1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @c This file is part of lilypond-learning.tely
4 Translation of GIT committish: FILL-IN-HEAD-COMMITTISH
6 When revising a translation, copy the HEAD committish of the
7 version that you are working on. See TRANSLATION for details.
12 Tutorial Specification:
14 The LM is written in a tutorial style which introduces the
15 most important concepts, structure and syntax of the
16 elements of a LilyPond score in a carefully graded sequence
17 of steps. Explanations of all musical concepts used in the
18 Manual can be found in the Music Glossary, and readers are
19 assumed to have no prior knowledge of LilyPond. The
20 objective is to take readers to a level where the Notation
21 Reference can be understood and employed to both adapt the
22 templates in the Appendix to their needs and to begin to
23 construct their own. Commonly used tweaks are introduced
24 and explained. Examples are provided throughout which,
25 while being focussed on the topic being introduced, are long
26 enough to seem real in order to retain the readers'
27 interest. Each example builds on the previous material, and
28 comments are used liberally. Every new aspect is thoroughly
29 explained before it is used.
34 Tutorial guidelines: (different from policy.txt!)
35 - unless you have a really good reason, use either
36 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
38 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
40 Don't use any other relative=X commands (make it a non-fragment
41 example), and don't use fragment without relative=2.
43 - use "aes" and "ees" instead of "as" and "es". I know it's not
44 correct Dutch naming, but let's not confuse people with this
45 until we get to the Basic notation chapter.
47 - Add "Music glossary: @rglos{foo}" to the _top_ of the relevant
48 portions of the tutorial.
56 This tutorial starts with an introduction to the LilyPond music
57 language and how to produce printed music. After this first
58 contact we will explain how to create common musical notation.
62 * Single staff notation::
63 * Multiple notes at once::
72 This section gives a basic introduction to working with LilyPond.
77 * Working on text files::
78 * How to read the tutorial::
82 @node Compiling a file
83 @subsection Compiling a file
85 The first example demonstrates how to start working with LilyPond.
86 To create sheet music, we write a text file that specifies the
87 notation. For example, if we write:
96 the result looks like this:
98 @c in this case we don't want verbatim
99 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
105 @warning{Every piece of LilyPond input needs to have
106 @strong{@{ curly braces @}} placed around the input. The braces
107 should also be surrounded by a space unless they are at the
108 beginning or end of a line to avoid ambiguities. The braces may
109 be omitted in some examples in this manual, but don't forget them
110 in your own music! For more information about the display of
111 examples in the manual, see @ref{How to read the tutorial}.}
113 @cindex case sensitive
114 In addition, LilyPond input is @strong{case sensitive}. @code{
115 @{ c d e @}} is valid input; @code{@{ C D E @}} will produce an
120 @subheading Entering music and viewing output
123 @cindex viewing music
125 In this section we will explain what commands to run and how to
126 view or print the output.
128 Note that there are several other text editors available with
129 better support for LilyPond. For more information, see
130 @rprogram{Text editor support}.
132 @warning{the first time you ever run LilyPond, it may take a
133 minute or two because all of the system fonts have to be analyzed
134 first. After this, LilyPond will be much faster!}
136 @subsubheading MacOS X
138 If you double click @code{LilyPond.app}, it will open with an
139 example file. Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your
140 Desktop, and then process it with the menu command @samp{Compile >
141 Typeset File}. The resulting PDF file will be displayed on your
144 For future use of LilyPond, you should begin by selecting @q{New}
145 or @q{Open}. You must save your file before typesetting it. If
146 any errors occur in processing, please see the log window.
149 @subsubheading Windows
151 On Windows, if you double-click in the LilyPond icon on the
152 Desktop, it will open a simple text editor with an example file.
153 Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your Desktop and then
154 double-click on the file to process it (the file icon looks like a
155 note). After some seconds, you will get a file @file{test.pdf} on
156 your desktop. Double-click on this PDF file to view the typeset
157 score. An alternative method to process the @file{test.ly} file
158 is to drag and drop it onto the LilyPond icon using your mouse
161 To edit an existing @file{.ly} file, right-click on it and
162 select @qq{Edit source}. To get an empty file to start from, run
163 the editor as described above and use @qq{New} in
166 Double-clicking the file does not only result in a PDF file, but
167 also produces a @file{.log} file that contains some information on
168 what LilyPond has done to the file. If any errors occur, please
173 Create a file (such as @file{test.ly}) and enter:
181 To process @file{test.ly}, proceed as follows:
188 You will see something resembling:
195 Interpreting music...
196 Preprocessing graphical objects...
197 Finding the ideal number of pages...
198 Fitting music on 1 page...
200 Layout output to `test.ps'...
201 Converting to `test.pdf'...
205 @node Simple notation
206 @subsection Simple notation
208 LilyPond will add some notation elements automatically. In the
209 next example, we have only specified four pitches, but LilyPond
210 has added a clef, time signature, and rhythms.
212 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
219 This behavior may be altered, but in most cases these automatic
225 Music glossary: @rglos{pitch}, @rglos{interval}, @rglos{fourth},
226 @rglos{scale}, @rglos{middle C}, @rglos{octave}.
228 The easiest way to enter notes is by using @code{\relative} mode.
229 In this mode, the octave is chosen automatically by assuming the
230 following note is always to be placed closest to the previous note,
231 i.e., it is to be placed in the octave which is within three
232 staff spaces of the previous note. We begin by entering the most
233 elementary piece of music, a @notation{scale}, in which every note
234 is within just one staff space of the previous note.
236 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
237 \relative c' { % set the starting point to middle C
243 The initial note is @notation{middle C}. Each successive note is
244 placed closest to the previous note -- in other words, the first
245 @code{c} is the closest C to middle C. This is followed by the
246 closest D to the previous note. We can create melodies which
247 have larger intervals:
249 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
257 As you may notice, this example does not start on middle C.
258 The first note -- the @code{d} -- is the closest D to middle C.
260 Relative mode can be confusing initially, but is the easiest way
261 to enter most melodies. Let us see how this relative calculation
262 works in practice. Starting from a B, which is on the middle line
263 in a treble clef, you can reach a C, D and E within 3 staff spaces
264 going up, and an A, G and F within 3 staff spaces going down. So
265 if the note following a B is a C, D or F it will be assumed to be
266 above the B, and an A, G or F will be assumed to be below.
268 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
269 b c % c is 1 staff space up, so is the c above
270 b d % d is 2 up or 5 down, so is the d above
271 b e % e is 3 up or 4 down, so is the e above
272 b a % a is 4 up or 3 down, so is the a below
273 b g % g is 5 up or 2 down, so is the g below
274 b f % f is 6 up or 1 down, so is the f below
277 Exactly the same happens even when any of these notes are
278 sharpened or flatted (@rglos{accidentals} and the @rglos{key
279 signature}) are @strong{totally ignored} in the calculation of
280 relative position. Exactly the same staff space counting is done
281 from a note at any other position on the staff.
283 To add intervals that are larger than four staff spaces, we can
284 raise the @notation{octave} by adding a single quote @code{'} (or
285 apostrophe) to the note name. We can lower the octave by adding a
286 comma @code{,} to the note name.
288 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
296 To change a note by two (or more!) octaves, we use multiple
297 @code{''} or @code{,,} -- but be careful that you use two single
298 quotes @code{''} and not one double quote @code{"}@tie{}! The
299 initial value in @code{\relative c'} may also be modified like
303 @subheading Durations (rhythms)
305 Music glossary: @rglos{beam}, @rglos{duration}, @rglos{whole note},
306 @rglos{half note}, @rglos{quarter note}, @rglos{dotted note}.
308 The @notation{duration} of a note is specified by a number after
309 the note name. @samp{1} for a @notation{whole note}, @samp{2} for
310 a @notation{half note}, @samp{4} for a @notation{quarter note} and
311 so on. @notation{Beams} are added automatically.
313 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
317 a16 a a a a32 a a a a64 a a a a a a a a2
322 If you do not specify a duration, the previous duration is used
323 for the next note. The duration of the first note defaults to a
326 To create @notation{dotted notes}, add a dot @samp{.} to the duration
329 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
339 Music glossary: @rglos{rest}.
341 A @notation{rest} is entered just like a note with the name @samp{r}:
343 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
351 @subheading Time signature
353 Music glossary: @rglos{time signature}.
355 The @notation{time signature} can be set with the @code{\time}
358 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
372 Music glossary: @rglos{clef}.
374 The @notation{clef} can be set using the @code{\clef} command:
376 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
390 @subheading All together
392 Here is a small example showing all these elements together:
394 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
406 Notation reference: @ruser{Writing pitches}, @ruser{Writing rhythms},
407 @ruser{Writing rests}, @ruser{Time signature}, @ruser{Clef}.
410 @c HERE's where I started
412 @node Working on text files
413 @subsection Working on text files
415 LilyPond input files are similar to source files in many common
416 programming languages. They are case sensitive, and white-space
417 is generally equivalent. Expressions are formed with curly braces
418 @{ @}, and comments are denoted with @code{%} or @code{%@{ ...
421 If the previous sentence sounds like nonsense, don't worry! We'll
422 explain what all these terms mean:
426 @cindex case sensitive
428 @strong{Case sensitive}:
429 it matters whether you enter a letter in lower case (e.g. @code{a,
430 b, s, t}) or upper case (e.g. @code{A, B, S, T}). Notes are
431 lower case: @code{@{ c d e @}} is valid input; @code{@{ C D E @}}
432 will produce an error message.
435 @strong{Whitespace insensitive}:
436 it does not matter how many spaces (or new lines) you add.
437 @code{@{ c d e @}} means the same thing as @code{@{ c @tie{}
438 @tie{} @tie{} d e @}} and:
446 Of course, the previous example is hard to read. A good rule of
447 thumb is to indent code blocks with either a tab or two spaces:
456 @strong{Expressions:}
457 Every piece of LilyPond input needs to have @strong{@{ curly
458 braces @}} placed around the input. These braces tell LilyPond
459 that the input is a single music expression, just like parentheses
460 @samp{()} in mathematics. The braces should be surrounded by a
461 space unless they are at the beginning or end of a line to avoid
464 A function (such as @code{\relative @{ @}}) also counts as a
465 single music expression.
469 @cindex block comment
472 A comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input; it
473 is ignored while parsing, so it has no effect on the printed
474 output. There are two types of comments. The percent symbol
475 @samp{%} introduces a line comment; anything after @samp{%} on
476 that line is ignored. A block comment marks a whole section of
477 music input as a comment. Anything that is enclosed in @code{%@{}
478 and @code{%@}} is ignored. (Comments do not nest.) The following
479 fragment shows possible uses for comments:
482 % notes for twinkle twinkle follow
486 This line, and the notes below
487 are ignored, since they are in a
496 There are more tips for constructing input files in
497 @ref{Suggestions for writing LilyPond files}.
500 @node How to read the tutorial
501 @subsection How to read the tutorial
503 LilyPond input must be surrounded by @{ @} marks or a
504 @code{\relative c'' @{ ... @}}, as we saw in @ref{Working on text
505 files}. For the rest of this manual, most examples will omit
506 this. To replicate the examples, you may copy and paste the
507 displayed input but you @strong{must} add the @code{\relative c''
512 ... example goes here...
516 Why omit the braces? Most examples in this manual can be inserted
517 into the middle of a longer piece of music. For these examples,
518 it does not make sense to add @code{\relative c'' @{ @}} -- you
519 should not place a @code{\relative} inside another
520 @code{\relative}! If we included @code{\relative c'' @{ @}}
521 around every example, you would not be able to copy a small
522 documentation example and paste it inside a longer piece of your
523 own. Most people want to add material to an existing piece, so we
524 format the manual this way.
527 @subheading Clickable examples
529 Many people learn programs by trying and fiddling around with the
530 program. This is also possible with LilyPond. If you click on a
531 picture in the HTML version of this manual, you will see the exact
532 LilyPond input that was used to generate that image. Try it on
536 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
538 c-\markup { \bold \huge { Click here. } }
542 By cutting and pasting everything in the @qq{ly snippet} section,
543 you have a starting template for experiments. To see exactly the
544 same output (line-width and all), copy everything from @qq{Start
545 cut-&-pastable section} to the bottom of the file.
548 @node Single staff notation
549 @section Single staff notation
551 This section introduces common notation that is used for one voice
555 * Accidentals and key signatures::
557 * Articulation and dynamics::
559 * Automatic and manual beams::
560 * Advanced rhythmic commands::
564 @node Accidentals and key signatures
565 @subsection Accidentals and key signatures
567 @subheading Accidentals
569 Music glossary: @rglos{sharp}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{double sharp},
570 @rglos{double flat}, @rglos{accidental}.
572 A @notation{sharp} pitch is made by adding @samp{is} to the name, and
573 a @notation{flat} pitch by adding @samp{es}. As you might expect, a
574 @notation{double sharp} or @notation{double flat} is made by adding
575 @samp{isis} or @samp{eses}. This syntax derived from note
576 naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages, like German
577 and Dutch. To use other names for @notation{accidentals}, see
578 @ruser{Note names in other languages}.
580 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
581 cis1 ees fisis, aeses
584 @cindex key signature, setting
585 @subheading Key signatures
587 Music glossary: @rglos{key signature}, @rglos{major}, @rglos{minor}.
589 The @notation{key signature} is set with the command @code{\key}
590 followed by a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}.
592 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
601 @subheading Warning: key signatures and pitches
603 Music glossary: @rglos{accidental}, @rglos{key signature},
604 @rglos{pitch}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{natural}, @rglos{sharp},
605 @rglos{transposition}.
607 To determine whether to print an @notation{accidental}, LilyPond
608 examines the pitches and the @notation{key signature}. The key
609 signature only affects the @emph{printed} accidentals, not the note's
610 @notation{pitch}! This is a feature that often causes confusion to
611 newcomers, so let us explain it in more detail.
613 LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
614 layout. The alteration (@notation{flat}, @notation{natural} or
615 @notation{sharp}) of a note is part of the pitch, and is therefore
616 musical content. Whether an accidental (a @emph{printed} flat, natural
617 or sharp sign) is printed in front of the corresponding note is a
618 question of layout. Layout is something that follows rules, so
619 accidentals are printed automatically according to those rules. The
620 pitches in your music are works of art, so they will not be added
621 automatically, and you must enter what you want to hear.
625 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
631 No note has a printed accidental, but you must still add the
632 @samp{is} to @code{cis} and @code{fis}.
634 The code @samp{e} does not mean @qq{print a black dot just below
635 the first line of the staff.} Rather, it means @qq{there is a
636 note with pitch E-natural.} In the key of A-flat major, it
637 @emph{does} get an accidental:
639 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
644 Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more
645 effort when typing, but the advantage is that
646 @notation{transposing} is easier, and accidentals can be printed
647 according to different conventions. For some examples how
648 accidentals can be printed according to different rules, see
649 @ruser{Automatic accidentals}.
655 see @ruser{Accidentals}, and @ruser{Automatic accidentals}.
657 see @ruser{Key signature}
659 see @rglos{Pitch names}.
665 @subsection Ties and slurs
670 Music glossary: @rglos{tie}.
672 A @notation{tie} is created by appending a tilde @samp{~} to the
673 first note being tied
675 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
683 Music glossary: @rglos{slur}.
685 A @notation{slur} is a curve drawn across many notes. The starting
686 note and ending note are marked with @samp{(} and @samp{)}
689 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
690 d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
693 @cindex slurs, phrasing
694 @cindex phrasing slurs
695 @subheading Phrasing slurs
697 Music glossary: @rglos{phrasing}, @rglos{legato}.
699 Slurs to indicate longer @notation{phrasing} can be entered with
700 @code{\(} and @code{\)}. You can have both @notation{legato} slurs and
701 phrasing slurs at the same time, but you cannot have simultaneous legato
702 slurs or simultaneous phrasing slurs.
704 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
705 a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis,\)
710 @cindex slurs versus ties
711 @subheading Warnings: slurs vs. ties
713 Music glossary: @rglos{articulation}, @rglos{slur}, @rglos{tie}.
715 A @notation{slur} looks like a @notation{tie}, but it has a different
716 meaning. A tie simply makes the first note longer, and can only be
717 used on pairs of notes with the same pitch. Slurs indicate the
718 @notation{articulation} of notes, and can be used on larger groups of
719 notes. Slurs and ties can be nested.
721 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
722 c2~( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2)
733 see @ruser{Phrasing slurs}.
738 @node Articulation and dynamics
739 @subsection Articulation and dynamics
744 @subheading Articulations
746 Music glossary: @rglos{articulation}.
748 Common @notation{articulations} can be added to a note using a
749 dash @samp{-} and a single character:
751 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
752 c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
756 @subheading Fingerings
758 Music glossary: @rglos{fingering}.
760 Similarly, @notation{fingering} indications can be added to a note using
761 a dash (@samp{-}) and the digit to be printed:
763 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
767 Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but
768 you can specify a direction using @samp{^} (up) or @samp{_}
769 (down). You can also use multiple articulations on the same note.
770 However, in most cases it is best to let LilyPond determine the
771 articulation directions.
773 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
774 c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
779 Music glossary: @rglos{dynamics}, @rglos{crescendo},
782 @notation{Dynamic} signs are made by adding the markings (with a
783 backslash) to the note:
785 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
793 @notation{Crescendi} and @notation{decrescendi} are started with
794 the commands @code{\<} and @code{\>}. An ending dynamic, for
795 example @code{\f}, will finish the (de)crescendo, or the command
796 @code{\!} can be used:
798 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
806 see @ruser{Articulations}.
808 see @ruser{Fingering instructions}.
810 see @ruser{Dynamics} (Notation reference) and @rglos{dynamics}
818 @subsection Adding text
820 Text may be added to your scores:
822 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
826 Extra formatting may be added with the @code{\markup} command:
828 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
829 c1^\markup{ \bold espr}
831 \dynamic f \italic \small { 2nd } \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
836 @c Kurt: leave this alone for now.
840 Notation reference: @ruser{Writing text}.
843 @node Automatic and manual beams
844 @subsection Automatic and manual beams
846 Music glossary: @rglos{beam}.
848 @cindex beams, by hand
849 All @notation{beams} are drawn automatically:
851 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
852 a8 ais d ees r d c16 b a8
856 If you do not like the automatic beams, they may be overridden
857 manually. Mark the first note to be beamed with @samp{[} and the
858 last one with @samp{]}.
860 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
861 a8[ ais] d[ ees r d] a b
867 @item Automatic beams
868 see @ruser{Automatic beams}.
870 see @ruser{Manual beams}.
875 @node Advanced rhythmic commands
876 @subsection Advanced rhythmic commands
880 @cindex partial measure
881 @subheading Partial measure
883 Music glossary: @rglos{anacrusis}.
885 A pickup (or @notation{anacrusis}) is entered with the keyword
886 @code{\partial}. It is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4}
887 is a quarter note pickup and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note.
889 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
898 Music glossary: @rglos{note value}, @rglos{triplet}.
900 @notation{Tuplets} are made with the @code{\times} keyword. It
901 takes two arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The
902 duration of the piece of music is multiplied by the fraction.
903 Triplets make notes occupy 2/3 of their notated duration, so a
904 @notation{triplet} has 2/3 as its fraction
906 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
907 \times 2/3 { f8 g a }
909 \times 2/3 { f,8 g16[ a g a] }
916 @subheading Grace notes
918 Music glossary: @rglos{grace notes}, @rglos{appoggiatura}.
920 @notation{Grace notes} are created with the @code{\grace} command,
921 although they can also be created by prefixing a music expression
922 with the keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}:
924 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
925 c2 \grace { a32[ b] } c2
926 c2 \appoggiatura b16 c2
927 c2 \acciaccatura b16 c2
934 see @ruser{Grace notes},
943 @node Multiple notes at once
944 @section Multiple notes at once
946 This section introduces having more than one note at the same
947 time: multiple instruments, multiple staves for a single
948 instrument (i.e. piano), and chords.
950 Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occurring
951 in a piece of music. Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more
952 than one voice on the same staff.
955 * Music expressions explained::
958 * Combining notes into chords::
959 * Single staff polyphony::
963 @node Music expressions explained
964 @subsection Music expressions explained
966 In LilyPond input files, music is represented by @emph{music
967 expressions}. A single note is a music expression:
969 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
973 Enclosing a note in braces creates a @emph{compound music
974 expression}. Here we have created a compound music expression
977 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
981 Putting a group of music expressions (e.g. notes) in braces means
982 that they are in sequence (i.e. each one follows the previous
983 one). The result is another music expression:
985 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
989 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: multiple staves
991 Music glossary: @rglos{polyphony}.
993 This technique is useful for @notation{polyphonic} music. To
994 enter music with more voices or more staves, we combine
995 expressions in parallel. To indicate that two voices should play
996 at the same time, simply enter a simultaneous combination of music
997 expressions. A @q{simultaneous} music expression is formed by
998 enclosing expressions inside @code{<<} and @code{>>}. In the
999 following example, three sequences (all containing two separate
1000 notes) are combined simultaneously:
1002 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1012 Note that we have indented each level of the input with a
1013 different amount of space. LilyPond does not care how much (or
1014 little) space there is at the beginning of a line, but indenting
1015 LilyPond code like this makes it much easier for humans to read.
1017 @warning{each note is relative to the previous note in
1018 the input, not relative to the @code{c''} in the initial
1019 @code{\\relative} command.}
1022 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: single staff
1024 To determine the number of staves in a piece, LilyPond looks at
1025 the first expression. If it is a single note, there is one staff;
1026 if there is a simultaneous expression, there is more than one
1029 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1032 << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
1037 @cindex music expression
1038 @subheading Analogy: mathematical expressions
1040 This mechanism is similar to mathematical formulas: a big formula
1041 is created by composing small formulas. Such formulas are called
1042 expressions, and their definition is recursive so you can make
1043 arbitrarily complex and large expressions. For example,
1052 ((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
1055 This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is
1056 contained in the next (larger) one. The simplest expressions are
1057 numbers, and larger ones are made by combining expressions with
1058 operators (like @samp{+}, @samp{*} and @samp{/}) and parentheses.
1059 Like mathematical expressions, music expressions can be nested
1060 arbitrarily deep, which is necessary for complex music like
1064 @node Multiple staves
1065 @subsection Multiple staves
1067 LilyPond input files are constructed out of music expressions, as
1068 we saw in @ref{Music expressions explained}. If the score begins
1069 with simultaneous music expressions, LilyPond creates multiples
1070 staves. However, it is easier to see what happens if we create
1071 each staff explicitly.
1073 To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
1074 staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it. These
1075 @code{Staff} elements are then combined in parallel with @code{<<}
1078 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1081 \new Staff { \clef treble c }
1082 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
1087 The command @code{\new} introduces a @q{notation context.} A
1088 notation context is an environment in which musical events (like
1089 notes or @code{\clef} commands) are interpreted. For simple
1090 pieces, such notation contexts are created automatically. For
1091 more complex pieces, it is best to mark contexts explicitly.
1093 There are several types of contexts. @code{Score}, @code{Staff},
1094 and @code{Voice} handle melodic notation, while @code{Lyrics} sets
1095 lyric texts and @code{ChordNames} prints chord names.
1097 In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
1098 creates a bigger music expression. In this way it resembles the
1099 minus sign in mathematics. The formula @math{(4+5)} is an
1100 expression, so @math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.
1102 Time signatures entered in one staff affects all other
1103 staves@footnote{This behavior may be changed if desired; for
1104 details, see @ruser{Polymetric notation}.}. On the other hand,
1105 the key signature of one staff does @emph{not} affect other
1108 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1111 \new Staff { \clef treble \time 3/4 c }
1112 \new Staff { \clef bass \key d \major c,, }
1121 @subsection Piano staves
1123 @cindex staff switch, manual
1124 @cindex cross staff voice, manual
1126 Music glossary: @rglos{brace}.
1128 Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a
1130 Printing such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in
1131 @ref{Multiple staves}. However, now this entire expression is
1132 inserted inside a @code{PianoStaff}:
1141 Here is a small example:
1143 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1146 \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 e g g, }
1147 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
1154 See @ruser{Piano music}.
1158 @node Combining notes into chords
1159 @subsection Combining notes into chords
1163 Music glossary: @rglos{chord}.
1165 @notation{Chords} can be made by surrounding pitches with single
1166 angle brackets. Angle brackets are the symbols @samp{<} and
1169 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
1170 r4 <c e g>4 <c f a>2
1173 You can combine markings like beams and ties with chords. They
1174 must be placed outside the angle brackets
1176 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
1177 r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>2
1180 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
1181 r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g>4 <c f a>\!)
1185 @node Single staff polyphony
1186 @subsection Single staff polyphony
1189 @cindex multiple voices
1190 @cindex voices, more -- on a staff
1191 When different melodic lines are combined on a single staff they
1192 are printed as polyphonic voices; each voice has its own stems,
1193 slurs and beams, and the top voice has the stems up, while the
1194 bottom voice has them down.
1196 Entering such parts is done by entering each voice as a sequence
1197 (with @code{@{...@}}) and combining these simultaneously,
1198 separating the voices with @code{\\}
1200 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
1207 For polyphonic music typesetting, spacer rests can also be
1208 convenient; these are rests that do not print. They are useful
1209 for filling up voices that temporarily do not play. Here is the
1210 same example with a spacer rest (@samp{s}) instead of a normal
1213 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
1221 Again, these expressions can be nested arbitrarily.
1223 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
1231 { <c g>1 ~ <c g>4 } \\
1239 See @ruser{Simultaneous notes}.
1246 This section introduces vocal music and simple song sheets.
1249 * Setting simple songs::
1250 * Aligning lyrics to a melody::
1251 * Lyrics to multiple staves::
1255 @node Setting simple songs
1256 @subsection Setting simple songs
1261 Music glossary: @rglos{lyrics}.
1263 Here is the start of the melody to a nursery
1264 rhyme, @qq{Girls and boys come out to play}:
1266 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1270 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1274 The @notation{lyrics} can be set to these notes, combining both
1275 with the @code{\addlyrics} keyword. Lyrics are entered by
1276 separating each syllable with a space.
1278 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1283 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1286 Girls and boys come out to play,
1291 Note the curly brackets delimiting both the music and the lyrics,
1292 and the angle brackets @code{<< ... >>} around the whole piece to
1293 show that the music and lyrics are to occur at the same time.
1295 @node Aligning lyrics to a melody
1296 @subsection Aligning lyrics to a melody
1298 Music glossary: @rglos{melisma}, @rglos{extender line}.
1301 @cindex extender line
1305 The next line in the nursery rhyme is @q{The moon doth shine as
1306 bright as day}. Let's extend it:
1308 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1313 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1314 g8 a4 b8 c b a d4 b8 g4.
1317 Girls and boys come out to play,
1318 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
1323 We see the extra lyrics do not align properly with the notes. The
1324 word @q{shine} should be sung on two notes, not one. This is
1325 called a @notation{melisma}, a single syllable sung to more than one
1326 note. There are several ways to spread a syllable over multiple
1327 notes, the simplest being to add a slur across them (see @ref{Ties
1330 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1335 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1336 g8 a4 b8 c([ b)] a d4 b8 g4.
1339 Girls and boys come out to play,
1340 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
1345 Here we have also used manual beaming (the square brackets @code{[
1346 ]} ) to generate the beaming which is customarily used with lyrics
1347 (see @ref{Automatic and manual beams}).
1349 If a syllable extends over several notes or a single very long
1350 note an @notation{extender line} is usually drawn from the syllable
1351 extending under all the notes for that syllable. It is entered as
1352 two underscores @code{__}. Here is an example from the first
1353 three bars of Dido's Lament, from Purcell's Dido and Æneas:
1355 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1361 b c4.( bes8 a4. g8 fis4.) g8 fis1
1365 am laid __ in earth,
1370 None of the examples so far have involved words containing more
1371 than one syllable. Such words are usually split one syllable to a
1372 note, with hyphens between syllables. Such hyphens are entered as
1373 two dashes, resulting in a centered hyphen between the syllables.
1374 Here is an example showing this and everything we have learned so
1375 far about aligning lyrics to notes.
1377 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1378 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1379 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1385 d4 g4 g a8( b) g4 g4
1389 A -- way in a __ man -- ger,
1390 no __ crib for a bed, __
1395 Some lyrics, especially those in Italian, require the opposite:
1396 setting more than one syllable to a single note. This is
1397 achieved by linking the syllables together with a single
1398 underscore @code{_} (with no spaces), or enclosing them in
1399 quotes. Here's an example from Rossini's Figaro, where
1400 @q{al} has to be sung on the same note as the @q{go} of
1401 @q{Largo} in Figaro's aria @q{Largo al factotum}:
1403 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1404 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1405 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1411 c4.~ c8 d b c([ d)] b c d b c
1414 Lar -- go_al fac -- to -- tum del -- la cit -- tĂ
1422 More options, such as inserting explicit rhythms into lyrics,
1423 inserting lyric ties (e.g., between @q{go al}) above,
1424 alternative ways of handling melismata,
1425 and adding extra verses,
1426 are discussed in @ruser{Vocal music}.
1429 @node Lyrics to multiple staves
1430 @subsection Lyrics to multiple staves
1432 The simple approach using @code{\addlyrics} can be used for
1433 placing lyrics under more than one staff. Here is an
1434 example from Handel's Judas Maccabæus:
1436 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1444 c8 c([ bes)] a a([ g)] f f'4. b, c4.~ c4
1447 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn, __
1451 r8 r4. r4 c8 a'([ g)] f f([ e)] d e([ d)] c bes'4
1454 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn,
1459 but scores any more complex than this simple example are
1460 better produced by separating out the staff structure
1461 from the notes and lyrics with variables. These are
1462 discussed later (see @ref{Organizing pieces with variables}).
1466 More options, such as putting multiple stanzas below the score,
1467 setting choral music, and lyrics to divided voices,
1468 are discussed in @ruser{Vocal music}.
1473 @section Final touches
1475 This is the final section of the tutorial; it demonstrates how to
1476 add the final touches to simple pieces, and provides an
1477 introduction to the rest of the manual.
1482 * Absolute note names::
1483 * Organizing pieces with variables::
1484 * After the tutorial::
1485 * How to read the manual::
1489 @node Version number
1490 @subsection Version number
1493 The @code{\version} statement records the version of LilyPond that
1494 was used to write the file:
1501 By convention, this is placed at the top of your LilyPond file.
1503 These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more
1504 smoothly. Changes in the syntax are handled with a special
1505 program, @file{convert-ly}, and it uses @code{\version} to
1506 determine what rules to apply. For details, see
1507 @rprogram{Updating files with convert-ly}.
1511 @subsection Adding titles
1513 The title, composer, opus number, and similar information are
1514 entered in the @code{\header} block. This exists outside of the
1515 main music expression; the @code{\header} block is usually placed
1516 underneath the @ref{Version number}.
1527 @dots{} music @dots{}
1531 When the file is processed, the title and composer are printed
1532 above the music. More information on titling can be found in
1533 @ruser{Creating titles}.
1536 @node Absolute note names
1537 @subsection Absolute note names
1539 So far we have always used @code{\relative} to define pitches.
1540 This is the easiest way to enter most music, but another way of
1541 defining pitches exists: absolute mode.
1543 If you omit the @code{\relative}, LilyPond treats all pitches as
1544 absolute values. A @code{c'} will always mean middle C, a
1545 @code{b} will always mean the note one step below middle C, and a
1546 @code{g,} will always mean the note on the bottom staff of the
1549 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1557 Here is a four-octave scale:
1559 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1574 As you can see, writing a melody in the treble clef involves a lot
1575 of quote @code{'} marks. Consider this fragment from Mozart:
1577 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1581 cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
1582 b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8
1586 All these quotes makes the input less readable and it is a source
1587 of errors. With @code{\relative}, the previous example is much
1590 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1594 cis8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
1599 If you make a mistake with an octave mark (@code{'} or @code{,})
1600 while working in @code{\relative} mode, it is very obvious -- many
1601 notes will be in the wrong octave. When working in absolute mode,
1602 a single mistake will not be as visible, and will not be as easy
1605 However, absolute mode is useful for music which has large
1606 intervals, and is extremely useful for computer-generated LilyPond
1610 @node Organizing pieces with variables
1611 @subsection Organizing pieces with variables
1613 When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
1614 larger files, the music expressions get a lot bigger. In
1615 polyphonic music with many staves, the input files can become very
1616 confusing. We can reduce this confusion by using
1619 With variables (also known as identifiers or macros), we can break
1620 up complex music expressions. An variable is assigned as
1624 namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
1627 The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic} can be used
1628 later by placing a backslash in front of the name
1629 (@code{\namedMusic}, just like a normal LilyPond command).
1630 Variables must be defined @emph{before} the main music
1633 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1634 violin = \new Staff { \relative c'' {
1637 cello = \new Staff { \relative c {
1650 The name of an variable must have alphabetic characters only, no
1651 numbers, underscores, or dashes.
1653 It is possible to use variables for many other types of objects in
1654 the input. For example,
1659 aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
1662 Depending on its contents, the variable can be used in different
1663 places. The following example uses the above variables:
1674 @node After the tutorial
1675 @subsection After the tutorial
1677 After finishing the tutorial, you should probably try writing a
1678 piece or two. Start by adding notes to one of the @ref{Templates}.
1679 If you need any notation that was not covered in the
1680 tutorial, look at the Notation Reference, starting with
1681 @ruser{Musical notation}. If you want to write for an instrument
1682 ensemble that is not covered in the templates, take a look at
1683 @ref{Extending the templates}.
1685 Once you have written a few short pieces, read the rest of the
1686 Learning Manual (chapters 3-5). There's nothing wrong with
1687 reading it now, of course! However, the rest of the Learning
1688 Manual assumes that you are familiar with LilyPond input. You may
1689 wish to skim these chapters right now, and come back to them after
1690 you have more experience.
1693 @node How to read the manual
1694 @subsection How to read the manual
1696 Many examples in the tutorial omitted a @code{\relative c'' @{
1697 ... @}} around the printed example, as we saw in
1698 @ref{How to read the tutorial}.
1700 In the rest of the manual, we are much more lax about the printed
1701 examples: sometimes they may have omitted a @code{\relative c'' @{
1702 ... @}}, but other times a different initial pitch may be used
1703 (such as @code{c'} or @code{c,,}), and in some cases the whole
1704 example is in absolute note mode! However, ambiguities like this
1705 only exist where the pitches are not important. In any example
1706 where the pitch matters, we have explicitly stated
1707 @code{\relative} or absolute-mode @code{@{ @}}.
1709 If you are still confused about the exact LilyPond input that was
1710 used in an example, read the HTML version (if you are not already
1711 doing so) and click on the picture of the music. This will
1712 display the exact input that LilyPond used to generate this
1715 For information about the structure of the rest of the manual, see
1716 @ref{About this manual}.