4 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
5 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
6 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
8 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
17 @macro internalsref{NAME}
18 @uref{../lilypond-internals/\NAME\.html,\NAME\}
21 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
22 See @internalsref{\NAME\}
28 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
30 @macro internalsref{NAME}
37 @c .{Reference Manual}
39 @node Reference Manual
40 @chapter Reference Manual
43 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
46 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
47 revision of this document was made for LilyPond 1.4.1. It supposes a
48 passing familiarity with how LilyPond input works. New users are
49 encouraged to study the tutorial first.
51 The reference manual is ordered according to different tasks.
52 More details on the property setting mechanisms and context handling is
53 provided in @ref{Tuning output} and @ref{Interpretation context}. The
54 syntactical details are described at the end of the manual.
77 * Skipping corrected music::
78 * Interpretation context::
88 The purpose of LilyPond is explained informally by the term `music
89 typesetter'. This is not a fully correct name: not only does the
90 program print musical symbols, it also makes aesthetic decisions.
91 Symbols and their placements are @emph{generated} from a high-level
92 musical description. In other words, LilyPond would be best described
93 by `music compiler' or `music to notation compiler'.
95 LilyPond is linked to GUILE, GNU's Scheme library for extension
96 programming. The Scheme library provides the glue that holds together
97 the low-level routines and separate modules which are written in C++.
99 When lilypond is run to typeset sheet music, the following happens:
101 @item GUILE Initialization: various scheme files are read
102 @item parsing: first standard @code{ly} initialization files are read, and
103 then the user @file{ly} file is read.
104 @item interpretation: the music in the file is processed ``in playing
105 order'', i.e. the order that you use to read sheet music, or the
106 order in which notes are played. The result of this step is a typesetting
110 The typesetting specification is solved: positions and formatting is
113 @item the visible results ("virtual ink") are written to the output file.
116 During these stages different types of data play the the main role:
117 during parsing, @strong{Music} objects are created. During the
118 interpretation, @strong{contexts} are constructed, and with these contexts
119 a network of @strong{graphical objects} (``grobs'') is created. These
120 grobs contain unknown variables, and the network forms a set of
121 equations. After solving the equations and filling in these variables,
122 the printed output (in the form of @strong{molecules}) is written to an
125 These threemanship of tasks (parsing, translating, typesetting) and
126 data-structures (music, context, graphical objects) permeates the entire
127 design of the program.
129 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
135 The most basic forms of music are notes. We discuss how you enter them
136 here. Notes on their own don't form valid input, but for the sake of
137 brevity we omit obligatory lint such as @code{\score} blocks and
138 @code{\paper} declarations.
149 * Defining pitch names::
150 * Easy Notation note heads ::
157 A note specification has the form
160 @var{pitch}[!][?][@var{duration}]
163 The alteration refers to what note is heard, not to whether an
164 accidental is printed. This is done depending on the key and context.
165 A reminder accidental
166 @cindex reminder accidental
168 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
169 cautionary accidental,
170 @cindex cautionary accidental
171 @cindex parenthesized accidental
172 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
173 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
175 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
176 cis' d' e' cis' c'? d' e' c'!
179 The grob for a note head is called @internalsref{NoteHead}.
187 @cindex Note specification
189 @cindex entering notes
191 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
193 @cindex @code{\pitch}
195 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
198 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object, see @ref{Pitch data type}.
200 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
201 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
202 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
203 from @code{c} to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
204 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
206 @cindex note names, Dutch
208 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
209 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
210 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
211 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
212 both forms are accepted.
214 LilyPond has predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
215 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
216 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
217 the names they define are:
220 Note Names sharp flat
221 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
222 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
223 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
224 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
225 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
226 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
227 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
235 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
236 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
237 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
238 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
240 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
241 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
249 A rest is entered like a note, with note name `@code{r}':
251 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
255 The grob is @internalsref{Rest}. Whole bar rests centered in the bar are
256 specified using @code{R}, see @ref{Multi measure rests}.
264 @cindex Invisible rest
267 An invisible rest, or skip, can be entered like a note with note name
270 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
274 Actually, this is a shorthand for the @code{\skip} command, and it is
275 only available in Note mode and Chord mode.
277 @c FIXME: in lyrics mode, we have " " and _
279 In Lyrics mode, you can use `@code{" "}' and `@code{_}':
280 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
282 \context Lyrics \lyrics { lah2 di4 " " dah2 _4 di }
283 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a4 a a2 a4 a }
287 The unabbreviated `@code{\skip} @var{duration}' also works outside of
290 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
293 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
294 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
299 Note that the skip does not produce any output, not even transparent output.
304 @subsection Durations
308 @cindex @code{\duration}
310 The syntax for a verbose duration specification is
312 \duration @var{scmduration}
314 Here, @var{scmduration} is a Scheme object of type @code{Duration}. See
315 @ref{Duration} for more information.
318 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
319 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
320 longer than a whole you must use identifiers.
324 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
326 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
332 \notes \relative c'' {
334 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
336 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
341 \remove "Clef_engraver"
342 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
343 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
344 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
350 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
351 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
352 NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
353 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
354 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
356 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
357 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
361 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
362 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
363 duration can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
367 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
373 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M} by
374 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
375 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
387 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. When used
388 with chords, it connects all the note heads whose pitches match.
389 Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'. If you try to tie
390 together chords which have no common pitches then no ties will be
393 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
394 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
397 If you dislike the amount of ties created for a chord, you set
398 @code{Voice.sparseTies} to true, resulting in a smaller number of
400 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
401 \property Voice.sparseTies = ##t
402 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
405 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
406 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
407 exactly the same concept.
409 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
410 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
413 The name of the tie grob is @internalsref{Tie}, and it is created in the
414 @internalsref{Voice} context.
418 At present, the tie is implemented as a separate thing, temporally
419 located in between the notes. There is also no way to convert
420 between tied notes, dotted notes and plain notes.
422 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a chord is not supported in a
423 simple way. It can be achieved by moving the tie-engraver into the Thread
424 context and turning on and off ties per Thread.
432 @cindex @code{\times}
434 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all duration
437 @cindex @code{\times}
439 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
442 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
443 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
444 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
445 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
446 their written length:
448 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
449 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
452 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
453 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
454 @code{\times} only once, thus saving typing work.
456 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
457 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
458 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
461 The format of the number is determined by the property
462 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
463 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
464 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
467 The typesetting of brackets and numbers is controlled by the properties
468 @code{tuplet-bracket-visibility} and @code{tuplet-number-visibility}.
470 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
471 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##t
472 \times 2/3{c'8 d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
473 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = #'if-no-beam
474 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
475 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##f
476 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
477 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = ##f
478 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
479 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = #'if-no-beam
480 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
483 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
484 @cindex tuplet formatting
486 Tuplet brackets are printed as @internalsref{TupletBracket} grobs, most
487 often in the @internalsref{Voice} context.
489 @c . {Defining pitch names}
490 @node Defining pitch names
491 @subsection Defining pitch names
493 @cindex defining pitch names
494 @cindex pitch names, defining
496 Note names and chord modifiers can be customized for nationalities. The
497 syntax is as follows.
499 @cindex @code{\pitchnames}
500 @cindex @code{\chordmodifiers}
502 \pitchnames @var{scheme-alist}
503 \chordmodifiers @var{scheme-alist}
506 See @file{ly/nederlands.ly} and @file{ly/chord-modifiers.ly} for
507 specific examples on how to do this.
510 @node Easy Notation note heads
511 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
513 @cindex easy notation
516 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
517 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
518 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
520 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
521 \include "paper23.ly"
523 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
524 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
528 Note that @internalsref{EasyNotation} overrides a @internalsref{Score} context. You
529 probably will want to print it with magnification to make it more
530 readable, see @ref{Output scaling}.
536 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through the
537 letters. Printing the postscript file obtained either by using dvips or
538 the @code{-f ps} option of lilypond produces the correct result.
543 @section Staff notation
545 @cindex Staff notation
557 @subsection Key signature
562 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
565 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
568 @cindex @code{\minor}
569 @cindex @code{\major}
570 @cindex @code{\minor}
571 @cindex @code{\ionian}
572 @cindex @code{\locrian}
573 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
574 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
575 @cindex @code{\lydian}
576 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
577 @cindex @code{\dorian}
579 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
580 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
581 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
582 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
583 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
585 This command sets the context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
586 Non-standard key signatures can be specified by setting this property
589 The printed signature is a @internalsref{KeySignature} grob, typically
590 created in @internalsref{Staff} context.
592 @cindex @code{keySignature}
599 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command.
607 \property Staff.clefGlyph = @var{glyph associated with clefname}
608 \property Staff.clefPosition = @var{clef Y-position for clefname}
609 \property Staff.centralCPosition = @var{position for central C}
610 \property Staff.clefOctavation = @var{extra transposition of clefname}
614 Any change in these properties creates a clef (A @internalsref{Clef} grob).
616 Supported clef-names include
618 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
620 @item treble, violin, G, G2
629 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
644 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
645 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. Note that you have to
646 enclose @var{clefname} in quotes if you use underscores or digits in the
652 Supported associated glyphs (for @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) are:
661 @item clefs-vaticana_do
662 Editio Vaticana style do clef
663 @item clefs-vaticana_fa
664 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
665 @item clefs-medicaea_do
666 Editio Medicaea style do clef
667 @item clefs-medicaea_fa
668 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
669 @item clefs-mensural1_c
670 modern style mensural C clef
671 @item clefs-mensural2_c
672 historic style small mensural C clef
673 @item clefs-mensural3_c
674 historic style big mensural C clef
675 @item clefs-mensural1_f
676 historic style traditional mensural F clef
677 @item clefs-mensural2_f
678 historic style new mensural F clef
679 @item clefs-mensural_g
680 historic style mensural G clef
681 @item clefs-hufnagel_do
682 historic style hufnagel do clef
683 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa
684 historic style hufnagel fa clef
685 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa
686 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
687 @item clefs-percussion
688 modern style percussion clef
691 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
692 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
693 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
696 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
697 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
698 @cindex hufnagel clefs
701 @c . {Time signature}
703 @subsection Time signature
704 @cindex Time signature
708 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
711 \time @var{n}@code{/}@var{d}
713 Internally, this is a shortcut for doing
715 \property Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(@var{n} . @var{d})
716 \property Score.beatLength = #(make-moment 1 @var{d})
717 \property Score.measureLength = #(make-moment @var{n} @var{d})
720 These properties @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines
721 should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be
724 Changing the value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a
725 fraction to be printed. This grob is @internalsref{TimeSignature}.
727 The actual symbol that's printed can be customized with the style
729 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, singleline]
731 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
733 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'()
735 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
739 There are many more options for the layout of this grob. They are
740 selected through the @code{style} grob property.
742 @c FIXME: this isn't documented except in example?
744 @file{input/test/time.ly} for examples.
751 @cindex partial measure
752 @cindex measure, partial
753 @cindex shorten measures
754 @cindex @code{\partial}
756 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
757 @code{\partial} command:
759 \partial @var{duration}
762 Internally, this is a shortcut for
765 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
769 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
770 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
773 @node Unmetered music
774 @subsection Unmetered music
776 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
777 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. The property
778 @code{Score.timing} can be used to switch off this automatic timing
780 @lilypond[fragment,relative,singleline,verbatim]
782 \property Score.timing = ##f
784 \property Score.timing = ##t
788 The identifiers @code{\cadenzaOn} and @code{\cadenzaOff} can be used as
795 @subsection Bar lines
799 @cindex measure lines
806 This is a shortcut for doing
808 \property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}
810 The following bar types are available
812 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
825 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
829 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
831 @cindex repeatCommands
832 @cindex defaultBarType
834 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
835 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
836 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
837 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
839 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
840 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
841 @code{whichBar} settings.
843 @internalsref{BarLine} grobs are created by the @code{Bar_engraver}.
850 Polyphonic parts, i.e. parts with more than one voice on a staff can be
851 typeset with LilyPond.
853 The easiest way to enter such fragments, is the Scheme function
854 @code{voicify-music}. It will split chords using the separator
855 @code{\\}, to make multiple voices. You can use it for small,
856 short-lived voices (make a chord of voices) or for single chords:
860 \notes \context Voice = VA \apply #voicify-music \relative c'' {
861 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ c, \\ f \\ d >
866 The function @code{voicify-music} instantiates @internalsref{Voice}
867 contexts, bearing the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.
869 To explicity typeset polyphonic music, instantiate a separate Voice
870 context for each part, and assign a stem direction to each part.
872 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
874 < \context Voice = VA { \stemUp b'4 a' g' f' e' }
875 \context Voice = VB { \stemDown g'4 g' g' g' g' } >
878 When there are more than two voices on a staff, you must also indicate
879 which voice should moved horizontally in case of a collision. This can
880 be done with the identifiers @code{\shiftOff}, @code{\shiftOn},
881 @code{\shiftOnn}, etc. (which sets the grob property @code{horizontal-shift}
882 in @internalsref{NoteColumn}).
884 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
885 \context Staff \notes\relative c''<
892 \context Voice=three {
893 \shiftOnn \stemUp ais
895 \context Voice=four {
896 \shiftOnnn \stemUp fis
901 The most convenient way is to use the identifiers @code{\voiceOne}
902 through @code{\voiceFour}, which also set slur and tie directions in the
905 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
907 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
908 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
909 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
912 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
913 if you set the grob property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
915 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
917 \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne
919 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
922 \context Voice = VB { \voiceTwo [g'8. f16] [g'8. f'16] }
926 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
928 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
930 \context Voice { \stemUp c''4 }
931 \context Voice =VB { r4 }
935 Note head collisions (horizontal shifting of note heads) are handled by
936 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} grob. @internalsref{RestCollision}
937 handles vertical shifting of rests.
945 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
946 handles a few situations. When it can not cope, you are advised to use
947 @code{force-hshift} of the NoteColumn grob and @code{staff-position} of
948 the Rest grob to override typesetting decisions.
953 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
954 the metrum. LilyPond guesses where beams should be inserted. If you're
955 not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can specify which patterns
956 to beam automatically. In specific cases, you can also enter the beams
960 @c . {Automatic beams}
961 @subsection Automatic beams
963 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}
964 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
965 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
968 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
969 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
970 or at durations specified by the properties in
971 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
972 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
974 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
975 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
977 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
978 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
980 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
981 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
982 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
983 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
984 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
987 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
988 you can use the following:
990 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
991 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
993 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
994 entered as @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
996 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
997 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
999 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1000 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1002 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1003 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1004 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1006 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
1007 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1008 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1009 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1011 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1012 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1015 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
1016 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
1017 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
1018 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
1022 @c Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
1024 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1025 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1027 @cindex automatic beam generation
1029 @cindex @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming}
1031 Automatic beaming is on by default, but can be switched off by setting
1032 @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming} to true. You you may find this necessary for
1033 a melody that goes with lyrics.
1037 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1038 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1039 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
1040 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,relative]
1041 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1042 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1043 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
1046 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1047 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1048 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1051 @cindex Automatic beams
1052 @subsection Manual beams
1053 @cindex beams, manual
1057 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
1058 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
1059 rests or bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point
1060 manually using a @code{[} before the first beamed note and a @code{]}
1061 after the last note:
1063 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1065 r4 [r8 g' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
1068 Whenever an manual beam is busy, the automatic beamer will not produce
1071 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1073 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1074 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1075 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount}. can
1076 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
1077 property, it's value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1079 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1082 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
1085 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1087 The beam symbol (grob @internalsref{Beam} in @internalsref{Voice}
1088 context), both for automatic and manual beams) can be tweaked through
1089 grob-properties @code{height} and @code{staff-position}. These specify
1090 vertical location and vertical span. Both are measured in half
1091 staff-spaces, @code{staff-position=0} corresponds to the middle staff
1094 Set @code{height} to zero, to get horizontal beams:
1096 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1097 \property Voice.Beam \set #'direction = #1
1098 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #0
1102 Here's how you'd specify a weird looking beam that instead of being
1103 horizontal, falls two staff spaces:
1105 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1106 \property Voice.Beam \set #'staff-position = #4
1107 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #-4
1111 @c TODO -> why this ref? Document?
1112 @cindex @code{neutral-direction}
1114 @node Expressive marks
1115 @section Expressive marks
1130 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1131 They are entered using parentheses:
1133 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1134 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
1138 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1139 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1140 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1141 grob-property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1142 @internalsref{Voice} context It's value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1143 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1145 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1146 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1147 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1149 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1153 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1154 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1155 stems might look better:
1157 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1158 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
1159 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1161 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1166 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
1167 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
1168 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this decision
1169 is in @internalsref{Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}. It is loosely
1170 related to the enclosed area between the slur and the notes. Usually,
1171 the default setting works well, but in some cases you may prefer a
1172 curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved one. You can
1173 indicate this preference by increasing the @code{beautiful} value:
1175 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
1176 \property Voice.Beam \override #'direction = #-1
1177 \property Voice.Slur \override #'direction = #1
1178 c16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
1179 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1180 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
1181 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1186 @code{beautiful} is an arbitrary parameter in the slur formatter.
1187 Useful values can only be determined by trial and error.
1189 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1191 @node Phrasing slurs
1192 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1194 @cindex phrasing slurs
1195 @cindex phrasing marks
1197 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1198 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1201 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1202 \time 6/4 c' \( ( d ) e f ( e ) \) d
1205 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
1206 slur. The grob associated with it is @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, in
1207 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1210 @subsection Breath marks
1212 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}. The result is a
1213 @internalsref{BreathingSign} grob in @internalsref{Voice} context.
1215 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1224 The current layout of the default comma style breath marks
1225 could be improved and more optional symbols should be added to the
1234 @cindex beats per minute
1235 @cindex metronome marking
1237 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1239 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1241 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1244 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1249 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1250 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1251 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1256 @subsection Text spanners
1257 @cindex Text spanners
1259 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando or accelerando, often extend
1260 over many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1261 dotted line. You can create such texts using text spanners. The syntax
1264 \spanrequest \start "text"
1265 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1267 LilyPond will respond by creating a @internalsref{TextSpanner} grob (typically
1268 in @internalsref{Voice} context). The string to be printed, as well as the
1269 style is set through grob properties.
1271 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1272 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1273 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1274 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1275 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1276 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1277 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1278 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1296 @subsection Articulations
1297 @cindex Articulations
1299 @cindex articulations
1303 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1304 different characteristics of the performance. These symbols can be
1305 added to a note with `@var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}'. Numerous symbols
1306 are defined in @file{script.ly}. Symbols can be forced to appear above
1307 or below the note by writing `@var{note}@code{^\}@var{name}' and
1308 `@var{note}@code{_\}@var{name}' respectively. Here is a chart showing
1309 symbols on notes, with the name of the corresponding symbol appearing
1315 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-family =#'typewriter
1316 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1317 \context Staff \notes {
1318 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''^\fermata
1319 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\upbow
1320 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1321 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1322 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1323 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1324 c''-\upmordent c''-\downmordent c''-\pralldown c''-\prallup
1325 c''-\lineprall c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1327 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1328 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1329 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ upbow
1330 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1331 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1332 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1333 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1334 upmordent__ downmordent__ pralldown__ prallup__
1335 lineprall__ thumb__ segno__ coda
1339 linewidth = 5.875\in
1345 To save typing work, some shorthands are available:
1346 @lilypond[singleline]
1348 \notes \context Voice {
1349 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1350 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1356 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1363 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand.
1364 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1365 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1369 @cindex @code{\script}
1374 You can add scripts by editing @file{scm/script.scm}. This file contains
1375 a table, listing script definitions and aliases. The following syntax
1376 accesses a script definition from the table:
1382 Usually the @code{\script} keyword is not used directly. Various
1383 helpful identifier definitions appear in @file{script.ly}.
1385 Grobs for these objects are @internalsref{Script} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
1389 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1390 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1392 Unfortunately, there is no support for adding fingering instructions or
1393 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1394 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1399 @subsection Text scripts
1400 @cindex Text scripts
1402 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1403 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1406 By default, these indications do not influence the note spacing, but
1407 if @code{Voice.textNonEmpty} is set to true the widths will be taken
1408 into account. The identifier @code{\fatText} is defined in the standard
1410 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
1411 \relative c' { c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1414 Text scripts are created in form of @internalsref{TextScript} grobs, in
1415 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1417 @ref{Text markup} describes how to change the font or access
1418 special symbols in text scripts.
1422 @subsection Grace notes
1431 @cindex @code{\grace}
1434 @cindex @code{graceAlignPosition}
1436 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out, but do not take up any
1437 logical time in a measure. LilyPond has limited support for grace notes.
1438 The syntax is as follows.
1440 \grace @var{musicexpr}
1443 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1446 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1448 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1450 \property Voice.Stem \override #'flag-style = #'()
1452 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'flag-style
1457 A grace note expression has duration 0; the next real note is assumed to
1458 be the main note. If you want the note to appear after the main note,
1459 set @code{Voice.graceAlignPosition} to @code{1}.
1463 Nesting @code{\grace} notes is not supported. The following may cause
1464 run-time errors: @example
1465 @code{\grace @{ \grace c32 c16 @} c4}
1467 Since the meaning of such a construct is unclear, we don't consider this
1468 a loss. Similarly, juxtaposing two @code{\grace} sections is
1469 syntactically valid, but makes no sense and may cause runtime errors.
1470 Ending a staff or score with grace notes may also generate a run-time
1471 error, since there will be no main note to attach the grace notes to.
1482 @subsection Glissando
1485 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1487 A glissando line (grob @internalsref{Glissando}) can be requested by
1488 attaching a @code{\glissando} to a notte:
1490 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1496 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1503 @subsection Dynamics
1516 @cindex @code{\ffff}
1526 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an identifier after a
1527 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
1528 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
1529 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
1530 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
1532 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
1533 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
1539 @cindex @code{\decr}
1540 @cindex @code{\rced}
1546 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
1547 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
1548 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
1549 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
1550 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
1551 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
1552 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
1553 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
1554 want several marks during one note, you have to use spacer notes.
1556 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1557 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
1558 < f''1 { s4 s4 \< \! s4 \> \! s4 } >
1561 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
1562 is an example how to do it:
1567 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1569 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc."
1570 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
1575 For everyday use, we recommend the identifiers @code{\cresc},
1576 @code{endcresc}, @code{\dim} and @code{\enddim}.
1580 Dynamics are grobs of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
1581 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is handled
1582 by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. If you want to adjust
1583 padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you must set properties
1584 for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. Predefined identifiers
1585 to set the vertical direction are \dynamicUp and \dynamicDown.
1587 @cindex direction, of dynamics
1588 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
1589 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
1597 @cindex @code{\repeat}
1599 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
1600 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
1601 different variants of repeats.
1605 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
1606 output, and entering repetitive music.
1609 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
1610 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
1613 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
1614 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
1615 @file{input/star-spangled-banner.ly}.
1621 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
1627 * Manual repeat commands::
1629 * Tremolo subdivisions::
1634 @subsection Repeat syntax
1636 The syntax for repeats is
1639 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
1642 If you have alternative endings, you may add
1643 @cindex @code{\alternative}
1645 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
1647 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
1649 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
1651 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
1652 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1654 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
1655 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
1658 With alternative endings:
1659 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1661 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1662 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1665 Folded repeats look like this:
1668 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1670 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1671 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1675 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
1676 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
1677 the specified number of repeats.
1679 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1683 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
1684 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
1689 @subsection Unfolding repeats for MIDI output.
1691 @cindex expanding repeats
1693 See @file{input/test/unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
1698 Notice that timing information is not remembered at the start of an
1699 alternative, so you have to reset timing information after a repeat,
1700 e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting
1701 @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties
1702 are also not repeated.
1704 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}s, although this probably is only
1705 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
1707 Folded repeats offer little more over simultaneous music. However, it
1708 is to be expected that more functionality -- especially for the MIDI
1709 backend -- will be implemented at some point in the future.
1711 Volta repeats are printed over all staves in a score. You must turn them
1712 off explicitly, for example by doing
1714 \property Staff.VoltaBracket = \turnOff
1716 in all but the top staff.
1718 @node Manual repeat commands
1719 @subsection Manual repeat commands
1721 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
1723 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
1724 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
1732 @item (volta . @var{text})
1733 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
1735 Stop a running volta bracket
1738 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
1740 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
1742 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
1747 Repeats brackets are @internalsref{VoltaBracket} grobs.
1749 @node Tremolo repeats
1750 @subsection Tremolo repeats
1751 @cindex tremolo beams
1753 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
1755 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
1757 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
1758 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
1759 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
1760 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
1761 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
1766 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} grobs. Single stem tremolos are
1767 @internalsref{StemTremolo}.
1772 At present, the spacing between tremolo beams is not regular, since the
1773 spacing engine does not notice that not all notes are printed.
1775 @node Tremolo subdivisions
1776 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
1777 @cindex tremolo marks
1778 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
1780 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
1781 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
1782 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
1783 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
1784 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
1786 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
1787 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
1793 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
1796 @node Measure repeats
1797 @subsection Measure repeats
1799 @cindex percent repeats
1800 @cindex measure repeats
1802 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
1803 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
1804 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
1805 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
1807 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1808 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
1809 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
1813 The signs are represented by these grobs: @internalsref{RepeatSlash} and
1814 @internalsref{PercentRepeat} and @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
1818 You can not nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
1819 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
1821 @node Rhythmic music
1822 @section Rhythmic music
1829 @node Rhythmic staves
1830 @subsection Rhythmic staves
1832 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
1833 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
1834 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
1836 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1837 \context RhythmicStaff {
1839 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1846 @section Piano music
1848 Piano music is an odd type of notation. Piano staves are two normal
1849 staves coupled with a brace. The staves are largely independent, but
1850 sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. The
1851 @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
1852 behavior. In this section we discuss the @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some
1853 other pianistic peculiarities.
1856 * Automatic staff changes::
1857 * Manual staff switches::
1860 * Voice follower lines::
1864 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
1865 @node Automatic staff changes
1866 @subsection Automatic staff changes
1867 @cindex Automatic staff changes
1869 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
1870 staff. The syntax for this is
1872 \autochange @var{contexttype} @var{musicexp}
1874 This will switch the interpretation context of @var{musicexp} between a
1875 @var{contexttype} named @code{up} and @code{down}. Typically, you use
1876 @internalsref{Staff} for @var{contexttype}. The autochanger switches on basis
1877 of pitch (central C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping
1878 over rests to switch rests in advance.
1880 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1881 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
1882 \context Staff = "up" {
1883 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
1884 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
1885 \context Staff = "down" {
1891 Note how spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
1892 terminating too soon.
1895 @node Manual staff switches
1896 @subsection Manual staff switches
1898 @cindex manual staff switches
1899 @cindex staff switch, manual
1901 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
1903 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
1905 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
1906 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
1907 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
1910 The formal definition of this construct is obtuse, but for the sake of
1911 completeness we give it here.
1912 @cindex @code{\translator}
1914 \translator @var{contexttype} = @var{name}
1916 Formally, this construct is a music expression indicating
1917 that the context which is a direct child of the context of type
1918 @var{contexttype} should be shifted to a context of type
1919 @var{contexttype} and the specified name.
1927 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
1928 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
1929 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
1931 These identifiers are shorthands for spanner commands of the types
1932 @internalsref{Sustain}, @internalsref{UnaCorda} and @internalsref{Sostenuto}:
1934 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1935 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4
1936 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
1939 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
1940 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal
1941 types. Refer to the generated documentation of @rgrob{PianoPedal} for
1947 Currently, brackets are not supported, only text markings (i.e. `*Ped'
1953 @subsection Arpeggio
1956 @cindex broken arpeggio
1957 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
1959 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
1960 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
1963 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1964 \context Voice <c\arpeggio e g c>
1967 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
1968 to the chords in both staves, and set
1969 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
1971 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1972 \context PianoStaff <
1973 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
1974 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
1975 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
1979 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} grobs. Cross staff arpeggios
1980 are @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio}. @internalsref{Arpeggio}
1982 To add an arrow head to explicitly specify the direction of the
1983 arpeggio, you should set the arpeggio grob property
1984 @code{arpeggio-type}.
1986 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1988 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #1
1990 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
1996 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
1997 arpeggiate the chord.
1999 @lil ypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2000 \context PianoStaff <
2001 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2002 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #'bracket
2003 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2004 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2012 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios
2017 @node Voice follower lines
2018 @subsection Voice follower lines
2020 @cindex follow voice
2021 @cindex staff switching
2024 @cindex @code{followVoice}
2026 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
2027 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
2028 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
2030 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2031 \context PianoStaff <
2032 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2033 \context Staff \context Voice {
2035 \translator Staff=two
2038 \context Staff=two {\clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2042 The associated grob is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2052 * Automatic syllable durations::
2058 @subsection Lyrics mode
2061 To print lyrics, you must first make a music expression from the lyric
2062 text. That music expression can be printed by selecting an appropriate
2066 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
2068 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
2069 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
2070 The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
2071 punctuation and accents without any hassle.
2073 Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text. For
2074 example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that
2075 the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
2078 Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes:
2079 @code{"He could"4 not4} or by using an underscore without quotes:
2080 @code{He_could4 not4}. All unquoted underscores are converted to
2083 The precise definition of this mode can be found in @ref{Lyrics mode
2086 @c . {Printing lyrics}
2087 @node Printing lyrics
2088 @subsection Printing lyrics
2091 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the @internalsref{Lyrics} context.
2093 @c Maybe more pedagogical to avoid \addlyrics in this first example? /MB
2094 @c Add tied and beamed melismata too.
2095 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2097 \notes \relative c' {
2099 \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t
2100 d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
2101 b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 }
2102 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2104 share the soft -- ware; }
2108 Notes and syllable durations are matched automatically. This is
2109 accomplished using @code{\addlyrics}, which is documented in
2110 @ref{Automatic syllable durations}. Setting @code{automaticMelismata} in
2111 the melody staff will cause tied, slurred or beamed notes to be
2112 interpreted as melismata.
2114 The Lyric syllables are @code{LyricsVoice.LyricSyllable} grobs.
2117 @cindex lyric extender
2120 As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will
2121 create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of the
2122 lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric,
2123 so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
2124 The grob for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricExtender}.
2129 If you want to have hyphens centered between syllables (rather than
2130 attached to the end of the first syllable) you can use the special
2131 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. This
2132 will result in a hyphen whose length varies depending on the space
2133 between syllables. It will be centered between the syllables. The grob
2134 for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricHyphen}.
2136 @cindex Lyric hyphen
2138 @node Automatic syllable durations
2139 @subsection Automatic syllable durations
2140 @cindex Automatic syllable durations
2142 @cindex automatic lyric durations
2143 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
2145 If you have lyrics that are set to a melody, you can copy the rhythm
2146 of that melody into the lyrics using @code{\addlyrics}. The syntax for
2149 \addlyrics @var{musicexpr1 musicexpr2}
2152 Both @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} are interpreted, but every
2153 music event (``every syllable'') in @var{musicexpr2} is interpreted only
2154 when there are events in @var{musicexpr1}.
2156 @cindex @code{automaticMelismata}
2158 If the property @code{automaticMelismata} is set in the
2159 context of @var{musicexpr1}, no lyrics will be put on slurred or tied
2162 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2165 \property Voice.automaticMelismata = ##t
2166 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2168 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2172 If you want the lyric lines to be above the melody staff, or in some
2173 other, more complex configuration, then build that configuration first
2174 using simultaneous music, and use @code{\addlyrics} after that.
2176 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
2178 \context Lyrics = LA { s1 }
2179 \context Staff = SA { s1 }
2181 \context Staff = SA \relative c' { c4 e g g }
2182 \context Lyrics = LA \lyrics { geen ge -- don -- der } >
2185 For @code{\addlyrics} you should use a single rhythm melody, and single
2186 rhythm lyrics (a constant duration is the obvious choice). If you do
2187 not, you can get undesired effects when using multiple stanzas:
2189 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2192 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2194 \context Lyrics \lyrics
2199 It is valid (but probably not very useful) to use notes instead of
2200 lyrics for @var{musicexpr2}.
2203 @subsection More stanzas
2207 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
2208 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
2209 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
2211 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice
2212 to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
2213 In the following example, the Voice
2214 identity is @code{duet}, and the identities of the LyricsVoices are
2215 @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
2218 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2221 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
2223 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
2224 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
2225 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
2226 Hi, my name is bert. }
2227 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
2228 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
2229 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
2234 You can add stanza numbers by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the
2235 first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following
2236 systems. Notice how you must surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics}
2242 @cindex stanza numbering
2250 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords. Chords are
2251 characterized by a set of pitches. They are
2252 internally stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can
2253 enter chords by name and print them as note head, enter them as notes
2254 and print them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by
2255 name, and print them as name.
2258 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2259 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
2269 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
2270 \context Voice \twoWays > }
2273 Note that this example also shows that the chord printing routines do
2274 not attempt to be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not
2275 interpret this as an inversion.
2279 * Printing named chords::
2284 @subsection Chords mode
2287 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
2288 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
2289 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
2290 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc).
2292 Dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions and subtractions,
2293 so articulation scripts can not be entered in Chord mode.
2295 The syntax for named chords is as follows:
2297 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
2300 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration} is
2301 the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
2302 modifiers. One type is formed by @emph{chord additions}. Additions are
2303 obtained by listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written
2304 by its number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising
2305 or lowering by half a step. Chord additions have two effects: they adds
2306 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
2307 chord, and they may lower or raise the specified interval.
2309 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
2310 using @code{\transpose}.
2312 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2316 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5-
2326 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
2327 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
2328 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
2329 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
2330 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
2331 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
2332 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
2334 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2337 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
2343 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
2344 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
2347 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2356 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
2357 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
2358 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the note
2359 is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
2361 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2371 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
2372 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
2373 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
2374 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
2376 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2387 Implementation details are quite gory. For example @code{c:4} not only
2388 adds a fourth, but also removes the third.
2391 @c . {Printing named chords}
2392 @node Printing named chords
2393 @subsection Printing named chords
2395 @cindex printing chord names
2399 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
2400 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
2401 directly using simultaneous music.
2403 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2405 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
2409 \context ChordNames \scheme
2410 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2415 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
2416 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
2417 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of a
2422 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
2426 \context ChordNames {
2427 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
2429 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2433 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
2434 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
2435 an added bass note, which may result in strange chord names when chords
2436 are entered as a list of pitches:
2438 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2447 \context ChordNames \scheme
2448 \context Staff \scheme
2454 By default, a chord name system proposed by Harald Banter (See
2455 @ref{Literature}) is used. The system is very regular and predictable.
2456 Typical American style chord names may be selected by setting the
2457 @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName} grob to
2458 @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz chordnames.
2460 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
2461 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
2462 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}. Here's an example showing the differences in
2466 @c maybe just junk verbatim option?
2467 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2477 \context ChordNames = banter \scheme
2478 \context ChordNames = american {
2479 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2480 #'style = #'american \scheme }
2481 \context ChordNames = jazz {
2482 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2483 #'style = #'jazz \scheme }
2484 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2491 @section Writing parts
2493 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
2494 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
2495 problems in orchestral music.
2502 * Instrument names::
2504 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
2505 * Multi measure rests::
2506 * Automatic part combining::
2507 * Hara kiri staves::
2510 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
2511 @node Rehearsal marks
2512 @subsection Rehearsal marks
2513 @cindex Rehearsal marks
2515 @cindex @code{\mark}
2519 \mark @var{unsigned}
2524 This command prints a rehearsal mark above the system. You can provide
2525 a number, a string or a markup text as argument. If you use
2526 @code{\default}, the value of property @code{rehearsalMark} is used and
2527 automatically incremented.
2529 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2535 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-segno")
2540 The grob is @internalsref{RehearsalMark} in @internalsref{Score} context. See
2541 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} if you need boxes around the marks.
2544 @subsection Bar numbers
2548 @cindex measure numbers
2549 @cindex currentBarNumber
2551 Bar numbers are @internalsref{BarNumber} grobs. They are printed at the
2552 start of the line. The number itself is a property that can be set by
2553 modifying the @code{currentBarNumber} property, i.e.
2555 \property Score.currentBarNumber = #217
2558 If you want boxed bar numbers, see the example file
2559 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly}.
2563 It is not possible to have bar numbers printed at regular intervals
2566 @node Instrument names
2567 @subsection Instrument names
2569 You can specify an instrument name for a staff by setting
2570 @code{Staff.instrument} and @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string
2571 before the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
2572 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
2574 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2575 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
2578 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
2582 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2584 '((font-relative-size . -2 ) (music "accidentals--1")))
2587 \property Staff.instrument = #`((kern . 0.5) (lines
2588 "2 Clarinetti" (columns " (B" ,text-flat ")")))
2596 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
2597 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
2598 the name to avoid a collision.
2601 @subsection Transpose
2603 @cindex transposition of pitches
2604 @cindex @code{\transpose}
2606 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
2609 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
2612 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
2615 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
2616 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
2617 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
2620 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2623 { \key e \major c d e f }
2625 \transpose des'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2626 \transpose cis'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2630 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
2631 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
2632 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
2634 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
2635 @subsection Sound output transposing instruments
2637 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed and
2639 instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch offset (in
2640 semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done using the
2641 @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed output.
2643 @cindex @code{transposing}
2646 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
2647 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
2650 @c . {Multi measure rests}
2651 @node Multi measure rests
2652 @subsection Multi measure rests
2653 @cindex Multi measure rests
2657 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
2658 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
2660 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
2661 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
2662 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
2665 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2666 \time 3/4 r2. | R2. | R2.*2 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
2669 Notice that the @code{R2.} is printed as a whole rest, centered in the
2672 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
2674 The grob for this object is @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
2678 Currently, there is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into
2679 a single multimeasure rest.
2681 @cindex condensing rests
2683 @node Automatic part combining
2684 @subsection Automatic part combining
2685 @cindex automatic part combining
2686 @cindex part combiner
2689 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
2690 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting
2691 orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
2692 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are
2693 typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically.
2694 Also, solo and @emph{a due} parts can be identified and marked.
2696 The syntax for part combining is
2699 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
2701 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
2702 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
2703 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
2706 The most useful function of the part combiner is to combine parts into
2707 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
2709 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2711 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2712 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2715 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2721 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
2722 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
2723 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
2724 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
2725 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
2728 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
2729 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
2731 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2733 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
2734 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2735 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2738 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2744 There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak the
2745 behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
2746 documentation of @reng{Thread_devnull_engraver} and
2747 @reng{Voice_devnull_engraver}. Look at the documentation of the
2748 responsible engravers, @code{Thread_devnull_engraver},
2749 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
2753 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
2754 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
2757 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
2759 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2760 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2763 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2769 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2770 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
2771 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
2773 @node Hara kiri staves
2774 @subsection Hara kiri staves
2776 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
2777 This saves some space. LilyPond also supports this through the hara
2778 kiri@footnote{Hara kiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
2779 the Japanese Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when
2780 it finds itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will
2781 not disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
2784 The hara kiri staff is specialized version of the @internalsref{Staff}
2785 context. It is available as the context identifier
2786 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
2787 example disappears in the second line.
2791 \notes \relative c' <
2792 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
2793 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
2797 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
2810 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
2811 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
2812 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
2813 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2814 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2819 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
2824 \consists Custos_engraver
2830 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century.
2831 There were different appearances for different notation styles.
2832 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
2833 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
2836 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
2837 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
2838 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
2839 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
2840 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
2847 \consists Custos_engraver
2848 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2853 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
2858 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
2859 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
2866 @section Figured bass
2868 @cindex Basso continuo
2870 Figured bass is printed by @internalsref{FiguredBass} context. This
2871 context will print notes (relative to the central C) as figures. To
2872 ease entering these notes, the special @code{\figures} mode, is
2873 available which allows you to type numbers, like @code{<4 6+>}.
2877 \context FiguredBass \transpose c'' {
2882 <1 3 5>4 <3- 5+ 6!> <5>
2893 @c . {Tuning output}
2895 @section Tuning output
2897 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
2898 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
2899 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
2900 ways to do just that.
2902 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called grobs (graphic
2903 objects). Each grob carries with it a set of properties (grob
2904 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem grob has
2905 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
2907 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
2908 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
2909 temporarily change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus
2910 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
2911 object, and set a grob property in that object.
2914 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
2915 * Tuning per grob ::
2923 @node Tuning groups of grobs
2924 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
2926 @cindex grob description
2930 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a
2931 context property. By assigning to that property (using plain
2932 @code{\property}), you can change the resulting grobs.
2934 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2935 c'4 \property Voice.Stem = #'((meta . ((interfaces . ())))) c'4
2938 The @code{\property} assignment effectively empties the definition of
2939 the Stem object. One of the effects is that the recipe of how it should be
2940 printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible. The above
2941 assignment is available as a standard identifier, for the case that you
2945 \property Voice.Stem = \turnOff
2952 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
2953 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
2956 The definition of a grob is actually a list of default grob
2957 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem grob (available in
2958 @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), defines the following values for
2963 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
2964 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
2968 You can add a property on top of the existing definition, or remove a
2969 property, thus overriding the system defaults:
2971 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
2972 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
2975 You should balance @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. If that's too
2976 much work, you can use the @code{\set} shorthand. It performs a revert
2977 followed by an override. The following example gives exactly the same
2978 result as the previous one.
2980 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
2981 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
2984 If you use @code{\set}, you must explicitly restore the default.
2987 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
2989 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2990 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2991 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
2993 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
2994 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
2997 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
2998 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
2999 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
3000 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and @code{\revert},
3001 must be carefully balanced.
3003 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
3006 A clumsy but correct form:
3008 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
3011 Shorter version of the same:
3013 \override \set \set \revert
3016 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
3019 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
3022 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the grob property is unset),
3025 \set \set \set \revert
3028 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
3029 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a
3030 stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
3031 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding
3032 automatic beaming settings.
3036 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
3037 The backend is not very strict in type-checking grob properties. If you
3038 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
3041 Some grobs are created at the moment that their context is created. An
3042 example of such a grob is the staff itself (i.e. the horizontal lines).
3043 You can not change the appearance of the staff symbol by manipulating
3044 @code{\property Staff.StaffSymbol}. At the moment that @code{\property
3045 Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and the StaffSymbol is
3046 created before any @code{\override} is effective. You can deal with this
3047 either overriding properties in a @code{\translator} definition, or by
3048 using @code{\outputproperty}.
3053 @node Tuning per grob
3054 @subsection Tuning per grob
3056 @cindex \outputproperty
3058 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
3059 feature. The syntax is as follows:
3061 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3063 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
3064 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
3065 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
3066 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
3067 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
3069 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
3070 the appropriate context to apply this to.
3072 Here are some random examples.
3075 In the following example, all note heads occurring at current staff
3076 level, are shifted up and right by setting their @code{extra-offset}
3079 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3081 \context Staff \outputproperty
3082 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
3083 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
3087 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
3089 In this example, the predicate checks the @code{text} grob property, to
3090 shift only the `m.d.' text, but not the fingering instruction "2".
3091 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3092 #(define (make-text-checker text)
3093 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
3096 \notes\relative c''' {
3097 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
3098 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
3099 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
3107 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
3108 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
3114 @subsection What to tune?
3116 This all tells you how to tune grobs, but you don't know what variables
3117 to set? The question is not answered in this part of the manual
3118 (although you may encounter some examples.).
3120 Grob properties are tied directly to the implementation of LilyPond, and
3121 they are thus a moving target. Documentation of such variables is in the
3122 automatically generated documentation. Description of properties are
3123 generated from the source code for each version. This documentation is
3124 therefore more up to date. It should be available from the same place
3125 where you got this manual.
3127 To decide how to tune a grob, you need to find the following information
3130 which grob to modify
3132 which property to modify
3134 which context the grob comes from.
3137 Included with the automatically generated documentation is a master list
3138 of grobs. Selecting a grob will take you to an overview of the
3139 properties available for that grob.
3141 There is also a master list of contexts. Selecting one takes you to an
3142 overview of that context which lists which grob types are created there.
3145 @node Font selection
3146 @subsection Font selection
3148 Most graphics in LilyPond are composed of characters of fonts. You can
3149 alter the characteristics of the font by setting certain grob
3150 properties. The mechanism that is used for this resembles La@TeX{}'s New
3151 Font Selection Scheme. Within this scheme, a font is entirely
3152 characterized by its font name.
3154 For each grob that uses fonts (in other words, each grob that supports
3155 @code{font-interface}) a font-name must be selected before it can be
3156 printed. The font name is selected by looking at a number of grob
3161 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
3162 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff braces),
3163 @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic
3164 signs) and @code{typewriter}
3167 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
3168 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
3169 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
3172 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
3173 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
3176 @item font-relative-size
3177 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
3178 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
3179 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
3181 @item font-design-size
3182 A number indicating the design size of the font.
3184 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
3185 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
3186 which enhances readability. Scalable type faces such TrueType and Adobe
3187 Type1 usually come as ``one design fits all sizes''.
3190 The name of the font, without the design size, e.g. @code{cmr},
3191 @code{cmti}, etc. Setting this overrides font-family, font-shape and
3198 The font is selected by taking the first font that satisfies all
3199 qualifiers specified. You can override any of these fields through
3200 @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The special value @code{*} matches
3201 any value for that qualifier.
3204 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
3205 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
3208 @cindex @code{font-style}
3210 There are also pre-cooked font selection qualifiers. These are selected
3211 through the grob property @code{font-style}. For example, the style
3212 @code{finger} selects family @code{number} and relative size @code{-3}.
3213 Styles available include @code{volta}, @code{finger}, @code{tuplet},
3214 @code{timesig}, @code{mmrest}, @code{script}, @code{large}, @code{Large}
3217 The style sheets and tables for selecting fonts are located in
3218 @file{scm/font.scm}. Refer to this file for more information.
3221 Setting @code{font-name} overrides all other qualifiers. The value for
3222 this property should be a string, the file name of the font. You may use
3223 this to use special fonts, which are not a part of the style sheet, or
3224 which have special encodings.
3226 The size of the font may be set with the grob property
3227 @code{font-magnification}. It is the size of font, relative to its
3228 standard size. For example, @code{1.0} is normal size.
3232 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
3234 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
3237 @cindex font selection
3238 @cindex font magnification
3239 @cindex @code{font-interface}
3243 @subsection Text markup
3247 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
3248 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
3249 in the following way.
3251 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3256 c^#'(italic "italic")
3257 d_#'((bold italic) "ff")
3259 f_#'(lines "one" (bold "two"))
3260 g^#'(music "noteheads-2" ((raise . 2.4) "flags-u3"))
3264 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
3265 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
3268 text: string | (head? text+)
3269 head: markup | (markup+)
3270 markup-item: property | abbrev
3271 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
3272 abbrev: @code{columns lines roman music bold italic named super sub}
3273 @code{overstrike text finger volta timesig mmrest mark script}
3274 @code{large Large dynamic}
3277 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
3278 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
3279 pair is a grob property. A list of properties available is included in
3280 the generated documentation for @rint{Text_interface}.
3282 The following abbreviations are currently defined:
3285 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
3287 vertical mode: set every text on a new line
3291 selects the Feta font (the standard font for music notation glyphs),
3292 and uses named lookup
3299 lookup by character name
3301 plain text lookup (by character value)
3307 the next text or character overstrikes this one
3309 select fingering number fontstyle
3311 select volta number fontstyle
3313 select time signature number fontstyle
3315 select multi measure rest number fontstyle
3317 select mark number fontstyle
3319 select scriptsize roman fontstyle
3321 select large roman fontstyle
3323 select Large roman fontstyle
3325 select dynamics fontstyle
3329 @cindex metronome mark
3331 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
3335 #(define note '(columns
3336 (music "noteheads-2" ((kern . -0.1) "flags-stem"))))
3337 #(define eight-note `(columns ,note ((kern . -0.1)
3338 (music ((raise . 3.5) "flags-u3")))))
3339 #(define dotted-eight-note
3340 `(columns ,eight-note (music "dots-dot")))
3343 \notes\relative c'' {
3344 a1^#`((columns (font-relative-size . -1)) ,dotted-eight-note " = 64")
3350 TextScript \override #'font-shape = #'upright
3356 @node Invisible grobs
3357 @subsection Invisible grobs
3358 @cindex invisible grobs
3362 ben nog steeds niet kapot van de informatiedichtheid hier.
3368 You can imagine a number of situations where you would want to make
3369 certain grobs not show up in the output. There may be aesthetic
3370 reasons, to make the output resemble an (old) manuscript as close as
3371 possible, or to make lessons or exercises for students.
3373 Grobs can be made invisible in a number of ways:
3375 Here's an example with blanked-out notes and stems:
3376 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3378 \property Voice.NoteHead \override
3380 \property Voice.Stem \override
3381 #'transparent = ##t }
3384 \property Voice.NoteHead \revert #'transparent
3385 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'transparent }
3388 \notes\relative c'' {
3390 a b c b \blanknotes c \unblanknotes d
3394 This method makes the grobs invisible but they still take the normal space.
3395 To remove all traces of the grob, you can redefine the function
3399 \notes\relative c'' {
3402 as bes c bes c d \break
3403 \property Staff.KeySignature \override #'molecule-callback = #'()
3406 \paper{linewidth=5.0\cm indent=0}
3410 A very rigorous way of removing grobs from the whole score is to remove
3411 the engraver that creates them. For example,
3413 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3414 \score {\notes { c'4 d'8 e'8 g2 }
3415 \paper { \translator {
3417 \remove Stem_engraver
3423 @subsection Dirty tricks
3424 @cindex embedded tex
3426 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
3427 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
3428 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
3429 commands won't work with direct PostScript output (see @ref{PostScript
3432 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3433 a'^"3 $\\times$ \\`a deux"
3436 You can also use raw PostScript commands embedded in text scripts. This
3437 offers ultimate flexibility, but requires you to learn PostScript.
3438 Currently, embedded PostScript will @strong{not} work with direct
3439 PostScript output. Note that all dimensions that you use are in staff
3444 \notes \relative c'' {
3445 a-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 5 3 rlineto stroke}"
3446 -#"\\embeddedps{ [ 0 1 ] 0 setdash 3 5 moveto 5 -3 rlineto stroke}"
3447 b-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 0 0 1 2 8 4 20 3.5 rcurveto stroke}"
3451 \paper { linewidth = 70*\staffspace }
3458 @section Page layout
3461 The page layout is the combined product of LilyPond formatting notation,
3462 and (La)@TeX{} putting the notation on a page, including page breaks.
3463 The part of LilyPond is documented here.
3477 @subsection Paper block
3480 The most important output definition is the @code{\paper} block, for
3481 music notation. The syntax is
3484 @code{\paper @{} [@var{paperidentifier}] @var{items} @code{@}}
3487 where each of the items is one of
3490 @item An assignment.
3492 @item A context definition. See @ref{Interpretation context} for
3493 more information on context definitions.
3495 @item \stylesheet declaration. Its syntax is
3497 \stylesheet @var{alist}
3500 See @file{scm/font.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
3501 @item an @code{\elementdescriptions} declaration.
3503 \elementdescriptions @var{alist}
3505 See @file{scm/grob-description.scm} for details of
3506 @var{alist}. This command is not user-serviceable.
3510 @c . {Paper variables}
3511 @node Paper variables
3512 @subsection Paper variables
3513 @cindex Paper variables
3515 The paper block has some variables you may want to use or change:
3518 @cindex @code{indent}
3520 The indentation of the first line of music.
3521 @cindex @code{staffspace}
3523 @item @code{staffspace}
3524 The distance between two staff lines, calculated from the center
3527 @cindex @code{linewidth}
3528 @item @code{linewidth}
3529 Sets the width of the lines.
3531 If set to a negative value, a single unjustified line is produced.
3532 @c rename to singleLinePaper ?
3533 The shorthand @code{\singleLine} defines a default paper block that
3534 produces a single line.
3536 @cindex @code{textheight}
3538 @item @code{textheight}
3539 Sets the total height of the music on each page. Only used by
3542 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
3544 @item @code{interscoreline}
3545 Sets the spacing between systems. The default is 16pt.
3547 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
3549 @item @code{interscorelinefill}
3550 If set to a positive number, the distance between the score
3551 lines will stretch in order to fill the full page. In that
3552 case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
3557 @cindex @code{stafflinethickness}
3559 @item @code{stafflinethickness}
3560 Determines the thickness of staff lines, and also acts as a scaling
3561 parameter for other line thicknesses.
3564 You may enter these dimension using units (@code{cm}, @code{in},
3565 @code{mm}, @code{pt}), or relative to another dimension
3567 linewidth = 20.0 * \staffspace
3574 @subsection Font size
3577 The Feta font provides musical symbols at six different sizes. These
3578 fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point,
3579 23 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the
3580 height of the five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
3582 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
3583 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any of
3584 these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven}, @code{paperThirteen},
3585 @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and
3586 @code{paperTwentysix} are defined respectively. The default
3587 @code{\paper} block is also set.
3589 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
3590 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
3596 @subsection Paper size
3601 @cindex @code{papersize}
3603 To change the paper size, you must first set the
3604 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
3605 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
3606 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
3607 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
3610 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
3611 \include "paper16.ly"
3614 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
3615 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
3616 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
3620 @subsection Line break
3623 @cindex breaking lines
3625 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
3626 that the resulting spacing has low variation, and looks neither cramped
3629 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do
3630 this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at this
3631 point. Do remember that line breaks can only occur at places where there
3632 are bar lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no
3633 bar line, you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
3634 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain point.
3636 @cindex @code{\penalty}
3638 The @code{\break} and @code{\noBreak} commands are defined in terms of
3639 the penalty command:
3644 This encourages or discourages LilyPond to make a line break at this
3649 The scaling of the @code{\penalty} argument is not well-defined. The
3650 command is rather kludgey, and slated for rewriting.
3654 @subsection Page break
3657 @cindex breaking pages
3659 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
3660 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into the
3661 @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages, by inserting
3662 the command @code{\newpage}
3663 @cindex @code{\newpage}
3669 @c why do so difficult?
3670 @c maybe should explain contents of between-system.ly,
3671 @c but not now, we're talking about page breaks here.
3673 @c details, see the example file @file{input/test/between-systems.ly}
3676 @c . {Output scaling}
3677 @node Output scaling
3678 @subsection Output scaling
3693 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3694 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts.
3698 @c . {Output formats}
3699 @node Output formats
3700 @section Output formats
3702 LilyPond can output processed music in different output formats.
3706 * PostScript output::
3708 * ASCIIScript output::
3712 @subsection TeX output
3715 LilyPond will use @TeX{} by default. Even if you want to produce
3716 PostScript output for viewing or printing, you should normally have
3717 LilyPond produce @TeX{} first. The .tex output must be processed by
3718 @TeX{} (@strong{not} La@TeX{}) to generate a .dvi. Then, @file{Dvips}
3719 is used to generate PostScript. Alternatively, @file{ly2dvi} can be
3720 used to generate the .dvi for you.
3724 Titling is not generated unless you use @file{ly2dvi}.
3727 @node PostScript output
3728 @subsection PostScript output
3729 @cindex PostScript output
3730 @cindex direct PostScript output
3732 LilyPond can produce PostScript directly, without going through @TeX{}.
3733 Currently, this is mainly useful if you cannot use TeX, because direct
3734 PostScript output has some problems; see Bugs below.
3737 $ lilypond -fps foo.ly
3738 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3739 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3741 Interpreting music...[3]
3742 Preprocessing elements...
3743 Calculating column positions...
3744 paper output to foo.ps...
3746 $ cat /usr/share/lilypond/pfa/feta20.pfa foo.ps | lpr
3752 Text font selection is broken.
3754 The .ps file does not contain the .pfa font files. To print a .ps
3755 created through direct postscript output, you should prepend the
3756 necessary .pfa files to LilyPond's .ps output, or upload them to the
3757 printer before printing.
3759 The line height calculation is broken, you must set @var{lineheight} in
3760 the paperblock if you have more than one staff in your score, e.g.
3765 % Set line height to 40 staff spaces
3771 @subsection Scheme output
3772 @cindex Scheme output
3774 In the typesetting stage, LilyPond builds a page description, which is
3775 then written to disk in postscript, @TeX{} or ASCII art. Before it is
3776 written, the page description is represented as Scheme expressions. You
3777 can also dump these Scheme expressions to a file, which may be
3778 convenient for debugging output routines. This is done with the Scheme
3782 $ lilypond -fscm foo.ly
3783 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3784 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3786 Interpreting music...[3]
3787 Preprocessing elements...
3788 Calculating column positions...
3789 paper output to foo.scm...
3792 ;;; Usage: guile -s x.scm > x.tex
3793 (primitive-load-path 'standalone.scm)
3797 $ guile -s foo.scm > foo.tex
3801 @node ASCIIScript output
3802 @subsection ASCIIScript output
3803 @cindex ASCIIScript output
3804 @cindex ascii script
3807 LilyPond can output ASCII Art. This is a two step process, LilyPond
3808 produces an ASCII description file, dubbed ASCIIScript (extension
3809 @file{.as}). ASCIIScript has a small and simple command set that
3810 includes font selection, character and string printing and line drawing
3811 commands. The program @file{as2text} is used to translate an .as file
3814 To produce ASCII Art, you must include an ASCII Art paper definition
3815 file in your .ly, one of:
3817 \include "paper-as5.ly"
3818 \include "paper-as9.ly"
3821 Here's an example use for ASCII Art output (the example file
3822 @file{as-email.ly} is included in the LilyPond distribution), the staff
3823 symbol has been made invisible:
3826 $ lilypond -fas as-email.ly
3827 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3828 Now processing: `as-email.ly'
3830 Interpreting music...[3]
3831 Preprocessing elements...
3832 Calculating column positions... [2]
3833 paper output to as-email.as...
3835 $ as2text as-email.as 2>/dev/null
3837 |/ |##|##| | | | | |
3838 /| | | | | |\ |\ |\ |\ |\ |
3839 / |_ 3 | | | | 5 | )| )| )| )| )|
3840 | /| \ 8 * * * | 8 * * * * * |
3850 The ASCII Art fonts are far from complete and not very well designed.
3851 It's easy to change the glyphs, though; if you think you can do better,
3852 have a look at @file{mf/*.af}.
3854 Lots of resizable symbols such as slurs, ties and tuplets are missing.
3856 The poor looks of most ASCII Art output and its limited general
3857 usefulness gives ASCII Art output a low priority; it may be
3858 dropped in future versions.
3865 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
3866 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, etc., but it
3867 is good enough for proof-hearing the music you have entered. Ties,
3868 dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
3870 Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume
3871 levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available
3872 MIDI volume range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary
3873 linearly between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
3874 overriding the @code{absolute-volume-alist} defined in
3875 @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3877 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
3878 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
3879 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. You can add
3880 instruments and ranges or change the default settings by overriding the
3881 @code{instrument-equalizer-alist} defined in @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3883 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
3888 It is currently not possible to use the percussion channel (generally
3889 channel 10 of a MIDI file).
3893 * MIDI instrument names::
3898 @subsection MIDI block
3902 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
3903 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
3907 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
3908 @item context definitions
3911 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
3915 @cindex context definition
3917 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
3918 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
3919 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer.ly}.
3922 @node MIDI instrument names
3923 @subsection MIDI instrument names
3925 @cindex instrument names
3926 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3927 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
3929 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3930 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
3931 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
3932 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
3936 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
3937 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by
3947 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
3950 @section Music entry
3958 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce errors. This
3959 section deals with tricks and features that help you enter music, and
3960 find and correct mistakes.
3964 @subsection Relative
3966 @cindex relative octave specification
3968 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
3969 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
3970 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
3971 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
3973 @cindex @code{\relative}
3975 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
3978 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
3979 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
3980 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
3981 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
3982 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
3985 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
3986 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
3987 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
3988 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
3990 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
3991 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
3997 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
3998 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4000 c g c f, c' a, e'' }
4003 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
4004 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
4005 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
4008 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4015 @cindex @code{\notes}
4017 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
4018 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
4019 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
4022 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
4023 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
4024 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
4025 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
4030 @subsection Bar check
4034 @cindex @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}
4038 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
4039 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
4040 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
4041 @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
4042 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
4044 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}:
4046 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
4051 @cindex skipTypesetting
4053 Failed bar checks are most often caused by entering incorrect
4054 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
4055 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the score
4056 by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To speed up
4057 this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting} (See @ref{Skipping
4058 corrected music})). Bar
4061 @c . {Point and click}
4062 @node Point and click
4063 @subsection Point and click
4065 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
4066 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
4067 error in the sheet music.
4069 To use it, you need the following software
4071 @unnumberedsubsec Installation
4075 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,plain
4076 Xdvi} version 22.36 or newer.
4078 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is a
4079 different and less well maintained program. To find out which xdvi you
4080 are running, try @code{xdvi --version} or @code{xdvi.bin --version}.
4084 Xdvi must be configured to find the TeX fonts and music
4085 fonts. Refer to the Xdvi documentation for more information.
4088 @unnumberedsubsec Using it
4090 Add one of these lines to the top of your .ly file. The first one is for
4091 line location only. The second one is more convenient, but requires
4092 patching @code{emacsclient} and @code{server.el}.
4095 #(set! point-and-click line-location)
4098 In the emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}), add the following
4103 Make sure that the environment variable @code{XEDITOR} is set
4106 emacsclient --no-wait +%l %f
4108 The second one, that also specifies the column, only works if you have
4109 patched your emacsclient and server, and have compiled your @code{.ly}
4110 file using the @code{line-column-location} setting.
4112 When viewing, control-mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
4113 spot in the @file{.ly} file. Control-mousebutton 2 will show all
4117 @unnumberedsubsec Column location
4119 If you want emacs to jump to the exact spot (and not just the line) on a
4120 click, you must enable column positioning. To do so, you need to patch
4121 emacsclient. Apply @file{emacsclient.patch} (included with the source
4122 package) to @file{emacsclient.c} and @file{server.el} from the emacs
4123 source code. Recompile and stick the recompiled emacsclient into a bin
4124 directory, and put @file{server.el} into a elisp directory
4125 (e.g. @file{~/usr/share/emacs/}). Add the following to your @file{.emacs}
4126 init file, before invoking server-start.
4129 (setq load-path (cons "~/usr/share/emacs" load-path))
4132 Set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{emacsclient --no-wait +%l:%c %f}
4134 At the top of the @code{ly} file, replace the @code{set!} line with the
4137 #(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
4140 One final hint: if you correct large files with point-and-click, then
4141 start correcting at the end of the file. When you start at the top, and
4142 insert one line, all subsequent locations will be off by a line.
4147 When you convert the @TeX{} file to PostScript using @code{dvips}, it
4148 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. Those complaints
4149 are harmless, and can be ignored.
4151 @node Skipping corrected music
4152 @section Skipping corrected music
4154 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
4155 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
4156 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
4157 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
4160 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4161 \relative c'' { c8 d
4162 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
4164 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
4169 @node Interpretation context
4170 @section Interpretation context
4173 * Creating contexts::
4174 * Default contexts::
4175 * Context properties::
4176 * Engravers and performers::
4177 * Changing context definitions::
4178 * Defining new contexts::
4182 Interpretation contexts are objects that only exist during a run of
4183 LilyPond. During the interpretation phase of LilyPond (when it prints
4184 "interpreting music"), the music expression in a @code{\score} block is
4185 interpreted in time order. This is the same order that humans hear and
4188 During this interpretation, the interpretation context holds the
4189 state for the current point within the music. It contains information
4193 @item What notes are playing at this point?
4194 @item What symbols will be printed at this point?
4195 @item What is the current key signature, time signature, point within
4199 Contexts are grouped hierarchically: A @internalsref{Voice} context is
4200 contained in a @internalsref{Staff} context (because a staff can contain
4201 multiple voices at any point), a @internalsref{Staff} context is contained in
4202 @internalsref{Score}, @internalsref{StaffGroup}, or @internalsref{ChoirStaff} context.
4204 Contexts associated with sheet music output are called @emph{notation
4205 contexts}, those for sound output are called @emph{performance
4206 contexts}. The default definitions of the standard notation and
4207 performance contexts can be found in @file{ly/engraver.ly} and
4208 @file{ly/performer.ly}, respectively.
4211 @node Creating contexts
4212 @subsection Creating contexts
4214 @cindex @code{\context}
4215 @cindex context selection
4217 Contexts for a music expression can be selected manually, using the
4218 following music expression.
4221 \context @var{contexttype} [= @var{contextname}] @var{musicexpr}
4224 This instructs lilypond to interpret @var{musicexpr} within the context
4225 of type @var{contexttype} and with name @var{contextname}. If this
4226 context does not exist, it will be created.
4228 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4230 \notes \relative c'' {
4231 c4 <d4 \context Staff = "another" e4> f
4237 In this example, the @code{c} and @code{d} are printed on the
4238 default staff. For the @code{e}, a context Staff called
4239 @code{another} is specified; since that does not exist, a new
4240 context is created. Within @code{another}, a (default) Voice context
4241 is created for the @code{e4}. When all music referring to a
4242 context is finished, the context is ended as well. So after the
4243 third quarter, @code{another} is removed.
4247 @node Default contexts
4248 @subsection Default contexts
4250 Most music expressions don't need an explicit @code{\context}
4251 declaration: they inherit the
4252 notation context from their parent. Each note is a music expression, and
4253 as you can see in the following example, only the sequential music
4254 enclosing the three notes has an explicit context.
4256 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4257 \score { \notes \context Voice = goUp { c'4 d' e' } }
4260 There are some quirks that you must keep in mind when dealing with
4263 First, every top level music is interpreted by the Score context, in other
4264 words, you may think of @code{\score} working like
4267 \context Score @var{music}
4271 Second, contexts are created automatically to be able to interpret the
4272 music expressions. Consider the following example.
4274 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4275 \score { \context Score \notes { c'4 ( d' )e' } }
4278 The sequential music is interpreted by the Score context initially
4279 (notice that the @code{\context} specification is redundant), but when a
4280 note is encountered, contexts are setup to accept that note. In this
4281 case, a Thread, Voice and Staff are created. The rest of the sequential
4282 music is also interpreted with the same Thread, Voice and Staff context,
4283 putting the notes on the same staff, in the same voice.
4285 This is a convenient mechanism, but do not expect opening chords to work
4286 without @code{\context}. For every note, a separate staff is
4289 @cindex explicit context
4290 @cindex starting with chords
4291 @cindex chords, starting with
4293 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4294 \score { \notes <c'4 es'> }
4297 Of course, if the chord is preceded by a normal note in sequential
4298 music, the chord will be interpreted by the Thread of the preceding
4300 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4301 \score { \notes { c'4 <c'4 es'> } }
4306 @node Context properties
4307 @subsection Context properties
4309 Notation contexts have properties. These properties are from
4310 the @file{.ly} file using the following expression:
4311 @cindex @code{\property}
4313 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} = @var{value}
4316 Sets the @var{propname} property of the context @var{contextname} to the
4317 specified Scheme expression @var{value}. All @var{propname} and
4318 @var{contextname} are strings, which are typically unquoted.
4320 Properties that are set in one context are inherited by all of the
4321 contained contexts. This means that a property valid for the
4322 @internalsref{Voice} context can be set in the @internalsref{Score} context (for
4323 example) and thus take effect in all @internalsref{Voice} contexts.
4325 Properties can be unset using the following expression:
4327 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} \unset
4330 @cindex properties, unsetting
4331 @cindex @code{\unset}
4333 This removes the definition of @var{propname} in @var{contextname}. If
4334 @var{propname} was not defined in @var{contextname} (but was inherited
4335 from a higher context), then this has no effect.
4340 The syntax of @code{\unset} is asymmetric: @code{\property \unset} is not
4341 the inverse of @code{\property \set}.
4343 @node Engravers and performers
4344 @subsection Engravers and performers
4348 Basic building blocks of translation are called engravers; they are
4349 special C++ classes.
4353 @c . {Context definitions}
4354 @node Changing context definitions
4355 @subsection Changing context definitions
4357 @cindex context definition
4358 @cindex translator definition
4360 The most common way to define a context is by extending an existing
4361 context. You can change an existing context from the paper block, by
4362 first initializing a translator with an existing context identifier:
4366 @var{context-identifier}
4369 Then you can add and remove engravers using the following syntax:
4371 \remove @var{engravername}
4372 \consists @var{engravername}
4376 Here @var{engravername} is a string, the name of an engraver in the
4380 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4384 \translator { \StaffContext
4385 \remove Clef_engraver
4391 You can also set properties in a translator definition. The syntax is as
4394 @var{propname} = @var{value}
4395 @var{propname} \set @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4396 @var{propname} \override @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4397 @var{propname} \revert @var{grob-propname}
4399 @var{propname} is a string, @var{grob-propname} a symbol, @var{value}
4400 and @code{pvalue} are Scheme expressions. These type of property
4401 assignments happen before interpretation starts, so a @code{\property}
4402 command will override any predefined settings.
4405 To simplify editing translators, all standard contexts have standard
4406 identifiers called @var{name}@code{Context}, e.g. @code{StaffContext},
4407 @code{VoiceContext}, see @file{ly/engraver.ly}.
4409 @node Defining new contexts
4410 @subsection Defining new contexts
4412 If you want to build a context from scratch, you must also supply the
4413 following extra information:
4415 @item A name, specified by @code{\name @var{contextname}}.
4417 @item A cooperation module. This is specified by @code{\type
4424 \type "Engraver_group_engraver"
4427 \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4428 \consists "Note_head_engraver"
4429 \consistsend "Axis_group_engraver"
4433 The argument of @code{\type} is the name for a special engraver that
4434 handles cooperation between simple engravers such as
4435 @code{Note_head_engraver} and @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. Alternatives
4436 for this engraver are the following:
4438 @cindex @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4439 @item @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4440 The standard cooperation engraver.
4442 @cindex @code{Score_engraver}
4444 @item @code{Score_engraver}
4445 This is cooperation module that should be in the top level context,
4446 and only the top level context.
4448 @cindex @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4450 @item @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4451 This is a special cooperation module (resembling
4452 @code{Score_engraver}) that is used to create an embedded
4459 @item @code{\alias} @var{alternate-name}
4460 This specifies a different name. In the above example,
4461 @code{\property Staff.X = Y} will also work on @code{SimpleStaff}s
4463 @item @code{\consistsend} @var{engravername}
4464 Analogous to @code{\consists}, but makes sure that
4465 @var{engravername} is always added to the end of the list of
4468 Some engraver types need to be at the end of the list; this
4469 insures they stay there even if a user adds or removes engravers.
4470 End-users generally don't need this command.
4472 @item @code{\accepts} @var{contextname}
4473 Add @var{contextname} to the list of contexts this context can
4474 contain in the context hierarchy. The first listed context is the
4475 context to create by default.
4477 @item @code{\denies}. The opposite of @code{\accepts}. Added for
4478 completeness, but is never used in practice.
4481 @item @code{\name} @var{contextname}
4482 This sets the type name of the context, e.g. @internalsref{Staff},
4483 @internalsref{Voice}. If the name is not specified, the translator won't do
4487 In the @code{\paper} block, it is also possible to define translator
4488 identifiers. Like other block identifiers, the identifier can only
4489 be used as the very first item of a translator. In order to define
4490 such an identifier outside of @code{\score}, you must do
4495 foo = \translator @{ @dots{} @}
4502 \translator @{ \foo @dots{} @}
4510 @cindex paper types, engravers, and pre-defined translators
4517 @c . {Syntactic details}
4518 @node Syntactic details
4519 @section Syntactic details
4520 @cindex Syntactic details
4522 This section describes details that were too boring to be put elsewhere.
4527 * Music expressions::
4528 * Manipulating music expressions::
4536 @subsection Top level
4539 This section describes what you may enter at top level.
4543 @subsubsection Score
4546 @cindex score definition
4548 The output is generated combining a music expression with an output
4549 definition. A score block has the following syntax:
4552 \score @{ @var{musicexpr} @var{outputdefs} @}
4555 @var{outputdefs} are zero or more output definitions. If none is
4556 supplied, the default @code{\paper} block will be added.
4560 @c . {Default output}
4561 @subsubsection Default output
4563 Default values for the @code{\paper} and @code{\midi} block are set by
4564 entering such a block at the top level.
4567 @subsubsection Header
4569 @cindex @code{\header}
4572 A header describes bibliographic information of the file's contents. It
4573 can also appear in a @code{\score} block. Tools like @code{ly2dvi} can
4574 use this information for generating titles. Key values that are used by
4575 @code{ly2dvi} are: title, subtitle, composer, opus, poet, instrument,
4576 meter, arranger, piece and tagline.
4578 @cindex @code{ly2dvi}
4582 \header @{ @var{key1} = @var{val1}
4583 @var{key2} = @var{val2} @dots{} @}
4586 It is customary to put the @code{\header} at the top of the file.
4588 @subsubsection Default output
4590 A @code{\midi} or @code{\paper} block at top level sets the default
4591 paper block for all scores that lack an explicit paper block.
4595 @subsection Identifiers
4599 What has this section got to do with identifiers?
4600 It seems more appropriate in the introduction to Chapter 4,
4606 All of the information in a LilyPond input file, is internally
4607 represented as a Scheme value. In addition to normal Scheme data types
4608 (such as pair, number, boolean, etc.), LilyPond has a number of
4609 specialized data types,
4616 @item Translator_def
4620 @item Music_output_def
4621 @item Moment (rational number)
4624 LilyPond also includes some transient object types. Objects of these
4625 types are built during a LilyPond run, and do not `exist' per se within
4626 your input file. These objects are created as a result of your input
4627 file, so you can include commands in the input to manipulate them,
4628 during a lilypond run.
4631 @item Grob: short for Graphical object. See @ref{Grobs}.
4632 @item Molecule: device-independent page output object,
4633 including dimensions. Produced by some Grob functions
4635 @item Translator: object that produces audio objects or Grobs. This is
4636 not yet user accessible.
4637 @item Font_metric: object representing a font. (See @ref{Font metrics})
4642 @node Music expressions
4643 @subsection Music expressions
4645 @cindex music expressions
4647 Music in LilyPond is entered as a music expression. Notes, rests, lyric
4648 syllables are music expressions, and you can combine music expressions
4649 to form new ones, for example by enclosing a list of expressions in
4650 @code{\sequential @{ @}} or @code{< >}. In the following example, a
4651 compound expression is formed out of the quarter note @code{c} and a
4652 quarter note @code{d}:
4655 \sequential @{ c4 d4 @}
4658 @cindex Sequential music
4659 @cindex @code{\sequential}
4660 @cindex sequential music
4663 @cindex Simultaneous music
4664 @cindex @code{\simultaneous}
4666 The two basic compound music expressions are simultaneous and
4670 \sequential @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4671 \simultaneous @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4673 For both, there is a shorthand:
4675 @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4679 @code{<} @var{musicexprlist} @code{>}
4681 for simultaneous music.
4682 In principle, the way in which you nest sequential and simultaneous to
4683 produce music is not relevant. In the following example, three chords
4684 are expressed in two different ways:
4686 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4687 \notes \context Voice {
4688 <a c'> <b d' > <c' e'>
4689 < { a b c' } { c' d' e' } >
4694 Other compound music expressions include
4697 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{expr}
4698 \apply @var{func} @var{expr}
4699 \context @var{type} = @var{id} @var{expr}
4700 \times @var{fraction} @var{expr}
4704 @c . {Manipulating music expressions}
4705 @node Manipulating music expressions
4706 @subsection Manipulating music expressions
4708 The @code{\apply} mechanism gives you access to the internal
4709 representation of music. You can write Scheme-functions that operate
4710 directly on it. The syntax is
4712 \apply #@var{func} @var{music}
4714 This means that @var{func} is applied to @var{music}. The function
4715 @var{func} should return a music expression.
4717 This example replaces the text string of a script. It also shows a dump
4718 of the music it processes, which is useful if you want to know more
4719 about how music is stored.
4721 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4722 #(define (testfunc x)
4723 (if (equal? (ly-get-mus-property x 'text) "foo")
4724 (ly-set-mus-property x 'text "bar"))
4726 (ly-set-mus-property x 'elements
4727 (map testfunc (ly-get-mus-property x 'elements)))
4732 \apply #testfunc { c'4_"foo" }
4736 For more information on what is possible, see the automatically
4737 generated documentation.
4740 Directly accessing internal representations is dangerous: the
4741 implementation is subject to changes, so you should avoid this feature
4744 A final example is a function that reverses a piece of music in time:
4746 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4747 #(define (reverse-music music)
4748 (let* ((elements (ly-get-mus-property music 'elements))
4749 (reversed (reverse elements))
4750 (span-dir (ly-get-mus-property music 'span-direction)))
4751 (ly-set-mus-property music 'elements reversed)
4753 (ly-set-mus-property music 'span-direction (- span-dir)))
4754 (map reverse-music reversed)
4757 music = \notes { c'4 d'4( e'4 f'4 }
4759 \score { \context Voice {
4761 \apply #reverse-music \music
4766 More examples are given in the distributed example files in
4769 @c . {Span requests}
4775 @subsubsection Span requests
4776 @cindex Span requests
4778 Notational constructs that start and end on different notes can be
4779 entered using span requests. The syntax is as follows:
4783 \spanrequest @var{startstop} @var{type}
4787 @cindex @code{\start}
4788 @cindex @code{\stop}
4790 This defines a spanning request. The @var{startstop} parameter is either
4791 -1 (@code{\start}) or 1 (@code{\stop}) and @var{type} is a string that
4792 describes what should be started. Much of the syntactic sugar is a
4793 shorthand for @code{\spanrequest}, for example,
4795 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4796 c'4-\spanrequest \start "slur"
4797 c'4-\spanrequest \stop "slur"
4800 Among the supported types are @code{crescendo}, @code{decrescendo},
4801 @code{beam}, @code{slur}. This is an internal command. Users are
4802 encouraged to use the shorthands which are defined in the initialization
4803 file @file{spanners.ly}.
4808 @subsection Assignments
4811 Identifiers allow objects to be assigned to names during the parse
4812 stage. To assign an identifier, you use @var{name}@code{=}@var{value}
4813 and to refer to an identifier, you precede its name with a backslash:
4814 `@code{\}@var{name}'. @var{value} is any valid Scheme value or any of
4815 the input-types listed above. Identifier assignments can appear at top
4816 level in the LilyPond file, but also in @code{\paper} blocks.
4818 An identifier can be created with any string for its name, but you will
4819 only be able to refer to identifiers whose names begin with a letter,
4820 being entirely alphabetical. It is impossible to refer to an identifier
4821 whose name is the same as the name of a keyword.
4823 The right hand side of an identifier assignment is parsed completely
4824 before the assignment is done, so it is allowed to redefine an
4825 identifier in terms of its old value, e.g.
4831 When an identifier is referenced, the information it points to is
4832 copied. For this reason, an identifier reference must always be the
4833 first item in a block.
4837 \paperIdent % wrong and invalid
4841 \paperIdent % correct
4846 @c . {Lexical modes}
4848 @subsection Lexical modes
4849 @cindex Lexical modes
4852 @cindex @code{\notes}
4853 @cindex @code{\chords}
4854 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
4856 To simplify entering notes, lyrics, and chords, LilyPond has three
4857 special input modes in addition to the default mode: note, lyrics and
4858 chords mode. These input modes change the way that normal, unquoted
4859 words are interpreted: for example, the word @code{cis} may be
4860 interpreted as a C-sharp, as a lyric syllable `cis' or as a C-sharp
4861 major triad respectively.
4863 A mode switch is entered as a compound music expression
4865 @code{\notes} @var{musicexpr}
4866 @code{\chords} @var{musicexpr}
4867 @code{\lyrics} @var{musicexpr}.
4870 In each of these cases, these expressions do not add anything to the
4871 meaning of their arguments. They just instruct the parser in what mode
4872 to parse their arguments. The modes are treated in more detail in
4873 @ref{Lyrics} and @ref{Chords}.
4875 Different input modes may be nested.
4879 @subsection Ambiguities
4884 The grammar contains a number of ambiguities. We hope to resolve them at
4888 @item The assignment
4893 is interpreted as the string identifier assignment. However,
4894 it can also be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
4895 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo}
4896 containing the syllable `bar'.
4898 @item If you do a nested repeat like
4910 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the
4911 @code{\alternative} belongs. This is the classic if-then-else
4912 dilemma. It may be solved by using braces.
4914 @item The parser is not sophisticated enough to distinguish at the
4916 @code{c4*2 / 3 } and @code{c4*2 / g} (in chord mode).
4923 @c . {Lexical details}
4924 @node Lexical details
4925 @section Lexical details
4927 Even more boring details, now on lexical side of the input parser.
4938 * Version information::
4943 @subsection Comments
4946 @cindex block comment
4947 @cindex line comment
4951 A one line comment is introduced by a @code{%} character.
4952 Block comments are started by @code{%@{} and ended by @code{%@}}.
4953 They cannot be nested.
4956 @subsection Direct Scheme
4960 @cindex Scheme, in-line code
4963 LilyPond contains a Scheme interpreter (the GUILE library) for
4964 internal use. In some places, Scheme expressions also form valid syntax:
4965 wherever it is allowed,
4969 evaluates the specified Scheme code. Example:
4971 \property Staff.TestObject \override #'foobar = #(+ 1 2)
4973 @code{\override} expects two Scheme expressions, so there are two Scheme
4974 expressions. The first one is a symbol (@code{foobar}), the second one
4975 an integer (namely, 3).
4977 In-line scheme may be used at the top level. In this case the result is
4980 Scheme is a full-blown programming language, and a full discussion is
4981 outside the scope of this document. Interested readers are referred to
4982 the website @uref{http://www.schemers.org/} for more information on
4987 @subsection Keywords
4991 Keywords start with a backslash, followed by a number of lower case
4992 alphabetic characters. These are all the keywords.
4995 apply arpeggio autochange spanrequest commandspanrequest
4996 simultaneous sequential accepts alternative bar breathe
4997 char chordmodifiers chords clef cm consists consistsend
4998 context denies duration dynamicscript elementdescriptions
4999 font grace header in lyrics key mark pitch
5000 time times midi mm name pitchnames notes outputproperty
5001 override set revert partial paper penalty property pt
5002 relative remove repeat addlyrics partcombine score
5003 script stylesheet skip textscript tempo translator
5008 @subsection Integers
5016 Formed from an optional minus sign followed by digits. Arithmetic
5017 operations cannot be done with integers, and integers cannot be mixed
5022 @cindex real numbers
5028 Formed from an optional minus sign and a sequence of digits followed
5029 by a @emph{required} decimal point and an optional exponent such as
5030 @code{-1.2e3}. Reals can be built up using the usual operations:
5031 `@code{+}', `@code{-}', `@code{*}', and
5032 `@code{/}', with parentheses for grouping.
5040 A real constant can be followed by one of the dimension keywords:
5041 @code{\mm} @code{\pt}, @code{\in}, or @code{\cm}, for millimeters,
5042 points, inches and centimeters, respectively. This converts the number
5043 a number that is the internal representation of that dimension.
5051 Begins and ends with the @code{"} character. To include a @code{"}
5052 character in a string write @code{\"}. Various other backslash
5053 sequences have special interpretations as in the C language. A string
5054 that contains no spaces can be written without the quotes. Strings can
5055 be concatenated with the @code{+} operator.
5059 @subsection Main input
5062 @cindex @code{\maininput}
5064 The @code{\maininput} command is used in init files to signal that the
5065 user file must be read. This command cannot be used in a user file.
5067 @node File inclusion
5068 @subsection File inclusion
5069 @cindex @code{\include}
5071 \include @var{filename}
5074 Include @var{filename}. The argument @var{filename} may be a quoted string (an
5075 unquoted string will not work here!) or a string identifier. The full
5076 filename including the @file{.ly} extension must be given,
5079 @node Version information
5080 @subsection Version information
5081 @cindex @code{\version}
5083 \version @var{string}
5086 Specify the version of LilyPond that a file was written for. The
5087 argument is a version string in quotes, for example @code{"1.2.0"}.
5088 This is used to detect invalid input, and to aid
5089 @code{convert-ly} a tool that automatically upgrades input files. See
5090 See @ref{convert-ly} for more information on @code{convert-ly}.
5099 @c .{Local emacs vars}
5102 @c minor-mode: font-lock
5103 @c minor-mode: outline
5104 @c outline-layout: (-1 : 0)
5105 @c outline-use-mode-specific-leader: "@c \."
5106 @c outline-primary-bullet: "{"
5107 @c outline-stylish-prefixes: nil
5108 @c outline-override-protect: t