Misc update.

[lilypond.git] / Documentation / user / tutorial.itely

@c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
@c This file is part of lilypond-learning.tely
@ignore
    Translation of GIT committish: FILL-IN-HEAD-COMMITTISH

    When revising a translation, copy the HEAD committish of the
    version that you are working on.  See TRANSLATION for details.
@end ignore

@ignore
Tutorial guidelines:  (different from policy.txt!)
- unless you have a really good reason, use either
    @l ilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
  or
    @l ilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
  (without spaces)
  Don't use any other relative=X commands (make it a non-fragment
  example), and don't use fragment without relative=2.
- use "aes" and "ees" instead of "as" and "aes".  I know it's not
  correct Dutch naming, but let's not confuse people with this
  until we get to the Basic notation chapter.
- Add "Music glossary: @r gloss{foo}" to the _top_ of the relevant
  portions of the tutorial.
@end ignore


@node Tutorial
@chapter Tutorial

This tutorial starts with an introduction to the LilyPond music
language and how to produce printed music.  After this first
contact we will explain how to create common musical notation.

@menu
* First steps::                 
* Single staff notation::       
* Multiple notes at once::      
* Songs::                       
* Final touches::               
@end menu


@node First steps
@section First steps

This section gives a basic introduction to working with LilyPond.

@menu
* Compiling a file::            
* Simple notation::             
* Working on text files::       
* How to read the tutorial::    
@end menu


@node Compiling a file
@subsection Compiling a file

The first example demonstrates how to start working with LilyPond.
To create sheet music, we write a text file that specifies the
notation.  For example, if we write

@example
@{
  c' e' g' e'
@}
@end example

@noindent
the result looks like this

@c  in this case we don't want verbatim
@lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
{
  c' e' g' e'
}
@end lilypond

@warning{Every piece of LilyPond input needs to have
@strong{@{ curly braces @}} placed around the input.  The braces
should also be surrounded by a space unless they are at the
beginning or end of a line to avoid ambiguities.  The braces may
be omitted in some examples in this manual, but don't forget them
in your own music!  For more information about the display of
examples in the manual, see @ref{How to read the tutorial}.}

@cindex Case sensitive
In addition, LilyPond input is @strong{case sensitive}.  @code{
@{ c d e @}} is valid input; @code{@{ C D E @}} will produce an
error message.

@smallspace

@subheading Entering music and viewing output

@cindex PDF file
@cindex Viewing music

In this section we will explain what commands to run and how to
view or print the output.

Note that there are several other text editors available with
better support for LilyPond.  For more information, see
@rprogram{Text editor support}.

@warning{the first time you ever run LilyPond, it may take a
minute or two because all of the system fonts have to be analyzed
first.  After this, LilyPond will be much faster!}

@subsubheading MacOS X

If you double click @code{LilyPond.app}, it will open with an
example file.  Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your
Desktop, and then process it with the menu command @samp{Compile >
Typeset File}.  The resulting PDF file will be displayed on your
screen.

For future use of LilyPond, you should begin by selecting @q{New}
or @q{Open}.  You must save your file before typesetting it.  If
any errors occur in processing, please see the log window.

@subsubheading Windows

On Windows, if you double-click in the LilyPond icon on the
Desktop, it will open a simple text editor with an example file.
Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your Desktop and then
double-click on the file to process it (the file icon looks like a
note).  After some seconds, you will get a file @file{test.pdf} on
your desktop.  Double-click on this PDF file to view the typeset
score.  An alternative method to process the @file{test.ly} file
is to drag and drop it onto the LilyPond icon using your mouse
pointer.

To edit an existing @file{.ly} file, right-click on it and
select @qq{Edit source}.  To get an empty file to start from, run
the editor as described above and use @qq{New} in
the @qq{File} menu.

Double-clicking the file does not only result in a PDF file, but
also produces a @file{.log} file that contains some information on
what LilyPond has done to the file.  If any errors occur, please
examine this file.

@subsubheading Unix

Create a file (such as @file{test.ly}) and enter:

@example
@{
  c' e' g' e'
@}
@end example

To process @file{test.ly}, proceed as follows

@example
lilypond test.ly
@end example

@noindent
You will see something resembling

@example
lilypond test.ly
GNU LilyPond 2.10.0
Processing `test.ly'
Parsing...
Interpreting music... [1]
Preprocessing graphical objects...
Calculating line breaks... [2]
Layout output to `test.ps'...
Converting to `test.pdf'...
@end example


@node Simple notation
@subsection Simple notation

LilyPond will add some notation elements automatically.  In the
next example, we have only specified four pitches, but LilyPond
has added a clef, time signature, and rhythms.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
{
  c' e' g' e'
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
This behavior may be altered, but in most cases these automatic
values are useful.


@subheading Pitches

Music glossary: @rglos{interval}, @rglos{fourth}, @rglos{scale},
@rglos{middle C}

The easiest way to enter notes is by using @code{\relative} mode.
In this mode, the @notation{interval} between the previous note and
the current note is assumed to be within a @notation{fourth}.  We
begin by entering the most elementary piece of music, a
@notation{scale}.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
\relative c' {
  c d e f
  g a b c
}
@end lilypond

The initial note is @notation{middle C}.  Each successive note is
within a fourth of the previous note -- in other words, the first
@code{c} is the closest C to middle C.  This is followed by the
closest D to the previous note.  We can create melodies which have
larger intervals:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
\relative c' {
  d f a g
  c b f d
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
As you may notice, this example does not start on middle C.  The
first note -- the @code{d} -- is the closest D to middle C.

To add intervals that are larger than a fourth, we can raise the
octave by adding a single quote @code{'} (or apostrophe) to the
note name.  We can lower the octave by adding a comma @code{,} to
the note name.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
\relative c'' {
  a a, c' f,
  g g'' a,, f'
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
To change a note by two (or more!) octaves, we use multiple
@code{''} or @code{,,} -- but be careful that you use two single
quotes @code{''} and not one double quote @code{"}@tie{}!  The
initial value in @code{\relative c'} may also be modified like
this.


@subheading Durations (rhythms)

Music glossary: @rglos{duration}, @rglos{whole note},
@rglos{half note}, @rglos{quarter note}, @rglos{dotted note}.

The @notation{duration} of a note is specified by a number after
the note name.  @samp{1} for a @notation{whole note}, @samp{2} for
a @notation{half note}, @samp{4} for a @notation{quarter note} and
so on.  Beams are added automatically.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
\relative c'' {
  a1
  a2 a4 a8 a
  a16 a a a a32 a a a a64 a a a a a a a a2
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
If you do not specify a duration, the previous duration is used
for the next note.  The duration of the first note defaults to a
quarter.

To create @notation{dotted notes}, add a dot @samp{.} to the duration
number.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
\relative c'' {
  a a a4. a8
  a8. a16 a a8. a8 a4.
}
@end lilypond


@subheading Rests

Music glossary: @rglos{rest}.

A @notation{rest} is entered just like a note with the name @samp{r}:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
\relative c'' {
  a r r2
  r8 a r4 r4. r8
}
@end lilypond


@subheading Time signature

Music glossary: @rglos{time signature}.

The @notation{time signature}) can be set with the @code{\time}
command:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
\relative c'' {
  \time 3/4
  a4 a a
  \time 6/8
  a4. a
  \time 4/4
  a4 a a a
}
@end lilypond


@subheading Clef

Music glossary: @rglos{clef}.

The @notation{clef} can be set using the @code{\clef} command:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
\relative c' {
  \clef treble
  c1
  \clef alto
  c1
  \clef tenor
  c1
  \clef bass
  c1
}
@end lilypond


@subheading All together

Here is a small example showing all these elements together:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
\relative c, {
  \time 3/4
  \clef bass
  c2 e8 c' g'2.
  f4 e d c4 c, r4
}
@end lilypond


@seealso

User manual: @ruser{Writing pitches}, @ruser{Writing rhythms},
@ruser{Writing rests}, @ruser{Time signature}, @ruser{Clef}.


@c  KURTIS: update stuff below this line with the style above.

@node Working on text files
@subsection Working on text files

LilyPond input files are similar to source files in many common
programming languages.  They are case sensitive, and white-space
is generally equivalent.  Expressions are formed with curly braces
@{ @}, and comments are denoted with @code{%} or @code{%@{ ...
%@}}.

If the previous sentence sounds like nonsense, don't worry!  We'll
explain what all these terms mean:

@itemize

@cindex Case sensitive
@item @strong{Case sensitive}:
it matters whether you enter a letter in lower case (i.e. @code{a,
b, s, t}) or upper case (i.e.  @code{A, B, S, T}).  Notes are
lower case: @code{@{ c d e @}} is valid input; @code{@{ C D E @}}
will produce an error message.

@item @strong{Whitespace insensitive}:
it does not matter how many spaces (or new lines) you add.
@code{@{ c d e @}} means the same thing as @code{@{ c @tie{}
@tie{} @tie{} d e @}} and

@example
@{ c                        d
                   e   @}
@end example

@noindent
Of course, the previous example is hard to read.  A good rule of
thumb is to indent code blocks with either a tab or two spaces:

@example
@{
  c d e
@}
@end example

@item @strong{Expressions:}
Every piece of LilyPond input needs to have @strong{@{ curly
braces @}} placed around the input.  These braces tell LilyPond
that the input is a single music expression, just like parenthesis
@samp{()} in mathematics.  The braces should be surrounded by a
space unless they are at the beginning or end of a line to avoid
ambiguities.

A function (such as @code{\relative @{ @}}) also counts as a
single music expression.

@cindex comments
@cindex line comment
@cindex block comment
@item @strong{Comments}:
A comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input; it
is ignored while parsing, so it has no effect on the printed
output.  There are two types of comments.  The percent symbol
@samp{%} introduces a line comment; anything after @samp{%} on
that line is ignored.  A block comment marks a whole section of
music input as a comment.  Anything that is enclosed in @code{%@{}
and @code{%@}} is ignored.  (Comments do not nest.)  The following
fragment shows possible uses for comments

@example
% notes for twinkle twinkle follow
  c4 c g' g a a g2

%@{
  This line, and the notes below
  are ignored, since they are in a
  block comment.

  g g f f e e d d c2
%@}
@end example

@end itemize

There are more tips for constructing input files in
@ruser{Suggestions for writing LilyPond files}.


@node How to read the tutorial
@subsection How to read the tutorial

As we saw in @ruser{Working on text files}, LilyPond input must be
surrounded by @{ @} marks or a @code{\relative c'' @{ ... @}}.
For the rest of this manual, most examples will omit this.  To
replicate the examples, you may copy and paste the displayed input
but you @strong{must} add the @code{\relative c'' @{ @}} like
this:

@example
\relative c'' @{
  ... example goes here...
@}
@end example

Why omit the braces?  Most examples in this manual can be inserted
into the middle of a longer piece of music.  For these examples,
it does not make sense to add @code{\relative c'' @{ @}} -- you
should not place a @code{\relative} inside another
@code{\relative}!  If we included @code{\relative c'' @{ @}}
around every example, you would not be able to copy a small
documentation example and paste it inside a longer piece of your
own.  Most people want to add material to an existing piece, so we
format the manual this way.


@subheading Clickable examples

Many people learn programs by trying and fiddling around with the
program.  This is also possible with LilyPond.  If you click on a
picture in the HTML version of this manual, you will see the exact
LilyPond input that was used to generate that image.  Try it on
this image

@c no verbatim here
@lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
\relative c'' {
  c-\markup { \bold \huge { Click here.  } }
}
@end lilypond

By cutting and pasting everything in the @qq{ly snippet} section,
you have a starting template for experiments.  To see exactly the
same output (line-width and all), copy everything from @qq{Start
cut-&-pastable section} to the bottom of the file.


@node Single staff notation
@section Single staff notation

This section introduces common notation that is used for one voice
on one staff.

@menu
* Relative note names::         
* Accidentals and key signatures::  
* Ties and slurs::              
* Articulation and dynamics::   
* Automatic and manual beams::  
* Advanced rhythmic commands::  
@end menu


@node Relative note names
@subsection Relative note names

As we saw in @ref{Simple notation}, LilyPond calculates the
pitch of each note relative to the previous one@footnote{There is
another mode of entering pitches, @ruser{Absolute note names}, but
in practice relative mode is much easier and safer to use.}.  If
no extra octave marks (@code{'} and @code{,}) are added, it
assumes that each pitch is within a fourth of the previous note.

LilyPond examines pitches based on the note names -- in other
words, an augmented fourth is @emph{not} the same as a diminished
fifth.  If we begin at a C, then an F-sharp will be placed a
higher than the C, while a G-flat will be placed lower than the C.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
c2 fis
c2 ges
@end lilypond

@seealso
@quotation
@table @asis
@item Relative octaves
see @ruser{Relative octaves}.
@item Octave check
see @ruser{Octave check}.
@end table
@end quotation



@node Accidentals and key signatures
@subsection Accidentals and key signatures

@subheading Accidentals

A @rglos{sharp} pitch is made by adding @samp{is} to the name, and
a @rglos{flat} pitch by adding @samp{es}.  As you might expect, a
@rglos{double sharp} or @rglos{double flat} is made by adding
@samp{isis} or @samp{eses}@footnote{This syntax derived from note
naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages, like German
and Dutch.  To use other names for accidentals, see @ruser{Note
names in other languages}.}

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
cis1 ees fisis, aeses
@end lilypond

@cindex key signature, setting
@subheading Key signatures

The key signature is set with the command @code{\key} followed by
a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
\key d \major
a1
\key c \minor
a
@end lilypond

@smallspace

@subheading Warning: key signatures and pitches

To determine whether to print an accidental, LilyPond examines the
pitches and the key signature.  The key signature only affects the
@emph{printed} accidentals, not the actual pitches!  This is a
feature that often causes confusion to newcomers, so let us
explain it in more detail.

LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
layout.  The alteration (flat, natural or sharp) of a note is part
of the pitch, and is therefore musical content.  Whether an
accidental (a @emph{printed} flat, natural or sharp sign) is
printed in front of the corresponding note is a question of
layout.  Layout is something that follows rules, so accidentals
are printed automatically according to those rules.  The pitches
in your music are works of art, so they will not be added
automatically, and you must enter what you want to hear.

In this example

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
\key d \major
d cis fis
@end lilypond

@noindent
No note has a printed accidental, but you must still add the
@samp{is} to @code{cis} and @code{fis}.

The code @samp{e} does not mean @qq{print a black dot just below
the first line of the staff.}  Rather, it means: @qq{there is a
note with pitch E-natural.}  In the key of A-flat major, it
@emph{does} get an accidental:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
\key aes \major
e
@end lilypond

Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more
effort when typing, but the advantage is that transposing is
easier, and accidentals can be printed according to different
conventions.  See @ruser{Automatic accidentals}, for some examples
how accidentals can be printed according to different rules.

@seealso
@quotation
@table @asis
@item Accidentals
see @ruser{Accidentals}, and @ruser{Automatic accidentals}.
@item Key signature
see @ruser{Key signature}.
@end table
@end quotation


@node Ties and slurs
@subsection Ties and slurs

@cindex ties
@subheading Ties
A @rglos{tie} is created by appending a tilde @samp{~} to the
first note being tied

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
g4~ g c2~
c4 ~ c8 a8 ~ a2
@end lilypond

@cindex slurs
@subheading Slurs

A @rglos{slur} is a curve drawn across many notes.  The starting
note and ending note are marked with @samp{(} and @samp{)}
respectively.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
@end lilypond

@cindex slurs, phrasing
@cindex phrasing slurs
@subheading Phrasing slurs

Slurs to indicate longer phrasing can be entered with @code{\(}
and @code{\)}.  You can have both legato slurs and phrasing slurs
at the same time, but you cannot have simultaneous slurs or
simultaneous phrasing slurs.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis,\)
@end lilypond

@smallspace

@cindex slurs versus ties
@subheading Warnings: slurs vs. ties

A slur looks like a @rglos{tie}, but it has a different meaning.
A tie simply makes the first note longer, and can only be used on
pairs of notes with the same pitch.  Slurs indicate the
articulations of notes, and can be used on larger groups of notes.
Slurs and ties can be nested.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
c2~( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2)
@end lilypond

@seealso
@quotation
@table @asis
@item Ties
see @ruser{Ties}.
@item Slurs
see @ruser{Slurs}.
@item Phrasing slurs
see @ruser{Phrasing slurs}.
@end table
@end quotation


@node Articulation and dynamics
@subsection Articulation and dynamics

@cindex articulation
@cindex accents
@cindex staccato
@subheading Articulations

Common @rglos{articulation}s can be added to a note using a dash
@samp{-} and a single character:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
@end lilypond

@cindex fingering
@subheading Fingerings
Similarly, fingering indications can be added to a note using a
dash (@samp{-}) and the digit to be printed:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
c-3 e-5 b-2 a-1
@end lilypond

Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but
you can specify a direction using @samp{^} (up) or @samp{_}
(down).  You can also use multiple articulations on the same note.
However, in most cases it is best to let LilyPond determine the
articulation directions.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
@end lilypond

@subheading Dynamics
Dynamic signs are made by adding the markings (with a backslash)
to the note

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
c\ff c\mf c\p c\pp
@end lilypond

@cindex dynamics
@cindex decrescendo
@cindex crescendo

Crescendi and decrescendi are started with the commands @code{\<}
and @code{\>}.  An ending dynamic, for example @code{\f}, will
finish the (de)crescendo, or the command @code{\!} can be used

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
c2\< c2\ff\> c2 c2\!
@end lilypond

@seealso
@quotation
@table @asis
@item Articulations
see @ruser{Articulations}.
@item Fingering
see @ruser{Fingering instructions}.
@item Dynamics
see @ruser{Dynamics}.
@end table
@end quotation


@node Automatic and manual beams
@subsection Automatic and manual beams

@cindex beams, by hand
All @rglos{beam}s are drawn automatically:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
a8 ais d ees r d c16 b a8
@end lilypond

@noindent
If you do not like the automatic beams, they may be overridden
manually.  Mark the first note to be beamed with @samp{[} and the
last one with @samp{]}.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
a8[ ais] d[ ees r d] a b
@end lilypond

@seealso
@quotation
@table @asis
@item Automatic beams
see @ruser{Automatic beams}.
@item Manual beams
see @ruser{Manual beams}.
@end table
@end quotation


@node Advanced rhythmic commands
@subsection Advanced rhythmic commands

@cindex pickup
@cindex anacruse
@cindex partial measure
@subheading Partial measure

A pickup (or @rglos{anacrusis}) is entered with the keyword
@code{\partial}.  It is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4}
is a quarter note pickup and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
\partial 8
f8 c2 d
@end lilypond

@cindex tuplets
@cindex triplets
@subheading Tuplets

Tuplets are made with the @code{\times} keyword.  It takes two
arguments: a fraction and a piece of music.  The duration of the
piece of music is multiplied by the fraction.  Triplets make notes
occupy 2/3 of their notated duration, so a triplet has 2/3 as its
fraction

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
\times 2/3 { f8 g a }
\times 2/3 { c r c }
\times 2/3 { f,8 g16[ a g a] }
\times 2/3 { d4 a8 }
@end lilypond

@cindex grace notes
@cindex acciaccatura
@cindex appoggiatura
@subheading Grace notes

Grace notes are created with the @code{\grace} command, although
they can also be created by prefixing a music expression with the
keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
c2 \grace { a32[ b] } c2
c2 \appoggiatura b16 c2
c2 \acciaccatura b16 c2
@end lilypond

@seealso
@quotation
@table @asis
@item Grace notes
see @ruser{Grace notes},
@item Tuplets
see @ruser{Tuplets},
@item Pickups
see @ruser{Partial measures}.
@end table
@end quotation


@node Multiple notes at once
@section Multiple notes at once

This section introduces having more than one note at the same
time: multiple instruments, multiple staves for a single
instrument (i.e. piano), and chords.

Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occurring
in a piece of music.  Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more
than one voice on the same staff.

@menu
* Music expressions explained::  
* Multiple staves::             
* Piano staves::                
* Combining notes into chords::  
* Single staff polyphony::      
@end menu


@node Music expressions explained
@subsection Music expressions explained

In LilyPond input files, music is represented by @emph{music
expressions}.  A single note is a music expression:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
a4
@end lilypond

Enclosing a note in braces creates a @emph{compound music
expression}.  Here we have created a compound music expression
with two notes:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
{ a4 g4 }
@end lilypond

Putting a group of music expressions (e.g. notes) in braces means
that they are in sequence (i.e. each one follows the previous
one).  The result is another music expression:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
{ { a4 g } f g }
@end lilypond

@subheading Simultaneous music expressions: multiple staves

This technique is useful for polyphonic music.  To enter music
with more voices or more staves, we combine expressions in
parallel.  To indicate that two voices should play at the same
time, simply enter a simultaneous combination of music
expressions.  A @q{simultaneous} music expression is formed by
enclosing expressions inside @code{<<} and @code{>>}.  In the
following example, three sequences (all containing two separate
notes) are combined simultaneously:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
\relative c'' {
  <<
    { a4 g }
    { f e }
    { d b }
  >>
}
@end lilypond

Note that we have indented each level of the input with a
different amount of space.  LilyPond does not care how much (or
little) space there is at the beginning of a line, but indenting
LilyPond code like this makes it much easier for humans to read.

@warning{each note is relative to the previous note in
the input, not relative to the @code{c''} in the initial
@code{\\relative} command.}


@subheading Simultaneous music expressions: single staff

To determine the number of staves in a piece, LilyPond looks at
the first expression.  If it is a single note, there is one staff;
if there is a simultaneous expression, there is more than one
staff.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
\relative c'' {
  c2 <<c e>>
  << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
}
@end lilypond

@cindex expression
@cindex music expression
@subheading Analogy: mathematical expressions

This mechanism is similar to mathematical formulas: a big formula
is created by composing small formulas.  Such formulas are called
expressions, and their definition is recursive so you can make
arbitrarily complex and large expressions.  For example,

@example
1

1 + 2

(1 + 2) * 3

((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
@end example

This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is
contained in the next (larger) one.  The simplest expressions are
numbers, and larger ones are made by combining expressions with
operators (like @samp{+}, @samp{*} and @samp{/}) and parentheses.
Like mathematical expressions, music expressions can be nested
arbitrarily deep, which is necessary for complex music like
polyphonic scores.


@node Multiple staves
@subsection Multiple staves

As we saw in @ruser{Music expressions explained}, LilyPond input
files are constructed out of music expressions.  If the score
begins with simultaneous music expressions, LilyPond creates
multiples staves.  However, it is easier to see what happens if we
create each staff explicitly.

To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it.  These
@code{Staff} elements are then combined in parallel with @code{<<}
and @code{>>}:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
\relative c'' {
  <<
    \new Staff { \clef treble c }
    \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
  >>
}
@end lilypond

The command @code{\new} introduces a @q{notation context.}  A
notation context is an environment in which musical events (like
notes or @code{\clef} commands) are interpreted.  For simple
pieces, such notation contexts are created automatically.  For
more complex pieces, it is best to mark contexts explicitly.

There are several types of contexts.  @code{Score}, @code{Staff},
and @code{Voice} handle melodic notation, while @code{Lyrics} sets
lyric texts and @code{ChordNames} prints chord names.

In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
creates a bigger music expression.  In this way it resembles the
minus sign in mathematics.  The formula @math{(4+5)} is an
expression, so @math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.

Time signatures entered in one staff affects all other
staves@footnote{This behavior may be changed if desired; see
@ruser{Polymetric notation}, for details.}.  On the other hand, the
key signature of one staff does @emph{not} affect other staves.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
\relative c'' {
  <<
    \new Staff { \clef treble \time 3/4 c }
    \new Staff { \clef bass \key d \major c,, }
  >>
}
@end lilypond




@node Piano staves
@subsection Piano staves

@cindex staff switch, manual
@cindex cross staff voice, manual
Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a brace.
Printing such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in
@ruser{Multiple staves}, but now this entire expression is
inserted inside a @code{PianoStaff}:

@example
\new PianoStaff <<
  \new Staff @dots{}
  \new Staff @dots{}
>>
@end example

Here is a small example

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
\relative c'' {
  \new PianoStaff <<
    \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 e g g, }
    \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
  >>
}
@end lilypond

@seealso
@quotation
See @ruser{Piano music}.
@end quotation


@node Combining notes into chords
@subsection Combining notes into chords

@cindex chords
Chords can be made by surrounding pitches with single angle
brackets.  Angle brackets are the symbols @samp{<} and @samp{>}.

@lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
r4 <c e g>4 <c f a>2
@end lilypond

You can combine markings like beams and ties with chords.  They
must be placed outside the angle brackets

@lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>2
@end lilypond

@lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g>4 <c f a>\!)
@end lilypond


@node Single staff polyphony
@subsection Single staff polyphony

@cindex polyphony
@cindex multiple voices
@cindex voices, more -- on a staff
When different melodic lines are combined on a single staff they
are printed as polyphonic voices; each voice has its own stems,
slurs and beams, and the top voice has the stems up, while the
bottom voice has them down.

Entering such parts is done by entering each voice as a sequence
(with @code{@{...@}}) and combining these simultaneously,
separating the voices with @code{\\}

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
<<
  { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
  { r4 g4 f2 f4 }
>>
@end lilypond

For polyphonic music typesetting, spacer rests can also be
convenient; these are rests that do not print.  They are useful
for filling up voices that temporarily do not play.  Here is the
same example with a spacer rest (@samp{s}) instead of a normal
rest (@samp{r}),

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
<<
  { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
  { s4 g4 f2 f4 }
>>
@end lilypond

@noindent
Again, these expressions can be nested arbitrarily.

@lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
<<
  \new Staff <<
    { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
    { s4 g4 f2 f4 }
  >>
  \new Staff <<
    \clef bass
    { <c g>1 ~ <c g>4 } \\
    { e,,4 d e2 ~ e4}
  >>
>>
@end lilypond

@seealso
@quotation
See @ruser{Basic polyphony}.
@end quotation


@node Songs
@section Songs

This section introduces vocal music and simple song sheets.

@menu
* Setting simple songs::        
* Aligning lyrics to a melody::  
* Lyrics to multiple staves::   
@end menu


@node Setting simple songs
@subsection Setting simple songs

@cindex Lyrics
@cindex Songs
Here is the start of the melody to a nursery
rhyme, @qq{Girls and boys come out to play}:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
 \relative c'' {
  \key g \major
  \time 6/8
  d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
 }
@end lilypond

The lyrics can be set to these notes, combining both with the
@code{\addlyrics} keyword.  Lyrics are entered by separating each
syllable with a space.

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
<<
 \relative c'' {
  \key g \major
  \time 6/8
  d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
 }
 \addlyrics {
  Girls and boys come out to play,
 }
>>
@end lilypond

Note the curly brackets delimiting both the music and the lyrics,
and the angle brackets @code{<< ... >>} around the whole piece to
show that the music and lyrics are to occur at the same time.

@node Aligning lyrics to a melody
@subsection Aligning lyrics to a melody

@cindex melisma
@cindex extender line
@cindex hyphens
@cindex underscore

The next line in the nursery rhyme is @q{The moon doth shine as
bright as day}.  Let's extend it:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
<<
 \relative c'' {
  \key g \major
  \time 6/8
  d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4 
  g8 a4 b8 c b a d4 b8 g4.
 }
 \addlyrics {
  Girls and boys come out to play,
  The moon doth shine as bright as day;
 }
>>
@end lilypond

We see the extra lyrics do not align properly with the notes.  The
word @q{shine} should be sung on two notes, not one.  This is
called a @rglos{melisma}, a single syllable sung to more than one
note.  There are several ways to spread a syllable over multiple
notes, the simplest being to add a slur across them (see @ref{Ties
and slurs}):

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
<<
 \relative c'' {
  \key g \major
  \time 6/8
  d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4 
  g8 a4 b8 c([ b)] a d4 b8 g4.
 }
 \addlyrics {
  Girls and boys come out to play,
  The moon doth shine as bright as day;
 }
>> 
@end lilypond

Here we have also used manual beaming (the square brackets @code{[
]} ) to generate the beaming which is customarily used with lyrics
(see @ref{Automatic and manual beams}).

If a syllable extends over several notes or a single very long
note an @emph{extender line} is usually drawn from the syllable
extending under all the notes for that syllable.  It is entered as
two underscores @code{__}.  Here is an example from the first
three bars of Dido's Lament, from Purcell's Dido and Æneas:
 
@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
<<
  \relative c'' {
    \key g \minor
    \time 3/2
    g2 a bes bes( a) 
    b c4.( bes8 a4. g8 fis4.) g8 fis1
  }
  \addlyrics {
    When I am laid, 
    am laid __ in earth,
  }
>>
@end lilypond

None of the examples so far have involved words containing more
than one syllable.  Such words are usually split one syllable to a
note, with hyphens between syllables.  Such hyphens are entered as
two dashes, resulting in a centered hyphen between the syllables.
Here is an example showing this and everything we have learned so
far about aligning lyrics to notes.

@c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
@c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
@lilypond[quote,verbatim]
<<
  \relative c' {
    \key g \major
    \time 3/4
    \partial 4
    d4 g4 g a8( b) g4 g4 
    b8( c) d4 d e4 c2
  }
  \addlyrics {
    A -- way in a __ man -- ger, 
    no __ crib for a bed, __
  }
>>
@end lilypond

Some lyrics, especially those in Italian, require the opposite:
setting more than one syllable to a single note.  This is
achieved by linking the syllables together with a single
underscore @code{_} (with no spaces), or enclosing them in
quotes.  Here's an example from Rossini's Figaro, where
@q{al} has to be sung on the same note as the @q{go} of 
@q{Largo} in Figaro's aria @q{Largo al factotum}:

@c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
@c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
@lilypond[quote,verbatim]
<<
  \relative c' {
    \clef bass
    \key c \major
    \time 6/8
    c4.~ c8 d b c([ d)] b c d b c
  }
  \addlyrics {
    Lar -- go_al fac -- to -- tum del -- la cit -- tà
  }
>>
@end lilypond


@seealso
@quotation
More options, such as inserting explicit rhythms into lyrics,
inserting lyric ties (e.g., between @q{go al}) above, 
alternative ways of handling melismata,
and adding extra verses,
are discussed in @ruser{Vocal music}.
@end quotation

@node Lyrics to multiple staves
@subsection Lyrics to multiple staves

The simple approach using @code{\addlyrics} can be used for
placing lyrics under more than one staff.  Here is an
example from Handel's Judas Maccabæus:

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
<<
  {
    \time 6/8
    \partial 8
  }
  \relative c'' { \key f \major
    c8 c([ bes)] a a([ g)] f f'4. b, c4.~ c4
  }
  \addlyrics {
    Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn, __
  }
  \relative c' { \key f \major
    r8 r4. r4 c8 a'([ g)] f f([ e)] d e([ d)] c bes'4
  }
  \addlyrics {
    Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn,
  }
>>
@end lilypond

but scores any more complex than this simple example are
better produced by separating out the staff structure
from the notes and lyrics with variables.  These are
discussed later (see @ref{Organizing pieces with variables}).

@seealso
@quotation
More options, such as putting multiple stanzas below the score,
setting choral music, and lyrics to divided voices, 
are discussed in @ruser{Vocal music}.
@end quotation


@node Final touches
@section Final touches

This is the final section of the tutorial; it demonstrates how to
add the final touches to simple pieces, and provides an
introduction to the rest of the manual.

@menu
* Version number::              
* Adding titles::               
* Absolute note names::         
* Organizing pieces with variables::  
* After the tutorial::          
* How to read the manual::      
@end menu


@node Version number
@subsection Version number

@cindex versioning
The @code{\version} statement records the version of LilyPond that
was used to write the file:

@example
\version "2.11.23"
@end example

@noindent
by convention, this is placed at the top of your LilyPond file.

These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more
smoothly.  Changes in the syntax are handled with a special
program, @file{convert-ly} (see @rprogram{Updating files with
convert-ly}), and it uses @code{\version} to determine what rules
to apply.


@node Adding titles
@subsection Adding titles

The title, composer, opus number, and similar information are
entered in the @code{\header} block.  This exists outside of the
main music expression; the @code{\header} block is usually placed
underneath the @ruser{Version number}.

@example
\version "2.11.23"
\header @{
  title = "Symphony"
  composer = "Me"
  opus = "Op. 9"
@}

@{
  @dots{} music @dots{}
@}
@end example

When the file is processed, the title and composer are printed
above the music.  More information on titling can be found in
@ruser{Creating titles}.


@node Absolute note names
@subsection Absolute note names

So far we have always used @code{\relative} to define pitches.
This is the easiest way to enter most music, but another way of
defining pitches exists: absolute mode.

If you omit the @code{\relative}, LilyPond treats all pitches as
absolute values.  A @code{c'} will always mean middle C, a
@code{b} will always mean the note one step below middle C, and a
@code{g,} will always mean the note on the bottom staff of the
bass clef.

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
{
  \clef bass
  c' b g, g,
  g, f, f c'
}
@end lilypond

Here is a four-octave scale:

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
{
  \clef bass
  c, d, e, f,
  g, a, b, c
  d e f g
  a b c' d'
  \clef treble
  e' f' g' a'
  b' c'' d'' e''
  f'' g'' a'' b''
  c'''1
}
@end lilypond

As you can see, writing a melody in the treble clef involves a lot
of quote @code{'} marks.  Consider this fragment from Mozart:

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
{
  \key a \major
  \time 6/8
  cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
  b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8
}
@end lilypond

All these quotes makes the input less readable and it is a source
of errors.  With @code{\relative}, the previous example is much
easier to read:

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
\relative c'' {
  \key a \major
  \time 6/8
  cis8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
  b8. cis16 b8 d4 d8
}
@end lilypond

If you make a mistake with an octave mark (@code{'} or @code{,})
while working in @code{\relative} mode, it is very obvious -- many
notes will be in the wrong octave.  When working in absolute mode,
a single mistake will not be as visible, and will not be as easy
to find.

However, absolute mode is useful for music which has large
intervals, and is extremely useful for computer-generated LilyPond
files.


@node Organizing pieces with variables
@subsection Organizing pieces with variables

When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
larger files, the music expressions get a lot bigger.  In
polyphonic music with many staves, the input files can become very
confusing.  We can reduce this confusion by using
@emph{variables}.

With variables (also known as variables or macros), we can break
up complex music expressions.  An variable is assigned as
follows

@example
namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
@end example

The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic} can be used
later by placing a backslash in front of the name
(@code{\namedMusic}, just like a normal LilyPond command).
Variables must be defined @emph{before} the main music
expression.

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
violin = \new Staff { \relative c'' {
  a4 b c b
}}
cello = \new Staff { \relative c {
  \clef bass
  e2 d
}}
{
  <<
    \violin
    \cello
  >>
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
The name of an variable must have alphabetic characters only: no
numbers, underscores, or dashes.

It is possible to use variables for many other types of objects in
the input.  For example,

@example
width = 4.5\cm
name = "Wendy"
aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
@end example

Depending on its contents, the variable can be used in different
places.  The following example uses the above variables:

@example
\paper @{
  \aFivePaper
  line-width = \width
@}
@{ c4^\name @}
@end example


@node After the tutorial
@subsection After the tutorial

After finishing the tutorial, you should probably try writing a
piece or two.  Start with one of the @ruser{Templates}, and add
notes.  If you need any notation that was not covered in the
tutorial, look at the Notation Reference, starting with
@ruser{Basic notation}.  If you want to write for an instrument
ensemble that is not covered in the templates, take a look at
@ruser{Extending the templates}.

Once you have written a few short pieces, read the rest of the
Learning Manual (chapters 3-5).  There's nothing wrong with
reading it now, of course!  However, the rest of the Learning
Manual assumes that you are familiar with LilyPond input.  You may
wish to skim these chapters right now, and come back to them after
you have more experience.


@node How to read the manual
@subsection How to read the manual

As we saw in @ruser{How to read the tutorial}, many examples in
the tutorial omitted a @code{\relative c'' @{ ... @}} around the
printed example.

In the rest of the manual, we are much more lax about the printed
examples: sometimes they may have omitted a @code{\relative c'' @{
... @}}, but other times a different initial pitch may be used
(such as @code{c'} or @code{c,,}), and in some cases the whole
example is in absolute note mode!  However, ambiguities like this
only exist where the pitches are not important.  In any example
where the pitch matters, we have explicitly stated
@code{\relative} or absolute-mode @code{@{ @}}.

If you are still confused about the exact LilyPond input that was
used in an example, read the HTML version (if you are not already
doing so) and click on the picture of the music.  This will
display the exact input that LilyPond used to generate this
manual.

For information about the structure of the rest of the manual, see
@ruser{About this manual}.