3 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
4 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
5 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
7 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
11 @chapter Notation manual
13 This chapter describes all the different types of notation supported
14 by LilyPond. It is intended as a reference for users that are already
15 somewhat familiar with using LilyPond.
19 * Easier music entry::
33 * Contemporary notation::
39 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
45 The basic elements of any piece of music are the notes. This section
46 is about basic notation elements notes, rests and related constructs,
47 such as stems, tuplets and ties.
52 * Chromatic alterations::
60 * Easy Notation note heads::
68 A note is printed by specifying its pitch and then its duration:
69 @footnote{Notes constitute the most basic elements of LilyPond input,
70 but they do not form valid input on their own without a @code{\score}
71 block. However, for the sake of brevity and simplicity we will
72 generally omit @code{\score} blocks and @code{\paper} declarations in
75 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
84 @cindex Note specification
86 @cindex entering notes
88 The most common syntax for pitch entry is used in @code{\chords} and
89 @code{\notes} mode. In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated
90 by names. The notes are specified by the letters @code{a} through
91 @code{g}, while the octave is formed with notes ranging from @code{c}
92 to @code{b}. The pitch @code{c} is an octave below middle C and the
93 letters span the octave above that C:
95 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
97 a,4 b, c d e f g a b c' d' e' \clef treble f' g' a' b' c''
100 @cindex note names, Dutch
102 A sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch name and
103 a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double flats
104 are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. These
105 names are the Dutch note names. In Dutch, @code{aes} is contracted to
106 @code{as}, but both forms are accepted. Similarly, both
107 @code{es} and @code{ees} are accepted.
109 Half-flats and half-sharps are formed by adding @code{-eh} and
110 @code{-ih}; the following is a series of Cs with increasing pitches:
112 @cindex quarter tones
113 @cindex semi-flats, semi-sharps
115 @lilypond[verbatim,relative 2]
127 There are predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
128 To use them, include the language specific init file. For
129 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files
130 and the note names they define are:
135 Note Names sharp flat
136 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
137 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
139 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
140 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
141 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
142 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
143 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
144 espanol.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -s -b
153 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
154 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
155 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
156 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave:
158 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
159 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
165 Notes can be hidden and unhidden with the following commands:
167 @cindex @code{\hideNotes}
169 @cindex @code{\unHideNotes}
175 Internals: @internalsref{NoteEvent}, and @internalsref{NoteHead}.
177 @node Chromatic alterations
178 @subsection Chromatic alterations
180 Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also
181 print them manually. A reminder accidental
182 @cindex reminder accidental
184 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!}
185 after the pitch. A cautionary accidental
186 @cindex cautionary accidental
187 @cindex parenthesized accidental
188 (an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the
189 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch:
191 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
192 cis' cis' cis'! cis'?
196 The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many
197 ways. For more information, refer to @ref{Accidentals}.
202 A chord is formed by a enclosing a set of pitches in @code{<} and
203 @code{>}. A chord may be followed by a duration, and a set of
204 articulations, just like simple notes.
214 Rests are entered like notes, with the note name @code{r}:
216 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
220 Whole bar rests, centered in middle of the bar,
221 must be done with multi measure rests. They are discussed in
222 @ref{Multi measure rests}.
225 A rest's vertical position may be explicitly specified by entering a
226 note with the @code{\rest} keyword appended. This makes manual
227 formatting in polyphonic music easier. Rest collision testing will
228 leave these rests alone:
230 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
236 Internals: @internalsref{RestEvent}, and @internalsref{Rest}.
243 @cindex Invisible rest
246 An invisible rest (also called a `skip') can be entered like a note
247 with note name `@code{s}' or with @code{\skip @var{duration}}:
249 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
253 The @code{s} syntax is only available in Note mode and Chord mode. In
254 other situations, you should use the @code{\skip} command:
256 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
259 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
260 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
265 The skip command is merely an empty musical placeholder. It does not
266 produce any output, not even transparent output.
270 Internals: @internalsref{SkipEvent}.
275 @subsection Durations
281 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations are designated by numbers
282 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For example,
283 a quarter note is entered using a @code{4} (since it is a 1/4 note), while
284 a half note is entered using a @code{2} (since it is a 1/2 note). For notes
285 longer than a whole you must use variables:
287 @c FIXME: what is an identifier? I do not think it's been introduced yet.
288 @c and if it has, I obviously skipped that part. - Graham
292 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
294 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
299 \notes \relative c'' {
301 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
303 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
308 \remove "Clef_engraver"
309 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
310 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
311 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
318 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previously entered
319 duration. The default for the first note is a quarter note. The duration
320 can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') in order to obtain dotted note
324 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
325 a' b' c''8 b' a'4 a'4. b'4.. c'8.
330 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M}
331 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
332 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
333 In the following example, the first three notes take up exactly two
335 @lilypond[fragment,relative 2,verbatim]
337 a4*2/3 gis4*2/3 a4*2/3
344 Dots are normally moved up to avoid staff lines, except in polyphonic
345 situations. The following commands may be used to force a particular
348 @cindex @code{\dotsUp}
350 @cindex @code{\dotsDown}
352 @cindex @code{\dotsBoth}
357 Internals: @internalsref{Dots}, and @internalsref{DotColumn}.
361 In dense chords, dots can overlap.
366 Whenever a note is found, a @internalsref{Stem} object is created
367 automatically. For whole notes and rests, they are also created but
372 @cindex @code{\stemUp}
374 @cindex @code{\stemDown}
376 @cindex @code{\stemBoth}
387 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in
388 effect extends the length of a note. Ties should not be confused with
389 slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate
390 musical phrasing. A tie is entered using the tilde symbol `@code{~}':
392 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
393 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
396 When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads whose pitches match
397 are connected. When no note heads match, no ties will be created.
399 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
400 to the augmentation dot; in the following example there are two ways of
401 notating exactly the same concept:
403 @lilypond[fragment, singleline,quote]
404 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
406 If you need to tie a lot of notes over bars, it may be easier to use automatic
407 note splitting (See @ref{Automatic note splitting}).
412 @cindex @code{\tieUp}
414 @cindex @code{\tieDown}
416 @cindex @code{\tieBoth}
418 @cindex @code{\tieDotted}
420 @cindex @code{\tieSolid}
425 In this manual: @ref{Automatic note splitting}.
427 Internals: @internalsref{TieEvent}, @internalsref{NewTieEvent},
430 Examples: if you want less ties created for a chord, see
431 @inputfileref{input/test,tie-sparse.ly}.
433 For tying only a subset of the note heads of a pair of chords, see
434 @inputfileref{input/regression,tie-chord-partial.ly}.
439 Switching staves when a tie is active will not produce a slanted tie.
441 Formatting of ties is a difficult subject. The results are often not
451 @cindex @code{\times}
453 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all durations
456 @cindex @code{\times}
458 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
462 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
463 The fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes, optionally
464 with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in which 3
465 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of their written
468 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
469 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
472 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each
473 bracket should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while
474 typing @code{\times} only once, saving lots of typing. In the next
475 example, there are two triplets shown, while @code{\times} was only
478 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
479 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
480 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
483 The format of the number is determined by the property
484 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
485 denominator, but if it is set to the Scheme function
486 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, @var{num}:@var{den} will be printed
490 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
491 @cindex tuplet formatting
496 @cindex @code{\tupletUp}
498 @cindex @code{\tupletDown}
500 @cindex @code{\tupletBoth}
505 Internals: @internalsref{TupletBracket}, and @internalsref{TimeScaledMusic}.
509 Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically. In this case, outer
510 tuplet brackets should be moved manually.
512 @node Easy Notation note heads
513 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
515 @cindex easy notation
518 The `easy play' note head includes a note name inside the head. It is
519 used in music aimed at beginners:
521 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,26pt]
523 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
524 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
528 The @code{EasyNotation} variable overrides a @internalsref{Score} context.
529 You probably will want to print it with magnification or a
530 large font size to make it more readable. To print with
531 magnification, you must create a DVI file (with @file{lilypond}) and
532 then enlarge it with something like @file{dvips -x 2000 file.dvi}.
533 See the @code{dvips} documentation for more details. To print with a
534 larger font, see @ref{Font Size}.
540 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through
541 the letters. Printing the PostScript file obtained does produce the
545 @node Easier music entry
546 @section Easier music entry
549 When entering music it is easy to introduce errors. This section deals
550 with tricks and features of the input language that were added solely
551 to help entering music, and find and correct mistakes.
553 It is also possible to use external programs, for example GUI
554 interfaces, or MIDI transcription programs, to enter or edit
555 music. Refer to the website for more information. Finally, there are
556 tools make debugging easier, by linking the input file and the output
557 shown on screen. See @ref{Point and click} for more information.
564 * Skipping corrected music::
565 * Automatic note splitting::
571 @node Relative octaves
572 @subsection Relative octaves
574 @cindex relative octave specification
576 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
577 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch
578 in the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. The relative
579 octave mode prevents these errors: a single error puts the rest of the
580 piece off by one octave:
582 @cindex @code{\relative}
584 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
587 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
588 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
589 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
590 (; this distance is determined without regarding alterations: a
591 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
594 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise
595 or lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode,
596 an absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
597 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
599 Here is the relative mode shown in action:
600 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
606 Octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth:
607 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
612 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
613 to determine the first note of the next chord:
615 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
622 @cindex @code{\notes}
624 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
625 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
626 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
629 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
630 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
631 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
632 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
635 @subsection Octave check
638 Octave checks make octave errors easier to correct.
644 This checks that @var{pitch} (without octave) yields @var{pitch} (with
645 octave) in \relative mode. If not, a warning is printed, and the
646 octave is corrected, for example, the first check is passed
647 successfully. The second check fails with an error message. The
648 octave is adjusted so the following notes are in the correct octave
659 The octave of a note following an octave check is determined with
660 respect to the note preceding it. In the next fragment, the last note
661 is a @code{a'}, above central C. Hence, the @code{\octave} check may
662 be deleted without changing the meaning of the piece.
664 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
673 @subsection Bar check
677 @cindex @code{barCheckSynchronize}
680 Bar checks help detect errors in the durations. A bar check is
681 entered using the bar symbol, `@code{|}'. Whenever it is encountered
682 during interpretation, it should fall on a measure boundary. If it
683 does not, a warning is printed. Depending on the value of
684 @code{barCheckSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
687 In the next example, the second bar check will signal an error:
689 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2 |
692 Bar checks can also be used in lyrics, for example
697 Twin -- kle | Twin -- kle
702 @cindex skipTypesetting
704 Failed bar checks are caused by entering incorrect
705 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
706 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the
707 score by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To
708 speed up this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting}, described
711 @node Skipping corrected music
712 @subsection Skipping corrected music
714 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
715 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
716 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
717 This can be used to skip over the parts of a score that have already
718 been checked for errors:
720 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
722 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
724 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
728 @node Automatic note splitting
729 @subsection Automatic note splitting
731 Long notes can be converted automatically to tied notes. This is done
732 by replacing the @internalsref{Note_heads_engraver} by the
733 @internalsref{Completion_heads_engraver}:
736 \paper @{ \translator @{
738 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
739 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
743 which will make long notes tied in the following example:
746 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
753 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
755 \paper { \translator {
757 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
758 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
763 This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts
764 ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are
765 not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how much each measure
770 Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be
771 represented exactly; the engraver will not insert tuplets.
777 @section Staff notation
779 This section describes music notation that occurs on staff level,
780 such as keys, clefs and time signatures.
782 @cindex Staff notation
796 @subsection Staff symbol
798 @cindex adjusting staff symbol
799 @cindex StaffSymbol, using \property
801 Notes, dynamic signs, etc. are grouped
802 with a set of horizontal lines, into a staff (plural `staves'). In our
803 system, these lines are drawn using a separate layout object called
807 @cindex staff lines, setting number of
808 @cindex staff lines, setting thickness of
809 @cindex thickness of staff lines, setting
810 @cindex number of staff lines, setting
814 Internals: @internalsref{StaffSymbol},
816 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,staff-lines.ly},
817 @inputfileref{input/test,staff-size.ly}
821 If a staff is ended halfway a piece, the staff symbol may not end
822 exactly on the barline.
826 @subsection Key signature
827 @cindex Key signature
831 The key signature indicates the scale in which a piece is played. It
832 is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of
837 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
840 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
843 @cindex @code{\minor}
844 @cindex @code{\major}
845 @cindex @code{\minor}
846 @cindex @code{\ionian}
847 @cindex @code{\locrian}
848 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
849 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
850 @cindex @code{\lydian}
851 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
852 @cindex @code{\dorian}
854 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
855 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
856 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
857 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
858 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
860 This command sets the context property
861 @internalsref{Staff}.@code{keySignature}. Non-standard key signatures
862 can be specified by setting this property directly.
864 Accidentals and key signatures often confuse new users, because
865 unaltered notes get natural signs depending on the keysignature. The
866 tutorial explains why this is so in @ref{More about pitches}.
870 The ordering of a key cancellation is wrong when it is combined with
871 repeat bar lines. The cancellation is also printed after a line break.
875 Internals: @internalsref{KeyChangeEvent}, and @internalsref{KeySignature}.
877 @cindex @code{keySignature}
884 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
889 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command:
890 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
891 \key f\major c''2 \clef alto g'2
894 Supported clef-names include:
895 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
899 @item treble, violin, G, G2
912 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
917 @cindex mezzosoprano clef
920 @cindex baritone clef
923 @cindex varbaritone clef
932 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
933 transposed one octave down or up, respectively, and @code{_15} and
934 @code{^15} transposes by two octaves. The argument @var{clefname}
935 must be enclosed in quotes when it contains underscores or digits. For
939 @cindex choral tenor clef
940 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative]
944 This command is equivalent to setting @code{clefGlyph},
945 @code{clefPosition} (which controls the Y position of the clef),
946 @code{centralCPosition} and @code{clefOctavation}. A clef is printed
947 when any of these properties are changed.
951 Internals: the object for this symbol is @internalsref{Clef}.
955 @node Ottava brackets
956 @subsection Ottava brackets
958 ``Ottava'' brackets introduce an extra transposition of an octave for
959 the staff. They are created by invoking the function
960 @code{set-octavation}:
966 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
975 The @code{set-octavation} function also takes -1 (for 8va bassa) and 2
976 (for 15ma) as arguments. Internally the function sets the properties
977 @code{ottavation} (eg. to @code{"8va"}) and
978 @code{centralCPosition}. For overriding the text of the bracket, set
979 @code{ottavation} after invoking @code{set-octavation}, i.e.,
983 \property Staff.ottavation = #"8"
988 Internals: @internalsref{OttavaSpanner}.
990 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,ottava.ly},
991 @inputfileref{input/regression,ottava-broken.ly}.
995 @code{set-octavation} will get confused when clef changes happen
996 during an octavation bracket.
999 @subsection Time signature
1000 @cindex Time signature
1002 @cindex @code{\time}
1004 Time signature indicates the metrum of a piece: a regular pattern of
1005 strong and weak beats. It is denoted by a fraction at the start of the
1010 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
1012 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1013 \time 2/4 c'2 \time 3/4 c'2.
1016 The symbol that is printed can be customized with the @code{style}
1017 property. Setting it to @code{#'()} uses fraction style for 4/4 and
1018 2/2 time. There are many more options for its layout. See
1019 @inputfileref{input/test,time.ly} for more examples.
1022 This command sets the property @code{timeSignatureFraction},
1023 @code{beatLength} and @code{measureLength} in the @code{Timing}
1024 context, which is normally aliased to @internalsref{Score}. The
1025 property @code{measureLength} determines where bar lines should be
1026 inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated. Changing the
1027 value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes the symbol to be
1030 More options are available through the Scheme function
1031 @code{set-time-signature}. In combination with the
1032 @internalsref{Measure_grouping_engraver}, it will create
1033 @internalsref{MeasureGrouping} signs. Such signs ease reading
1034 rhythmically complex modern music. In the following example, the 9/8
1035 measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to
1036 @code{set-time-signature} as the third argument @code{(2 2 2 3)}:
1039 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
1040 #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3))
1041 g8[ g] d[ d] g[ g] a8[( bes g]) |
1042 #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2))
1047 \translator { \StaffContext
1048 \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
1054 Internals: @internalsref{TimeSignature}, and @internalsref{Timing_engraver}.
1059 Automatic beaming does not use measure grouping specified with
1060 @code{set-time-signature}.
1062 @node Partial measures
1063 @subsection Partial measures
1066 @cindex partial measure
1067 @cindex measure, partial
1068 @cindex shorten measures
1069 @cindex @code{\partial}
1071 Partial measures, for example in upsteps, are entered using the
1072 @code{\partial} command:
1073 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative 1]
1074 \partial 16*5 c16 cis d dis e | a2. c,4 | b2
1077 The syntax for this command is
1079 \partial @var{duration}
1081 This is internally translated into
1083 \property Timing.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
1086 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
1087 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
1089 @node Unmetered music
1090 @subsection Unmetered music
1092 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
1093 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. By setting
1094 @code{Score.timing} to false, this automatic timing can be switched
1100 @cindex @code{\cadenzaOn}
1102 @cindex @code{\cadenzaOff}
1106 @subsection Bar lines
1110 @cindex measure lines
1114 Bar lines delimit measures, but are also used to indicate repeats.
1115 Normally, they are inserted automatically. Line breaks may only
1121 of barlines can be forced with the @code{\bar} command:
1123 @lilypond[relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
1127 The following bar types are available:
1128 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
1140 For allowing linebreaks, there is a special command,
1144 This will insert an invisible barline, and allow linebreaks at this
1147 In scores with many staves, a @code{\bar} command in one staff is
1148 automatically applied to all staves. The resulting bar lines are
1149 connected between different staves of a @internalsref{StaffGroup}:
1151 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1152 << \context StaffGroup <<
1156 \new Staff { \clef bass c4 g e g } >>
1157 \new Staff { \clef bass c2 c2 } >>
1161 The command @code{\bar @var{bartype}} is a short cut for doing
1162 @code{\property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}} Whenever
1163 @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
1164 created. At the start of a measure it is set to
1165 @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of @code{repeatCommands} are used
1166 to override default measure bars.
1168 Property @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property}
1169 or @code{\bar}. These settings take precedence over the automatic
1170 @code{whichBar} settings.
1173 @cindex repeatCommands
1174 @cindex defaultBarType
1176 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
1183 In this manual: @ref{Repeats}.
1186 Internals: the bar line objects that are created at
1187 @internalsref{Staff} level are called @internalsref{BarLine}, the bar
1188 lines that span staves are @internalsref{SpanBar}s.
1190 @cindex bar lines at start of system
1191 @cindex start of system
1193 The barlines at the start of each system are
1194 @internalsref{SystemStartBar}, @internalsref{SystemStartBrace}, and
1195 @internalsref{SystemStartBracket}. Only one of these types is created
1196 in every context, and that type is determined by the property
1197 @code{systemStartDelimiter}.
1199 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,bar-lines.ly},
1205 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff
1206 is to split chords using the separator @code{\\}. You can use it for
1207 small, short-lived voices or for single chords:
1209 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
1210 \context Staff \relative c'' {
1211 c4 << { f d e } \\ { b c2 } >>
1212 c4 << g' \\ b, \\ f' \\ d >>
1216 The separator causes @internalsref{Voice} contexts@footnote{Polyphonic
1217 voices are sometimes called "layers" other notation packages}
1219 to be instantiated. They bear the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc. In
1220 each of these contexts, vertical direction of slurs, stems, etc. is set
1223 @cindex @code{\voiceOne}
1224 @cindex @code{\voiceFour}
1226 This can also be done by instantiating @internalsref{Voice} contexts
1227 by hand, and using @code{\voiceOne}, up to @code{\voiceFour} to assign
1228 a stem directions and horizontal shift for each part:
1231 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
1233 \context Staff << \new Voice { \voiceOne cis2 b }
1234 \new Voice { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
1235 \new Voice { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >>
1239 The command @code{\oneVoice} will revert back to the normal setting.
1240 @cindex @code{\oneVoice}
1243 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
1244 when the object property @code{merge-differently-dotted} is set in
1245 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} object, they are merged:
1246 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
1247 \relative c'' \context Voice << {
1249 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override
1250 #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
1252 } \\ { g8.[ f16] g8.[ f16] }
1256 Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting
1257 @code{merge-differently-headed}:
1258 @lilypond[fragment, relative=2,verbatim]
1261 \property Staff.NoteCollision
1262 \override #'merge-differently-headed = ##t
1263 c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >>
1266 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem:
1269 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1270 \context Voice << c''4 \\ r4 >>
1278 @cindex @code{\oneVoice}
1280 @cindex @code{\voiceOne}
1282 @cindex @code{\voiceTwo}
1284 @cindex @code{\voiceThree}
1286 @cindex @code{\voiceFour}
1290 The following commands specify in what chords of the current voice
1291 should be shifted: the outer voice has @code{\shiftOff}, and the inner
1292 voices have @code{\shiftOn}, @code{\shiftOnn}, etc.
1295 @cindex @code{\shiftOn}
1297 @cindex @code{\shiftOnn}
1299 @cindex @code{\shiftOnnn}
1301 @cindex @code{\shiftOff}
1308 Internals: the objects responsible for resolving collisions are
1309 @internalsref{NoteCollision} and @internalsref{RestCollision}.
1311 Examples: See also example files
1312 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-dots.ly},
1313 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-head-chords.ly},
1314 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-heads.ly},
1315 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-mesh.ly}, and
1316 @inputfileref{input/regression,collisions.ly}.
1321 Resolving collisions is a intricate subject, and only a few situations
1322 are handled. When LilyPond cannot cope, the @code{force-hshift}
1323 property of the @internalsref{NoteColumn} object and pitched rests can
1324 be used to override typesetting decisions.
1326 When using @code{merge-differently-headed} with an upstem 8th or a shorter
1327 note, and a downstem half note, the 8th note gets the wrong offset.
1329 There is no support for clusters where the same note occurs with
1330 different accidentals in the same chord. In this case, it is
1331 recommended to use enharmonic transcription, or to use special cluster
1332 notation (see @ref{Clusters}).
1337 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
1338 the metrum. They are inserted automatically in most cases:
1340 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1341 \time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
1344 When these automatic decisions are not good enough, beaming can be
1345 entered explicitly. It is also possible to define beaming patterns
1346 that differ from the defaults.
1350 Internals: @internalsref{Beam}.
1353 @cindex Automatic beams
1354 @subsection Manual beams
1355 @cindex beams, manual
1359 In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming
1360 algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not put beams over rests
1361 or bar lines. Such beams are specified by manually: the begin and end
1362 point are marked with @code{[} and @code{]}:
1364 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1366 r4 r8[ g' a r8] r8 g[ | a] r8
1370 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1372 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1373 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1374 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount} can
1375 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If either property
1376 is set, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1378 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1381 f8[ r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
1384 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1387 The property @code{subdivideBeams} can be set in order to subdivide
1388 all 16th or shorter beams at beat positions, as defined by the
1389 @code{beatLength} property . This accomplishes the same effect as
1390 twiddling with @code{stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{stemRightBeamCount},
1391 but it take less typing:
1394 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,noindent]
1396 \property Voice.subdivideBeams = ##t
1398 \property Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
1401 @cindex subdivideBeams
1403 Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap is detected
1404 between the note heads. This behavior can be tuned through the object
1405 property @code{auto-knee-gap}.
1407 Normally, line breaks are forbidden when beams cross bar lines. This
1408 behavior can be changed by setting @code{allowBeamBreak}.
1410 @cindex @code{allowBeamBreak}
1411 @cindex beams and line breaks
1413 @cindex beams, kneed
1415 @cindex auto-knee-gap
1421 @cindex Frenched staves
1423 Automatically kneed beams cannot be used together with hidden staves.
1428 * Setting automatic beam behavior::
1432 @no de Beam typography
1433 @sub section Beam typography
1435 One of the strong points of LilyPond is how beams are formatted. Beams
1436 are quantized, meaning that the left and right endpoints beams start
1437 exactly on staff lines. Without quantization, small wedges of white
1438 space appear between the beam and staff line, and this looks untidy.
1440 Beams are also slope-damped: melodies that go up or down should also
1441 have beams that go up or down, but the slope of the beams should be
1442 less than the slope of the notes themselves.
1444 Some beams should be horizontal. These are so-called concave beams.
1446 [TODO: some pictures.]
1450 @node Setting automatic beam behavior
1451 @subsection Setting automatic beam behavior
1453 @cindex @code{autoBeamSettings}
1454 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
1455 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
1456 @cindex automatic beams, tuning
1457 @cindex tuning automatic beaming
1459 @c [TODO: use \applycontext]
1461 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
1462 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
1463 or at durations specified by the properties in
1464 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
1465 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
1467 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
1468 @code{\override} and restored with @code{\revert}:
1470 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
1471 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
1473 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
1474 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
1475 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
1476 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
1477 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
1480 For example, if automatic beams should end on every quarter note, use
1483 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1484 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
1486 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1487 entered as @code{(ly:make-moment 1 4)}.
1489 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1490 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note:
1492 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1493 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1495 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1496 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1497 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1499 Rules can also be restricted to specific time signatures. A rule that
1500 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1501 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1502 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1504 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1505 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1508 If a rule should be to applied only to certain types of beams, use the
1509 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the
1510 shortest note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies
1511 to beams with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), use @code{(end 1 32 *
1514 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1515 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1517 @cindex automatic beam generation
1519 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeaming}
1522 For melodies that have lyrics, you may want to switch off
1523 automatic beaming. This is done by setting @code{Voice.autoBeaming} to
1528 @cindex @code{\autoBeamOff}
1529 @code{\autoBeamOff},
1530 @cindex @code{\autoBeamOn}
1536 The rules for ending a beam depend on the shortest note in a beam.
1537 So, while it is possible to have different ending rules for eight
1538 beams and sixteenth beams, a beam that contains both eight and
1539 sixteenth notes will use the rules for the sixteenth beam.
1541 In the example below, the autobeamer makes eight beams and sixteenth
1542 end at 3 eights; the third beam can only be corrected by specifying
1545 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,relative,noverbatim,quote]
1546 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1547 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1548 % rather show case where it goes wrong
1549 %\time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c[ c c c] c8[ c] c4
1550 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c c c c c8 c c4
1552 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1553 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1554 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1557 @section Accidentals
1560 This section describes how to change the way that accidentals are
1561 inserted automatically before the running notes.
1565 * Using the predefined accidental variables::
1566 * Customized accidental rules::
1569 @node Using the predefined accidental variables
1570 @subsection Using the predefined accidental variables
1572 The constructs for describing the accidental typesetting rules are
1573 quite hairy, so non-experts should stick to the variables
1574 defined in @file{ly/property-init.ly}.
1575 @cindex @file{property-init.ly}
1577 The variables set properties in the ``@code{Current}'' context (see
1578 @ref{Context properties}). This means that the variables should
1579 normally be added right after the creation of the context in which the
1580 accidental typesetting described by the variable is to take
1581 effect. For example, if you want to use piano-accidentals in a piano
1582 staff then issue @code{\pianoAccidentals} first thing after the
1583 creation of the piano staff:
1586 \notes \relative c'' <<
1587 \new Staff @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1588 \context GrandStaff <<
1590 \new Staff @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1591 \new Staff @{ es2 c @}
1593 \new Staff @{ es2 c @}
1597 @lilypond[singleline]
1599 \notes \relative c'' <<
1600 \new Staff { cis4 d e2 }
1601 \context GrandStaff <<
1603 \new Staff { cis4 d e2 }
1604 \new Staff { es2 c }
1606 \new Staff { es2 c }
1611 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 4.0)
1619 @item \defaultAccidentals
1620 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1621 This is the default typesetting behaviour. It should correspond
1622 to 18th century common practice: Accidentals are
1623 remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and
1624 only on their own octave.
1626 @item \voiceAccidentals
1627 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1629 The normal behaviour is to
1630 remember the accidentals on Staff-level. This variable, however,
1631 typesets accidentals individually for each voice. Apart from that the
1632 rule is similar to @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1634 This leads to some weird and often unwanted results
1635 because accidentals from one voice do not get cancelled in other
1637 @lilypond[singleline,relative,fragment,verbatim,quote]
1645 Hence you should only use @code{\voiceAccidentals} if the voices
1646 are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff is to be
1647 used by one musician (e.g. a conductor) then you use
1648 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals} or @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1651 @item \modernAccidentals
1652 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1653 This rule corresponds to the common practice in the 20th
1655 The rule is more complex than @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1656 You get all the same accidentals, but temporary
1657 accidentals also get cancelled in other octaves. Furthermore,
1658 in the same octave, they also get cancelled in the following measure:
1659 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1661 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1664 @item \modernCautionaries
1665 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1666 This rule is similar to @code{\modernAccidentals}, but the
1667 ``extra'' accidentals (the ones not typeset by
1668 @code{\defaultAccidentals}) are typeset as cautionary accidentals.
1669 They are printed in reduced size or with parentheses:
1670 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1672 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1675 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1676 @item \modernVoiceAccidentals
1677 is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians
1678 playing one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are
1679 typeset for each voice, but they @emph{are} cancelled across voices in
1680 the same @internalsref{Staff}.
1682 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1683 @item \modernVoiceCautionaries
1684 is the same as @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}, but with the extra
1685 accidentals (the ones not typeset by @code{\voiceAccidentals}) typeset
1686 as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset by
1687 @code{\defaultAccidentals} @emph{are} typeset by this variable then
1688 some of them are typeset as cautionaries.
1690 @item \pianoAccidentals
1691 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1692 20th century practice for piano notation. Very similar to
1693 @code{\modernAccidentals} but accidentals also get cancelled
1694 across the staves in the same @internalsref{GrandStaff} or
1695 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.
1697 @item \pianoCautionaries
1698 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1699 As @code{\pianoAccidentals} but with the extra accidentals
1700 typeset as cautionaries.
1703 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1704 Same as @code{\defaultAccidentals} but with accidentals lasting
1705 ``forever'' and not only until the next measure:
1706 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1711 @item \forgetAccidentals
1712 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1713 This is sort of the opposite of @code{\noResetKey}: Accidentals
1714 are not remembered at all---and hence all accidentals are
1715 typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what was
1716 before in the music:
1717 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1719 \key d\major c4 c cis cis d d dis dis
1723 @node Customized accidental rules
1724 @subsection Customized accidental rules
1726 For determining when to print an accidental, several different rules
1727 are tried. The rule that gives the highest number of accidentals is
1728 used. Each rule consists of
1731 In which context is the rule applied. For example, if
1732 @var{context} is @internalsref{Score} then all staves share
1733 accidentals, and if @var{context} is @internalsref{Staff} then all
1734 voices in the same staff share accidentals, but staves do not.
1736 Whether the accidental changes all octaves or only the current
1739 Over how many barlines the accidental lasts.
1740 If @var{lazyness} is @code{-1} then the accidental is forget
1741 immediately, and if @var{lazyness} is @code{#t} then the accidental
1744 @c [TODO: should use +infinity for this case?]
1750 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1751 @code{\defaultAccidentals},
1752 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1753 @code{\voiceAccidentals},
1754 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1755 @code{\modernAccidentals},
1756 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1757 @code{\modernCautionaries},
1758 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1759 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals},
1760 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1761 @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries},
1762 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1763 @code{\pianoAccidentals},
1764 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1765 @code{\pianoCautionaries},
1766 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1768 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1769 @code{\forgetAccidentals}.
1773 Internals: @internalsref{Accidental_engraver},
1774 @internalsref{Accidental}, and @internalsref{AccidentalPlacement}.
1779 Currently the simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in
1780 sequential mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are
1781 typeset as if the notes in the chord happened once at a time - in the
1782 order in which they appear in the input file.
1784 This is only a problem when there are simultaneous notes whose
1785 accidentals depend on each other. The problem only occurs when using
1786 non-default accidentals. In the default scheme, accidentals only
1787 depend on other accidentals with the same pitch on the same staff, so
1788 no conflicts possible.
1790 This example shows two examples of the same music giving different
1791 accidentals depending on the order in which the notes occur in the
1794 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1795 \property Staff.autoAccidentals = #'( Staff (any-octave . 0) )
1796 cis'4 <c'' c'> r2 | cis'4 <c' c''> r2
1797 | <cis' c''> r | <c'' cis'> r |
1800 This problem can be solved by manually inserting @code{!} and @code{?}
1801 for the problematic notes.
1803 @node Expressive marks
1804 @section Expressive marks
1807 @c todo: should change ordering
1808 @c where to put text spanners, metronome marks,
1817 * Analysis brackets::
1819 * Fingering instructions::
1830 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1834 They are entered using parentheses:
1835 @lilypond[relative 1,fragment,verbatim,center]
1836 f( g)( a) a8 b( a4 g2 f4)
1841 @c TODO: should explain that ^( and _( set directions
1842 @c should set attachments with ^ and _ ?
1844 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1845 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1846 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1847 object property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1848 @internalsref{Voice} context. Its value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1849 the attachment type of the left and right end points:
1851 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1853 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1855 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1859 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1860 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1861 stems might look better:
1863 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1866 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1873 @cindex @code{\slurUp}
1875 @cindex @code{\slurDown}
1877 @cindex @code{\slurBoth}
1879 @cindex @code{\slurDotted}
1881 @cindex @code{\slurSolid}
1886 Internals: @seeinternals{Slur}, and @internalsref{SlurEvent}.
1891 Producing nice slurs is a difficult problem, and LilyPond currently
1892 uses a simple, empiric method to produce slurs. In some cases, its
1896 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1898 @node Phrasing slurs
1899 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1901 @cindex phrasing slurs
1902 @cindex phrasing marks
1904 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1905 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1908 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1909 \time 6/4 c'\( d( e) f( e) d\)
1912 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a
1913 normal slur. However, they are treated as different objects. A
1914 @code{\slurUp} will have no effect on a phrasing slur; instead, you
1915 should use @code{\phrasingSlurUp}, @code{\phrasingSlurDown}, and
1916 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}.
1918 The commands @code{\slurUp}, @code{\slurDown}, and @code{\slurBoth}
1919 will only affect normal slurs and not phrasing slurs.
1923 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurUp}
1924 @code{\phrasingSlurUp},
1925 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurDown}
1926 @code{\phrasingSlurDown},
1927 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}
1928 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth},
1932 Internals: see also @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, and
1933 @internalsref{PhrasingSlurEvent}.
1937 Phrasing slurs have the same limitations in their formatting as normal
1938 slurs. Putting phrasing slurs over rests leads to spurious warnings.
1941 @subsection Breath marks
1943 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}:
1946 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1950 The glyph of the breath mark can be tweaked by overriding the
1951 @code{text} property of the @code{BreathingSign} layout object with
1952 any markup text. For example,
1953 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative]
1955 \property Voice.BreathingSign \override #'text
1956 = #(make-musicglyph-markup "scripts-rvarcomma")
1963 Internals: @internalsref{BreathingSign},
1964 @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent}
1966 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,breathing-sign.ly}.
1969 @node Metronome marks
1970 @subsection Metronome marks
1973 @cindex beats per minute
1974 @cindex metronome marking
1976 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1978 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1981 In the MIDI output, they are interpreted as a tempo change, and in the
1982 paper output, a metronome marking is printed:
1983 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1984 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1990 Internals: @internalsref{MetronomeChangeEvent}.
1995 @subsection Text spanners
1996 @cindex Text spanners
1998 Some performance indications, e.g. @i{rallentando} or @i{accelerando},
1999 are written as texts, and extended over many measures with dotted
2000 lines. You can create such texts using text spanners: attach
2001 @code{\startTextSpan} and @code{\stopTextSpan} to the
2002 start and ending note of the spanner.
2004 The string to be printed, as well as the style, is set through object
2007 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2009 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'direction = #-1
2010 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("rall " . "")
2011 c2\startTextSpan b c\stopTextSpan a }
2017 Internals @internalsref{TextSpanEvent},
2018 @internalsref{TextSpanner}.
2020 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,text-spanner.ly}.
2023 @node Analysis brackets
2024 @subsection Analysis brackets
2026 @cindex phrasing brackets
2027 @cindex musicological analysis
2028 @cindex note grouping bracket
2030 Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical
2031 pieces. LilyPond supports a simple form of nested horizontal brackets.
2032 To use this, add the @internalsref{Horizontal_bracket_engraver} to
2033 @internalsref{Staff} context. A bracket is started with
2034 @code{\startGroup} and closed with @code{\stopGroup}:
2036 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2037 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
2038 c4\startGroup\startGroup
2041 c4\stopGroup\stopGroup
2043 \paper { \translator {
2044 \StaffContext \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
2050 Internals: @internalsref{HorizontalBracket},
2051 @internalsref{NoteGroupingEvent}
2053 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,note-group-bracket.ly}.
2057 @subsection Articulations
2058 @cindex Articulations
2060 @cindex articulations
2064 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
2065 different characteristics of the performance. They are added to a note
2066 by adding a dash and the character signifying the
2067 articulation. They are demonstrated here:
2069 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-abbreviations.ly}
2071 The meanings of these shorthands can be changed: see
2072 @file{ly/script-init.ly} for examples.
2075 The script is automatically placed, but if you need to force
2076 directions, you can use @code{_} to force them down, or @code{^} to
2078 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
2082 Other symbols can be added using the syntax
2083 @var{note}@code{\}@var{name}, e.g. @code{c4\fermata}. Again, they
2084 can be forced up or down using @code{^} and @code{_},
2087 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative 2]
2088 c\fermata c^\fermata c_\fermata
2095 @cindex staccatissimo
2104 @cindex organ pedal marks
2113 @cindex prallmordent
2117 @cindex thumb marking
2122 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-chart.ly}
2127 @cindex @code{\scriptUp}
2129 @cindex @code{\scriptDown}
2131 @cindex @code{\scriptBoth}
2136 Internals: @internalsref{ScriptEvent}, and @internalsref{Script}.
2140 These note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
2141 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
2144 @node Fingering instructions
2145 @subsection Fingering instructions
2149 Fingering instructions can be entered using
2151 @var{note}-@var{digit}
2153 For finger changes, use markup texts:
2155 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
2156 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
2157 c'^\markup { \fontsize #-3 \number "2-3" }
2160 @cindex finger change
2165 You can use the thumb-script to indicate that a note should be
2166 played with your thumb (used in cello music):
2168 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
2169 <a' a''-3>8(_\thumb <b' b''-3>)_\thumb
2170 <c'' c'''-3>(_\thumb <d'' d'''-3>)_\thumb
2173 Fingerings for chords can also be added to individual notes
2174 of the chord by adding them after the pitches:
2175 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
2176 < c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 > 4
2179 Setting @code{fingeringOrientations} will put fingerings next
2182 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
2183 \property Voice.fingeringOrientations = #'(left down)
2184 <c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 > 4
2185 \property Voice.fingeringOrientations = #'(up right down)
2186 <c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 > 4
2191 Internals: @internalsref{FingerEvent}, and @internalsref{Fingering}.
2195 @subsection Text scripts
2196 @cindex Text scripts
2198 @cindex text items, non-empty
2199 @cindex non-empty texts
2201 It is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup text (see
2202 @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
2203 @code{c^"text"}. By default, these indications do not influence the
2204 note spacing, but by using the command @code{\fatText}, the widths
2205 will be taken into account:
2207 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim] \relative c' {
2208 c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
2211 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should
2212 be avoided because the exact dimensions of the string can then no
2217 @refcommand{fatText}, @refcommand{emptyText}.
2222 In this manual: @ref{Text markup}.
2224 Internals: @internalsref{TextScriptEvent}, @internalsref{TextScript}
2230 @subsection Grace notes
2233 @c should have blurb about accaciatura / appogiatura
2235 @cindex @code{\grace}
2239 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out. The most common ones
2240 are acciaccatura, which should be played as very short. It is denoted
2241 by a slurred small note with a slashed stem. The appoggiatura is a
2242 grace note that takes a fixed fraction of the main note, is and
2243 denoted as a slurred note in small print without a slash.
2244 They are entered with the commands @code{\acciaccatura} and
2245 @code{\appoggiatura}, as demonstrated in the following example:
2248 @cindex appoggiatura
2249 @cindex acciaccatura
2251 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2252 b4 \acciaccatura d8 c4 \appoggiatura e8 d4
2253 \acciaccatura { g16[ f] } e4
2256 Both are special forms of the @code{\grace} command. By prefixing this
2257 keyword to a music expression, a new one is formed, which will be
2258 printed in a smaller font and takes up no logical time in a measure.
2259 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2261 \grace { c16[ d16] } c2 c4
2265 Unlike @code{\acciaccatura} and @code{\appoggiatura}, the
2266 @code{\grace} command does not start a slur.
2268 Internally, timing for grace notes is done using a second, `grace'
2269 time. Every point in time consists of two rational numbers: one
2270 denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing. The above
2271 example is shown here with timing tuples:
2273 @lilypond[singleline]
2276 c4 \grace c16 c4 \grace {
2279 \new Lyrics \lyrics {
2282 ( \fraction 1 4 , \fraction -1 16 ) } 16 }
2283 \markup { (\fraction 1 4 , 0 ) } 4
2285 \markup { (\fraction 2 4 , \fraction "-1" 8 ) } 16
2286 \markup { (\fraction 2 4 , \fraction "-1" 16 ) } 16
2288 \markup { ( \fraction 2 4 , 0 ) }
2293 The placement of grace notes is synchronized between different staves.
2294 In the following example, there are two sixteenth graces notes for
2295 every eighth grace note:
2297 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2298 << \new Staff { e4 \grace { c16[ d e f] } e4 }
2299 \new Staff { c'4 \grace { g8[ b] } c4 } >>
2304 If you want to end a note with a grace, then the standard trick
2305 is to put the grace notes after a ``space note'', e.g.
2306 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
2309 { s2 \grace { c16[ d] } } >>
2315 By adjusting the duration of the skip note (here it is a half-note),
2316 the space between the main-note and the grace is adjusted.
2319 A @code{\grace} section will introduce special typesetting settings,
2320 for example, to produce smaller type, and set directions. Hence, when
2321 introducing layout tweaks, they should be inside the grace section,
2323 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative 1]
2326 \property Voice.Stem \override #'direction = #-1
2328 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'direction
2335 The overrides should also be reverted inside the grace section.
2337 If the layout of grace sections must be changed throughout the music,
2338 then this can be accomplished through the function
2339 @code{add-grace-property}. The following example
2340 undefines the Stem direction grace section, so stems do not always
2345 #(add-grace-property "Voice" Stem direction '())
2351 Another option is to change the variables @code{startGraceMusic},
2352 @code{stopGraceMusic}, @code{startAccacciaturaMusic},
2353 @code{stopAccacciaturaMusic}, @code{startAppoggiaturaMusic},
2354 @code{stopAppoggiaturaMstuic}. More information is in the file
2355 @file{ly/grace-init.ly}
2360 Internals: @internalsref{GraceMusic}.
2364 Grace notes cannot be used in the smallest size (@file{paper11.ly}).
2366 A score that starts with an @code{\grace} section needs an explicit
2367 @code{\context Voice} declaration, otherwise the main note and grace
2368 note end up on different staves.
2370 Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation,
2371 such as key signatures, barlines, etc. are also synchronized. Take
2372 care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without, for example,
2374 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2375 << \new Staff { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
2376 \new Staff { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >>
2379 Grace sections should only be used within sequential music
2380 expressions. Nesting or juxtaposing grace sections is not supported,
2381 and might produce crashes or other errors.
2383 Overriding settings cannot be done in separate styles for appoggiatura
2388 @subsection Glissando
2391 @cindex @code{\glissando}
2393 A glissando is a smooth change in pitch. It is denoted by a line or a
2394 wavy line between two notes.
2398 A glissando line can be requested by attaching a @code{\glissando} to
2401 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2407 Internals: @internalsref{Glissando}, and @internalsref{GlissandoEvent}.
2412 Adding additional texts (such as @emph{gliss.}) is not supported.
2416 @subsection Dynamics
2429 @cindex @code{\ffff}
2439 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an variable after a
2440 note: @code{c4\ff}. The available dynamic marks are @code{\ppp},
2441 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
2442 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
2443 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}:
2445 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
2446 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
2452 @cindex @code{\decr}
2453 @cindex @code{\rced}
2460 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\<} and terminated with
2461 @code{\!}. A decrescendo is started with @code{\>} and also terminated
2462 with @code{\!}. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you must
2463 use spacer notes if multiple marks during one note are needed:
2465 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,quote]
2466 c''\< c''\! d''\decr e''\rced
2467 << f''1 { s4 s4\< s4\! \> s4\! } >>
2469 This may give rise to very short hairpins. Use @code{minimum-length}
2470 in @internalsref{Voice}.@internalsref{Hairpin} to lengthen them, for
2474 \property Staff.Hairpin \override #'minimum-length = #5
2477 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
2478 is an example how to do it:
2480 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
2481 c4 \cresc c4 c c c \endcresc c4
2487 You can also supply your own texts:
2488 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2490 \property Voice.crescendoText = \markup { \italic "cresc. poco" }
2491 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
2501 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
2503 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
2504 @code{\dynamicDown},
2505 @cindex @code{\dynamicBoth}
2506 @code{\dynamicBoth}.
2508 @cindex direction, of dynamics
2512 Internals: @internalsref{CrescendoEvent}, @internalsref{DecrescendoEvent}, and
2513 @internalsref{AbsoluteDynamicEvent}.
2515 Dynamics are objects of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
2516 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is
2517 handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2519 If you want to adjust padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you
2520 must set properties for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2528 @cindex @code{\repeat}
2531 Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist
2532 for repetitions. In LilyPond, most of these notations can be captured
2533 in a uniform syntax. One of the advantages is that they can be
2534 rendered in MIDI accurately.
2536 The following types of repetition are supported:
2540 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
2541 output, and entering repetitive music.
2544 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
2545 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
2549 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
2550 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
2551 @inputfileref{input,star-spangled-banner.ly}.
2559 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
2565 * Repeats and MIDI::
2566 * Manual repeat commands::
2568 * Tremolo subdivisions::
2573 @subsection Repeat syntax
2577 LilyPond has one syntactic construct for specifying different types of
2578 repeats. The syntax is
2581 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
2584 If you have alternative endings, you may add
2585 @cindex @code{\alternative}
2587 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
2589 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
2591 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression. If you do not
2592 give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then the first
2593 alternative is assumed to be played more than once.
2595 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
2596 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative 1]
2598 \repeat volta 2 { c4 d e f }
2599 \repeat volta 2 { f e d c }
2602 With alternative endings:
2603 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative 1]
2605 \repeat volta 2 {c4 d e f}
2606 \alternative { {d2 d} {f f,} }
2610 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative 1]
2613 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
2614 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
2620 If you do a nested repeat like
2629 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the @code{\alternative}
2630 belongs. This ambiguity is resolved by always having the
2631 @code{\alternative} belong to the inner @code{\repeat}. For clarity,
2632 it is advisable to use braces in such situations.
2635 @node Repeats and MIDI
2636 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
2638 @cindex expanding repeats
2640 For instructions on how to unfold repeats for MIDI output, see the
2641 example file @inputfileref{input/test,unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
2646 Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative,
2647 so after a repeat timing information must be reset by hand, for
2648 example by setting @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering
2649 @code{\partial}. Similarly, slurs or ties are also not repeated.
2652 @node Manual repeat commands
2653 @subsection Manual repeat commands
2655 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
2657 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
2658 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
2662 @item the symbol @code{start-repeat},
2663 which prints a @code{|:} bar line,
2664 @item the symbol @code{end-repeat},
2665 which prints a @code{:|} bar line,
2666 @item the list @code{(volta @var{text})},
2667 which prints a volta bracket saying @var{text}: The text can be specified as
2668 a text string or as a markup text, see @ref{Text markup}. Do not
2669 forget to change the font, as the default number font does not contain
2670 alphabetic characters. Or,
2671 @item the list @code{(volta #f)}, which
2672 stops a running volta bracket:
2675 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment,relative 2]
2677 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
2679 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
2686 Internals: @internalsref{VoltaBracket}, @internalsref{RepeatedMusic},
2687 @internalsref{VoltaRepeatedMusic},
2688 @internalsref{UnfoldedRepeatedMusic}, and
2689 @internalsref{FoldedRepeatedMusic}.
2691 @node Tremolo repeats
2692 @subsection Tremolo repeats
2693 @cindex tremolo beams
2695 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
2697 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2699 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
2700 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
2701 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
2702 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
2707 Tremolo marks can also be put on a single note. In this case, the
2708 note should not be surrounded by braces.
2709 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2710 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
2713 A similar mechanism is the tremolo subdivision, described in
2714 @ref{Tremolo subdivisions}.
2718 In this manual: @ref{Tremolo subdivisions}, @ref{Repeats}.
2720 Internals: tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} objects. Single stem
2721 tremolos are @internalsref{StemTremolo}s. The music expression is
2722 @internalsref{TremoloEvent},
2724 Example files: @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-tremolo.ly},
2725 @inputfileref{input/regression,stem-tremolo.ly}.
2727 @node Tremolo subdivisions
2728 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
2729 @cindex tremolo marks
2730 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
2732 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
2733 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
2734 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
2735 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
2736 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used:
2738 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
2739 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
2742 @c [TODO : stok is te kort bij 32en]
2746 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
2750 In this manual: @ref{Tremolo repeats}.
2752 Elsewhere: @internalsref{StemTremolo}, @internalsref{TremoloEvent}.
2754 @node Measure repeats
2755 @subsection Measure repeats
2757 @cindex percent repeats
2758 @cindex measure repeats
2760 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
2761 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
2762 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
2763 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes:
2765 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2766 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
2767 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
2773 Internals: @internalsref{RepeatSlash}, @internalsref{PercentRepeat},
2774 @internalsref{PercentRepeatedMusic}, and
2775 @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
2779 @node Rhythmic music
2780 @section Rhythmic music
2782 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This
2783 can be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a
2784 staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single line:
2786 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2787 \context RhythmicStaff {
2789 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
2795 Internals: @internalsref{RhythmicStaff}.
2797 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,rhythmic-staff.ly}.
2801 * Percussion staves::
2802 * Percussion MIDI output::
2805 @node Percussion staves
2806 @subsection Percussion staves
2810 A percussion part for more than one instrument typically uses a
2811 multiline staff where each position in the staff refers to one piece
2816 Percussion staves are typeset with help of a set of Scheme
2817 functions. The system is based on the general MIDI drum-pitches.
2818 Include @file{drumpitch-init.ly} to use drum pitches. This file
2819 defines the pitches from the Scheme variable @code{drum-pitch-names},
2820 the definition of which can be read in @file{scm/drums.scm}. Each
2821 piece of percussion has a full name and an abbreviated name, and either
2822 the full name or the abbreviation may be used in input files.
2824 To typeset the music on a staff apply the function @code{drums->paper}
2825 to the percussion music. This function takes a list of percussion
2826 instrument names, notehead scripts and staff positions (that is:
2827 pitches relative to the C-clef) and transforms the input
2828 music by moving the pitch, changing the notehead and (optionally)
2831 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,quote]
2832 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2833 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2834 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2836 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <<
2838 \new Voice { \voiceOne \up }
2839 \new Voice { \voiceTwo \down }
2844 In the above example the music was transformed using the list @code{'drums}.
2845 The following lists are defined in @file{scm/drums.scm}:
2848 to typeset a typical drum kit on a five-line staff:
2851 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2852 nam = \lyrics { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2853 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
2854 mus = \notes { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2855 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
2858 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <<
2862 \context Lyrics \nam
2865 linewidth = 100.0\mm
2868 \remove Bar_engraver
2869 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2870 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
2874 \remove Stem_engraver
2880 The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there fewer toms, simply
2881 select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e. to get toms on
2882 the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml} and
2885 Because general MIDI does not contain rimshots the sidestick is used
2886 for this purpose instead.
2888 to typeset timbales on a two line staff:
2890 @lilypond[singleline]
2891 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2892 nam = \lyrics { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
2893 mus = \notes { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
2896 \apply #(drums->paper 'timbales) \context Staff <<
2900 \context Lyrics \nam
2905 \remove Bar_engraver
2906 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2907 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2908 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2909 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2913 \remove Stem_engraver
2920 to typeset congas on a two line staff:
2922 @lilypond[singleline]
2923 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2924 nam = \lyrics { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
2925 mus = \notes { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
2928 \apply #(drums->paper 'congas) \context Staff <<
2932 \context Lyrics \nam
2937 \remove Bar_engraver
2938 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2939 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2940 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2941 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2945 \remove Stem_engraver
2951 to typeset bongos on a two line staff:
2953 @lilypond[singleline]
2954 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2955 nam = \lyrics { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
2956 mus = \notes { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
2959 \apply #(drums->paper 'bongos) \context Staff <<
2963 \context Lyrics \nam
2968 \remove Bar_engraver
2969 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2970 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2971 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2972 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2976 \remove Stem_engraver
2982 to typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves:
2983 @lilypond[singleline]
2984 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2985 nam = \lyrics { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
2986 mus = \notes { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
2989 \apply #(drums->paper 'percussion) \context Staff <<
2993 \context Lyrics \nam
2998 \remove Bar_engraver
2999 \remove Time_signature_engraver
3000 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #1
3001 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-2.0 . 3.0)
3005 \remove Stem_engraver
3012 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
3013 list at the top of your file:
3015 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
3016 #(set-drum-kit 'mydrums `(
3017 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
3018 (snare default #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 1 0))
3019 (hihat cross #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
3020 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
3021 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
3023 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
3024 up = \notes { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
3025 down = \notes { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
3027 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <<
3029 \new Voice { \voiceOne \up }
3030 \new Voice { \voiceTwo \down }
3035 To use a modified existing list, one can prepend modifications to the
3039 #(set-drum-kit 'mydrums (append `(
3040 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
3041 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
3042 ) (get-drum-kit 'drums)))
3045 You can easily combine percussion notation with pitched notation.
3046 Indeed, the file @file{drumpitch-init.ly} replaces the normal pitch
3047 names, so you will have to reinclude @file{nederlands.ly} after the
3048 drum-pattern-definitions to enter normal notes:
3050 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3051 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
3052 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
3053 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
3054 \include "nederlands.ly"
3055 bass = \notes \transpose c c,, { a4. e8 r e g e }
3058 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \new Staff <<
3060 \new Voice { \voiceOne \up }
3061 \new Voice { \voiceTwo \down }
3063 \new Staff { \clef "F_8" \bass }
3068 @node Percussion MIDI output
3069 @subsection Percussion MIDI output
3071 In order to produce correct MIDI output you need to produce two score
3072 blocks---one for the paper and one for the MIDI output. To use the
3073 percussion channel you set the property @code{instrument} to
3074 @code{'drums}. Because the drum-pitches themselves are similar to the
3075 general MIDI pitches all you have to do is to insert the voices with
3076 none of the scheme functions to get the correct MIDI output:
3080 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <<
3089 \property Staff.instrument = #'drums
3099 Chords entered with @code{< @dots{} >} do not work. This scheme is a
3100 temporary implementation.
3104 @section Piano music
3106 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
3107 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
3108 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
3109 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
3110 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
3111 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
3115 * Automatic staff changes::
3116 * Manual staff switches::
3119 * Staff switch lines::
3124 There is no support for putting chords across staves. You can get
3125 this result by increasing the length of the stem in the lower stave so
3126 it reaches the stem in the upper stave, or vice versa. An example is
3127 included with the distribution as @inputfileref{input/test,stem-cross-staff.ly}.
3129 Dynamics are not centered, but kludges do exist. See
3130 @inputfileref{input/template,piano-dynamics.ly}.
3132 @cindex cross staff stem
3133 @cindex stem, cross staff
3136 @c fixme: should have hyperlinks as well.
3142 @node Automatic staff changes
3143 @subsection Automatic staff changes
3144 @cindex Automatic staff changes
3146 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
3147 staff. The syntax for this is
3149 \autochange Staff \context Voice @{ @dots{}@var{music}@dots{} @}
3151 The two staffs of the piano staff must be named @code{up} and
3154 The autochanger switches on basis of pitch (central C is the turning
3155 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch in
3156 advance. Here is a practical example:
3158 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,quote]
3159 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <<
3160 \context Staff = "up" {
3161 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA << \relative c' {
3162 g4 a b c d r4 a g } >> }
3163 \context Staff = "down" {
3170 In this example, spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
3171 terminating too soon.
3176 In this manual: @ref{Manual staff switches}
3178 Internals: @internalsref{AutoChangeMusic}.
3184 The staff switches often do not end up in optimal places. For high
3185 quality output, staff switches should be specified manually.
3188 @node Manual staff switches
3189 @subsection Manual staff switches
3191 @cindex manual staff switches
3192 @cindex staff switch, manual
3194 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
3196 \change Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
3200 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
3201 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
3202 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
3211 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound are produced. Generally, a
3212 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
3216 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
3217 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
3218 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
3221 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3222 c'4\sustainDown c'4\sustainUp
3225 What is printed can be modified by setting @code{pedal@var{X}Strings},
3226 where @var{X} is one of the pedal types: @code{Sustain},
3227 @code{Sostenuto} or @code{UnaCorda}. Refer to the generated
3228 documentation of @internalsref{SustainPedal} for more information.
3230 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
3231 @code{pedalSustainStyle} property to @code{bracket} objects:
3233 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3234 \property Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'bracket
3235 c''4\sustainDown d''4 e''4
3236 a'4\sustainUp\sustainDown
3237 f'4 g'4 a'4\sustainUp
3240 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
3241 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
3243 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3244 \property Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'mixed
3245 c''4\sustainDown d''4 e''4
3246 c'4\sustainUp\sustainDown
3247 f'4 g'4 a'4\sustainUp
3250 The default `*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
3251 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
3252 for a sostenuto pedal:
3254 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3255 c''4\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4\sostenutoUp
3258 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
3259 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
3260 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (see
3261 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket} in the Program reference) can be modified. For example, the
3262 bracket may be extended to the end of the note head:
3264 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3265 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override
3266 #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
3267 c''4\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4
3268 f'4 g'4 a'4\sostenutoUp
3272 @subsection Arpeggio
3275 @cindex broken arpeggio
3276 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
3278 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
3279 @code{\arpeggio} to a chord:
3282 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3286 When an arpeggio crosses staves, you attach an arpeggio to the chords
3287 in both staves, and set
3288 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@code{connectArpeggios}:
3290 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3291 \context PianoStaff <<
3292 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
3293 \new Staff { <c' e g c>\arpeggio }
3294 \new Staff { \clef bass <c,, e g>\arpeggio }
3298 The direction of the arpeggio is sometimes denoted by adding an
3299 arrowhead to the wiggly line. This can be typeset by setting
3300 @code{arpeggio-direction}:
3302 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3304 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #1
3306 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
3311 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
3312 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
3313 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
3314 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} objects to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
3315 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before:
3317 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3318 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override
3319 #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
3325 @cindex @code{\arpeggioBracket}
3326 @code{\arpeggioBracket},
3327 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
3332 Internals: @internalsref{ArpeggioEvent} music expressions lead to
3333 @internalsref{Arpeggio} objects. Cross staff arpeggios are
3334 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@internalsref{Arpeggio}.
3338 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected
3339 arpeggios in one @internalsref{PianoStaff} at the same time.
3341 @node Staff switch lines
3342 @subsection Staff switch lines
3345 @cindex follow voice
3346 @cindex staff switching
3349 @cindex @code{followVoice}
3351 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
3352 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
3353 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
3355 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3356 \context PianoStaff <<
3357 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
3358 \context Staff \context Voice {
3363 \context Staff=two { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
3367 The associated object is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
3371 @cindex @code{\showStaffSwitch}
3372 @code{\showStaffSwitch},
3373 @cindex @code{\hideStaffSwitch}
3374 @code{\hideStaffSwitch}.
3378 @section Vocal music
3380 This section discusses how to enter and print lyrics.
3384 * The Lyrics context::
3389 @node Entering lyrics
3390 @subsection Entering lyrics
3394 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
3397 Lyrics are entered in a special input mode. This mode is is introduced
3398 by the keyword @code{\lyrics}. In this mode you can enter lyrics, with
3399 punctuation and accents without any hassle. Syllables are entered like
3400 notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example,
3402 \lyrics @{ Twin-4 kle4 twin- kle litt- le star2 @}
3405 A word in Lyrics mode begins with: an alphabetic character, @code{_},
3406 @code{?}, @code{!}, @code{:}, @code{'}, the control characters @code{^A}
3407 through @code{^F}, @code{^Q} through @code{^W}, @code{^Y}, @code{^^},
3408 any 8-bit character with ASCII code over 127, or a two-character
3409 combination of a backslash followed by one of @code{`}, @code{'},
3410 @code{"}, or @code{^}.
3412 Subsequent characters of a word can be any character that is not a digit
3413 and not white space. One important consequence of this is that a word
3414 can end with @code{@}}. The following example is usually a bug. The
3415 syllable includes a @code{@}}, and hence the opening brace is not balanced:
3417 \lyrics @{ twinkle@}
3420 @cindex @code{\property}, in @code{\lyrics}
3421 Similarly, a period following a alphabetic sequence, is included in the
3422 resulting string. As a consequence, spaces must be inserted around
3423 @code{\property} commands:
3425 \property Lyrics . LyricText \set #'font-shape = #'italic
3429 @cindex spaces, in lyrics
3430 @cindex quotes, in lyrics
3432 Any @code{_} character which appears in an unquoted word is converted
3433 to a space. This provides a mechanism for introducing spaces into words
3434 without using quotes. Quoted words can also be used in Lyrics mode to
3435 specify words that cannot be written with the above rules:
3438 \lyrics @{ He said: "\"Let" my peo ple "go\"" @}
3442 Hyphens can be entered as ordinary hyphens at the end of a syllable, i.e.
3447 These will be attached to the end of the first syllable.
3449 Centered hyphens are entered using the special `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric
3450 as a separate word between syllables. The hyphen will have variable
3451 length depending on the space between the syllables and it will be
3452 centered between the syllables.
3457 When a lyric is sung over many notes (this is called a melisma), this is
3458 indicated with a horizontal line centered between a syllable and the
3459 next one. Such a line is called an extender line, and it is entered as
3464 Internals: @internalsref{LyricEvent}, @internalsref{HyphenEvent}, and
3465 @internalsref{ExtenderEvent}.
3469 The definition of lyrics mode is too complex.
3471 @node The Lyrics context
3472 @subsection The Lyrics context
3474 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in @internalsref{Lyrics} context:
3476 \context Lyrics \lyrics @dots{}
3479 @cindex automatic syllable durations
3480 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
3481 @cindex lyrics and melodies
3483 This will place the lyrics according to the durations that were
3484 entered. The lyrics can also be aligned under a given melody
3485 automatically. In this case, it is no longer necessary to enter the
3486 correct duration for each syllable. This is achieved by combining the
3487 melody and the lyrics with the @code{\addlyrics} expression:
3491 \context Lyrics @dots{}
3494 @cindex staff order, with @code{\addlyrics}
3496 Normally, this will put the lyrics below the staff. For different or
3497 more complex orderings, the best way is to setup the hierarchy of
3498 staves and lyrics first, e.g.
3500 \context ChoirStaff \notes <<
3501 \context Lyrics = sopr @{ s1 @}
3502 \context Staff = soprStaff @{ s1 @}
3503 \context Lyrics = tenor @{ s1 @}
3504 \context Staff = tenorStaff @{ s1 @}
3507 and then combine the appropriate melodies and lyric lines:
3510 \context Staff = soprStaff @emph{the music}
3511 \context Lyrics = sopr @emph{the lyrics}
3514 putting both together, you would get
3516 \context ChoirStaff \notes <<
3517 \context Lyrics = @dots{}
3518 \context Staff = @dots{}
3524 @cindex choral score
3526 A complete example of a SATB score setup is in the file
3527 @inputfileref{input/template,satb.ly}.
3531 Internals: @internalsref{LyricCombineMusic}, @internalsref{Lyrics}
3533 Examples: @inputfileref{input/template,satb.ly}.
3537 @code{\addlyrics} is not automatic enough: melismata are not detected
3538 automatically, and melismata are not stopped when they hit a rest. A
3539 melisma on the last note in a melody is not printed.
3543 @subsection More stanzas
3546 @cindex phrasing, in lyrics
3549 The lyrics should be aligned with the note heads of the melody. To
3550 achieve this, each line of lyrics should be marked to correspond with
3553 To this end, give the @internalsref{Voice} context an identity:
3555 \context Voice = duet @{
3560 Then set the @internalsref{LyricsVoice} contexts to names starting with
3561 that identity followed by a dash. In the preceding example, the
3562 @internalsref{Voice} identity is @code{duet}, so the identities of the
3563 @internalsref{LyricsVoice}s are marked @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}:
3565 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" @{
3566 Hi, my name is bert. @}
3567 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" @{
3568 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. @}
3571 The complete example is shown here:
3572 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3575 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
3577 \lyrics \context Lyrics <<
3578 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
3579 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3580 Hi, my name is bert. }
3581 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
3582 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3583 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
3588 @cindex stanza number
3589 @cindex singer's names
3590 @cindex name of singer
3592 Stanza numbers can be added by setting @code{LyricsVoice.stanza}, e.g.
3595 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3597 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3600 Notice how dots are surrounded with spaces in @code{\lyrics} mode, to
3601 prevent @code{LyricsVoice.stanza} being interpreted as a single
3604 Names of the singers should be added using @code{LyricsVoice
3605 . instrument} and @code{LyricsVoice . instr}, analogous to instrument
3606 annotations for staves.
3608 To make empty spaces in lyrics, use @code{\skip}.
3616 Input for lyrics introduces a syntactical ambiguity:
3623 is interpreted as assigning a string identifier @code{\foo} such that
3624 it contains @code{"bar"}. However, it could also be interpreted as
3625 making or a music identifier @code{\foo} containing the syllable
3626 `bar'. The force the latter interpretation, use
3636 The term @emph{ambitus} (plural: ambituses) denotes a range of pitches
3637 for a given voice in a part of music. It also may denote the pitch
3638 range that a musical instrument is capable of playing. Most musical
3639 instruments have their ambitus standardized (or at least there is
3640 agreement upon the minimal ambitus of a particular type of
3641 instrument), such that a composer or arranger of a piece of music can
3642 easily meet the ambitus constraints of the targeted instrument.
3643 However, the ambitus of the human voice depends on individual
3644 physiological state, including education and training of the voice.
3645 Therefore, a singer potentially has to check for each piece of music
3646 if the ambitus of that piece meets his individual capabilities. This
3647 is why the ambitus of a piece may be of particular value to vocal
3650 The ambitus is typically notated on a per-voice basis at the very
3651 beginning of a piece, e.g. nearby the initial clef or time signature of
3652 each staff. The range is graphically specified by two noteheads, that
3653 represent the minimum and maximum pitch. Some publishers use a textual
3654 notation: they put the range in words in front of the corresponding
3655 staff. LilyPond only supports the graphical ambitus notation.
3657 To apply, add the @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the
3658 @internalsref{Voice} context, i.e.
3664 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3669 This results in the following output:
3670 @lilypond[singleline]
3671 upper = \notes \relative c {
3674 as'' c e2 bes f cis d4 e f2 g
3676 lower = \notes \relative c {
3679 e'4 b g a c es fis a cis b a g f e d2
3682 \context ChoirStaff {
3684 \new Staff { \upper }
3685 \new Staff { \lower }
3691 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3697 If you have multiple voices in a single staff, and you want a single
3698 ambitus per staff rather than per each voice, then add the
3699 @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the @internalsref{Staff} context
3700 rather than to the @internalsref{Voice} context.
3702 It is possible to tune individual ambituses for multiple voices on a
3703 single staff, for example by erasing or shifting them horizontally. An
3704 example is in @inputfileref{input/test,ambitus-mixed.ly}
3708 Internals: @internalsref{Ambitus}
3710 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,ambitus.ly},
3711 @inputfileref{input/test,ambitus-mixed.ly}.
3715 There is no collision handling in the case of multiple per-voice
3721 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
3722 instruments. It notates pitches not by using note heads, but by
3723 indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
3724 offers limited support for tablature.
3727 * Tablatures basic::
3728 * Non-guitar tablatures::
3731 @node Tablatures basic
3732 @subsection Tablatures basic
3733 @cindex Tablatures basic
3735 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
3736 followed by a number, e.g. @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
3737 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
3738 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
3739 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
3740 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts:
3742 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3743 \notes \context TabStaff {
3751 When no string is specified, the first string that does not give a
3752 fret number less than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default
3753 value for @code{minimumFret} is 0:
3757 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3758 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3759 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3764 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3765 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3766 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3769 \context StaffGroup <<
3770 \context Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
3771 \context TabStaff { \frag }
3778 Internals: @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}, and
3779 @internalsref{StringNumberEvent}.
3783 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
3784 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
3788 @node Non-guitar tablatures
3789 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
3790 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
3792 You can change the number of strings, by setting the number of lines
3793 in the @internalsref{TabStaff}.
3795 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
3796 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
3797 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to central C) of an
3798 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
3799 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
3800 by default middle C, in string order. Thus, the notes are e, a, d, and
3803 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3804 \context TabStaff <<
3805 \property TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
3808 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
3813 It is possible to change the Scheme function to format the tablature
3814 note text. The default is @code{fret-number-tablature-format}, which
3815 uses the fret number. For instruments that do not use this notation,
3816 you can create a special tablature formatting function. This function
3817 takes three argument: string number, string tuning and note pitch.
3821 No guitar special effects have been implemented.
3826 @section Chord names
3829 LilyPond has support for both printing chord names. Chords may be
3830 entered in musical chord notation, i.e. @code{< .. >}, but they can
3831 also be entered by name. Internally, the chords are represented as a
3832 set of pitches, so they can be transposed:
3835 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3836 twoWays = \notes \transpose c c' {
3846 << \context ChordNames \twoWays
3847 \context Voice \twoWays >> }
3850 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
3851 be intelligent. The last chord (@code{f bes d}) is not interpreted as
3857 * Printing chord names::
3862 @subsection Chords mode
3865 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
3866 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}.
3867 In chords mode, a chord is entered by the root, which is entered
3868 like a common pitch:
3869 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote, relative=1]
3870 \chords { es4. d8 c2 }
3875 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon, and introducing a
3876 modifier, and optionally, a number:
3878 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote]
3879 \chords { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
3881 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
3882 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
3884 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3885 \chords { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
3888 @cindex root of chord
3889 @cindex additions, in chords
3890 @cindex removals, in chords
3892 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
3893 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
3894 the colon, and are separated by dots:
3896 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3897 \chords { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
3899 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
3901 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3902 \chords { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
3904 Removals are specified similarly, and are introduced by a caret. They
3905 must come after the additions:
3906 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3907 \chords { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
3910 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
3914 is the minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
3916 is the diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
3919 is the augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
3921 is the major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
3923 is the suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
3924 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
3927 Modifiers can be mixed with additions:
3928 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3929 \chords { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
3932 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
3939 Since an unaltered 11 does not sound good when combined with an
3940 unaltered 13, the 11 is removed in this case (unless it is added
3943 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3944 \chords { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
3949 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
3950 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
3951 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord:
3952 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3953 \chords { c1 c/g c/f }
3957 A bass note can be added instead of transposed out of the chord,
3958 by using @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
3960 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3961 \chords { c1 c/+g c/+f }
3964 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyrics}, @code{\notes} etc. Most
3965 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
3966 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and
3967 @code{\property} may be used to change various settings.
3973 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
3974 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
3977 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3978 \chords { c:5.5-.5+ }
3982 @node Printing chord names
3983 @subsection Printing chord names
3985 @cindex printing chord names
3989 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
3990 The chords may be entered either using the notation
3991 described above, or directly using @code{<} and @code{>}:
3993 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3995 \chords {a1 b c} <d' f' a'> <e' g' b'>
3999 \context ChordNames \scheme
4000 \context Staff \scheme
4005 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
4006 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
4007 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
4008 the start of a new line:
4010 @lilypond[verbatim, linewidth=9cm]
4012 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
4016 \context ChordNames {
4017 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
4019 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
4024 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
4025 Klaus Ignatzek (see @ref{Literature list}). It can be tuned through the
4026 following properties:
4029 @cindex chordNameExceptions
4030 @item chordNameExceptions
4031 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
4033 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly}.
4034 @cindex exceptions, chord names.
4037 @cindex majorSevenSymbol
4038 @item majorSevenSymbol
4039 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
4040 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup} and
4041 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
4042 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly} for an example.
4044 @cindex chordNameSeparator
4045 @item chordNameSeparator
4046 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
4047 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
4049 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4050 \context ChordNames \chords {
4052 \property ChordNames.chordNameSeparator
4053 = \markup { \typewriter "|" }
4057 @cindex chordRootNamer
4058 @item chordRootNamer
4059 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
4060 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
4061 function. Special note names (for example, the German ``H'' for a
4062 B-chord) can be produced by storing a new function in this property.
4064 The pre-defined variables @code{\germanChords},
4065 @code{\semiGermanChords} set these variables.
4068 @cindex chordNoteNamer
4069 @item chordNoteNamer
4070 The default is to print single pitch, e.g. the bass note, using the
4071 @code{chordRootNamer}. The @code{chordNoteNamer} property can be set
4072 to a specialized function to change this behavior. For example, the
4073 base can be printed in lower case.
4078 There are also two other chord name schemes implemented: an alternate
4079 Jazz chord notation, and a systematic scheme called Banter chords. The
4080 alternate jazz notation is also shown on the chart in @ref{Chord name
4081 chart}. Turning on these styles is described in the input file
4082 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-jazz.ly}.
4086 @cindex chords, jazz
4091 @cindex @code{\germanChords}
4092 @code{\germanChords},
4093 @cindex @code{\semiGermanChords}
4094 @code{\semiGermanChords}.
4101 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly},
4102 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly},
4103 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-jazz.ly},
4104 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-german.ly}.
4106 Init files: @file{scm/chords-ignatzek.scm}, and @file{scm/chord-entry.scm}.
4111 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
4112 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
4113 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
4114 @code{< .. >} syntax.
4119 @node Orchestral music
4120 @section Orchestral music
4122 @cindex Writing parts
4124 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full
4125 score and the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle
4126 some common problems in orchestral music.
4131 * Multiple staff contexts::
4134 * Instrument names::
4136 * Multi measure rests::
4137 * Automatic part combining::
4139 * Different editions from one source::
4140 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
4143 @node Multiple staff contexts
4144 @subsection Multiple staff contexts
4146 Polyphonic scores consist of many staves. These staves can be
4147 constructed in three different ways:
4149 @item The group is started with a brace at the left. This is done with the
4150 @internalsref{GrandStaff} context.
4151 @item The group is started with a bracket. This is done with the
4152 @internalsref{StaffGroup} context
4153 @item The group is started with a vertical line. This is the default
4157 @cindex Staff, multiple
4158 @cindex bracket, vertical
4159 @cindex brace, vertical
4166 @node Rehearsal marks
4167 @subsection Rehearsal marks
4168 @cindex Rehearsal marks
4170 @cindex @code{\mark}
4172 To print a rehearsal mark, use the @code{\mark} command:
4173 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4183 The mark is incremented automatically if you use @code{\mark
4184 \default}. The value to use is stored in the property
4185 @code{rehearsalMark} is used and automatically incremented.
4187 @cindex coda on bar line
4188 @cindex segno on bar line
4189 @cindex fermata on bar line
4190 @cindex bar lines, symbols on
4192 The @code{\mark} command can also be used to put signs like coda,
4193 segno and fermatas on a barline. Use @code{\markup} to
4194 to access the appropriate symbol:
4196 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
4197 c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts-ufermata" }
4201 In this case, during line breaks,
4202 marks must also be printed at the end of the line, and not at the
4203 beginning. Use the following to force that behavior:
4205 \property Score.RehearsalMark \override
4206 #'break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible
4209 See @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly} for putting boxes
4215 @cindex barlines, putting symbols on
4219 Internals: @internalsref{MarkEvent}, @internalsref{RehearsalMark}
4221 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}.
4225 @subsection Bar numbers
4229 @cindex measure numbers
4230 @cindex currentBarNumber
4232 Bar numbers are printed by default at the start of the line. The
4233 number itself is stored in the
4234 @code{currentBarNumber} property,
4235 which is normally updated automatically for every measure.
4237 Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of at the
4238 beginning of each line. This is illustrated in the following example,
4239 whose source is available as
4240 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-regular-interval.ly}:
4242 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-regular-interval.ly}
4247 Internals: @internalsref{BarNumber}.
4249 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-five-reset.ly},
4250 and @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-regular-interval.ly}.
4254 Bar numbers can collide with the @internalsref{StaffGroup} bracket, if
4255 there is one at the top. To solve this, the
4256 @code{padding} property of @internalsref{BarNumber} can be
4257 used to position the number correctly.
4259 @node Instrument names
4260 @subsection Instrument names
4262 In an orchestral score, instrument names are printed left side of the
4265 This can be achieved by setting @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instrument}
4266 and @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instr}. This will print a string before
4267 the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
4268 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used:
4271 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4272 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
4276 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
4280 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
4282 \property Staff.instrument = \markup {
4283 \column < "Clarinetti"
4285 \smaller \musicglyph #"accidentals--1"
4296 Internals: @internalsref{InstrumentName}.
4300 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
4301 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
4302 the name to avoid a collision.
4305 @subsection Transpose
4307 @cindex transposition of pitches
4308 @cindex @code{\transpose}
4310 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
4313 \transpose @var{from} @var{to} @var{musicexpr}
4316 This means that @var{musicexpr} is transposed by the interval
4317 between the pitches @var{from} and @var{to}.
4318 Since @var{from} and @var{to} are pitches, @code{\transpose} must be
4319 inside a @code{\notes} section.
4321 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
4322 @code{\transpose c cis} or @code{\transpose c des} will transpose up
4323 half a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second
4324 version will print flats:
4326 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
4327 mus =\notes { \key d \major cis d fis g }
4328 \score { \notes \context Staff {
4331 \transpose c g' \mus
4332 \transpose c f' \mus
4339 Internals: @internalsref{TransposedMusic}, and
4340 @internalsref{UntransposableMusic}.
4344 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
4345 you must put @code{\transpose} outside of @code{\relative}, since
4346 @code{\relative} will have no effect music that appears inside a
4352 @node Multi measure rests
4353 @subsection Multi measure rests
4354 @cindex multi measure rests
4355 @cindex Rests, multi measure
4359 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
4360 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand
4361 to fill a score with rests, or it can be printed as a single
4362 multimeasure rest. This expansion is controlled by the property
4363 @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true, empty measures will not
4364 be expanded, and the appropriate number is added automatically:
4366 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4367 \time 4/4 r1 | R1 | R1*2
4368 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R1*17 R1*4
4371 The @code{1} in @code{R1} is similar to the duration notation used for
4372 notes. Hence, for time signatures other than 4/4, you must enter other
4373 durations. This can be done with augmentation dots or fractions:
4375 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4376 \property Score.skipBars = ##t
4384 An @code{R} spanning a single measure is printed as either a whole rest
4385 or a breve, centered in the measure regardless of the time signature.
4387 @cindex text on multi-measure rest
4388 @cindex script on multi-measure rest
4389 @cindex fermata on multi-measure rest
4391 Texts can be added to multi-measure rests by using the
4392 @var{note}-@code{markup} syntax (see @ref{Text markup}). In this case, the number is
4393 replaced. If you need both texts and the number, you must add the
4394 number by hand. A variable (@code{\fermataMarkup}) is provided for
4398 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
4400 R2._\markup { "Ad lib" }
4404 If you want to have a text on the left end of a multi-measure rest,
4405 attach the text to a zero-length skip note, i.e.
4413 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
4417 Internals: @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestEvent},
4418 @internalsref{MultiMeasureTextEvent},
4419 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestMusicGroup}, and
4420 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
4422 The layout object @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestNumber} is for the
4423 default number, and @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestText} for user
4428 It is not possible to use fingerings (e.g. @code{R1-4}) to put numbers
4429 over multi-measure rests.
4431 @cindex condensing rests
4433 There is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into a single
4434 multimeasure rest. Multi measure rests do not take part in rest
4437 Be careful when entering multimeasure rests followed by whole
4438 notes. The following will enter two notes lasting four measures each:
4442 When @code{skipBars} is set, then the result will look OK, but the
4443 bar numbering will be off.
4445 @node Automatic part combining
4446 @subsection Automatic part combining
4447 @cindex automatic part combining
4448 @cindex part combiner
4451 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
4452 staff. It is aimed at typesetting orchestral scores. When the two
4453 parts are identical for a period of time, only one is shown. In
4454 places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate
4455 voices, and stem directions are set automatically. Also, solo and
4456 @emph{a due} parts are identified and can be marked.
4460 The syntax for part combining is
4463 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
4465 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
4466 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
4467 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
4470 The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part
4471 combiner: putting parts on one staff, and setting stem directions and
4474 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
4476 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4477 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4480 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4486 The first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
4487 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
4488 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
4489 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
4490 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
4493 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
4494 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false:
4496 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
4498 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
4499 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4500 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4503 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4511 Internals: @internalsref{PartCombineMusic},
4512 @internalsref{Thread_devnull_engraver}, and
4513 @internalsref{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @internalsref{A2_engraver}.
4517 The syntax for naming contexts in inconsistent with the syntax for
4520 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
4521 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
4524 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
4526 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4527 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4530 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4536 The part combiner is rather buggy, and it will be replaced by a better
4537 mechanism in the near future.
4539 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
4540 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
4541 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
4544 @subsection Hiding staves
4546 @cindex Frenched scores
4547 @cindex Hiding staves
4549 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually
4550 removed. This saves some space. This style is called `French Score'.
4551 For @internalsref{Lyrics}, @internalsref{LyricsVoice},
4552 @internalsref{ChordNames} and @internalsref{FiguredBass}, this is
4553 switched on by default. When these line of these contexts turn out
4554 empty after the line-breaking process, they are removed.
4556 For normal staves, a specialized @internalsref{Staff} context is
4557 available, which does the same: staves containing nothing (or only
4558 multi measure rests) are removed. The context definition is stored in
4559 @code{\RemoveEmptyStaffContext} variable. Observe how the second staff
4560 in this example disappears in the second line:
4565 \notes \relative c' <<
4566 \new Staff { e4 f g a \break c1 }
4567 \new Staff { c4 d e f \break R1 }
4571 \translator { \RemoveEmptyStaffContext }
4576 The first page shows all staffs in full. If they should be removed
4577 from the first page too, set @code{remove-first} to false
4578 in @internalsref{RemoveEmptyVerticalGroup}.
4580 @node Different editions from one source
4581 @subsection Different editions from one source
4583 The @code{\tag} command marks music expressions with a name. These
4584 tagged expressions can be filtered out later. With this mechanism it
4585 is possible to make different versions of the same music source.
4587 In the following example, we see two versions of a piece of music, one
4588 for the full score, and one with cue notes for the instrumental part:
4596 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
4604 The same can be applied to articulations, texts, etc.: they are
4607 -\tag #@var{your-tag}
4609 to an articulation, for example,
4614 This defines a note with a conditional fingering indication.
4616 By applying the @code{remove-tag} function, tagged expressions can be
4617 filtered. For example,
4621 \apply #(remove-tag 'score) @var{the music}
4622 \apply #(remove-tag 'part) @var{the music}
4627 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{tag-filter.ly}
4629 The argument of the @code{\tag} command should be a symbol, or a list
4630 of symbols, for example,
4632 \tag #'(original-part transposed-part) @dots{}
4637 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,tag-filter.ly}
4640 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
4641 @subsection Sound output for transposing instruments
4643 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed
4644 and untransposed instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch
4645 offset (in semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done
4646 using the @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed
4649 @cindex @code{transposing}
4652 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
4653 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
4657 @node Ancient notation
4658 @section Ancient notation
4660 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
4661 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
4666 @c [TODO: write more comprehensive introduction on ancient notation]
4668 Support for ancient notation is still under heavy development.
4669 Regardless of all of the current limitations (see the bugs section
4670 below for details), it includes features for mensural
4671 notation and Gregorian Chant notation. There is also limited support
4672 for figured bass notation.
4674 Many graphical objects provide a @code{style} property, see
4675 @ref{Ancient note heads}, @ref{Ancient accidentals}, @ref{Ancient
4676 rests}, @ref{Ancient clefs}, @ref{Ancient flags} and @ref{Ancient time
4677 signatures}. By manipulating such a grob property, the typographical
4678 appearance of the affected graphical objects can be accomodated for a
4679 specific notation flavour without need for introducing any new
4683 Other aspects of ancient notation can not that easily be expressed as
4684 in terms of just changing a style property of a graphical object.
4685 Therefore, some notational concepts are introduced specifically for
4686 ancient notation, see @ref{Custodes}, @ref{Divisiones},
4687 @ref{Ligatures}, and @ref{Figured bass}.
4691 * Ancient note heads::
4692 * Ancient accidentals::
4696 * Ancient time signatures::
4701 * Vaticana style contexts::
4704 If this all is way too much of documentation for you, and you just
4705 want to dive into typesetting without worrying too much about the
4706 details on how to customize a context, then you may have a look at the
4707 predefined contexts (see @ref{Vaticana style contexts}). Use them to
4708 set up predefined style-specific voice and staff contexts, and
4709 directly go ahead with the note entry.
4713 Ligatures need special spacing that has not yet been implemented. As
4714 a result, there is too much space between ligatures most of the time,
4715 and line breaking often is unsatisfactory. Also, lyrics do not
4716 correctly align with ligatures.
4718 Accidentals must not be printed within a ligature, but instead need to
4719 be collected and printed in front of it.
4721 Augmentum dots within ligatures are not handled correctly.
4724 @node Ancient note heads
4725 @subsection Ancient note heads
4731 For ancient notation, a note head style other than the @code{default}
4732 style may be chosen. This is accomplished by setting the @code{style}
4733 property of the NoteHead object to the desired value (@code{baroque},
4734 @code{neo_mensural} or @code{mensural}). The @code{baroque} style
4735 differs from the @code{default} style only in using a square shape for
4736 @code{\breve} note heads. The @code{neo_mensural} style differs from
4737 the @code{baroque} style in that it uses rhomboidal heads for whole
4738 notes and all smaller durations. Stems are centered on the note
4739 heads. This style is in particular useful when transcribing mensural
4740 music, e.g. for the incipit. The @code{mensural} style finally
4741 produces note heads that mimick the look of note heads in historic
4742 printings of the 16th century.
4744 The following example demonstrates the @code{neo_mensural} style:
4746 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4747 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4748 a'\longa a'\breve a'1 a'2 a'4 a'8 a'16
4751 When typesetting a piece in Gregorian Chant notation, a Gregorian
4752 ligature engraver will automatically select the proper note heads,
4753 such there is no need to explicitly set the note head style. Still,
4754 the note head style can be set e.g. to @code{vaticana_punctum} to
4755 produce punctum neumes. Similarly, a mensural ligature engraver is
4756 used to automatically assemble mensural ligatures. See
4757 @ref{Ligatures} for how ligature engravers work.
4762 @ref{Percussion staves} use note head styles of their own that are
4763 frequently used in contemporary music notation.
4765 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,note-head-style.ly} gives an
4766 overview over all available note head styles.
4769 @node Ancient accidentals
4770 @subsection Ancient accidentals
4776 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{Accidental} to
4777 select ancient accidentals. Supported styles are
4778 @code{mensural}, @code{vaticana}, @code{hufnagel} and @code{medicaea}.
4780 @lilypond[singleline,26pt]
4788 { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-vaticana-1"
4789 " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-vaticana0" }
4793 { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-medicaea-1" }
4797 { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-hufnagel-1" }
4801 { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-mensural-1"
4802 " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-mensural1" }
4811 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4815 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4816 \remove "Key_engraver"
4817 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4818 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4819 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4825 As shown, not all accidentals are supported by each style. When
4826 trying to access an unsupported accidental, LilyPond will switch to a
4827 different style, as demonstrated in
4828 @inputfileref{input/test,ancient-accidentals.ly}.
4830 Similarly to local accidentals, the style of the key signature can be
4831 controlled by the @code{style} property of the
4832 @internalsref{KeySignature} grob.
4836 In this manual: @ref{Pitches}, @ref{Chromatic alterations} and
4837 @ref{Accidentals} give a general introduction into the use of
4838 accidentals. @ref{Key signature} gives a general introduction into
4839 the use of key signatures.
4841 Internals: @internalsref{KeySignature}
4843 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,ancient-accidentals.ly}.
4846 @subsection Ancient rests
4852 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{Rest} to select
4853 ancient accidentals. Supported styles are @code{classical},
4854 @code{neo_mensural} and @code{mensural}. @code{classical} differs
4855 from the @code{default} style only in that the quarter rest looks like
4856 a horizontally mirrored 8th rest. The @code{neo_mensural} style suits
4857 well for e.g. the incipit of a transcribed mensural piece of music.
4858 The @code{mensural} style finally mimicks the appearance of rests as
4859 in historic prints of the 16th century.
4861 The following example demonstrates the @code{neo_mensural} style:
4863 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4864 \property Voice.Rest \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4865 r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16
4868 There are no 32th and 64th rests specifically for the mensural or
4869 neo-mensural style. Instead, the rests from the default style will be
4870 taken. See @inputfileref{input/test,rests.ly} for a chart of all
4873 There are no rests in Gregorian Chant notation; instead, it uses
4878 In this manual: @ref{Rests} gives a general introduction into the use of rests.
4882 @subsection Ancient clefs
4888 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
4890 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
4891 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but
4892 differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such
4893 cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs.
4894 Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an
4895 arbitrary line, as described in @ref{Clef}. The note printed to the
4896 right side of each clef in the example column denotes the @code{c'}
4897 with respect to that clef.
4899 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .3 .1
4903 @b{Description} @tab
4904 @b{Supported Clefs} @tab
4908 @code{clefs-neo_mensural_c} @tab
4909 modern style mensural C clef @tab
4910 @code{neo_mensural_c1}, @code{neo_mensural_c2},
4911 @code{neo_mensural_c3}, @code{neo_mensural_c4} @tab
4912 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4913 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4914 \clef "neo_mensural_c2" c
4918 @code{clefs-petrucci_c1}
4919 @code{clefs-petrucci_c2}
4920 @code{clefs-petrucci_c3}
4921 @code{clefs-petrucci_c4}
4922 @code{clefs-petrucci_c5}
4925 petrucci style mensural C clefs, for use on different stafflines
4926 (the examples shows the 2nd staffline C clef).
4936 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4937 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4938 \clef "petrucci_c2" c
4942 @code{clefs-petrucci_f} @tab
4943 petrucci style mensural F clef @tab
4944 @code{petrucci_f} @tab
4945 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4946 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4947 \clef "petrucci_f" c
4951 @code{clefs-petrucci_g} @tab
4952 petrucci style mensural G clef @tab
4953 @code{petrucci_g} @tab
4954 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4955 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4956 \clef "petrucci_g" c
4960 @code{clefs-mensural_c} @tab
4961 historic style mensural C clef @tab
4962 @code{mensural_c1}, @code{mensural_c2}, @code{mensural_c3},
4963 @code{mensural_c4} @tab
4964 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4965 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4966 \clef "mensural_c2" c
4970 @code{clefs-mensural_f} @tab
4971 historic style mensural F clef @tab
4972 @code{mensural_f} @tab
4973 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4974 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4975 \clef "mensural_f" c
4979 @code{clefs-mensural_g} @tab
4980 historic style mensural G clef @tab
4981 @code{mensural_g} @tab
4982 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4983 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4984 \clef "mensural_g" c
4988 @code{clefs-vaticana_do} @tab
4989 Editio Vaticana style do clef @tab
4990 @code{vaticana_do1}, @code{vaticana_do2}, @code{vaticana_do3} @tab
4991 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4992 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
4993 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4994 \clef "vaticana_do2" c
4998 @code{clefs-vaticana_fa} @tab
4999 Editio Vaticana style fa clef @tab
5000 @code{vaticana_fa1}, @code{vaticana_fa2} @tab
5001 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5002 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
5003 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5004 \clef "vaticana_fa2" c
5008 @code{clefs-medicaea_do} @tab
5009 Editio Medicaea style do clef @tab
5010 @code{medicaea_do1}, @code{medicaea_do2}, @code{medicaea_do3} @tab
5011 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5012 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
5013 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5014 \clef "medicaea_do2" c
5018 @code{clefs-medicaea_fa} @tab
5019 Editio Medicaea style fa clef @tab
5020 @code{medicaea_fa1}, @code{medicaea_fa2} @tab
5021 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5022 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
5023 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5024 \clef "medicaea_fa2" c
5028 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do} @tab
5029 historic style hufnagel do clef @tab
5030 @code{hufnagel_do1}, @code{hufnagel_do2}, @code{hufnagel_do3} @tab
5031 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5032 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
5033 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5034 \clef "hufnagel_do2" c
5038 @code{clefs-hufnagel_fa} @tab
5039 historic style hufnagel fa clef @tab
5040 @code{hufnagel_fa1}, @code{hufnagel_fa2} @tab
5041 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5042 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
5043 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5044 \clef "hufnagel_fa2" c
5048 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
5049 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef @tab
5050 @code{hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
5051 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5052 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5053 \clef "hufnagel_do_fa" c
5058 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
5059 @c @item modern style percussion clef (glyph: @code{clefs-percussion})
5062 @c @code{percussion}
5064 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "percussion" c'}
5066 @c @item modern style tab clef (glyph: @code{clefs-tab})
5071 @c @lilypond{\context Staff \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #6 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "tab" c'}
5073 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
5074 transcribed mensural music''.
5076 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
5077 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
5079 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
5080 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
5082 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
5084 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
5085 beams, depending on which staffline it is printed.
5089 In this manual: for the percussion clef, see @ref{Percussion staves}.
5090 For the @code{TAB} clef, see @ref{Tablatures}.
5092 Internals: for modern clefs, see @ref{Clef}.
5097 @subsection Ancient flags
5103 Use the @code{flag-style} property of grob @internalsref{Stem} to
5104 select ancient flags. Besides the @code{default} flag style,
5105 only @code{mensural} style is supported:
5107 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
5108 \property Voice.Stem \set #'flag-style = #'mensural
5109 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #1.0
5110 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
5112 c'8 d'8 e'8 f'8 c'16 d'16 e'16 f'16 c'32 d'32 e'32 f'32 s8
5113 c''8 d''8 e''8 f''8 c''16 d''16 e''16 f''16 c''32 d''32 e''32 f''32
5116 Note that the innermost flare of each mensural flag always is
5117 vertically aligned with a staff line. If you do not like this
5118 behaviour, you can set the @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} property of
5119 grob @internalsref{Stem} to @code{##f}. Then, the vertical position
5120 of the end of each flare is different between notes on staff lines and
5121 notes between staff lines:
5123 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
5124 \property Voice.Stem \set #'flag-style = #'mensural
5125 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #1.0
5126 \property Voice.Stem \set #'adjust-if-on-staffline = ##f
5127 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
5129 c'8 d'8 e'8 f'8 c'16 d'16 e'16 f'16 c'32 d'32 e'32 f'32 s8
5130 c''8 d''8 e''8 f''8 c''16 d''16 e''16 f''16 c''32 d''32 e''32 f''32
5133 There is no particular flag style for neo-mensural notation. Hence,
5134 when typesetting e.g. the incipit of a transcibed piece of mensural
5135 music, the default flag style should be used. There are no flags in
5136 Gregorian Chant notation.
5139 @node Ancient time signatures
5140 @subsection Ancient time signatures
5142 @cindex time signatures
5146 There is limited support for mensural time signatures. The
5147 glyphs are hard-wired to particular time fractions. In other words,
5148 to get a particular mensural signature glyph with the @code{\time n/m}
5149 command, @code{n} and @code{m} have to be chosen according to the
5155 \property Score.timing = ##f
5156 \property Score.barAlways = ##t
5157 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 4/4" }
5158 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural4/4" }
5160 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 2/2" }
5161 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural2/2" }
5163 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 6/4" }
5164 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural6/4" }
5166 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 6/8" }
5167 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural6/8" }
5169 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 3/2" }
5170 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural3/2" }
5172 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 3/4" }
5173 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural3/4" }
5175 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 9/4" }
5176 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural9/4" }
5178 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 9/8" }
5179 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural9/8" }
5181 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 4/8" }
5182 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural4/8" }
5184 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 2/4" }
5185 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural2/4" }
5193 \remove Staff_symbol_engraver
5194 \remove Clef_engraver
5195 \remove Time_signature_engraver
5201 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{TimeSignature} to
5202 select ancient time signatures. Supported styles are
5203 @code{neo_mensural} and @code{mensural}. The above table uses the
5204 @code{neo_mensural} style. This style is appropriate e.g. for the
5205 incipit of transcriptions of mensural pieces. The @code{mensural}
5206 style mimicks the look of historical printings of the 16th century.
5208 @inputfileref{input/test,time.ly} gives an overview over all available
5209 ancient and modern styles.
5213 Internals: @ref{Time signature} gives a general introduction into the use of time
5218 Mensural signature glyphs are mapped to time fractions in a
5219 hard-wired way. This mapping is sensible, but still arbitrary: given
5220 a mensural time signature, the time fraction represents a modern meter
5221 that usually will be a good choice when transcribing a mensural piece
5222 of music. For a particular piece of mensural music, however, the
5223 mapping may be unsatisfactory. In particular, the mapping assumes a
5224 fixed transcription of durations (e.g. brevis = half note in 2/2,
5225 i.e. 4:1). Some glyphs (such as the alternate glyph for 6/8 meter)
5226 are not at all accessible through the @code{\time} command.
5228 Mensural time signatures are supported typographically, but not yet
5229 musically. The internal representation of durations is
5230 based on a purely binary system; a ternary division such as 1 brevis =
5231 3 semibrevis (tempus perfectum) or 1 semibrevis = 3 minima (cum
5232 prolatione maiori) is not correctly handled: event times in ternary
5233 modes will be badly computed, resulting e.g. in horizontally
5234 misaligned note heads, and bar checks are likely to erroneously fail.
5236 The syntax and semantics of the @code{\time} command for mensural
5237 music is subject to change.
5240 @subsection Custodes
5245 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
5246 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
5247 of the first note(s) of the following line and thus helps the player
5248 or singer to manage line breaks during performance, thus enhancing
5249 readability of a score.
5251 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th
5252 century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms
5253 of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant
5254 like the @emph{editio vaticana}. There are different custos glyphs
5255 used in different flavours of notational style.
5259 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
5260 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block,
5261 as shown in the following example:
5267 \consists Custos_engraver
5268 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
5273 The result looks like this:
5279 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
5286 \consists Custos_engraver
5293 The custos glyph is selected by the @code{style} property. The styles
5294 supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
5295 @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the following fragment:
5305 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-vaticana-u0" }
5309 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-medicaea-u0" }
5313 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-hufnagel-u0" }
5317 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-mensural-u0" }
5326 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5330 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5331 \remove "Key_engraver"
5332 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5333 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
5334 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5340 If the boolean property @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} is set to
5341 @code{#t} (which it is by default), lily typesets slightly different
5342 variants of the custos glyph, depending on whether the custos, is
5343 typeset on or between stafflines. The glyph will
5344 optically fit well into the staff, with the appendage on the right of
5345 the custos always ending at the same vertical position between two
5346 stafflines regardless of the pitch. If you set
5347 @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} to @code{#f}, then
5348 a compromise between both forms is used.
5350 Just like stems can be attached to noteheads in two directions
5351 @emph{up} and @emph{down}, each custos glyph is available with its
5352 appendage pointing either up or down. If the pitch of a custos is
5353 above a selectable position, the appendage will point downwards; if
5354 the pitch is below this position, the appendage will point upwards.
5355 Use property @code{neutral-position} to select this position. By
5356 default, it is set to @code{0}, such that the neutral position is the
5357 center of the staff. Use property @code{neutral-direction} to control
5358 what happens if a custos is typeset on the neutral position itself.
5359 By default, this property is set to @code{-1}, such that the appendage
5360 will point downwards. If set to @code{1}, the appendage will point
5361 upwards. Other values such as @code{0} are reserved for future
5362 extensions and should not be used.
5366 Internals: @internalsref{Custos}
5368 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,custos.ly}.
5372 @subsection Divisiones
5378 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; latin word for
5379 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
5380 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
5381 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior} and @emph{divisio maxima}
5382 can be characterized as short, medium and long pause, somewhat like
5383 @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not only marks the end of
5384 a chant, but is also frequently used within a single
5385 antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
5389 To use divisiones, include the file @code{gregorian-init.ly}. It
5390 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
5391 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
5392 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
5393 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
5394 Therefore, @code{gregorian-init.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
5397 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{divisiones.ly}
5401 @cindex @code{\virgula}
5403 @cindex @code{\caesura}
5405 @cindex @code{\divisioMinima}
5406 @code{\divisioMinima},
5407 @cindex @code{\divisioMaior}
5408 @code{\divisioMaior},
5409 @cindex @code{\divisioMaxima}
5410 @code{\divisioMaxima},
5411 @cindex @code{\finalis}
5416 In this manual: @ref{Breath marks}.
5418 Internals: @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
5420 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,divisiones.ly}
5423 @subsection Ligatures
5427 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
5428 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
5430 In musical terminology, a ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that
5431 represents at least two distinct notes. Ligatures originally appeared
5432 in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th
5433 century as an allusion to the accent symbols of greek lyric poetry to
5434 denote ascending or descending sequences of notes. Both, the shape
5435 and the exact meaning of ligatures changed tremendously during the
5436 following centuries: In early notation, ligatures were used for
5437 monophonic tunes (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way
5438 of performance in the sense of articulation. With upcoming
5439 multiphony, the need for a metric system arised, since multiple voices
5440 of a piece have to be synchronized some way. New notation systems
5441 were invented that used the manifold shapes of ligatures to now denote
5442 rhythmical patterns (e.g. black mensural notation, mannered notation,
5443 ars nova). With the invention of the metric system of the white
5444 mensural notation, the need for ligatures to denote such patterns
5445 disappeared. Nevertheless, ligatures were still in use in the
5446 mensural system for a couple of decades until they finally disappeared
5447 during the late 16th / early 17th century. Still, ligatures have
5448 survived in contemporary editions of Gregorian chant such as the
5449 Editio Vaticana from 1905/08.
5453 Syntactically, ligatures are simply enclosed by @code{\[} and
5454 @code{\]}. Some ligature styles (such as Editio Vaticana) may need
5455 additional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature.
5456 By default, the @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a
5457 square bracket above the ligature:
5459 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
5461 \notes \transpose c c' {
5469 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver
5470 has to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in
5471 the following subsections. Only white mensural ligatures
5472 are supported with certain limitations. Support for Editio Vaticana
5473 will be added in the future.
5476 * White mensural ligatures::
5477 * Gregorian square neumes ligatures::
5480 @node White mensural ligatures
5481 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
5483 @cindex Mensural ligatures
5484 @cindex White mensural ligatures
5486 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures. The
5487 implementation is still experimental; it may output strange
5488 warnings or even crash in some cases or produce weird results on more
5493 To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the paper block the
5494 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} has to be put into the
5495 @internalsref{Voice} context, and remove the
5496 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}:
5502 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5503 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
5508 There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a
5509 white mensural ligature. The shape is rather determined solely from
5510 the pitch and duration of the enclosed notes. While this approach may
5511 take a new user a while to get accustomed, it has the great advantage
5512 that the full musical information of the ligature is known internally.
5513 This is not only required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for
5514 automatic transcription of the ligatures.
5519 \property Score.timing = ##f
5520 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
5521 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5522 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5524 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
5526 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
5528 @lilypond[singleline]
5530 \notes \transpose c c' {
5531 \property Score.timing = ##f
5532 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
5533 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5534 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5536 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
5538 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
5543 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5544 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
5550 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
5551 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
5554 @lilypond[singleline]
5556 \notes \transpose c c' {
5557 \property Score.timing = ##f
5558 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
5559 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5560 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5562 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
5564 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
5570 @node Gregorian square neumes ligatures
5571 @subsubsection Gregorian square neumes ligatures
5573 @cindex Square neumes ligatures
5574 @cindex Gregorian square neumes ligatures
5576 Gregorian square neumes notation (following the style of the Editio
5577 Vaticana) is under heavy development, but not yet really usable for
5578 production purposes. Core ligatures can already be typeset, but
5579 essential issues for serious typesetting are still under development,
5580 such as (among others) horizontal alignment of multiple ligatures,
5581 lyrics alignment and proper accidentals handling. Still, this section
5582 gives a sneak preview of what Gregorian chant may look like once it
5585 The following table contains the extended neumes table of the 2nd
5586 volume of the Antiphonale Romanum (@emph{Liber Hymnarius}), published
5587 1983 by the monks of Solesmes.
5589 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .2 .2 .2
5592 @b{Neuma aut@*Neumarum Elementa} @tab
5593 @b{Figurae@*Rectae} @tab
5594 @b{Figurae@*Liquescentes Auctae} @tab
5595 @b{Figurae@*Liquescentes Deminutae}
5597 @c TODO: \paper block is identical in all of the below examples.
5598 @c Therefore, it should somehow be included rather than duplicated all
5601 @c why not make identifiers in ly/engraver-init.ly? --hwn
5603 @c Because it's just used to typeset plain notes without
5604 @c a staff for demonstration purposes rather than something
5605 @c special of Gregorian chant notation. --jr
5610 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.5cm]
5611 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5613 \notes \transpose c c' {
5616 \noBreak s^\markup {"a"} \noBreak
5618 % Punctum Inclinatum
5620 \noBreak s^\markup {"b"}
5626 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5630 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5631 \remove "Key_engraver"
5632 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5633 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5634 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5635 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5639 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5640 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5641 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5642 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5648 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.5cm]
5649 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5651 \notes \transpose c c' {
5652 % Punctum Auctum Ascendens
5653 \[ \auctum \ascendens b \]
5654 \noBreak s^\markup {"c"} \noBreak
5656 % Punctum Auctum Descendens
5657 \[ \auctum \descendens b \]
5658 \noBreak s^\markup {"d"} \noBreak
5660 % Punctum Inclinatum Auctum
5661 \[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]
5662 \noBreak s^\markup {"e"}
5668 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5672 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5673 \remove "Key_engraver"
5674 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5675 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5676 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5677 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5681 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5682 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5683 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5684 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5690 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5691 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5693 \notes \transpose c c' {
5694 % Punctum Inclinatum Parvum
5695 \[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]
5696 \noBreak s^\markup {"f"}
5702 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5706 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5707 \remove "Key_engraver"
5708 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5709 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5710 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5711 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5715 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5716 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5717 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5718 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5727 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5728 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5730 \notes \transpose c c' {
5733 \noBreak s^\markup {"g"}
5739 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5743 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5744 \remove "Key_engraver"
5745 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5746 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5747 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5748 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5752 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5753 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5754 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5755 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5764 @code{3. Apostropha vel Stropha}
5766 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5767 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5769 \notes \transpose c c' {
5772 \noBreak s^\markup {"h"}
5778 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5782 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5783 \remove "Key_engraver"
5784 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5785 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5786 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5787 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5791 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5792 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5793 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5794 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5800 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5801 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5803 \notes \transpose c c' {
5805 \[ \stropha \auctum b \]
5806 \noBreak s^\markup {"i"}
5812 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5816 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5817 \remove "Key_engraver"
5818 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5819 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5820 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5821 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5825 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5826 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5827 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5828 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5838 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5839 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5841 \notes \transpose c c' {
5844 \noBreak s^\markup {"j"}
5850 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5854 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5855 \remove "Key_engraver"
5856 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5857 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5858 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5859 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5863 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5864 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5865 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5866 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5875 @code{5. Clivis vel Flexa}
5877 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5878 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5880 \notes \transpose c c' {
5889 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5893 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5894 \remove "Key_engraver"
5895 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5896 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5897 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5898 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5902 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5903 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5904 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5905 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5911 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.0cm]
5912 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5914 \notes \transpose c c' {
5915 % Clivis Aucta Descendens
5916 \[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
5917 \noBreak s^\markup {"l"} \noBreak
5919 % Clivis Aucta Ascendens
5920 \[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]
5921 \noBreak s^\markup {"m"}
5927 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5931 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5932 \remove "Key_engraver"
5933 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5934 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5935 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5936 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5940 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5941 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5942 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5943 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5949 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5950 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5952 \notes \transpose c c' {
5954 \[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]
5961 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5965 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5966 \remove "Key_engraver"
5967 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5968 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5969 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5970 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5974 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5975 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5976 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5977 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5984 @code{6. Podatus vel Pes}
5986 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5987 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5989 \notes \transpose c c' {
5998 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6002 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6003 \remove "Key_engraver"
6004 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6005 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6006 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6007 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6011 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6012 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6013 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6014 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6020 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.0cm]
6021 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6023 \notes \transpose c c' {
6024 % Pes Auctus Descendens
6025 \[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6026 \noBreak s^\markup {"p"} \noBreak
6028 % Pes Auctus Ascendens
6029 \[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]
6030 \noBreak s^\markup {"q"}
6036 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6040 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6041 \remove "Key_engraver"
6042 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6043 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6044 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6045 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6049 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6050 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6051 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6052 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6058 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6059 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6061 \notes \transpose c c' {
6063 \[ g \pes \deminutum b \]
6070 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6074 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6075 \remove "Key_engraver"
6076 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6077 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6078 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6079 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6083 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6084 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6085 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6086 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6093 @code{7. Pes Quassus}
6095 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6096 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6098 \notes \transpose c c' {
6100 \[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]
6107 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6111 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6112 \remove "Key_engraver"
6113 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6114 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6115 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6116 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6120 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6121 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6122 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6123 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6129 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6130 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6132 \notes \transpose c c' {
6133 % Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens
6134 \[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6141 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6145 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6146 \remove "Key_engraver"
6147 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6148 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6149 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6150 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6154 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6155 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6156 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6157 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6165 @code{8. Quilisma Pes}
6167 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6168 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6170 \notes \transpose c c' {
6172 \[ \quilisma g \pes b \]
6179 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6183 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6184 \remove "Key_engraver"
6185 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6186 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6187 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6188 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6192 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6193 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6194 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6195 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6201 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6202 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6204 \notes \transpose c c' {
6205 % Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens
6206 \[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6213 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6217 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6218 \remove "Key_engraver"
6219 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6220 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6221 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6222 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6226 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6227 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6228 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6229 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6237 @code{9. Podatus Initio Debilis}
6239 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6240 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6242 \notes \transpose c c' {
6243 % Pes Initio Debilis
6244 \[ \deminutum g \pes b \]
6251 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6255 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6256 \remove "Key_engraver"
6257 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6258 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6259 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6260 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6264 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6265 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6266 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6267 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6273 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6274 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6276 \notes \transpose c c' {
6277 % Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
6278 \[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6285 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6289 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6290 \remove "Key_engraver"
6291 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6292 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6293 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6294 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6298 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6299 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6300 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6301 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6311 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6312 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6314 \notes \transpose c c' {
6316 \[ a \pes b \flexa g \]
6323 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6327 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6328 \remove "Key_engraver"
6329 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6330 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6331 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6332 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6336 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6337 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6338 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6339 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6345 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6346 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6348 \notes \transpose c c' {
6349 % Torculus Auctus Descendens
6350 \[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
6357 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6361 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6362 \remove "Key_engraver"
6363 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6364 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6365 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6366 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6370 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6371 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6372 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6373 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6379 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6380 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6382 \notes \transpose c c' {
6383 % Torculus Deminutus
6384 \[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
6391 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6395 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6396 \remove "Key_engraver"
6397 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6398 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6399 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6400 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6404 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6405 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6406 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6407 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6414 @code{11. Torculus Initio Debilis}
6416 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6417 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6419 \notes \transpose c c' {
6420 % Torculus Initio Debilis
6421 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]
6428 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6432 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6433 \remove "Key_engraver"
6434 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6435 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6436 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6437 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6441 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6442 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6443 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6444 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6450 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6451 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6453 \notes \transpose c c' {
6454 % Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
6455 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
6462 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6466 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6467 \remove "Key_engraver"
6468 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6469 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6470 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6471 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6475 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6476 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6477 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6478 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6484 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6485 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6487 \notes \transpose c c' {
6488 % Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis
6489 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
6496 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6500 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6501 \remove "Key_engraver"
6502 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6503 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6504 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6505 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6509 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6510 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6511 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6512 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6519 @code{12. Porrectus}
6521 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6522 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6524 \notes \transpose c c' {
6526 \[ a \flexa g \pes b \]
6533 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6537 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6538 \remove "Key_engraver"
6539 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6540 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6541 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6542 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6546 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6547 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6548 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6549 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6555 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6556 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6558 \notes \transpose c c' {
6559 % Porrectus Auctus Descendens
6560 \[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6567 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6571 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6572 \remove "Key_engraver"
6573 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6574 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6575 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6576 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6580 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6581 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6582 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6583 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6589 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6590 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6592 \notes \transpose c c' {
6593 % Porrectus Deminutus
6594 \[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]
6601 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6605 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6606 \remove "Key_engraver"
6607 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6608 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6609 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6610 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6614 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6615 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6616 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6617 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6626 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6627 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6629 \notes \transpose c c' {
6631 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]
6638 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6642 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6643 \remove "Key_engraver"
6644 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6645 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6646 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6647 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6651 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6652 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6653 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6654 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6660 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6661 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6663 \notes \transpose c c' {
6665 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]
6672 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6676 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6677 \remove "Key_engraver"
6678 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6679 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6680 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6681 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6685 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6686 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6687 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6688 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6694 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6695 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6697 \notes \transpose c c' {
6698 % Climacus Deminutus
6699 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]
6706 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6710 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6711 \remove "Key_engraver"
6712 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6713 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6714 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6715 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6719 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6720 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6721 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6722 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6729 @code{14. Scandicus}
6731 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6732 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6734 \notes \transpose c c' {
6736 \[ g \pes a \virga b \]
6743 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6747 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6748 \remove "Key_engraver"
6749 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6750 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6751 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6752 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6756 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6757 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6758 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6759 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6765 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6766 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6768 \notes \transpose c c' {
6769 % Scandicus Auctus Descendens
6770 \[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6777 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6781 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6782 \remove "Key_engraver"
6783 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6784 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6785 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6786 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6790 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6791 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6792 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6793 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6799 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6800 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6802 \notes \transpose c c' {
6803 % Scandicus Deminutus
6804 \[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]
6811 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6815 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6816 \remove "Key_engraver"
6817 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6818 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6819 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6820 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6824 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6825 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6826 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6827 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6836 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6837 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6839 \notes \transpose c c' {
6841 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]
6848 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6852 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6853 \remove "Key_engraver"
6854 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6855 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6856 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6857 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6861 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6862 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6863 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6864 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6870 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6871 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6873 \notes \transpose c c' {
6874 % Salicus Auctus Descendens
6875 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6882 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6886 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6887 \remove "Key_engraver"
6888 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6889 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6890 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6891 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6895 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6896 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6897 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6898 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6908 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6909 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6911 \notes \transpose c c' {
6913 \[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]
6920 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6924 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6925 \remove "Key_engraver"
6926 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6927 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6928 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6929 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6933 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6934 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6935 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6936 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6948 Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the input language for
6949 neumes does not necessarily reflect directly the typographical
6950 appearance, but is designed to solely focuse on musical meaning. For
6951 example, @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]} produces a Torculus consisting
6952 of three Punctum heads, while @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]} produces
6953 a Porrectus with a curved flexa shape and only a single Punctum head.
6954 There is no command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa shape; the
6955 decision of when to typeset a curved flexa shape is purely taken from
6956 the musical input. The idea of this approach is to separate the
6957 musical aspects of the input from the notation style of the output.
6958 This way, the same input can be reused to typeset the same music in a
6959 different style of Gregorian chant notation such as Hufnagel (also
6960 known as German gothic neumes) or Medicaea (kind of a very simple
6961 forerunner of the Editio Vaticana). As soon as Hufnagel ligature
6962 engraver and Medicaea ligature engraver will have been implemented, it
6963 will be as simple as replacing the ligature engraver in the
6964 @internalsref{Voice} context to get the desired notation style from
6967 The following table shows the code fragments that produce the
6968 ligatures in the above neumes table. The letter in the first column
6969 in each line of the below table indicates to which ligature in the
6970 above table it refers. The second column gives the name of the
6971 ligature. The third column shows the code fragment that produces this
6972 ligature, using @code{g}, @code{a} and @code{b} as example pitches.
6974 @multitable @columnfractions .1 .4 .5
6988 Punctum Inclinatum @tab
6989 @code{\[ \inclinatum b \]}
6993 Punctum Auctum Ascendens @tab
6994 @code{\[ \auctum \ascendens b \]}
6998 Punctum Auctum Descendens @tab
6999 @code{\[ \auctum \descendens b \]}
7003 Punctum Inclinatum Auctum @tab
7004 @code{\[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]}
7008 Punctum Inclinatum Parvum @tab
7009 @code{\[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]}
7014 @code{\[ \virga b \]}
7019 @code{\[ \stropha b \]}
7024 @code{\[ \stropha \auctum b \]}
7029 @code{\[ \oriscus b \]}
7033 Clivis vel Flexa @tab
7034 @code{\[ b \flexa g \]}
7038 Clivis Aucta Descendens @tab
7039 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
7043 Clivis Aucta Ascendens @tab
7044 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]}
7049 @code{\[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
7053 Podatus vel Pes @tab
7054 @code{\[ g \pes b \]}
7058 Pes Auctus Descendens @tab
7059 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7063 Pes Auctus Ascendens @tab
7064 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]}
7069 @code{\[ g \pes \deminutum b \]}
7074 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]}
7078 Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens @tab
7079 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7084 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes b \]}
7088 Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens @tab
7089 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7093 Pes Initio Debilis @tab
7094 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes b \]}
7098 Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis @tab
7099 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7104 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]}
7108 Torculus Auctus Descendens @tab
7109 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
7113 Torculus Deminutus @tab
7114 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
7118 Torculus Initio Debilis @tab
7119 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]}
7123 Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis @tab
7124 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
7128 Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis @tab
7129 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
7134 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]}
7138 Porrectus Auctus Descendens @tab
7139 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7143 Porrectus Deminutus @tab
7144 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]}
7149 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]}
7153 Climacus Auctus @tab
7154 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]}
7158 Climacus Deminutus @tab
7159 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]}
7164 @code{\[ g \pes a \virga b \]}
7168 Scandicus Auctus Descendens @tab
7169 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7173 Scandicus Deminutus @tab
7174 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]}
7179 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]}
7183 Salicus Auctus Descendens @tab
7184 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7189 @code{\[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]}
7195 The following head prefixes are supported:
7197 @cindex @code{\virga}
7199 @cindex @code{\stropha}
7201 @cindex @code{\inclinatum}
7203 @cindex @code{\auctum}
7205 @cindex @code{\descendens}
7207 @cindex @code{\ascendens}
7209 @cindex @code{\oriscus}
7211 @cindex @code{\quilisma}
7213 @cindex @code{\deminutum}
7216 Head prefixes can be accumulated, though restrictions apply. For
7217 example, either @code{\descendens} or @code{\ascendens} can be applied
7218 to a head, but not both to the same head.
7221 @cindex @code{\flexa}
7222 Two adjacent heads can be tied together with the @code{\pes} and
7223 @code{\flexa} infix commands for a rising and falling line of melody,
7228 Trigonus: apply equal spacing, regardless of pitch.
7231 @subsection Figured bass
7233 @cindex Basso continuo
7235 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
7239 LilyPond has limited support for figured bass:
7241 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
7243 \context Voice \notes { \clef bass dis4 c d ais}
7244 \context FiguredBass
7246 < 6 >4 < 7 >8 < 6+ [_!] >
7252 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
7253 mode, introduced by @code{\figures}, where you can enter bass figures
7254 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass} that
7255 takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
7257 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
7258 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>>}:
7263 \context FiguredBass
7267 Accidentals are added when you append @code{-}, @code{!} and @code{+}
7274 \context FiguredBass
7275 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> }
7278 Spaces or dashes may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
7279 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}:
7285 \context FiguredBass
7286 \figures { < [4 6] 8 [_! 12]> }
7289 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
7290 support, it works much simpler. The @code{\figures} mode simply
7291 stores the numbers , and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints
7292 them as entered. There is no conversion to pitches, and no
7293 realizations of the bass are played in the MIDI file.
7295 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
7296 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
7297 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
7301 Internals: @internalsref{BassFigureEvent} music, @internalsref{BassFigure} object,
7302 and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context.
7306 Slash notation for alterations is not supported.
7309 @node Vaticana style contexts
7310 @subsection Vaticana style contexts
7312 @cindex VaticanaVoiceContext
7313 @cindex VaticanaStaffContext
7315 The predefined @code{VaticanaVoiceContext} and
7316 @code{VaticanaStaffContext} can be used to easily engrave a piece of
7317 Gregorian Chant in the style of the Editio Vaticana. These contexts
7318 initialize all relevant context properties and grob properties to
7319 proper values. With these contexts, you can immediately go ahead
7320 entering the chant, as the following short excerpt demonstrates:
7322 @lilypond[raggedright,verbatim,noindent]
7323 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
7326 \context VaticanaVoice {
7327 \property Score.BarNumber \set #'transparent = ##t
7329 \[ c'( c' \flexa a \] \[ a \flexa \deminutum g) \] f \divisioMinima
7330 \[ f( \pes a c' c' \pes d') \] c' \divisioMinima \break
7331 \[ c'( c' \flexa a \] \[ a \flexa \deminutum g) \] f \divisioMinima
7334 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
7335 San- ctus, San- ctus, San- ctus
7340 @node Contemporary notation
7341 @section Contemporary notation
7343 In the 20th century, composers have greatly expanded the musical
7344 vocabulary. With this expansion, many innovations in musical notation
7345 have been tried. The book by Stone (1980) gives a comprehensive
7346 overview (see @ref{Literature list}). In general, the use of new,
7347 innovative notation makes a piece harder to understand and perform and
7348 its use should therefore be avoided if possible. For this reason,
7349 support for contemporary notation in LilyPond is limited.
7358 @subsection Clusters
7362 In musical terminology, a @emph{cluster} denotes a range of
7363 simultaneously sounding pitches that may change over time. The set of
7364 available pitches to apply usually depends on the accoustic source.
7365 Thus, in piano music, a cluster typically consists of a continous range
7366 of the semitones as provided by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic
7367 scale. In choral music, each singer of the choir typically may sing an
7368 arbitrary pitch within the cluster's range that is not bound to any
7369 diatonic, chromatic or other scale. In electronic music, a cluster
7370 (theoretically) may even cover a continuous range of pitches, thus
7371 resulting in coloured noise, such as pink noise.
7373 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
7374 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
7375 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
7376 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by the
7377 shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical extent of
7378 the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster geometrically
7379 describes the development of a range of pitches (vertical extent) over
7380 time (horizontal extent). Still, the geometrical shape of a cluster
7381 covers the area in wich any single pitch contained in the cluster would
7382 be notated as an ordinary note. From this point of view, it is
7383 reasonable to specify a cluster as the envelope of a set of notes.
7387 A cluster is engraved as the envelope of a set of
7388 cluster-notes. Cluster notes are created by applying the function
7389 @code{notes-to-clusters} to a sequence of chords, e.g.
7391 @lilypond[relative 1,verbatim]
7392 \apply #notes-to-clusters { <c e > <b f'> }
7395 The following example (from
7396 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly}) shows what the result
7399 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{cluster.ly}
7401 By default, @internalsref{Cluster_spanner_engraver} is in the
7402 @internalsref{Voice} context. This allows putting ordinary notes and
7403 clusters together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In such a
7404 case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between
7405 ordinary notes and clusters.
7409 Internals: @internalsref{ClusterSpanner},
7410 @internalsref{ClusterSpannerBeacon},
7411 @internalsref{Cluster_spanner_engraver}, and
7412 @internalsref{ClusterNoteEvent}.
7414 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly}.
7418 Music expressions like @code{<< @{ g8 e8 @} a4 >>} are not printed
7419 accurately. Use @code{<g a>8 <e a>8} instead.
7424 @subsection Fermatas
7430 Contemporary music notation frequently uses special fermata symbols to
7431 indicate fermatas of differing lengths.
7435 The following are supported
7437 @lilypond[singleline]
7439 << \addlyrics \notes {
7459 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
7460 "shortfermata" "fermata" "longfermata" "verylongfermata"
7465 See @ref{Articulations} for general instructions how to apply scripts
7466 such as fermatas to a @code{\notes@{@}} block.
7469 @section Tuning output
7471 There are situations where default layout decisions are not
7472 sufficient. In this section we discuss ways to override these
7475 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called objects
7476 (graphic objects). Each object carries with it a set of properties
7477 (object or layout properties) specific to that object. For example, a
7478 stem object has properties that specify its direction, length and
7481 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
7482 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
7483 temporarily change the definition of one type of object, thus
7484 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
7485 object, and set a layout property in that object.
7487 Do not confuse layout properties with translation
7488 properties. Translation properties always use a mixed caps style
7489 naming, and are manipulated using @code{\property}:
7491 \property Context.propertyName = @var{value}
7493 Layout properties are use Scheme style variable naming, i.e. lower
7494 case words separated with dashes. They are symbols, and should always
7495 be quoted using @code{#'}. For example, this could be an imaginary
7496 layout property name:
7498 #'layout-property-name
7503 * Constructing a tweak::
7511 @node Tuning objects
7512 @subsection Tuning objects
7514 @cindex object description
7516 The definition of an object is a list of default object
7517 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem object (available
7518 in @file{scm/define-grobs.scm}), includes the following definitions
7519 for @internalsref{Stem}:
7523 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
7524 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
7529 Adding variables on top of this existing definition overrides the
7530 system default, and alters the resulting appearance of the layout
7536 Changing a variable for only one object is commonly achieved with
7540 \once \property @var{context}.@var{objectname}
7541 \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
7543 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
7544 and @var{objectname} is a string and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
7545 This command applies a setting only during one moment in the score.
7547 In the following example, only one @internalsref{Stem} object is
7548 changed from its original setting:
7550 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment, relative=1]
7552 \once \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4
7556 @cindex @code{\once}
7558 For changing more objects, the same command, without @code{\once} can
7561 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
7563 This command adds @code{@var{symbol} = @var{value}} to the definition
7564 of @var{objectname} in the context @var{context}, and this definition
7565 stays in place until it is removed.
7567 An existing definition may be removed by the following command:
7570 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \revert @var{symbol}
7573 All @code{\override} and @code{\revert} commands should be balanced.
7574 The @code{\set} shorthand performs a revert followed by an override,
7575 and is often more convenient to use
7578 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
7582 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
7583 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
7585 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
7589 The following example gives exactly the same result as the previous
7590 one (assuming the system default for stem thickness is 1.3):
7592 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
7593 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
7595 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #1.3
7599 Reverting a setting which was not set in the first place has no
7600 effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, this may
7601 remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
7602 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and
7603 @code{\revert} must be carefully balanced. The following are examples
7604 of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set}, @code{\revert}:
7608 a clumsy but correct form:
7610 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
7614 shorter version of the same:
7616 \override \set \set \revert
7620 a short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
7623 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
7627 if there is no default (i.e. by default, the object property is unset),
7630 \set \set \set \revert
7634 The object description is an Scheme association list. Since a Scheme
7635 list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a stack, and
7636 @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are push and pop operations. The
7637 association list is stored in a normal context property, hence
7639 \property Voice.NoteHead = #'()
7641 will effectively erase @internalsref{NoteHead}s from the current
7642 @internalsref{Voice}. Typically, this will blank the object. However,
7643 this mechanism should not be used: it may cause crashes or other
7648 Internals: @internalsref{OverrideProperty}, @internalsref{RevertProperty},
7649 @internalsref{PropertySet}, @internalsref{All-backend-properties}, and
7650 @internalsref{All-layout-objects}.
7655 The backend is not very strict in type-checking object properties.
7656 Cyclic references in Scheme values for properties cause hangs and/or
7657 crashes. Reverting properties that are system defaults may also lead
7660 A property tweak of modifies a local copy of the object definition.
7661 After such a tweak, the definition is independent of the objects in
7662 enclosing contexts. For example
7665 \property Voice.Stem \set #'neutral-direction = #1
7667 \property Staff.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
7672 In this fragment, @code{neutral-direction} is tweaked. As a result,
7673 the current @internalsref{Voice} gets a private version of the
7674 @internalsref{Stem} object. The following tweak modifies the
7675 definition at @internalsref{Staff} level. Since it a different
7676 definition, the thickness of the @code{b'16} is unaffected. For the
7677 third note, a new Voice is created, which inherits the new definition,
7678 including the changed thickness, but excluding the new neutral
7684 * Constructing a tweak::
7690 @node Constructing a tweak
7691 @subsection Constructing a tweak
7694 @cindex internal documentation
7695 @cindex finding graphical objects
7696 @cindex graphical object descriptions
7698 @cindex @code{\override}
7700 @cindex internal documentation
7704 Three pieces of information are required to use @code{\override} and
7705 @code{\set}: the name of the layout object, the context and the name
7706 of the property. We demonstrate how to glean this information from
7707 the notation manual and the generated documentation.
7709 The generated documentation is a set of HTML pages which should be
7710 included if you installed a binary distribution, typically in
7711 @file{/usr/share/doc/lilypond}. They are also available on the web:
7712 go to the @uref{http://lilypond.org,LilyPond website}, click
7713 ``Documentation'', select the correct version, and click then
7714 ``Program reference.'' It is advisable to bookmark the local HTML
7715 files. They will load faster than the ones on the web. If you use the
7716 version from the web, you must check whether the documentation matches
7717 the program version: it is generated from the definitions that the
7718 program uses, and therefore it is strongly tied to the LilyPond
7722 @c [TODO: revise for new site.]
7724 Suppose we want to move the fingering indication in the fragment below:
7726 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim]
7732 If you visit the documentation of @code{Fingering} (in @ref{Fingering
7733 instructions}), you will notice that there is written:
7738 Internals: @internalsref{FingerEvent} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
7745 In other words, the fingerings once entered, are internally stored as
7746 @code{FingerEvent} music objects. When printed, a @code{Fingering}
7747 layout object is created for every @code{FingerEvent}.
7749 The Fingering object has a number of different functions, and each of
7750 those is captured in an interface. The interfaces are listed under
7751 @internalsref{Fingering} in the program reference.
7755 The @code{Fingering} object has a fixed size
7756 (@internalsref{item-interface}), the symbol is a piece of text
7757 (@internalsref{text-interface}), whose font can be set
7758 (@internalsref{font-interface}). It is centered horizontally
7759 (@internalsref{self-alignment-interface}), it is placed next to other
7760 objects (@internalsref{side-position-interface}) vertically, and its
7761 placement is coordinated with other scripts
7762 (@internalsref{text-script-interface}). It also has the standard
7763 @internalsref{grob-interface} (grob stands for Graphical object)
7765 @cindex graphical object
7766 @cindex layout object
7767 @cindex object, layout
7768 with all the variables that come with
7769 it. Finally, it denotes a fingering instruction, so it has
7770 @internalsref{finger-interface}.
7772 For the vertical placement, we have to look under
7773 @code{side-position-interface}:
7775 @code{side-position-interface}
7777 Position a victim object (this one) next to other objects (the
7778 support). In this case, the property @code{direction} signifies where to put the
7779 victim object relative to the support (left or right, up or down?)
7784 below this description, the variable @code{padding} is described as
7788 (dimension, in staff space)
7790 add this much extra space between objects that are next to each
7791 other. Default value: @code{0.6}
7795 By increasing the value of @code{padding}, we can move away the
7796 fingering. The following command inserts 3 staff spaces of white
7797 between the note and the fingering:
7799 \once \property Voice.Fingering \set #'padding = #3
7802 Inserting this command before the Fingering object is created,
7803 i.e. before @code{c2}, yields the following result:
7805 @lilypond[relative=2,fragment,verbatim]
7806 \once \property Voice.Fingering
7813 The context name @code{Voice} in the example above can be determined
7814 as follows. In the documentation for @internalsref{Fingering}, it says
7816 Fingering grobs are created by: @internalsref{Fingering_engraver}
7819 Clicking @code{Fingering_engraver} shows the documentation of
7820 the module responsible for interpreting the fingering instructions and
7821 translating them to a @code{Fingering} object. Such a module is called
7822 an @emph{engraver}. The documentation of the @code{Fingering_engraver}
7825 Fingering_engraver is part of contexts: Voice
7827 so tuning the settings for Fingering should be done with
7829 \property Voice.Fingering \set @dots{}
7832 Of course, the tweak may also done in a larger context than
7833 @code{Voice}, for example, @internalsref{Staff} or
7834 @internalsref{Score}.
7838 Internals: the program reference also contains alphabetical lists of
7839 @internalsref{Contexts}, @internalsref{All-layout-objects} and
7840 @internalsref{Music-expressions}, so you can also find which objects
7841 to tweak by browsing the internals document.
7845 @subsection Applyoutput
7847 The most versatile way of tuning an object is @code{\applyoutput}. Its
7850 \applyoutput @var{proc}
7854 where @var{proc} is a Scheme function, taking three arguments.
7856 When interpreted, the function @var{proc} is called for every layout
7857 object found in the context, with the following arguments:
7859 @item the layout object itself,
7860 @item the context where the layout object was created, and
7861 @item the context where @code{\applyoutput} is processed.
7865 In addition, the cause of the layout object, i.e. the music
7866 expression or object that was responsible for creating it, is in the
7867 object property @code{cause}. For example, for a note head, this is a
7868 @internalsref{NoteHead} event, and for a @internalsref{Stem} object,
7869 this is a @internalsref{NoteHead} object.
7871 Here is a simple example of @code{\applyoutput}; it blanks note-heads on the
7874 (define (blanker grob grob-origin context)
7875 (if (and (memq (ly:get-grob-property grob 'interfaces)
7876 note-head-interface)
7877 (eq? (ly:get-grob-property grob 'staff-position) 0))
7879 (ly:set-grob-property! grob 'transparent #t)))
7884 @node Font selection
7885 @subsection Font selection
7887 The most common thing to change about the appearance of fonts is their
7888 size. The font size of any context can be easily changed by setting
7889 the @code{fontSize} property for that context. Its value is a number:
7890 negative numbers make the font smaller, positive numbers larger. An
7891 example is given below:
7893 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,verbatim,quote]
7894 c4 c4 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
7897 This command will set @code{font-size} (see below), and does
7898 not change the size of variable symbols, such as beams or slurs.
7900 One of the uses of @code{fontSize} is to get smaller symbols for cue
7901 notes. An elaborate example of those is in
7902 @inputfileref{input/test,cue-notes.ly}.
7904 @cindex magnification
7907 The font used for printing a object can be selected by setting
7908 @code{font-name}, e.g.
7910 \property Staff.TimeSignature
7911 \set #'font-name = #"cmr17"
7915 Any font can be used, as long as it is available to @TeX{}. Possible
7916 fonts include foreign fonts or fonts that do not belong to the
7917 Computer Modern font family. The size of fonts selected in this way
7918 can be changed with the @code{font-magnification} property. For
7919 example, @code{2.0} blows up all letters by a factor 2 in both
7923 @cindex font magnification
7925 Font selection for the standard fonts, @TeX{}'s Computer Modern fonts,
7926 can also be adjusted with a more fine-grained mechanism. By setting
7927 the object properties described below, you can select a different font;
7928 all three mechanisms work for every object that supports
7929 @code{font-interface}:
7934 is a symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
7935 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff
7936 braces), @code{music} (the standard music font, including ancient
7937 glyphs), @code{dynamic} (for dynamic signs) and @code{typewriter}.
7940 is a symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
7941 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
7942 @code{caps} and @code{upright}.
7945 is a symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
7946 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
7951 For any of these properties, the value @code{*} (i.e. the symbol
7952 @code{*}, entered as @code{#'*}), acts as a wildcard. This can be used
7953 to override default setting, which are always present. For example:
7955 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
7956 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-family = #'typewriter
7957 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
7960 @cindex @code{font-style}
7962 The font size is set by modifying the @code{font-size} property. Its
7963 value is a number indicating the size relative to the standard size.
7964 Each step up is an increase of approximately 12% of the font size. Six
7965 steps is exactly a factor two. The Scheme function @code{magstep}
7966 converts a @code{font-size} number to a scaling factor.
7968 LilyPond has fonts in different design sizes: the music fonts for
7969 smaller sizes are chubbier, while the text fonts are relatively wider.
7970 Font size changes are achieved by scaling the design size that is
7971 closest to the desired size.
7973 The @code{font-size} mechanism does not work for fonts selected
7974 through @code{font-name}. These may be scaled with
7975 @code{font-magnification}.
7979 The following commands set @code{fontSize} for the current voice.
7981 @cindex @code{\tiny}
7983 @cindex @code{\small}
7985 @cindex @code{\normalsize}
7990 Init files: @file{ly/paper20.ly} contains hints how new fonts may be
7995 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
7998 @cindex font selection
7999 @cindex font magnification
8000 @cindex @code{font-interface}
8004 @subsection Text markup
8009 @cindex typeset text
8011 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can access it
8012 with the keyword @code{\markup}. Within markup mode, you can enter texts
8013 similar to lyrics: simply enter them, surrounded by spaces:
8016 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
8017 c1^\markup { hello }
8018 c1_\markup { hi there }
8019 c1^\markup { hi \bold there, is \italic anyone home? }
8022 @cindex font switching
8024 The markup in the example demonstrates font switching commands. The
8025 command @code{\bold} and @code{\italic} only apply to the first
8026 following word; enclose a set of texts with braces to apply a command
8029 \markup @{ \bold @{ hi there @} @}
8033 For clarity, you can also do this for single arguments, e.g.
8035 \markup @{ is \italic @{ anyone @} home @}
8038 @cindex font size, texts
8040 The following size commands set absolute sizes:
8042 @cindex @code{\teeny}
8043 @cindex @code{\tiny}
8044 @cindex @code{\small}
8045 @cindex @code{\large}
8046 @cindex @code{\huge}
8056 You can also make letter larger or smaller relative to their neighbors,
8057 with the commands @code{\larger} and @code{\smaller}.
8061 @cindex font style, for texts
8062 @cindex @code{\bold}
8063 @cindex @code{\dynamic}
8064 @cindex @code{\number}
8065 @cindex @code{\italic}
8067 The following font change commands are defined:
8070 changes to the font used in dynamic signs. This font does not
8071 contain all characters of the alphabet, so when producing ``piu f'',
8072 the ``piu'' should be done in a different font.
8076 changes to the font used in time signatures. It only contains
8077 numbers and a few punctuation marks.
8079 changes @code{font-shape} to @code{italic}.
8081 changes @code{font-series} to @code{bold}.
8084 @cindex raising text
8085 @cindex lowering text
8087 @cindex translating text
8090 @cindex @code{\super}
8092 Raising and lowering texts can be done with @code{\super} and
8095 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
8096 c1^\markup { E "=" mc \super "2" }
8099 @cindex @code{\raise}
8101 If you want to give an explicit amount for lowering or raising, use
8102 @code{\raise}. This command takes a Scheme valued first argument, and
8103 a markup object as second argument:
8105 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1,quote]
8106 c1^\markup { C \small \raise #1.0 \bold { "9/7+" }}
8108 The argument to @code{\raise} is the vertical displacement amount,
8109 measured in (global) staff spaces. @code{\raise} and @code{\super}
8110 raise objects in relation to their surrounding markups. They cannot be
8111 used to move a single text up or down, when it is above or below a
8112 note, since the mechanism that positions it next to the note cancels
8113 any vertical shift. For vertical positioning, use the @code{padding}
8114 and/or @code{extra-offset} properties.
8116 Other commands taking single arguments include
8119 @item \bracket, \hbracket
8120 Bracket the argument markup with normal and horizontal brackets
8124 @cindex @code{\musicglyph}
8125 This is converted to a musical symbol, e.g. @code{\musicglyph
8126 #"accidentals-0"} will select the natural sign from the music font.
8127 See @ref{The Feta font} for a complete listing of the possible glyphs.
8129 This produces a single character, e.g. @code{\char #65} produces the
8132 @item \note @var{log} @var{dots} @var{dir}
8133 @cindex @code{\note}
8135 This produces a note with a stem pointing in @var{dir} direction, with
8136 duration log @var{log} and @var{dots} augmentation dots. The duration
8137 log is the negative 2-logarithm of the duration denominator. For
8138 example, a quarter note has log 2, an eighth note 3 and a breve has
8141 @item \hspace #@var{amount}
8142 @cindex @code{\hspace}
8143 This produces a invisible object taking horizontal space.
8145 \markup @{ A \hspace #2.0 B @}
8147 will put extra space between A and B, on top of the space that is
8148 normally inserted before elements on a line.
8150 @item \fontsize #@var{size}
8151 @cindex @code{\fontsize}
8152 This sets the relative font size, eg.
8154 A \fontsize #2 @{ B C @} D
8158 This will enlarge the B and the C by two steps.
8159 @item \translate #(cons @var{x} @var{y})
8161 This translates an object. Its first argument is a cons of numbers
8163 A \translate #(cons 2 -3) @{ B C @} D
8165 This moves `B C' 2 spaces to the right, and 3 down, relative to its
8166 surroundings. This command cannot be used to move isolated scripts
8167 vertically, for the same reason that @code{\raise} cannot be used for
8170 @item \magnify #@var{mag}
8171 @cindex @code{\magnify}
8172 This sets the font magnification for the its argument. In the following
8173 example, the middle A will be 10% larger:
8175 A \magnify #1.1 @{ A @} A
8179 @item \override #(@var{key} . @var{value})
8180 @cindex @code{\override}
8181 This overrides a formatting property for its argument. The argument
8182 should be a key/value pair, e.g.
8184 m \override #'(font-family . math) m m
8188 In markup mode you can compose expressions, similar to mathematical
8189 expressions, XML documents and music expressions. The braces group
8190 notes into horizontal lines. Other types of lists also exist: you can
8191 stack expressions grouped with @code{<}, and @code{>} vertically with
8192 the command @code{\column}. Similarly, @code{\center} aligns texts by
8195 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
8196 c1^\markup { \column < a bbbb c > }
8197 c1^\markup { \center < a bbbb c > }
8198 c1^\markup { \line < a b c > }
8202 Markups can be stored in variables, and these variables
8203 may be attached to notes, like
8205 allegro = \markup { \bold \large { Allegro } }
8206 \notes { a^\allegro b c d }
8209 The markup mechanism is extensible. Refer to
8210 @file{scm/new-markup.scm} for more information.
8213 Some objects have alignment procedures of their own, which cancel out
8214 any effects of alignments applied to their markup arguments as a
8215 whole. For example, the @internalsref{RehearsalMark} is horizontally
8216 centered, so using @code{\mark \markup @{ \left-align .. @}} has no
8217 effect. Similarly, whole texts over notes cannot be moved vertically
8218 with @code{\raise}. For moving and aligning complete objects, grob
8219 properties should be used.
8223 Internals: @internalsref{Markup-functions} contains a complete list of
8224 all markup commands.
8226 Init files: @file{scm/new-markup.scm}.
8233 Text layout is ultimately done by @TeX{}, which does kerning of
8234 letters. LilyPond does not account for kerning, so texts will be
8235 spaced slightly too wide.
8237 Syntax errors for markup mode are confusing.
8239 Markup texts cannot be used in the titling of the @code{\header}
8240 field. Titles are made by La@TeX{}, so La@TeX{} commands should be used
8249 @section Global layout
8251 The global layout determined by three factors: the page layout, the
8252 line breaks and the spacing. These all influence each other. The
8253 choice of spacing determines how densely each system of music is set,
8254 which influences where line breaks breaks are chosen, and thus
8255 ultimately how many pages a piece of music takes. This section
8256 explains how to tune the algorithm for spacing.
8258 Globally spoken, this procedure happens in three steps: first,
8259 flexible distances (``springs'') are chosen, based on durations. All
8260 possible line breaking combination are tried, and the one with the
8261 best results---a layout that has uniform density and requires as
8262 little stretching or cramping as possible---is chosen. When the score
8263 is processed by @TeX{}, each page is filled with systems, and page breaks
8264 are chosen whenever the page gets full.
8269 * Vertical spacing::
8270 * Horizontal spacing::
8277 @node Vertical spacing
8278 @subsection Vertical spacing
8280 @cindex vertical spacing
8281 @cindex distance between staves
8282 @cindex staff distance
8283 @cindex between staves, distance
8284 @cindex staffs per page
8285 @cindex space between staves
8287 The height of each system is determined automatically by LilyPond, to
8288 keep systems from bumping into each other, some minimum distances are
8289 set. By changing these, you can put staves closer together, and thus
8290 put more systems onto one page.
8292 Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make
8293 staves maintain a distance, their vertical size is padded. This is
8294 done with the property @code{minimumVerticalExtent}. It takes a pair
8295 of numbers, so if you want to make it smaller from its, then you could
8298 \property Staff.minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4 . 4)
8300 This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 4 staff spaces on
8301 either side of the center staff line. The argument of
8302 @code{minimumVerticalExtent} is interpreted as an interval, where the
8303 center line is the 0, so the first number is generally negative. The
8304 staff can be made larger at the bottom by setting it to @code{(-6
8307 The piano staves are handled a little differently: to make cross-staff
8308 beaming work correctly, it is necessary that the distance between staves
8309 is fixed beforehand. This is also done with a
8310 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object, created in
8311 @internalsref{PianoStaff}. In this object the distance between the
8312 staves is fixed by setting @code{forced-distance}. If you want to
8313 override this, use a @code{\translator} block as follows:
8317 VerticalAlignment \override #'forced-distance = #9
8320 This would bring the staves together at a distance of 9 staff spaces,
8321 measured from the center line of each staff.
8325 Internals: Vertical alignment of staves is handled by the
8326 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object.
8330 @node Horizontal spacing
8331 @subsection Horizontal Spacing
8333 The spacing engine translates differences in durations into
8334 stretchable distances (``springs'') of differing lengths. Longer
8335 durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest
8336 durations get a fixed amount of space (which is controlled by
8337 @code{shortest-duration-space} in the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} object).
8338 /The longer the duration, the more space it gets: doubling a
8339 duration adds a fixed amount (this amount is controlled by
8340 @code{spacing-increment}) of space to the note.
8342 For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter and
8343 8th notes, the eighth note is followed by 1 note head width (NHW).
8344 The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by 3 NHW, etc.
8345 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=1] c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8
8349 Normally, @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to 1.2, which is the
8350 width of a note head, and @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to
8351 2.0, meaning that the shortest note gets 2 NHW (2 times
8352 @code{shortest-duration-space}) of space. For normal notes, this space
8353 is always counted from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest
8354 notes are generally followed by one NHW of space.
8356 If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single
8357 32th note to a score that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the
8358 entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a 16th, but a 32nd,
8359 thus adding 1 NHW to every note. To prevent this, the
8360 shortest duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score,
8361 but the most commonly found shortest note. Notes that are even
8362 shorter this are followed by a space that is proportional to their
8363 duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add
8364 only a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by
8367 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=2]
8368 c2 c4. c8 c4. c16[ c] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
8371 The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every
8372 measure, the shortest duration is determined. The most common short
8373 duration, is taken as the basis for the spacing, with the stipulation
8374 that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than
8375 1/8th note. The shortest duration is printed when you run lilypond
8376 with @code{--verbose}. These durations may also be customized. If you
8377 set the @code{common-shortest-duration} in
8378 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, then this sets the base duration for
8379 spacing. The maximum duration for this base (normally 1/8th), is set
8380 through @code{base-shortest-duration}.
8382 @cindex @code{common-shortest-duration}
8383 @cindex @code{base-shortest-duration}
8384 @cindex @code{stem-spacing-correction}
8385 @cindex @code{spacing}
8387 In the introduction it was explained that stem directions influence
8388 spacing. This is controlled with @code{stem-spacing-correction}
8389 property in @internalsref{NoteSpacing}, which are generated for every
8390 @internalsref{Voice} context. The @code{StaffSpacing} object
8391 (generated at @internalsref{Staff} context) contains the same property
8392 for controlling the stem/barline spacing. The following example
8393 shows these corrections, once with default settings, and once with
8394 exaggerated corrections:
8400 \property Staff.NoteSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
8402 \property Staff.StaffSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
8407 \paper { raggedright = ##t } }
8410 @cindex SpacingSpanner, overriding properties
8412 Properties of the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} must be overridden
8413 from the @code{\paper} block, since the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} is
8414 created before any @code{\property} statements are interpreted.
8416 \paper @{ \translator @{
8418 SpacingSpanner \override #'spacing-increment = #3.0
8425 Internals: @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, @internalsref{NoteSpacing},
8426 @internalsref{StaffSpacing}, @internalsref{SeparationItem}, and
8427 @internalsref{SeparatingGroupSpanner}.
8431 Spacing is determined on a score wide basis. If you have a score that
8432 changes its character (measured in durations) halfway during the
8433 score, the part containing the longer durations will be spaced too
8436 There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing.
8441 @subsection Font size
8442 @cindex font size, setting
8443 @cindex staff size, setting
8444 @cindex @code{paper} file
8446 The Feta font provides musical symbols at seven different sizes.
8447 These fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point, 23 point, and
8448 26 point. The point size of a font is the height of the corresponding
8449 staff (excluding line thicknesses).
8451 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
8452 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any
8453 of these files, the variables @code{paperEleven},
8454 @code{paperThirteen}, @code{paperSixteen},
8455 @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and @code{paperTwentysix}
8456 are defined respectively. The default @code{\paper} block is also
8457 set. These files should be imported at toplevel, i.e.
8459 \include "paper26.ly"
8463 The default font size settings for each staff heights are generated
8464 from the 20pt style sheet. For more details, see the file
8465 @file{scm/font.scm}.
8469 @subsection Line breaking
8472 @cindex breaking lines
8474 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
8475 that lines look neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines
8476 have similar density.
8478 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can
8479 do this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at
8480 this point. Line breaks can only occur at places where there are bar
8481 lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line,
8482 you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
8483 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a
8487 @cindex regular line breaks
8488 @cindex four bar music.
8490 For linebreaks at regular intervals use @code{\break} separated by
8491 skips and repeated with @code{\repeat}:
8493 << \repeat unfold 7 @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
8494 @emph{the real music}
8499 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
8504 Internals: @internalsref{BreakEvent}.
8508 @subsection Page layout
8511 @cindex breaking pages
8513 @cindex @code{indent}
8514 @cindex @code{linewidth}
8516 The most basic settings influencing the spacing are @code{indent} and
8517 @code{linewidth}. They are set in the @code{\paper} block. They
8518 control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of
8521 If @code{raggedright} is set to true in the @code{\paper}
8522 block, then the lines are justified at their natural length. This
8523 useful for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural
8527 @cindex vertical spacing
8529 The page layout process happens outside the LilyPond formatting
8530 engine: variables controlling page layout are passed to the output,
8531 and are further interpreted by @code{lilypond} wrapper program. It
8532 responds to the following variables in the @code{\paper} block. The
8533 variable @code{textheight} sets the total height of the music on each
8534 page. The spacing between systems is controlled with
8535 @code{interscoreline}, its default is 16pt. The distance between the
8536 score lines will stretch in order to fill the full page
8537 @code{interscorelinefill} is set to a positive number. In that case
8538 @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
8540 @cindex @code{textheight}
8541 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
8542 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
8544 If the variable @code{lastpagefill} is defined,
8545 @c fixme: this should only be done if lastpagefill == #t
8546 systems are evenly distributed vertically on the last page. This
8547 might produce ugly results in case there are not enough systems on the
8548 last page. The @command{lilypond-book} command ignores
8549 @code{lastpagefill}. See @ref{lilypond-book manual} for more
8552 @cindex @code{lastpagefill}
8554 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
8555 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into
8556 the @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages. This
8557 is done by setting the @code{between-systems-strings} on the
8558 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn} where the system is broken.
8559 An example is shown in @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}.
8560 The predefined command @code{\newpage} also does this.
8564 @cindex @code{papersize}
8566 To change the paper size, you must first set the @code{papersize} paper
8567 variable variable as in the example below. Set it to
8568 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
8569 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
8570 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
8573 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
8574 \include "paper16.ly"
8577 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
8578 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
8579 @code{lilypond-book} and @code{lilypond}).
8584 @cindex @code{\newpage}
8590 In this manual @ref{Invoking lilypond}
8592 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}
8594 Internals: @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn}.
8598 LilyPond has no concept of page layout, which makes it difficult to
8599 reliably choose page breaks in longer pieces.
8608 Entered music can also be converted to MIDI output. The performance
8609 is good enough for proof-hearing the music for errors.
8611 Ties, dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted. Dynamic marks,
8612 crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume levels. Dynamic
8613 marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI volume
8614 range, crescendi and decrescendi make the volume vary linearly between
8615 their two extremities. The fractions can be adjusted by
8616 @code{dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction} in @internalsref{Voice} context.
8617 For each type of MIDI instrument, a volume range can be defined. This
8618 gives a basic equalizer control, which can enhance the quality of
8619 the MIDI output remarkably. The equalizer can be controlled by
8620 setting @code{instrumentEqualizer}.
8624 Many musically interesting effects, such as swing, articulation,
8625 slurring, etc., are not translated to MIDI.
8630 * MIDI instrument names::
8635 @subsection MIDI block
8639 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
8640 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
8644 @item a @code{\tempo} definition, and
8645 @item context definitions.
8648 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
8650 A number followed by a period is interpreted as a real number, so
8651 for setting the tempo for dotted notes, an extra space should be
8652 inserted, for example:
8655 \midi @{ \tempo 4 . = 120 @}
8659 @cindex context definition
8661 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
8662 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
8663 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer-init.ly}.
8666 @node MIDI instrument names
8667 @subsection MIDI instrument names
8669 @cindex instrument names
8670 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
8672 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
8673 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
8674 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
8678 If the selected string does not exactly match, then the default is
8679 used, which is the Grand Piano.