressions
967 This mechanism is similar to mathematical formulas: a big formula
968 is created by composing small formulas. Such formulas are called
969 expressions, and their definition is recursive so you can make
970 arbitrarily complex and large expressions. For example,
979 ((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
982 This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is
983 contained in the next (larger) one. The simplest expressions are
984 numbers, and larger ones are made by combining expressions with
985 operators (like @samp{+}, @samp{*} and @samp{/}) and parentheses.
986 Like mathematical expressions, music expressions can be nested
987 arbitrarily deep, which is necessary for complex music like
991 @node Multiple staves
992 @subsection Multiple staves
994 As we saw in @ruser{Music expressions explained}, LilyPond input
995 files are constructed out of music expressions. If the score
996 begins with simultaneous music expressions, LilyPond creates
997 multiples staves. However, it is easier to see what happens if we
998 create each staff explicitly.
1000 To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
1001 staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it. These
1002 @code{Staff} elements are then combined in parallel with @code{<<}
1005 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1008 \new Staff { \clef treble c }
1009 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
1014 The command @code{\new} introduces a @q{notation context.} A
1015 notation context is an environment in which musical events (like
1016 notes or @code{\clef} commands) are interpreted. For simple
1017 pieces, such notation contexts are created automatically. For
1018 more complex pieces, it is best to mark contexts explicitly.
1020 There are several types of contexts. @code{Score}, @code{Staff},
1021 and @code{Voice} handle melodic notation, while @code{Lyrics} sets
1022 lyric texts and @code{ChordNames} prints chord names.
1024 In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
1025 creates a bigger music expression. In this way it resembles the
1026 minus sign in mathematics. The formula @math{(4+5)} is an
1027 expression, so @math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.
1029 Time signatures entered in one staff affects all other
1030 staves@footnote{This behavior may be changed if desired; see
1031 @ruser{Polymetric notation}, for details.}. On the other hand, the
1032 key signature of one staff does @emph{not} affect other staves.
1034 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1037 \new Staff { \clef treble \time 3/4 c }
1038 \new Staff { \clef bass \key d \major c,, }
1047 @subsection Piano staves
1049 @cindex staff switch, manual
1050 @cindex cross staff voice, manual
1051 Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a brace.
1052 Printing such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in
1053 @ruser{Multiple staves}, but now this entire expression is
1054 inserted inside a @code{PianoStaff}:
1063 Here is a small example
1065 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1068 \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 e g g, }
1069 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
1076 See @ruser{Piano music}.
1080 @node Combining notes into chords
1081 @subsection Combining notes into chords
1084 Chords can be made by surrounding pitches with single angle
1085 brackets. Angle brackets are the symbols @samp{<} and @samp{>}.
1087 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1088 r4 <c e g>4 <c f a>2
1091 You can combine markings like beams and ties with chords. They
1092 must be placed outside the angle brackets
1094 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1095 r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>2
1098 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1099 r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g>4 <c f a>\!)
1103 @node Single staff polyphony
1104 @subsection Single staff polyphony
1107 @cindex multiple voices
1108 @cindex voices, more -- on a staff
1109 When different melodic lines are combined on a single staff they
1110 are printed as polyphonic voices; each voice has its own stems,
1111 slurs and beams, and the top voice has the stems up, while the
1112 bottom voice has them down.
1114 Entering such parts is done by entering each voice as a sequence
1115 (with @code{@{...@}}) and combining these simultaneously,
1116 separating the voices with @code{\\}
1118 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
1125 For polyphonic music typesetting, spacer rests can also be
1126 convenient; these are rests that do not print. They are useful
1127 for filling up voices that temporarily do not play. Here is the
1128 same example with a spacer rest (@samp{s}) instead of a normal
1131 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
1139 Again, these expressions can be nested arbitrarily.
1141 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1149 { <c g>1 ~ <c g>4 } \\
1157 See @ruser{Basic polyphony}.
1164 This section introduces vocal music and simple song sheets.
1167 * Setting simple songs::
1168 * Aligning lyrics to a melody::
1169 * Lyrics to multiple staves::
1173 @node Setting simple songs
1174 @subsection Setting simple songs
1178 Here is the start of the melody to a nursery
1179 rhyme, @qq{Girls and boys come out to play}:
1181 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1185 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1189 The lyrics can be set to these notes, combining both with the
1190 @code{\addlyrics} keyword. Lyrics are entered by separating each
1191 syllable with a space.
1193 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1198 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1201 Girls and boys come out to play,
1206 Note the curly brackets delimiting both the music and the lyrics,
1207 and the angle brackets @code{<< ... >>} around the whole piece to
1208 show that the music and lyrics are to occur at the same time.
1210 @node Aligning lyrics to a melody
1211 @subsection Aligning lyrics to a melody
1214 @cindex extender line
1218 The next line in the nursery rhyme is @q{The moon doth shine as
1219 bright as day}. Let's extend it:
1221 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1226 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1227 g8 a4 b8 c b a d4 b8 g4.
1230 Girls and boys come out to play,
1231 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
1236 We see the extra lyrics do not align properly with the notes. The
1237 word @q{shine} should be sung on two notes, not one. This is
1238 called a @rglos{melisma}, a single syllable sung to more than one
1239 note. There are several ways to spread a syllable over multiple
1240 notes, the simplest being to add a slur across them (see @ref{Ties
1243 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1248 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1249 g8 a4 b8 c([ b)] a d4 b8 g4.
1252 Girls and boys come out to play,
1253 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
1258 Here we have also used manual beaming (the square brackets @code{[
1259 ]} ) to generate the beaming which is customarily used with lyrics
1260 (see @ref{Automatic and manual beams}).
1262 If a syllable extends over several notes or a single very long
1263 note an @emph{extender line} is usually drawn from the syllable
1264 extending under all the notes for that syllable. It is entered as
1265 two underscores @code{__}. Here is an example from the first
1266 three bars of Dido's Lament, from Purcell's Dido and Æneas:
1268 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1274 b c4.( bes8 a4. g8 fis4.) g8 fis1
1278 am laid __ in earth,
1283 None of the examples so far have involved words containing more
1284 than one syllable. Such words are usually split one syllable to a
1285 note, with hyphens between syllables. Such hyphens are entered as
1286 two dashes, resulting in a centered hyphen between the syllables.
1287 Here is an example showing this and everything we have learned so
1288 far about aligning lyrics to notes.
1290 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1291 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1292 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1298 d4 g4 g a8( b) g4 g4
1302 A -- way in a __ man -- ger,
1303 no __ crib for a bed, __
1308 Some lyrics, especially those in Italian, require the opposite:
1309 setting more than one syllable to a single note. This is
1310 achieved by linking the syllables together with a single
1311 underscore @code{_} (with no spaces), or enclosing them in
1312 quotes. Here's an example from Rossini's Figaro, where
1313 @q{al} has to be sung on the same note as the @q{go} of
1314 @q{Largo} in Figaro's aria @q{Largo al factotum}:
1316 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1317 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1318 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1324 c4.~ c8 d b c([ d)] b c d b c
1327 Lar -- go_al fac -- to -- tum del -- la cit -- tĂ
1335 More options, such as inserting explicit rhythms into lyrics,
1336 inserting lyric ties (e.g., between @q{go al}) above,
1337 alternative ways of handling melismata,
1338 and adding extra verses,
1339 are discussed in @ruser{Vocal music}.
1342 @node Lyrics to multiple staves
1343 @subsection Lyrics to multiple staves
1345 The simple approach using @code{\addlyrics} can be used for
1346 placing lyrics under more than one staff. Here is an
1347 example from Handel's Judas Maccabæus:
1349 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1355 \relative c'' { \key f \major
1356 c8 c([ bes)] a a([ g)] f f'4. b, c4.~ c4
1359 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn, __
1361 \relative c' { \key f \major
1362 r8 r4. r4 c8 a'([ g)] f f([ e)] d e([ d)] c bes'4
1365 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn,
1370 but scores any more complex than this simple example are
1371 better produced by separating out the staff structure
1372 from the notes and lyrics with variables. These are
1373 discussed later (see @ref{Organizing pieces with variables}).
1377 More options, such as putting multiple stanzas below the score,
1378 setting choral music, and lyrics to divided voices,
1379 are discussed in @ruser{Vocal music}.
1384 @section Final touches
1386 This is the final section of the tutorial; it demonstrates how to
1387 add the final touches to simple pieces, and provides an
1388 introduction to the rest of the manual.
1393 * Absolute note names::
1394 * Organizing pieces with variables::
1395 * After the tutorial::
1396 * How to read the manual::
1400 @node Version number
1401 @subsection Version number
1404 The @code{\version} statement records the version of LilyPond that
1405 was used to write the file:
1412 by convention, this is placed at the top of your LilyPond file.
1414 These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more
1415 smoothly. Changes in the syntax are handled with a special
1416 program, @file{convert-ly} (see @rprogram{Updating files with
1417 convert-ly}), and it uses @code{\version} to determine what rules
1422 @subsection Adding titles
1424 The title, composer, opus number, and similar information are
1425 entered in the @code{\header} block. This exists outside of the
1426 main music expression; the @code{\header} block is usually placed
1427 underneath the @ruser{Version number}.
1438 @dots{} music @dots{}
1442 When the file is processed, the title and composer are printed
1443 above the music. More information on titling can be found in
1444 @ruser{Creating titles}.
1447 @node Absolute note names
1448 @subsection Absolute note names
1450 So far we have always used @code{\relative} to define pitches.
1451 This is the easiest way to enter most music, but another way of
1452 defining pitches exists: absolute mode.
1454 If you omit the @code{\relative}, LilyPond treats all pitches as
1455 absolute values. A @code{c'} will always mean middle C, a
1456 @code{b} will always mean the note one step below middle C, and a
1457 @code{g,} will always mean the note on the bottom staff of the
1460 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1468 Here is a four-octave scale:
1470 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1485 As you can see, writing a melody in the treble clef involves a lot
1486 of quote @code{'} marks. Consider this fragment from Mozart:
1488 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1492 cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
1493 b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8
1497 All these quotes makes the input less readable and it is a source
1498 of errors. With @code{\relative}, the previous example is much
1501 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1505 cis8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
1510 If you make a mistake with an octave mark (@code{'} or @code{,})
1511 while working in @code{\relative} mode, it is very obvious -- many
1512 notes will be in the wrong octave. When working in absolute mode,
1513 a single mistake will not be as visible, and will not be as easy
1516 However, absolute mode is useful for music which has large
1517 intervals, and is extremely useful for computer-generated LilyPond
1521 @node Organizing pieces with variables
1522 @subsection Organizing pieces with variables
1524 When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
1525 larger files, the music expressions get a lot bigger. In
1526 polyphonic music with many staves, the input files can become very
1527 confusing. We can reduce this confusion by using
1530 With variables (also known as variables or macros), we can break
1531 up complex music expressions. An variable is assigned as
1535 namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
1538 The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic} can be used
1539 later by placing a backslash in front of the name
1540 (@code{\namedMusic}, just like a normal LilyPond command).
1541 Variables must be defined @emph{before} the main music
1544 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1545 violin = \new Staff { \relative c'' {
1548 cello = \new Staff { \relative c {
1561 The name of an variable must have alphabetic characters only: no
1562 numbers, underscores, or dashes.
1564 It is possible to use variables for many other types of objects in
1565 the input. For example,
1570 aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
1573 Depending on its contents, the variable can be used in different
1574 places. The following example uses the above variables:
1585 @node After the tutorial
1586 @subsection After the tutorial
1588 After finishing the tutorial, you should probably try writing a
1589 piece or two. Start with one of the @ruser{Templates}, and add
1590 notes. If you need any notation that was not covered in the
1591 tutorial, look at the Notation Reference, starting with
1592 @ruser{Basic notation}. If you want to write for an instrument
1593 ensemble that is not covered in the templates, take a look at
1594 @ruser{Extending the templates}.
1596 Once you have written a few short pieces, read the rest of the
1597 Learning Manual (chapters 3-5). There's nothing wrong with
1598 reading it now, of course! However, the rest of the Learning
1599 Manual assumes that you are familiar with LilyPond input. You may
1600 wish to skim these chapters right now, and come back to them after
1601 you have more experience.
1604 @node How to read the manual
1605 @subsection How to read the manual
1607 As we saw in @ruser{How to read the tutorial}, many examples in
1608 the tutorial omitted a @code{\relative c'' @{ ... @}} around the
1611 In the rest of the manual, we are much more lax about the printed
1612 examples: sometimes they may have omitted a @code{\relative c'' @{
1613 ... @}}, but other times a different initial pitch may be used
1614 (such as @code{c'} or @code{c,,}), and in some cases the whole
1615 example is in absolute note mode! However, ambiguities like this
1616 only exist where the pitches are not important. In any example
1617 where the pitch matters, we have explicitly stated
1618 @code{\relative} or absolute-mode @code{@{ @}}.
1620 If you are still confused about the exact LilyPond input that was
1621 used in an example, read the HTML version (if you are not already
1622 doing so) and click on the picture of the music. This will
1623 display the exact input that LilyPond used to generate this
1626 For information about the structure of the rest of the manual, see
1627 @ruser{About this manual}.