1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @c This file is part of lilypond-learning.tely
4 Translation of GIT committish: FILL-IN-HEAD-COMMITTISH
6 When revising a translation, copy the HEAD committish of the
7 version that you are working on. See TRANSLATION for details.
11 Tutorial guidelines: (different from policy.txt!)
12 - unless you have a really good reason, use either
13 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
15 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
17 Don't use any other relative=X commands (make it a non-fragment
18 example), and don't use fragment without relative=2.
20 - use "aes" and "ees" instead of "as" and "es". I know it's not
21 correct Dutch naming, but let's not confuse people with this
22 until we get to the Basic notation chapter.
24 - Add "Music glossary: @rglos{foo}" to the _top_ of the relevant
25 portions of the tutorial.
33 This tutorial starts with an introduction to the LilyPond music
34 language and how to produce printed music. After this first
35 contact we will explain how to create common musical notation.
39 * Single staff notation::
40 * Multiple notes at once::
49 This section gives a basic introduction to working with LilyPond.
54 * Working on text files::
55 * How to read the tutorial::
59 @node Compiling a file
60 @subsection Compiling a file
62 The first example demonstrates how to start working with LilyPond.
63 To create sheet music, we write a text file that specifies the
64 notation. For example, if we write
73 the result looks like this:
75 @c in this case we don't want verbatim
76 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
82 @warning{Every piece of LilyPond input needs to have
83 @strong{@{ curly braces @}} placed around the input. The braces
84 should also be surrounded by a space unless they are at the
85 beginning or end of a line to avoid ambiguities. The braces may
86 be omitted in some examples in this manual, but don't forget them
87 in your own music! For more information about the display of
88 examples in the manual, see @ref{How to read the tutorial}.}
90 @cindex Case sensitive
91 In addition, LilyPond input is @strong{case sensitive}. @code{
92 @{ c d e @}} is valid input; @code{@{ C D E @}} will produce an
97 @subheading Entering music and viewing output
100 @cindex Viewing music
102 In this section we will explain what commands to run and how to
103 view or print the output.
105 Note that there are several other text editors available with
106 better support for LilyPond. For more information, see
107 @rprogram{Text editor support}.
109 @warning{the first time you ever run LilyPond, it may take a
110 minute or two because all of the system fonts have to be analyzed
111 first. After this, LilyPond will be much faster!}
113 @subsubheading MacOS X
115 If you double click @code{LilyPond.app}, it will open with an
116 example file. Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your
117 Desktop, and then process it with the menu command @samp{Compile >
118 Typeset File}. The resulting PDF file will be displayed on your
121 For future use of LilyPond, you should begin by selecting @q{New}
122 or @q{Open}. You must save your file before typesetting it. If
123 any errors occur in processing, please see the log window.
126 @subsubheading Windows
128 On Windows, if you double-click in the LilyPond icon on the
129 Desktop, it will open a simple text editor with an example file.
130 Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your Desktop and then
131 double-click on the file to process it (the file icon looks like a
132 note). After some seconds, you will get a file @file{test.pdf} on
133 your desktop. Double-click on this PDF file to view the typeset
134 score. An alternative method to process the @file{test.ly} file
135 is to drag and drop it onto the LilyPond icon using your mouse
138 To edit an existing @file{.ly} file, right-click on it and
139 select @qq{Edit source}. To get an empty file to start from, run
140 the editor as described above and use @qq{New} in
143 Double-clicking the file does not only result in a PDF file, but
144 also produces a @file{.log} file that contains some information on
145 what LilyPond has done to the file. If any errors occur, please
150 Create a file (such as @file{test.ly}) and enter:
158 To process @file{test.ly}, proceed as follows
165 You will see something resembling
172 Interpreting music...
173 Preprocessing graphical objects...
174 Finding the ideal number of pages...
175 Fitting music on 1 page...
177 Layout output to `test.ps'...
178 Converting to `test.pdf'...
182 @node Simple notation
183 @subsection Simple notation
185 LilyPond will add some notation elements automatically. In the
186 next example, we have only specified four pitches, but LilyPond
187 has added a clef, time signature, and rhythms.
189 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
196 This behavior may be altered, but in most cases these automatic
202 Music glossary: @rglos{interval}, @rglos{fourth}, @rglos{scale},
203 @rglos{middle C}, @rglos{octave}.
205 The easiest way to enter notes is by using @code{\relative} mode.
206 In this mode, the @notation{interval} between the previous note and
207 the current note is assumed to be within a @notation{fourth}. We
208 begin by entering the most elementary piece of music, a
211 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
218 The initial note is @notation{middle C}. Each successive note is
219 within a fourth of the previous note -- in other words, the first
220 @code{c} is the closest C to middle C. This is followed by the
221 closest D to the previous note. We can create melodies which
222 have larger intervals:
224 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
232 As you may notice, this example does not start on middle C. The first
233 note -- the @code{d} -- is the closest D to middle C.
235 To add intervals that are larger than a fourth, we can raise
236 the @notation{octave} by adding a single quote @code{'} (or apostrophe)
237 to the note name. We can lower the octave by adding a comma @code{,} to
240 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
248 To change a note by two (or more!) octaves, we use multiple
249 @code{''} or @code{,,} -- but be careful that you use two single
250 quotes @code{''} and not one double quote @code{"}@tie{}! The
251 initial value in @code{\relative c'} may also be modified like
255 @subheading Durations (rhythms)
257 Music glossary: @rglos{beam}, @rglos{duration}, @rglos{whole note},
258 @rglos{half note}, @rglos{quarter note}, @rglos{dotted note}.
260 The @notation{duration} of a note is specified by a number after
261 the note name. @samp{1} for a @notation{whole note}, @samp{2} for
262 a @notation{half note}, @samp{4} for a @notation{quarter note} and
263 so on. @notation{Beams} are added automatically.
265 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
269 a16 a a a a32 a a a a64 a a a a a a a a2
274 If you do not specify a duration, the previous duration is used
275 for the next note. The duration of the first note defaults to a
278 To create @notation{dotted notes}, add a dot @samp{.} to the duration
281 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
291 Music glossary: @rglos{rest}.
293 A @notation{rest} is entered just like a note with the name @samp{r}:
295 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
303 @subheading Time signature
305 Music glossary: @rglos{time signature}.
307 The @notation{time signature} can be set with the @code{\time}
310 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
324 Music glossary: @rglos{clef}.
326 The @notation{clef} can be set using the @code{\clef} command:
328 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
342 @subheading All together
344 Here is a small example showing all these elements together:
346 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
358 User manual: @ruser{Writing pitches}, @ruser{Writing rhythms},
359 @ruser{Writing rests}, @ruser{Time signature}, @ruser{Clef}.
362 @c HERE's where I started
364 @node Working on text files
365 @subsection Working on text files
367 LilyPond input files are similar to source files in many common
368 programming languages. They are case sensitive, and white-space
369 is generally equivalent. Expressions are formed with curly braces
370 @{ @}, and comments are denoted with @code{%} or @code{%@{ ...
373 If the previous sentence sounds like nonsense, don't worry! We'll
374 explain what all these terms mean:
378 @cindex Case sensitive
379 @item @strong{Case sensitive}:
380 it matters whether you enter a letter in lower case (e.g. @code{a,
381 b, s, t}) or upper case (e.g. @code{A, B, S, T}). Notes are
382 lower case: @code{@{ c d e @}} is valid input; @code{@{ C D E @}}
383 will produce an error message.
385 @item @strong{Whitespace insensitive}:
386 it does not matter how many spaces (or new lines) you add.
387 @code{@{ c d e @}} means the same thing as @code{@{ c @tie{}
388 @tie{} @tie{} d e @}} and
396 Of course, the previous example is hard to read. A good rule of
397 thumb is to indent code blocks with either a tab or two spaces:
405 @item @strong{Expressions:}
406 Every piece of LilyPond input needs to have @strong{@{ curly
407 braces @}} placed around the input. These braces tell LilyPond
408 that the input is a single music expression, just like parentheses
409 @samp{()} in mathematics. The braces should be surrounded by a
410 space unless they are at the beginning or end of a line to avoid
413 A function (such as @code{\relative @{ @}}) also counts as a
414 single music expression.
418 @cindex block comment
419 @item @strong{Comments}:
420 A comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input; it
421 is ignored while parsing, so it has no effect on the printed
422 output. There are two types of comments. The percent symbol
423 @samp{%} introduces a line comment; anything after @samp{%} on
424 that line is ignored. A block comment marks a whole section of
425 music input as a comment. Anything that is enclosed in @code{%@{}
426 and @code{%@}} is ignored. (Comments do not nest.) The following
427 fragment shows possible uses for comments
430 % notes for twinkle twinkle follow
434 This line, and the notes below
435 are ignored, since they are in a
444 There are more tips for constructing input files in
445 @ruser{Suggestions for writing LilyPond files}.
448 @node How to read the tutorial
449 @subsection How to read the tutorial
451 As we saw in @ruser{Working on text files}, LilyPond input must be
452 surrounded by @{ @} marks or a @code{\relative c'' @{ ... @}}.
453 For the rest of this manual, most examples will omit this. To
454 replicate the examples, you may copy and paste the displayed input
455 but you @strong{must} add the @code{\relative c'' @{ @}} like
460 ... example goes here...
464 Why omit the braces? Most examples in this manual can be inserted
465 into the middle of a longer piece of music. For these examples,
466 it does not make sense to add @code{\relative c'' @{ @}} -- you
467 should not place a @code{\relative} inside another
468 @code{\relative}! If we included @code{\relative c'' @{ @}}
469 around every example, you would not be able to copy a small
470 documentation example and paste it inside a longer piece of your
471 own. Most people want to add material to an existing piece, so we
472 format the manual this way.
475 @subheading Clickable examples
477 Many people learn programs by trying and fiddling around with the
478 program. This is also possible with LilyPond. If you click on a
479 picture in the HTML version of this manual, you will see the exact
480 LilyPond input that was used to generate that image. Try it on
484 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
486 c-\markup { \bold \huge { Click here. } }
490 By cutting and pasting everything in the @qq{ly snippet} section,
491 you have a starting template for experiments. To see exactly the
492 same output (line-width and all), copy everything from @qq{Start
493 cut-&-pastable section} to the bottom of the file.
496 @node Single staff notation
497 @section Single staff notation
499 This section introduces common notation that is used for one voice
503 * Relative note names::
504 * Accidentals and key signatures::
506 * Articulation and dynamics::
508 * Automatic and manual beams::
509 * Advanced rhythmic commands::
513 @node Relative note names
514 @subsection Relative note names
516 Music glossary: @rglos{octave}, @rglos{fourth}, @rglos{fifth}.
518 As we saw in @ref{Simple notation}, LilyPond calculates the pitch of
519 each note relative to the previous one@footnote{There is another mode
520 of entering pitches, @ruser{Absolute note names}, but in practice
521 relative mode is much easier and safer to use.}. If no extra
522 @notation{octave} marks (@code{'} and @code{,}) are added, it assumes
523 that each pitch is within a @notation{fourth} of the previous note.
525 LilyPond examines pitches based on the note names -- in other
526 words, an augmented fourth is @emph{not} treated the same as a
527 diminished fifth. If we begin at a C, then an F-sharp will be placed a
528 higher than the C, while a G-flat will be placed lower than the C.
530 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
538 @item Relative octaves
539 see @ruser{Relative octaves}.
541 see @ruser{Octave check}.
546 @node Accidentals and key signatures
547 @subsection Accidentals and key signatures
549 @subheading Accidentals
551 Music glossary: @rglos{sharp}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{double sharp},
552 @rglos{double flat}, @rglos{accidental}.
554 A @notation{sharp} pitch is made by adding @samp{is} to the name, and
555 a @notation{flat} pitch by adding @samp{es}. As you might expect, a
556 @notation{double sharp} or @notation{double flat} is made by adding
557 @samp{isis} or @samp{eses}@footnote{This syntax derived from note
558 naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages, like German
559 and Dutch. To use other names for @notation{accidentals}, see
560 @ruser{Note names in other languages}.}
562 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
563 cis1 ees fisis, aeses
566 @cindex key signature, setting
567 @subheading Key signatures
569 Music glossary: @rglos{key signature}, @rglos{major}, @rglos{minor}.
571 The @notation{key signature} is set with the command @code{\key}
572 followed by a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}.
574 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
583 @subheading Warning: key signatures and pitches
585 Music glossary: @rglos{accidental}, @rglos{key signature},
586 @rglos{pitch}, @rglos{flat}, @rglos{natural}, @rglos{sharp}.
588 To determine whether to print an @notation{accidental}, LilyPond
589 examines the pitches and the @notation{key signature}. The key
590 signature only affects the @emph{printed} accidentals, not the note's
591 @notation{pitch}! This is a feature that often causes confusion to
592 newcomers, so let us explain it in more detail.
594 LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
595 layout. The alteration (@notation{flat}, @notation{natural} or
596 @notation{sharp}) of a note is part of the pitch, and is therefore
597 musical content. Whether an accidental (a @emph{printed} flat, natural
598 or sharp sign) is printed in front of the corresponding note is a
599 question of layout. Layout is something that follows rules, so
600 accidentals are printed automatically according to those rules. The
601 pitches in your music are works of art, so they will not be added
602 automatically, and you must enter what you want to hear.
606 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
612 No note has a printed accidental, but you must still add the
613 @samp{is} to @code{cis} and @code{fis}.
615 The code @samp{e} does not mean @qq{print a black dot just below
616 the first line of the staff.} Rather, it means: @qq{there is a
617 note with pitch E-natural.} In the key of A-flat major, it
618 @emph{does} get an accidental:
620 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
625 Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more
626 effort when typing, but the advantage is that transposing is
627 easier, and accidentals can be printed according to different
628 conventions. See @ruser{Automatic accidentals}, for some examples
629 how accidentals can be printed according to different rules.
635 see @ruser{Accidentals}, and @ruser{Automatic accidentals}.
637 see @ruser{Key signature}
639 see @rglos{Pitch names}.
645 @subsection Ties and slurs
650 Music glossary: @rglos{tie}.
652 A @notation{tie} is created by appending a tilde @samp{~} to the
653 first note being tied
655 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
663 Music glossary: @rglos{slur}.
665 A @notation{slur} is a curve drawn across many notes. The starting
666 note and ending note are marked with @samp{(} and @samp{)}
669 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
670 d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
673 @cindex slurs, phrasing
674 @cindex phrasing slurs
675 @subheading Phrasing slurs
677 Music glossary: @rglos{phrasing}, @rglos{legato}.
679 Slurs to indicate longer @notation{phrasing} can be entered with
680 @code{\(} and @code{\)}. You can have both @notation{legato} slurs and
681 phrasing slurs at the same time, but you cannot have simultaneous legato
682 slurs or simultaneous phrasing slurs.
684 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
685 a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis,\)
690 @cindex slurs versus ties
691 @subheading Warnings: slurs vs. ties
693 Music glossary: @rglos{articulation}, @rglos{slur}, @rglos{tie}.
695 A @notation{slur} looks like a @notation{tie}, but it has a different
696 meaning. A tie simply makes the first note longer, and can only be used on pairs of notes with the same pitch. Slurs indicate the
697 @notation{articulation} of notes, and can be used on larger groups of
698 notes. Slurs and ties can be nested.
700 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
701 c2~( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2)
712 see @ruser{Phrasing slurs}.
717 @node Articulation and dynamics
718 @subsection Articulation and dynamics
723 @subheading Articulations
725 Music glossary: @rglos{articulation}.
727 Common @notation{articulations} can be added to a note using a
728 dash @samp{-} and a single character:
730 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
731 c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
735 @subheading Fingerings
737 Music glossary: @rglos{fingering}.
739 Similarly, @notation{fingering} indications can be added to a note using
740 a dash (@samp{-}) and the digit to be printed:
742 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
746 Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but
747 you can specify a direction using @samp{^} (up) or @samp{_}
748 (down). You can also use multiple articulations on the same note.
749 However, in most cases it is best to let LilyPond determine the
750 articulation directions.
752 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
753 c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
758 Music glossary: @rglos{dynamics}, @rglos{crescendo},
761 Dynamic signs are made by adding the markings (with a backslash)
764 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
772 Crescendi and decrescendi are started with the commands @code{\<}
773 and @code{\>}. An ending dynamic, for example @code{\f}, will
774 finish the (de)crescendo, or the command @code{\!} can be used:
776 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
784 see @ruser{Articulations}.
786 see @ruser{Fingering instructions}.
788 see @ruser{Dynamics} (User manual) and @rglos{dynamics} (Glossary).
795 @subsection Adding text
797 Text may be added to your scores:
799 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
803 Extra formatting may be added with the @code{\markup} command:
805 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
806 c1^\markup{ \bold espr}
808 \dynamic f \italic \small { 2nd } \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
813 @c Kurt: leave this alone for now.
817 User manual: @ruser{Writing text}.
820 @node Automatic and manual beams
821 @subsection Automatic and manual beams
823 Music glossary: @rglos{beam}.
825 @cindex beams, by hand
826 All @notation{beams} are drawn automatically:
828 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
829 a8 ais d ees r d c16 b a8
833 If you do not like the automatic beams, they may be overridden
834 manually. Mark the first note to be beamed with @samp{[} and the
835 last one with @samp{]}.
837 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
838 a8[ ais] d[ ees r d] a b
844 @item Automatic beams
845 see @ruser{Automatic beams}.
847 see @ruser{Manual beams}.
852 @node Advanced rhythmic commands
853 @subsection Advanced rhythmic commands
857 @cindex partial measure
858 @subheading Partial measure
860 Music glossary: @rglos{anacrusis}.
862 A pickup (or @notation{anacrusis}) is entered with the keyword
863 @code{\partial}. It is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4}
864 is a quarter note pickup and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note.
866 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
875 Tuplets are made with the @code{\times} keyword. It takes two
876 arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The duration of the
877 piece of music is multiplied by the fraction. Triplets make notes
878 occupy 2/3 of their notated duration, so a triplet has 2/3 as its
881 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
882 \times 2/3 { f8 g a }
884 \times 2/3 { f,8 g16[ a g a] }
891 @subheading Grace notes
893 Grace notes are created with the @code{\grace} command, although
894 they can also be created by prefixing a music expression with the
895 keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}
897 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
898 c2 \grace { a32[ b] } c2
899 c2 \appoggiatura b16 c2
900 c2 \acciaccatura b16 c2
907 see @ruser{Grace notes},
911 see @ruser{Partial measures}.
916 @node Multiple notes at once
917 @section Multiple notes at once
919 This section introduces having more than one note at the same
920 time: multiple instruments, multiple staves for a single
921 instrument (i.e. piano), and chords.
923 Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occurring
924 in a piece of music. Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more
925 than one voice on the same staff.
928 * Music expressions explained::
931 * Combining notes into chords::
932 * Single staff polyphony::
936 @node Music expressions explained
937 @subsection Music expressions explained
939 In LilyPond input files, music is represented by @emph{music
940 expressions}. A single note is a music expression:
942 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
946 Enclosing a note in braces creates a @emph{compound music
947 expression}. Here we have created a compound music expression
950 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
954 Putting a group of music expressions (e.g. notes) in braces means
955 that they are in sequence (i.e. each one follows the previous
956 one). The result is another music expression:
958 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
962 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: multiple staves
964 This technique is useful for polyphonic music. To enter music
965 with more voices or more staves, we combine expressions in
966 parallel. To indicate that two voices should play at the same
967 time, simply enter a simultaneous combination of music
968 expressions. A @q{simultaneous} music expression is formed by
969 enclosing expressions inside @code{<<} and @code{>>}. In the
970 following example, three sequences (all containing two separate
971 notes) are combined simultaneously:
973 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
983 Note that we have indented each level of the input with a
984 different amount of space. LilyPond does not care how much (or
985 little) space there is at the beginning of a line, but indenting
986 LilyPond code like this makes it much easier for humans to read.
988 @warning{each note is relative to the previous note in
989 the input, not relative to the @code{c''} in the initial
990 @code{\\relative} command.}
993 @subheading Simultaneous music expressions: single staff
995 To determine the number of staves in a piece, LilyPond looks at
996 the first expression. If it is a single note, there is one staff;
997 if there is a simultaneous expression, there is more than one
1000 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1003 << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
1008 @cindex music expression
1009 @subheading Analogy: mathematical expressions
1011 This mechanism is similar to mathematical formulas: a big formula
1012 is created by composing small formulas. Such formulas are called
1013 expressions, and their definition is recursive so you can make
1014 arbitrarily complex and large expressions. For example,
1023 ((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
1026 This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is
1027 contained in the next (larger) one. The simplest expressions are
1028 numbers, and larger ones are made by combining expressions with
1029 operators (like @samp{+}, @samp{*} and @samp{/}) and parentheses.
1030 Like mathematical expressions, music expressions can be nested
1031 arbitrarily deep, which is necessary for complex music like
1035 @node Multiple staves
1036 @subsection Multiple staves
1038 As we saw in @ruser{Music expressions explained}, LilyPond input
1039 files are constructed out of music expressions. If the score
1040 begins with simultaneous music expressions, LilyPond creates
1041 multiples staves. However, it is easier to see what happens if we
1042 create each staff explicitly.
1044 To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
1045 staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it. These
1046 @code{Staff} elements are then combined in parallel with @code{<<}
1049 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1052 \new Staff { \clef treble c }
1053 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
1058 The command @code{\new} introduces a @q{notation context.} A
1059 notation context is an environment in which musical events (like
1060 notes or @code{\clef} commands) are interpreted. For simple
1061 pieces, such notation contexts are created automatically. For
1062 more complex pieces, it is best to mark contexts explicitly.
1064 There are several types of contexts. @code{Score}, @code{Staff},
1065 and @code{Voice} handle melodic notation, while @code{Lyrics} sets
1066 lyric texts and @code{ChordNames} prints chord names.
1068 In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
1069 creates a bigger music expression. In this way it resembles the
1070 minus sign in mathematics. The formula @math{(4+5)} is an
1071 expression, so @math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.
1073 Time signatures entered in one staff affects all other
1074 staves@footnote{This behavior may be changed if desired; see
1075 @ruser{Polymetric notation}, for details.}. On the other hand, the
1076 key signature of one staff does @emph{not} affect other staves.
1078 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1081 \new Staff { \clef treble \time 3/4 c }
1082 \new Staff { \clef bass \key d \major c,, }
1091 @subsection Piano staves
1093 @cindex staff switch, manual
1094 @cindex cross staff voice, manual
1095 Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a brace.
1096 Printing such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in
1097 @ruser{Multiple staves}, but now this entire expression is
1098 inserted inside a @code{PianoStaff}:
1107 Here is a small example:
1109 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1112 \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 e g g, }
1113 \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
1120 See @ruser{Piano music}.
1124 @node Combining notes into chords
1125 @subsection Combining notes into chords
1128 Chords can be made by surrounding pitches with single angle
1129 brackets. Angle brackets are the symbols @samp{<} and @samp{>}.
1131 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1132 r4 <c e g>4 <c f a>2
1135 You can combine markings like beams and ties with chords. They
1136 must be placed outside the angle brackets
1138 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1139 r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>2
1142 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1143 r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g>4 <c f a>\!)
1147 @node Single staff polyphony
1148 @subsection Single staff polyphony
1151 @cindex multiple voices
1152 @cindex voices, more -- on a staff
1153 When different melodic lines are combined on a single staff they
1154 are printed as polyphonic voices; each voice has its own stems,
1155 slurs and beams, and the top voice has the stems up, while the
1156 bottom voice has them down.
1158 Entering such parts is done by entering each voice as a sequence
1159 (with @code{@{...@}}) and combining these simultaneously,
1160 separating the voices with @code{\\}
1162 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
1169 For polyphonic music typesetting, spacer rests can also be
1170 convenient; these are rests that do not print. They are useful
1171 for filling up voices that temporarily do not play. Here is the
1172 same example with a spacer rest (@samp{s}) instead of a normal
1175 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=2]
1183 Again, these expressions can be nested arbitrarily.
1185 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1193 { <c g>1 ~ <c g>4 } \\
1201 See @ruser{Basic polyphony}.
1208 This section introduces vocal music and simple song sheets.
1211 * Setting simple songs::
1212 * Aligning lyrics to a melody::
1213 * Lyrics to multiple staves::
1217 @node Setting simple songs
1218 @subsection Setting simple songs
1222 Here is the start of the melody to a nursery
1223 rhyme, @qq{Girls and boys come out to play}:
1225 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1229 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1233 The lyrics can be set to these notes, combining both with the
1234 @code{\addlyrics} keyword. Lyrics are entered by separating each
1235 syllable with a space.
1237 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1242 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1245 Girls and boys come out to play,
1250 Note the curly brackets delimiting both the music and the lyrics,
1251 and the angle brackets @code{<< ... >>} around the whole piece to
1252 show that the music and lyrics are to occur at the same time.
1254 @node Aligning lyrics to a melody
1255 @subsection Aligning lyrics to a melody
1257 Music glossary: @rglos{melisma}.
1260 @cindex extender line
1264 The next line in the nursery rhyme is @q{The moon doth shine as
1265 bright as day}. Let's extend it:
1267 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1272 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1273 g8 a4 b8 c b a d4 b8 g4.
1276 Girls and boys come out to play,
1277 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
1282 We see the extra lyrics do not align properly with the notes. The
1283 word @q{shine} should be sung on two notes, not one. This is
1284 called a @notation{melisma}, a single syllable sung to more than one
1285 note. There are several ways to spread a syllable over multiple
1286 notes, the simplest being to add a slur across them (see @ref{Ties
1289 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1294 d4 b8 c4 a8 d4 b8 g4
1295 g8 a4 b8 c([ b)] a d4 b8 g4.
1298 Girls and boys come out to play,
1299 The moon doth shine as bright as day;
1304 Here we have also used manual beaming (the square brackets @code{[
1305 ]} ) to generate the beaming which is customarily used with lyrics
1306 (see @ref{Automatic and manual beams}).
1308 If a syllable extends over several notes or a single very long
1309 note an @emph{extender line} is usually drawn from the syllable
1310 extending under all the notes for that syllable. It is entered as
1311 two underscores @code{__}. Here is an example from the first
1312 three bars of Dido's Lament, from Purcell's Dido and Æneas:
1314 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1320 b c4.( bes8 a4. g8 fis4.) g8 fis1
1324 am laid __ in earth,
1329 None of the examples so far have involved words containing more
1330 than one syllable. Such words are usually split one syllable to a
1331 note, with hyphens between syllables. Such hyphens are entered as
1332 two dashes, resulting in a centered hyphen between the syllables.
1333 Here is an example showing this and everything we have learned so
1334 far about aligning lyrics to notes.
1336 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1337 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1338 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1344 d4 g4 g a8( b) g4 g4
1348 A -- way in a __ man -- ger,
1349 no __ crib for a bed, __
1354 Some lyrics, especially those in Italian, require the opposite:
1355 setting more than one syllable to a single note. This is
1356 achieved by linking the syllables together with a single
1357 underscore @code{_} (with no spaces), or enclosing them in
1358 quotes. Here's an example from Rossini's Figaro, where
1359 @q{al} has to be sung on the same note as the @q{go} of
1360 @q{Largo} in Figaro's aria @q{Largo al factotum}:
1362 @c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hyphens get lost,
1363 @c but the example is long enough to avoid looking strange.
1364 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1370 c4.~ c8 d b c([ d)] b c d b c
1373 Lar -- go_al fac -- to -- tum del -- la cit -- tĂ
1381 More options, such as inserting explicit rhythms into lyrics,
1382 inserting lyric ties (e.g., between @q{go al}) above,
1383 alternative ways of handling melismata,
1384 and adding extra verses,
1385 are discussed in @ruser{Vocal music}.
1388 @node Lyrics to multiple staves
1389 @subsection Lyrics to multiple staves
1391 The simple approach using @code{\addlyrics} can be used for
1392 placing lyrics under more than one staff. Here is an
1393 example from Handel's Judas Maccabæus:
1395 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1401 \relative c'' { \key f \major
1402 c8 c([ bes)] a a([ g)] f f'4. b, c4.~ c4
1405 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn, __
1407 \relative c' { \key f \major
1408 r8 r4. r4 c8 a'([ g)] f f([ e)] d e([ d)] c bes'4
1411 Let flee -- cy flocks the hills a -- dorn,
1416 but scores any more complex than this simple example are
1417 better produced by separating out the staff structure
1418 from the notes and lyrics with variables. These are
1419 discussed later (see @ref{Organizing pieces with variables}).
1423 More options, such as putting multiple stanzas below the score,
1424 setting choral music, and lyrics to divided voices,
1425 are discussed in @ruser{Vocal music}.
1430 @section Final touches
1432 This is the final section of the tutorial; it demonstrates how to
1433 add the final touches to simple pieces, and provides an
1434 introduction to the rest of the manual.
1439 * Absolute note names::
1440 * Organizing pieces with variables::
1441 * After the tutorial::
1442 * How to read the manual::
1446 @node Version number
1447 @subsection Version number
1450 The @code{\version} statement records the version of LilyPond that
1451 was used to write the file:
1458 by convention, this is placed at the top of your LilyPond file.
1460 These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more
1461 smoothly. Changes in the syntax are handled with a special
1462 program, @file{convert-ly} (see @rprogram{Updating files with
1463 convert-ly}), and it uses @code{\version} to determine what rules
1468 @subsection Adding titles
1470 The title, composer, opus number, and similar information are
1471 entered in the @code{\header} block. This exists outside of the
1472 main music expression; the @code{\header} block is usually placed
1473 underneath the @ruser{Version number}.
1484 @dots{} music @dots{}
1488 When the file is processed, the title and composer are printed
1489 above the music. More information on titling can be found in
1490 @ruser{Creating titles}.
1493 @node Absolute note names
1494 @subsection Absolute note names
1496 So far we have always used @code{\relative} to define pitches.
1497 This is the easiest way to enter most music, but another way of
1498 defining pitches exists: absolute mode.
1500 If you omit the @code{\relative}, LilyPond treats all pitches as
1501 absolute values. A @code{c'} will always mean middle C, a
1502 @code{b} will always mean the note one step below middle C, and a
1503 @code{g,} will always mean the note on the bottom staff of the
1506 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1514 Here is a four-octave scale:
1516 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1531 As you can see, writing a melody in the treble clef involves a lot
1532 of quote @code{'} marks. Consider this fragment from Mozart:
1534 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1538 cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
1539 b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8
1543 All these quotes makes the input less readable and it is a source
1544 of errors. With @code{\relative}, the previous example is much
1547 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1551 cis8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
1556 If you make a mistake with an octave mark (@code{'} or @code{,})
1557 while working in @code{\relative} mode, it is very obvious -- many
1558 notes will be in the wrong octave. When working in absolute mode,
1559 a single mistake will not be as visible, and will not be as easy
1562 However, absolute mode is useful for music which has large
1563 intervals, and is extremely useful for computer-generated LilyPond
1567 @node Organizing pieces with variables
1568 @subsection Organizing pieces with variables
1570 When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
1571 larger files, the music expressions get a lot bigger. In
1572 polyphonic music with many staves, the input files can become very
1573 confusing. We can reduce this confusion by using
1576 With variables (also known as variables or macros), we can break
1577 up complex music expressions. An variable is assigned as
1581 namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
1584 The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic} can be used
1585 later by placing a backslash in front of the name
1586 (@code{\namedMusic}, just like a normal LilyPond command).
1587 Variables must be defined @emph{before} the main music
1590 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1591 violin = \new Staff { \relative c'' {
1594 cello = \new Staff { \relative c {
1607 The name of an variable must have alphabetic characters only: no
1608 numbers, underscores, or dashes.
1610 It is possible to use variables for many other types of objects in
1611 the input. For example,
1616 aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
1619 Depending on its contents, the variable can be used in different
1620 places. The following example uses the above variables:
1631 @node After the tutorial
1632 @subsection After the tutorial
1634 After finishing the tutorial, you should probably try writing a
1635 piece or two. Start with one of the @ruser{Templates}, and add
1636 notes. If you need any notation that was not covered in the
1637 tutorial, look at the Notation Reference, starting with
1638 @ruser{Basic notation}. If you want to write for an instrument
1639 ensemble that is not covered in the templates, take a look at
1640 @ruser{Extending the templates}.
1642 Once you have written a few short pieces, read the rest of the
1643 Learning Manual (chapters 3-5). There's nothing wrong with
1644 reading it now, of course! However, the rest of the Learning
1645 Manual assumes that you are familiar with LilyPond input. You may
1646 wish to skim these chapters right now, and come back to them after
1647 you have more experience.
1650 @node How to read the manual
1651 @subsection How to read the manual
1653 As we saw in @ruser{How to read the tutorial}, many examples in
1654 the tutorial omitted a @code{\relative c'' @{ ... @}} around the
1657 In the rest of the manual, we are much more lax about the printed
1658 examples: sometimes they may have omitted a @code{\relative c'' @{
1659 ... @}}, but other times a different initial pitch may be used
1660 (such as @code{c'} or @code{c,,}), and in some cases the whole
1661 example is in absolute note mode! However, ambiguities like this
1662 only exist where the pitches are not important. In any example
1663 where the pitch matters, we have explicitly stated
1664 @code{\relative} or absolute-mode @code{@{ @}}.
1666 If you are still confused about the exact LilyPond input that was
1667 used in an example, read the HTML version (if you are not already
1668 doing so) and click on the picture of the music. This will
1669 display the exact input that LilyPond used to generate this
1672 For information about the structure of the rest of the manual, see
1673 @ruser{About this manual}.