Merge branch 'master' of ssh+git://gpercival@git.sv.gnu.org/srv/git/lilypond

[lilypond.git] / Documentation / user / tutorial.itely

@c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
@c This file is part of lilypond.tely
@ignore
    Translation of GIT committish: FILL-IN-HEAD-COMMITTISH

    When revising a translation, copy the HEAD committish of the
    version that you are working on.  See TRANSLATION for details.
@end ignore

@ignore
Tutorial guidelines:
- unless you have a really good reason, use either
    @l ilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
  or
    @l ilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
  (without spaces)
  Don't use any other relative=X commands (make it a non-fragment
  example), and don't use fragment without relative=2.
- use "aes" and "ees" instead of "as" and "aes".  I know it's not
  correct Dutch naming, but let's not confuse people with this until
  we get to the Basic notation chapter.
@end ignore



@c   old info that will probably be removed.
@c TODO:
@c   * more details about running lilypond; error messages,
@c     compiling/viewing (emacs?)
@c   * where to go from First steps+More basics?

@c  wherever possible, do not include index entries here; the
@c  index should point to stuff in the reference manual.  -gp

@c Your first LilyPond score in 10 minutes?

@node Tutorial
@chapter Tutorial

This tutorial starts with an introduction to the LilyPond music
language and how to produce printed music.  After this first contact we
will explain how to create common musical notation.

@ifhtml
Many people learn programs by trying and fiddling around with the
program.  This is also possible with LilyPond.  If you click on a
picture in the HTML version of this manual, you will see the exact
LilyPond input that was used to generate that image.
Try it on this image

@c no verbatim here
@lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
\relative c'' {
  c-\markup { \bold \huge { Click here.  } }
}
@end lilypond

By cutting and pasting everything in the @qq{ly snippet} section, you have a
starting template for experiments.  If you like learning in this way,
you will probably want to print out or bookmark the
@ref{Cheat sheet}, which is a table listing of the most common
commands for quick reference.
@end ifhtml

@menu
* First steps::                 
* Single staff notation::       
* Multiple notes at once::      
* Songs::                       
* Final touches::               
@end menu


@node First steps
@section First steps

This section gives a basic introduction to working with LilyPond.

@menu
* Compiling a file::            
* Simple notation::             
* Working on text files::       
* How to read the tutorial::    
@end menu


@node Compiling a file
@subsection Compiling a file

The first example demonstrates how to start working with LilyPond.  To
create sheet music, we write a text file that specifies the
notation.  For example, if we write

@example
@{
  c' e' g' e'
@}
@end example

@noindent
the result looks like this

@c  in this case we don't want verbatim
@lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
{
  c' e' g' e'
}
@end lilypond

@strong{Warning:} Every piece of LilyPond input needs to have @strong{@{ curly
braces @}} placed around the input.  The braces should also be
surrounded by a space unless they are at the beginning or end of a
line to avoid ambiguities.  These may be omitted in some examples in this
manual, but don't forget them in your own music!

@cindex Case sensitive
In addition, LilyPond input is @strong{case sensitive}.  @code{ @{ c d e @} }
is valid input; @code{ @{ C D E @} } will produce an error message.

@sp 1

@subheading Entering music and viewing output

In this section we will explain what commands to run
and how to view or print the output.

@subsubheading MacOS X

If you double click LilyPond.app, it will open with an example
file. Save it, for example, to @file{test.ly} on your Desktop, and
then process it with the menu command @samp{Compile > Typeset File}.
The resulting PDF file will be displayed on your screen.

Be warned that the first time you ever run LilyPond, it will take a minute
or two because all of the system fonts have to be analyzed first.

For future use of LilyPond, you should begin by selecting "New"
or "Open".

@subsubheading Windows

On Windows, start up a text-editor@footnote{Any simple or
programmer-oriented editor with UTF-8 support will do, for example
Notepad.  Do not use a word processor, since these insert formatting
codes that will confuse LilyPond.} and enter

@verbatim
{
  c' e' g' e'
}
@end verbatim

Save it on the desktop as @file{test.ly} and make sure that it is not
called @file{test.ly.TXT}.  Double clicking @file{test.ly} will process
the file and show the resulting PDF file.


@subsubheading Unix

Begin by opening a terminal window and starting a text editor.  For
example, you could open an xterm and execute
@code{joe}@footnote{There are macro files for VIM addicts, and there
is a @code{LilyPond-mode} for Emacs addicts.  If they have not been
installed already, refer to the file @file{INSTALL.txt}.  The
easiest editing environment is @file{LilyPondTool}.  See
@ref{Editor support} for more information.}.  In your
text editor, enter the following input and save the file as
@file{test.ly}

@verbatim
{
  c' e' g' e'
}
@end verbatim

@noindent
To process @file{test.ly}, proceed as follows

@example
lilypond test.ly
@end example

@noindent
You will see something resembling

@example
lilypond test.ly
GNU LilyPond 2.10.0
Processing `test.ly'
Parsing...
Interpreting music... [1]
Preprocessing graphical objects...
Calculating line breaks... [2]
Layout output to `test.ps'...
Converting to `test.pdf'...
@end example

@cindex PDF file
@cindex Viewing music

@noindent
The result is the file @file{test.pdf} which you can print or view
with the standard facilities of your operating system.@footnote{If
your system does not have any such tools installed, you can try
@uref{http://@/www@/.cs@/.wisc@/.edu/@/~ghost/,Ghostscript}, a freely
available package for viewing and printing PDF and PostScript files.}


@node Simple notation
@subsection Simple notation

LilyPond will add some notation elements automatically.  In the next
example, we have only specified four pitches, but LilyPond has
added a clef, time signature, and rhythms.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
{
  c' e' g' e'
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
This behavior may be altered, but in most cases these automatic values
are useful.


@subheading Pitches

The easiest way to enter notes is by using @code{\relative} mode.  In
this mode, the @rglos{interval} between the previous note and the
current note is assumed to be within a @rglos{fourth}.  We begin by
entering the most elementary piece of music, a @rglos{scale}.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\relative c' {
  c d e f
  g a b c
}
@end lilypond

The initial note is @rglos{middle C}.  Each successive note
is within a fourth of the previous note -- in other words, the first
@samp{c} is the closest C to middle C.  This is followed by the closest
D to the previous note.  We can create melodies which have larger intervals:

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\relative c' {
  d f a g
  c b f d
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
As you may notice, this example does not start on middle C.  The first
note -- the @samp{d} -- is the closest D to middle C.

To add intervals that are larger than a fourth, we can raise the octave
by adding a single quote @code{'} (or apostrophe) to the note name.  We can
lower the octave by adding a comma @code{,} to the note name.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\relative c'' {
  a a, c' f,
  g g'' a,, f'
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
To change a note by two (or more!) octaves, we use multiple @code{''} or
@code{,,} -- but be careful that you use two single quotes @code{''} and
not one double quote @code{"}@tie{}!  The initial value in
@code{\relative c'} may also be modified like this.


@subheading Durations (rhythms)

The @rglos{duration} of a note is specified by a number after the note
name.  @samp{1} for a @rglos{whole note}, @samp{2} for a @rglos{half note},
@samp{4} for a @rglos{quarter note} and so on.  Beams are added
automatically.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\relative c'' {
  a1
  a2 a4 a8 a
  a16 a a a a32 a a a a64 a a a a a a a a2
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
If you do not specify a duration, the previous duration is used
for the next note.  The duration of the first note defaults to a quarter.

To create @rglos{dotted notes}, add a dot @samp{.} to the duration number.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\relative c'' {
  a a a4. a8
  a8. a16 a a8. a8 a4.
}
@end lilypond


@subheading Rests

A @rglos{rest} is entered just like a note with the name @samp{r}:

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\relative c'' {
  a r r2
  r8 a r4 r4. r8
}
@end lilypond


@subheading Time signature

The @rglos{time signature}) can be set with the @code{\time} command:

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\relative c'' {
  \time 3/4
  a4 a a
  \time 6/8
  a4. a
  \time 4/4
  a4 a a a
}
@end lilypond


@subheading Clef

The @rglos{clef} can be set using the @code{\clef} command:

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\relative c' {
  \clef treble
  c1
  \clef alto
        c1
  \clef tenor
  c1
  \clef bass
  c1
}
@end lilypond


@subheading All together

Here is a small example showing all these elements together:

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\relative c, {
  \time 3/4
  \clef bass
  c2 e8 c' g'2.
  f4 e d c4 c, r4
}
@end lilypond

@moreinfo
@quotation
@table @asis
@item Entering pitches and durations
see @ref{Pitches} and @ref{Durations}.
@item Rests
see @ref{Rests}.
@item Time signatures and other timing commands
see @ref{Time signature}.
@item Clefs
see @ref{Clef}.
@end table
@end quotation


@node Working on text files
@subsection Working on text files

LilyPond input files are treated like files in most programming languages:
they are case sensitive, white-space insensitive, expressions are
formed with curly braces @{ @}, and comments are denoted with @code{%} or
@code{%@{ .. %@}}.

If the previous sentence sounds like nonsense, don't worry!  We'll explain
what all these terms mean:

@itemize

@cindex Case sensitive
@item @strong{Case sensitive}:
it matters whether you enter a letter
in lower case (i.e. @code{a, b, s, t}) or upper case (i.e.
@code{A, B, S, T}).  Notes are lower case: @code{ @{ c d e @} }
is valid input; @code{ @{ C D E @} } will produce an error message.

@item @strong{Whitespace insensitive}:
it does not matter how many
spaces (or new lines) you add.  @code{ @{ c d e @}} means the same thing
as @code{ @{ c @ @ @ @ @  d e @} } and
@example
          @{
c                        d
  e @}
@end example

@noindent
Of course, the previous example is hard to read.  A good rule of thumb
is to indent code blocks with either a tab or two spaces:
@example
@{
  c d e
@}
@end example

@item @strong{Expressions:}
Every piece of LilyPond input needs to have
@strong{@{ curly braces @}} placed around the input.  These braces tell
LilyPond that the input is a single music expression, just like
parenthesis @samp{()} in mathematics.  The braces should
be surrounded by a space unless they are at the beginning or end of a
line to avoid ambiguities.

A function (such as @code{\relative @{ @}} ) also counts as a single
music expression.

@cindex comments
@cindex line comment
@cindex block comment
@item @strong{Comments}:
A comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input; it is
ignored while parsing, so it has no effect on the printed output.
There are two types of comments.  The percent symbol @samp{%}
introduces a line comment; anything after @samp{%} on that line is
ignored.  A block comment marks a whole section of music
input as a comment.  Anything that is enclosed in @code{%@{} and @code{%@}} is
ignored.  The following fragment shows possible uses for comments

@example
% notes for twinkle twinkle follow
  c4 c g' g a a g2

%@{
    This line, and the notes below
    are ignored, since they are in a
    block comment.

    g g f f e e d d c2
%@}
@end example

@end itemize

There are more tips for constructing input files in
@ref{Suggestions for writing LilyPond files}.


@node How to read the tutorial
@subsection How to read the tutorial

As we saw in @ref{Working on text files}, LilyPond input must be
surrounded by @{ @} marks or a @code{\relative c'' @{ ... @}}.  For the
rest of this manual, most examples will omit this.

If you are reading the HTML documentation and wish to see the exact
exact LilyPond code that was used to create the example, simply click
on the picture.  If you are not reading the HTML version, you could
copy and paste the displayed input, but you @strong{must} add the
@code{\relative c'' @{ @}} like this:

@example
\relative c'' @{
  ... example goes here...
@}
@end example

Why omit the braces?  Most examples
in this manual can be inserted into the middle of a longer piece of
music.  For these examples, it does not make sense to add
@code{\relative c'' @{ @}} -- you should not place a @code{\relative}
inside another @code{\relative}, so you would not be able to copy
a small documentation example and paste it inside a longer piece
of your own.


@node Single staff notation
@section Single staff notation

This section introduces common notation that is used for one voice
on one staff.

@menu
* Relative note names::         
* Accidentals and key signatures::  
* Ties and slurs::              
* Articulation and dynamics::   
* Automatic and manual beams::  
* Advanced rhythmic commands::  
@end menu


@node Relative note names
@subsection Relative note names

As we saw in @ref{Simple notation}, LilyPond calculates the pitch of
each note relative to the previous one@footnote{There is another mode of
entering pitches, @ref{Absolute note names}, but in practice relative
mode is much easier and safer to use.}.  If no extra octave marks
(@code{'} and @code{,}) are added, it assumes that each pitch is within
a fourth of the previous note.

LilyPond examines pitches based on the note names -- in other words,
an augmented fourth is @emph{not} the same as a diminished fifth.  If we
begin at a C, then an F-sharp will be placed a higher than the C, while
a G-flat will be placed lower than the C.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
c2 fis
c2 ges
@end lilypond

@moreinfo
@quotation
@table @asis
@item Relative octaves
see @ref{Relative octaves}.
@item Octave check
see @ref{Octave check}.
@end table
@end quotation



@node Accidentals and key signatures
@subsection Accidentals and key signatures

@subheading Accidentals

A @rglos{sharp} pitch is made by adding @samp{is} to
the name, and a @rglos{flat} pitch by adding @samp{es}.  As
you might expect, a @rglos{double sharp} or @rglos{double flat} is
made by adding @samp{isis} or @samp{eses}@footnote{This syntax
derived from note naming conventions in Nordic and Germanic languages,
like German and Dutch.  To use other names for accidentals, see
@ref{Note names in other languages}.}

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
cis1 ees fisis, aeses
@end lilypond

@cindex key signature, setting
@subheading Key signatures

The key signature is set with the command @code{\key} followed by
a pitch and @code{\major} or @code{\minor}.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
\key d \major
a1
\key c \minor
a
@end lilypond

@sp 1

@subheading Warning: key signatures and pitches

To determine whether to print an accidental, LilyPond examines the
pitches and the key signature.  The key signature only effects
the @emph{printed} accidentals, not the actual pitches!  This is a
feature that often causes confusion to newcomers, so let us explain it
in more detail.

LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and
layout.  The alteration (flat, natural or sharp) of a note is part of
the pitch, and is therefore musical content.  Whether an accidental (a
@emph{printed} flat, natural or sharp sign) is printed in front of the
corresponding note is a question of layout.  Layout is something that
follows rules, so accidentals are printed automatically according to
those rules.  The pitches in your music are works of art, so they will
not be added automatically, and you must enter what you want to hear.

In this example

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
\key d \major
d cis fis
@end lilypond

@noindent
No note has a printed accidental, but you must still add the @samp{is} to
@code{cis} and @code{fis}.

The code @samp{e} does not mean @qq{print a black dot just below the
first line of the staff.}  Rather, it means: @qq{there is a note with
pitch E-natural.}  In the key of A-flat major, it @emph{does} get an
accidental:

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
\key aes \major
e
@end lilypond

Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more effort
when typing, but the advantage is that transposing is easier, and
accidentals can be printed according to different conventions.  See
@ref{Automatic accidentals} for some examples how accidentals can be printed
according to different rules.

@moreinfo
@quotation
@table @asis
@item Accidentals
see @ref{Accidentals} and @ref{Automatic accidentals}.
@item Key signature
see @ref{Key signature}.
@end table
@end quotation


@node Ties and slurs
@subsection Ties and slurs

@cindex ties
@subheading Ties
A @rglos{tie} is created by appending a tilde @samp{~} to the first
note being tied

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
g4~ g c2~
c4 ~ c8 a8 ~ a2
@end lilypond

@cindex slurs
@subheading Slurs

A @rglos{slur} is a curve drawn across many notes.  The starting note
and ending note are marked with @samp{(} and @samp{)} respectively.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)
@end lilypond

@cindex slurs, phrasing
@cindex phrasing slurs
@subheading Phrasing slurs

@cindex phrasing slurs
Slurs to indicate longer phrasing can be entered with @code{\(} and
@code{\)}.  You can have both legato slurs and phrasing slurs at the
same time, but you cannot have simultaneous slurs or simultaneous
phrasing slurs.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis,\)
@end lilypond

@sp 1

@cindex slurs versus ties
@subheading Warnings: slurs vs. ties

A slur looks like a @rglos{tie}, but it has a different meaning.  A
tie simply makes the first note longer, and can only be used on
pairs of notes with the same pitch.  Slurs indicate the articulations
of notes, and can be used on larger groups of notes.  Slurs and ties
can be nested.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
c2~( c8 fis fis4 ~ fis2 g2)
@end lilypond

@moreinfo
@quotation
@table @asis
@item Ties
see @ref{Ties}.
@item Slurs
see @ref{Slurs}.
@item Phrasing slurs
see @ref{Phrasing slurs}.
@end table
@end quotation


@node Articulation and dynamics
@subsection Articulation and dynamics

@cindex articulation
@cindex accents
@cindex staccato
@subheading Articulations

Common @rglos{articulations} can be added to a note using a dash @samp{-}
and a single character:

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
c-. c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_
@end lilypond

@cindex fingering
@subheading Fingerings
Similarly, fingering indications can be added to a note using a dash
(@samp{-}) and the digit to be printed:

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
c-3 e-5 b-2 a-1
@end lilypond

Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but you
can specify a direction using @samp{^} (up) or @samp{_} (down).  You can
also use multiple articulations on the same note.  However, in most cases
it is best to let LilyPond determine the articulation directions.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+
@end lilypond

@subheading Dynamics
Dynamic signs are made by adding the markings (with a backslash) to
the note

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
c\ff c\mf c\p c\pp
@end lilypond

@cindex dynamics
@cindex decrescendo
@cindex crescendo

Crescendi and decrescendi are started with the commands @code{\<} and
@code{\>}.  An ending dynamic, for example @code{\f}, will finish the
(de)crescendo, or the command @code{\!} can be used

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
c2\< c2\ff\> c2 c2\!
@end lilypond

@moreinfo
@quotation
@table @asis
@item Articulations
see @ref{Articulations}.
@item Fingering
see @ref{Fingering instructions}.
@item Dynamics
see @ref{Dynamics}.
@end table
@end quotation


@node Automatic and manual beams
@subsection Automatic and manual beams

@cindex beams, by hand
All @rglos{beam}s are drawn automatically:

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
a8 ais d ees r d c16 b a8
@end lilypond

@noindent
If you do not like the automatic beams, they may be overridden
manually.  Mark the first note to be beamed with @samp{[} and the last one
with @samp{]}.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
a8[ ais] d[ ees r d] a b
@end lilypond

@moreinfo
@quotation
@table @asis
@item Automatic beams
see @ref{Automatic beams}.
@item Manual beams
see @ref{Manual beams}.
@end table
@end quotation


@node Advanced rhythmic commands
@subsection Advanced rhythmic commands

@cindex pickup
@cindex anacruse
@cindex partial measure
@subheading Partial measure

A pickup (or @rglos{anacrusis}) is entered with the keyword
@code{\partial}.  It is followed by a duration: @code{\partial 4} is
a quarter note pickup and @code{\partial 8} an eighth note.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
\partial 8
f8 c2 d
@end lilypond

@cindex tuplets
@cindex triplets
@subheading Tuplets

Tuplets are made with the @code{\times} keyword.  It takes two
arguments: a fraction and a piece of music.  The duration of the piece
of music is multiplied by the fraction.  Triplets make notes occupy
2/3 of their notated duration, so a triplet has 2/3 as its fraction

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
\times 2/3 { f8 g a }
\times 2/3 { c r c }
\times 2/3 { f,8 g16 a g a }
\times 2/3 { d4 a8 }
@end lilypond

@cindex grace notes
@cindex acciaccatura
@cindex appoggiatura
@subheading Grace notes

Grace notes are created with the @code{\grace} command, although they
can also be created by prefixing a music expression with the
keyword @code{\appoggiatura} or @code{\acciaccatura}

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
c2 \grace { a32 b} c2
c2 \appoggiatura b16 c2
c2 \acciaccatura b16 c2
@end lilypond

@moreinfo
@quotation
@table @asis
@item Grace notes
see @ref{Grace notes},
@item Tuplets
see @ref{Tuplets},
@item Pickups
see @ref{Partial measures}.
@end table
@end quotation


@node Multiple notes at once
@section Multiple notes at once

This section introduces having more than one note at the same time:
multiple instruments, multiple staves for a single instrument (i.e. piano),
and chords.

Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occurring in
a piece of music.  Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more than
one voice on the same staff.

@menu
* Music expressions explained::  
* Multiple staves::             
* Piano staves::                
* Single staff polyphony::      
* Combining notes into chords::  
@end menu


@node Music expressions explained
@subsection Music expressions explained

In LilyPond input files, music is represented by @emph{music
expressions}.  A single note is a music expression, although it is not
valid input all on its own.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
a4
@end lilypond

Enclosing a group of notes in braces creates a new music expression:

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
{ a4 g4 }
@end lilypond

Putting a group of music expressions (e.g. notes) in braces means that
they are in sequence (i.e. each one follows the previous one).  The result
is another music expression:

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
{ { a4 g } f g }
@end lilypond

@subheading Simultaneous music expressions: multiple staves

This technique is useful for polyphonic music.  To enter music
with more voices or more staves, we combine expressions in
parallel.  To indicate that two voices should play at the same time,
simply enter a simultaneous combination of music expressions.  A
@q{simultaneous} music expression is formed by enclosing expressions inside
@code{<<} and @code{>>}.  In the following example, three sequences (all
containing two separate notes) are combined simultaneously:

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\relative c'' {
  <<
    { a4 g }
    { f e }
    { d b }
  >>
}
@end lilypond

Note that we have indented each level of the input with a different
amount of space.  LilyPond does not care how much (or little) space there
is at the beginning of a line, but indenting LilyPond code like this makes
it much easier for humans to read.

@strong{Warning}: each note is relative to the
previous note in the input, not relative to the @code{c''} in the
initial @code{\relative} command.


@subheading Simultaneous music expressions: single staff

To determine the number of staves in a piece, LilyPond looks at the first
expression.  If it is a single note, there is one staff; if there is a
simultaneous expression, there is more than one staff.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\relative c'' {
  c2 <<c e>>
  << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
}
@end lilypond

@cindex expression
@cindex music expression
@subheading Analogy: mathematical expressions

This mechanism is similar to mathematical
formulas: a big formula is created by composing small formulas.  Such
formulas are called expressions, and their definition is recursive so
you can make arbitrarily complex and large expressions.  For example,

@example
1

1 + 2

(1 + 2) * 3

((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)
@end example

This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is contained
in the next (larger) one.  The simplest expressions are numbers, and larger
ones are made by combining expressions with operators (like @samp{+},
@samp{*} and @samp{/}) and parentheses.  Like mathematical expressions,
music expressions can be nested arbitrarily deep, which is necessary
for complex music like polyphonic scores.


@node Multiple staves
@subsection Multiple staves

As we saw in @ref{Music expressions explained}, LilyPond input files
are constructed out of music expressions.  If the score begins with
simultaneous music expressions, LilyPond creates multiples staves.  However,
it is easier to see what happens if we create each staff explicitly.

To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a
staff is marked by adding @code{\new Staff} before it.  These
@code{Staff} elements are then combined in parallel with @code{<<} and
@code{>>}:

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\relative c'' {
  <<
    \new Staff { \clef treble c }
    \new Staff { \clef bass c,, }
  >>
}
@end lilypond

The command @code{\new} introduces a @q{notation context.}  A notation
context is an environment in which musical events (like notes or
@code{\clef} commands) are interpreted.  For simple pieces, such
notation contexts are created automatically.  For more complex pieces, it
is best to mark contexts explicitly.

There are several types of contexts.  @code{Score}, @code{Staff},
and @code{Voice} handle melodic notation, while @code{Lyrics} sets lyric
texts and @code{ChordNames} prints chord names.

In terms of syntax, prepending @code{\new} to a music expression
creates a bigger music expression.  In this way it resembles the minus
sign in mathematics.  The formula @math{(4+5)} is an expression, so
@math{-(4+5)} is a bigger expression.

Time signatures entered in one staff affects all other staves, but
the key signature of one staff does @emph{not} affect other
staves@footnote{This behavior may be changed if desired; see
@ref{Changing defaults} for details.}.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\relative c'' {
  <<
    \new Staff { \clef treble \time 3/4 c }
    \new Staff { \clef bass \key d \major c,, }
  >>
}
@end lilypond




@node Piano staves
@subsection Piano staves

@cindex staff switch, manual
@cindex cross staff voice, manual
Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a brace.  Printing
such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in @ref{Multiple staves},
but now this entire expression is inserted inside a @code{PianoStaff}:

@example
\new PianoStaff <<
  \new Staff @dots{}
  \new Staff @dots{}
>>
@end example

Here is a small example

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\relative c'' {
  \new PianoStaff <<
    \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 e g g, }
    \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
  >>
}
@end lilypond

@moreinfo
@quotation
See @ref{Piano music}.
@end quotation


@node Single staff polyphony
@subsection Single staff polyphony

@cindex polyphony
@cindex multiple voices
@cindex voices, more -- on a staff
When different melodic lines are combined on a single staff they are
printed as polyphonic voices; each voice has its own stems, slurs and
beams, and the top voice has the stems up, while the bottom voice has
them down.

Entering such parts is done by entering each voice as a sequence (with
@code{@{...@}}) and combining these simultaneously, separating the
voices with @code{\\}

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
<<
  { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
  { r4 g4 f2 f4 }
>>
@end lilypond

For polyphonic music typesetting, spacer rests can also be convenient;
these are rests that do not print.  They are useful for filling up
voices that temporarily do not play.  Here is the same example with a
spacer rest (@samp{s}) instead of a normal rest (@samp{r}),

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
<<
  { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
  { s4 g4 f2 f4 }
>>
@end lilypond

@noindent
Again, these expressions can be nested arbitrarily.

@lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
<<
  \new Staff <<
    { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
    { s4 g4 f2 f4 }
  >>
  \new Staff <<
    \clef bass
    { <c g>1 ~ <c g>4 } \\
    { e,,4 d e2 ~ e4}
  >>
>>
@end lilypond

@moreinfo
@quotation
See @ref{Basic polyphony}.
@end quotation


@node Combining notes into chords
@subsection Combining notes into chords

@cindex chords
Chords can be made by surrounding pitches with single angle brackets.  Angle
brackets are the symbols @samp{<} and @samp{>}.

@lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
r4 <c e g>4 <c f a>2
@end lilypond

You can combine markings like beams and ties with chords.  They must
be placed outside the angle brackets

@lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>2
@end lilypond

@lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g>4 <c f a>\!)
@end lilypond


@node Songs
@section Songs

This section introduces vocal music and simple song sheets.

@menu
* Printing lyrics::             
* A lead sheet::                
@end menu


@node Printing lyrics
@subsection Printing lyrics

@cindex Lyrics
@cindex Songs
Consider a simple melody:

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\relative c'' {
  a4 e c8 e r4
        b2 c4( d)
}
@end lilypond

The lyrics can be set to these notes, combining both with the
@code{\addlyrics} keyword.  Lyrics are entered by separating each
syllable with a space.

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
<<
  \relative c'' {
    a4 e c8 e r4
          b2 c4( d)
  }
  \addlyrics { One day this shall be free }
>>
@end lilypond

@cindex melisma
@cindex extender line
This melody ends on a @rglos{melisma}, a single syllable (@q{free})
sung to more than one note.  This is indicated with an @emph{extender
line}.  It is entered as two underscores @code{__}:

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
<<
  \relative c'' {
    a4 e c8 e r4
          b2 c4( d)
  }
  \addlyrics { One day this shall be free __ }
>>
@end lilypond

Similarly, hyphens between words can be entered as two dashes,
resulting in a centered hyphen between two syllables

@c no ragged-right here because otherwise the hypens get lost.
@lilypond[quote,verbatim]
<<
  \relative c' {
    \time 2/4
    f4 f c c
  }
  \addlyrics { A -- le -- gri -- a }
>>
@end lilypond

@moreinfo
@quotation
More options, such as putting multiple stanzas below a melody, are
discussed in @ref{Vocal music}.
@end quotation


@node A lead sheet
@subsection A lead sheet

@cindex Lead sheets
@cindex chords
@cindex chord names

@c TODO: revise this, \chords { } is shorter and more intuitive.
@c  I need help for this.  -gp

In popular music it is common to denote accompaniment with chord names.
Such chords can be entered like notes,

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
\chordmode { c2 f4. g8 }
@end lilypond

@noindent
Now each pitch is read as the root of a chord instead of a note.
This mode is switched on with @code{\chordmode}

Other chords can be created by adding modifiers after a colon.  The
following example shows a few common modifiers

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
\chordmode { c2 f4:m g4:maj7 gis1:dim7 }
@end lilypond

For lead sheets, chords are not printed on staves, but as names on a
line for themselves.  This is achieved by using @code{\chords} instead
of @code{\chordmode}.  This uses the same syntax as @code{\chordmode},
but renders the notes in a @code{ChordNames} context, with the
following result.

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
\chords { c2 f4.:m g4.:maj7 gis8:dim7 }
@end lilypond

@cindex lead sheet
When put together, chord names, lyrics and a melody form
a lead sheet, for example,

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
% FIXME: this melody needs to be changed.  See my new example in 2.4.1. -gp
<<
  \chords { r2 c:sus4 f }
  \relative {
    r4 c' \times 2/3 { f g g }
    \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
  }
  \addlyrics { I want to break free __ }
>>
@end lilypond

A complete list of modifiers and other options for layout can be found
in @ref{Chords}.


@node Final touches
@section Final touches

This is the final section of the tutorial; it demonstrates how to add the
final touches to simple pieces, and provides an introduction to the rest
of the manual.

@menu
* Version number::              
* Adding titles::               
* Absolute note names::         
* Organizing pieces with identifiers::  
* After the tutorial::          
* How to read the manual::      
@end menu


@node Version number
@subsection Version number

@cindex versioning
The @code{\version} statement marks for which version of LilyPond the file
was written.  To mark a file for version 2.10.1, place

@example
\version "2.10.1"
@end example

@noindent
at the top of your LilyPond file.

These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more
smoothly.  Changes in the syntax are handled with a special program,
@file{convert-ly} (see @ref{Updating files with convert-ly}), and it uses
@code{\version} to determine what rules to apply.


@node Adding titles
@subsection Adding titles

The title, composer, opus number, and similar information are entered
in the @code{\header} block.  This exists outside of the main
music expression; the @code{\header} block is usually placed underneath
the @ref{Version number}.

@example
\version "2.10.1"
\header @{
  title = "Symphony"
  composer = "Me"
  opus = "Op. 9"
@}

@{
  @dots{} music @dots{}
@}
@end example

When the file is processed, the title and composer are printed above
the music.  More information on titling can be found in @ref{Creating
titles}.


@node Absolute note names
@subsection Absolute note names

So far we have always used @code{\relative} to define pitches.  This is
the easiest way to enter most music, but another way of defining pitches
exists: absolute mode.

If you omit the @code{\relative}, LilyPond treats all pitches as
absolute values.  A @code{c'} will always mean middle C, a @code{b} will
always mean the note one step below middle C, and a @code{g,} will
always mean the note on the bottom staff of the bass clef.

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
{
  \clef bass
  c' b g, g,
  g, f, f c'
}
@end lilypond

Here is a four-octave scale:

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
{
  \clef bass
  c, d, e, f,
  g, a, b, c
  d e f g
  a b c' d'
  \clef treble
  e' f' g' a'
  b' c'' d'' e''
  f'' g'' a'' b''
  c'''1
}
@end lilypond

As you can see, writing a melody in the treble clef involves a lot of
quote ' marks.  Consider this fragment from Mozart:

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
{
  \key a \major
  \time 6/8
  cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
  b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8
}
@end lilypond

All these quotes makes the input less readable and it is a source of
errors.  With @code{\relative}, the previous example is much easier
to read:

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
\relative c'' {
  \key a \major
  \time 6/8
  cis8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
  b8. cis16 b8 d4 d8
}
@end lilypond

If you make a mistake with an octave mark (@code{'} or @code{,}) while
working in @code{\relative} mode, it is very obvious -- many notes will
be in the wrong octave.  When working in absolute mode, a single mistake
will not be as visible, and will not be as easy to find.

However, absolute mode is useful for music which has large intervals, and
is extremely useful for computer-generated LilyPond files.


@node Organizing pieces with identifiers
@subsection Organizing pieces with identifiers

When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce
larger files, the music expressions get a lot bigger.  In polyphonic
music with many staves, the input files can become very confusing.  We can
reduce this confusion by using @emph{identifiers}.

With identifiers (also known as variables or macros), we can break up
complex music expressions.  An identifier is assigned as follows

@example
namedMusic = @{ @dots{} @}
@end example

The contents of the music expression @code{namedMusic} can be used
later by placing a backslash in front of the name
(@code{\namedMusic}, just like a normal LilyPond command).  Identifiers
must be defined @emph{before} the main music expression.

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
violin = \new Staff { \relative c'' {
  a4 b c b
}}
cello = \new Staff { \relative c {
  \clef bass
  e2 d
}}
{
  <<
    \violin
    \cello
  >>
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
The name of an identifier must have alphabetic characters only: no
numbers, underscores, or dashes.

It is possible to use variables for many other types of objects in the
input.  For example,

@example
width = 4.5\cm
name = "Wendy"
aFivePaper = \paper @{ paperheight = 21.0 \cm @}
@end example

Depending on its contents, the identifier can be used in different
places.  The following example uses the above variables:

@example
\paper @{
  \aFivePaper
  line-width = \width
@}
@{ c4^\name @}
@end example


@node After the tutorial
@subsection After the tutorial

After finishing the tutorial, you should probably try writing a
piece or two.  Start with one of the @ref{Templates} and
add notes.  If you need any notation that was not covered in the
tutorial, look at the Notation Reference, starting with
@ref{Basic notation}.  If you want to write for an instrument
ensemble which is not covered in the templates,
take a look at @ref{Extending the templates}.

Once you have written a few short pieces, read the rest of
the Learning Manual (chapters 3-5).  There's nothing wrong
with reading them now, of course!  However, the rest of the
Learning Manual assumes that you are familiar with
LilyPond input.  You may wish to skim these chapters right
now, and come back to them after you have more experience.


@node How to read the manual
@subsection How to read the manual

As we saw in @ref{How to read the tutorial}, many examples in the
tutorial omitted a @code{\relative c'' @{ ... @}} around the printed
example.

In the rest of the manual, we are much more lax about the
printed examples: sometimes they may have omitted a
@code{\relative c'' @{ ... @}}, but in other times a different initial
pitch may be used (such as @code{c'} or @code{c,,}), and in some cases
the whole example is in absolute note mode!  However, ambiguities like
this only exist where the pitches are not important.  In any example
where the pitch matters, we have explicitly stated our @code{\relative}
our our absolute-mode @code{@{ @}}.

If you are still confused about the exact LilyPond input that was
used in an example, read the HTML version (if you are not already doing
so) and click on the picture of the music.  This will display the exact
input that LilyPond used to generate this manual.