5 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
6 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
7 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
9 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
18 @macro internalsref{NAME}
19 @uref{../lilypond-internals/\NAME\.html,\NAME\}
22 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
23 See @internalsref{\NAME\}
29 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
31 @macro internalsref{NAME}
38 @c .{Reference Manual}
40 @node Reference Manual
41 @chapter Reference Manual
44 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
47 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
48 revision of this document was made for LilyPond 1.4.1. It supposes a
49 passing familiarity with how LilyPond input works. New users are
50 encouraged to study the tutorial first.
52 The reference manual is ordered according to different tasks.
53 More details on the property setting mechanisms and context handling is
54 provided in @ref{Tuning output} and @ref{Interpretation context}. The
55 syntactical details are described at the end of the manual.
78 * Skipping corrected music::
79 * Interpretation context::
89 The purpose of LilyPond is explained informally by the term `music
90 typesetter'. This is not a fully correct name: not only does the
91 program print musical symbols, it also makes aesthetic decisions.
92 Symbols and their placements are @emph{generated} from a high-level
93 musical description. In other words, LilyPond would be best described
94 by `music compiler' or `music to notation compiler'.
96 LilyPond is linked to GUILE, GNU's Scheme library for extension
97 programming. The Scheme library provides the glue that holds together
98 the low-level routines and separate modules which are written in C++.
100 When lilypond is run to typeset sheet music, the following happens:
102 @item GUILE Initialization: various scheme files are read
103 @item parsing: first standard @code{ly} initialization files are read, and
104 then the user @file{ly} file is read.
105 @item interpretation: the music in the file is processed ``in playing
106 order'', i.e. the order that you use to read sheet music, or the
107 order in which notes are played. The result of this step is a typesetting
111 The typesetting specification is solved: positions and formatting is
114 @item the visible results ("virtual ink") are written to the output file.
117 During these stages different types of data play the the main role:
118 during parsing, @strong{Music} objects are created. During the
119 interpretation, @strong{contexts} are constructed, and with these contexts
120 a network of @strong{graphical objects} (``grobs'') is created. These
121 grobs contain unknown variables, and the network forms a set of
122 equations. After solving the equations and filling in these variables,
123 the printed output (in the form of @strong{molecules}) is written to an
126 These threemanship of tasks (parsing, translating, typesetting) and
127 data-structures (music, context, graphical objects) permeates the entire
128 design of the program.
130 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
136 The most basic forms of music are notes. We discuss how you enter them
137 here. Notes on their own don't form valid input, but for the sake of
138 brevity we omit obligatory lint such as @code{\score} blocks and
139 @code{\paper} declarations.
150 * Defining pitch names::
151 * Easy Notation note heads ::
158 A note specification has the form
161 @var{pitch}[!][?][@var{duration}]
164 The alteration refers to what note is heard, not to whether an
165 accidental is printed. This is done depending on the key and context.
166 A reminder accidental
167 @cindex reminder accidental
169 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
170 cautionary accidental,
171 @cindex cautionary accidental
172 @cindex parenthesized accidental
173 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
174 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
176 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
177 cis' d' e' cis' c'? d' e' c'!
180 The grob for a note head is called @internalsref{NoteHead}.
188 @cindex Note specification
190 @cindex entering notes
192 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
194 @cindex @code{\pitch}
196 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
199 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object.
201 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
202 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
203 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
204 from @code{c} to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
205 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
207 @cindex note names, Dutch
209 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
210 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
211 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
212 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
213 both forms are accepted.
215 LilyPond has predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
216 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
217 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
218 the names they define are:
221 Note Names sharp flat
222 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
223 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
224 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
225 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
226 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
227 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
228 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
236 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
237 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
238 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
239 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
241 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
242 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
250 A rest is entered like a note, with note name `@code{r}':
252 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
256 The grob is @internalsref{Rest}. Whole bar rests centered in the bar are
257 specified using @code{R}, see @ref{Multi measure rests}.
259 For polyphonic music, it can be convenient to specify the rest position
260 directly. You can do that by entering a note, with the keyword
261 @code{\rest} appended, e.g. Rest collisions will leave these rests alone.
263 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
273 @cindex Invisible rest
276 An invisible rest, or skip, can be entered like a note with note name
279 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
283 Actually, this is a shorthand for the @code{\skip} command, and it is
284 only available in Note mode and Chord mode.
286 @c FIXME: in lyrics mode, we have " " and _
288 In Lyrics mode, you can use `@code{" "}' and `@code{_}':
289 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
291 \context Lyrics \lyrics { lah2 di4 " " dah2 _4 di }
292 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a4 a a2 a4 a }
296 The unabbreviated `@code{\skip} @var{duration}' also works outside of
299 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
302 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
303 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
308 Note that the skip does not produce any output, not even transparent output.
313 @subsection Durations
317 @cindex @code{\duration}
319 The syntax for a verbose duration specification is
321 \duration @var{scmduration}
323 Here, @var{scmduration} is a Scheme object of type @code{Duration}.
326 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
327 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
328 longer than a whole you must use identifiers.
332 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
334 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
340 \notes \relative c'' {
342 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
344 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
349 \remove "Clef_engraver"
350 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
351 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
352 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
358 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
359 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
360 NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
361 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
362 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
364 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
365 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
369 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
370 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
371 duration can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
375 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
381 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M} by
382 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
383 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
395 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. When used
396 with chords, it connects all the note heads whose pitches match.
397 Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'. If you try to tie
398 together chords which have no common pitches then no ties will be
401 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
402 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
405 If you dislike the amount of ties created for a chord, you set
406 @code{Voice.sparseTies} to true, resulting in a smaller number of
408 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
409 \property Voice.sparseTies = ##t
410 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
413 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
414 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
415 exactly the same concept.
417 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
418 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
421 The name of the tie grob is @internalsref{Tie}, and it is created in the
422 @internalsref{Voice} context.
426 At present, the tie is implemented as a separate thing, temporally
427 located in between the notes. There is also no way to convert
428 between tied notes, dotted notes and plain notes.
430 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a chord is not supported in a
431 simple way. It can be achieved by moving the tie-engraver into the Thread
432 context and turning on and off ties per Thread.
440 @cindex @code{\times}
442 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all duration
445 @cindex @code{\times}
447 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
450 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
451 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
452 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
453 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
454 their written length:
456 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
457 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
460 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
461 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
462 @code{\times} only once, thus saving typing work.
464 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
465 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
466 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
469 The format of the number is determined by the property
470 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
471 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
472 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
475 The typesetting of brackets and numbers is controlled by the properties
476 @code{tuplet-bracket-visibility} and @code{tuplet-number-visibility}.
478 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
479 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##t
480 \times 2/3{c'8 d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
481 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = #'if-no-beam
482 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
483 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##f
484 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
485 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = ##f
486 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
487 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = #'if-no-beam
488 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
491 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
492 @cindex tuplet formatting
494 Tuplet brackets are printed as @internalsref{TupletBracket} grobs, most
495 often in the @internalsref{Voice} context.
497 @c . {Defining pitch names}
498 @node Defining pitch names
499 @subsection Defining pitch names
501 @cindex defining pitch names
502 @cindex pitch names, defining
504 Note names and chord modifiers can be customized for nationalities. The
505 syntax is as follows.
507 @cindex @code{\pitchnames}
508 @cindex @code{\chordmodifiers}
510 \pitchnames @var{scheme-alist}
511 \chordmodifiers @var{scheme-alist}
514 See @file{ly/nederlands.ly} and @file{ly/chord-modifiers.ly} for
515 specific examples on how to do this.
518 @node Easy Notation note heads
519 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
521 @cindex easy notation
524 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
525 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
526 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
528 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
529 \include "paper23.ly"
531 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
532 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
536 Note that @internalsref{EasyNotation} overrides a @internalsref{Score} context. You
537 probably will want to print it with magnification to make it more
538 readable, see @ref{Output scaling}.
544 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through the
545 letters. Printing the postscript file obtained either by using dvips or
546 the @code{-f ps} option of lilypond produces the correct result.
551 @section Staff notation
553 @cindex Staff notation
565 @subsection Key signature
570 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
573 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
576 @cindex @code{\minor}
577 @cindex @code{\major}
578 @cindex @code{\minor}
579 @cindex @code{\ionian}
580 @cindex @code{\locrian}
581 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
582 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
583 @cindex @code{\lydian}
584 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
585 @cindex @code{\dorian}
587 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
588 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
589 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
590 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
591 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
593 This command sets the context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
594 Non-standard key signatures can be specified by setting this property
597 The printed signature is a @internalsref{KeySignature} grob, typically
598 created in @internalsref{Staff} context.
600 @cindex @code{keySignature}
607 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command.
615 \property Staff.clefGlyph = @var{glyph associated with clefname}
616 \property Staff.clefPosition = @var{clef Y-position for clefname}
617 \property Staff.centralCPosition = @var{position for central C}
618 \property Staff.clefOctavation = @var{extra transposition of clefname}
622 Any change in these properties creates a clef (A @internalsref{Clef} grob).
624 Supported clef-names include
626 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
628 @item treble, violin, G, G2
637 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
652 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
653 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. Note that you have to
654 enclose @var{clefname} in quotes if you use underscores or digits in the
660 Supported associated glyphs (for @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) are:
669 @item clefs-vaticana_do
670 Editio Vaticana style do clef
671 @item clefs-vaticana_fa
672 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
673 @item clefs-medicaea_do
674 Editio Medicaea style do clef
675 @item clefs-medicaea_fa
676 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
677 @item clefs-mensural1_c
678 modern style mensural C clef
679 @item clefs-mensural2_c
680 historic style small mensural C clef
681 @item clefs-mensural3_c
682 historic style big mensural C clef
683 @item clefs-mensural1_f
684 historic style traditional mensural F clef
685 @item clefs-mensural2_f
686 historic style new mensural F clef
687 @item clefs-mensural_g
688 historic style mensural G clef
689 @item clefs-hufnagel_do
690 historic style hufnagel do clef
691 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa
692 historic style hufnagel fa clef
693 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa
694 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
695 @item clefs-percussion
696 modern style percussion clef
699 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
700 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
701 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
704 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
705 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
706 @cindex hufnagel clefs
709 @c . {Time signature}
711 @subsection Time signature
712 @cindex Time signature
716 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
719 \time @var{n}@code{/}@var{d}
721 Internally, this is a shortcut for doing
723 \property Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(@var{n} . @var{d})
724 \property Score.beatLength = #(make-moment 1 @var{d})
725 \property Score.measureLength = #(make-moment @var{n} @var{d})
728 These properties @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines
729 should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be
732 Changing the value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a
733 fraction to be printed. This grob is @internalsref{TimeSignature}.
735 The actual symbol that's printed can be customized with the style
737 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, singleline]
739 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
741 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'()
743 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
747 There are many more options for the layout of this grob. They are
748 selected through the @code{style} grob property.
750 @c FIXME: this isn't documented except in example?
752 @file{input/test/time.ly} for examples.
759 @cindex partial measure
760 @cindex measure, partial
761 @cindex shorten measures
762 @cindex @code{\partial}
764 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
765 @code{\partial} command:
767 \partial @var{duration}
770 Internally, this is a shortcut for
773 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
777 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
778 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
781 @node Unmetered music
782 @subsection Unmetered music
784 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
785 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. The property
786 @code{Score.timing} can be used to switch off this automatic timing
788 @lilypond[fragment,relative,singleline,verbatim]
790 \property Score.timing = ##f
792 \property Score.timing = ##t
796 The identifiers @code{\cadenzaOn} and @code{\cadenzaOff} can be used as
803 @subsection Bar lines
807 @cindex measure lines
814 This is a shortcut for doing
816 \property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}
818 The following bar types are available
820 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
833 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
837 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
839 @cindex repeatCommands
840 @cindex defaultBarType
842 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
843 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
844 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
845 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
847 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
848 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
849 @code{whichBar} settings.
851 @internalsref{BarLine} grobs are created by the @code{Bar_engraver}.
858 Polyphonic parts, i.e. parts with more than one voice on a staff can be
859 typeset with LilyPond.
861 The easiest way to enter such fragments, is the Scheme function
862 @code{voicify-music}. It will split chords using the separator
863 @code{\\}, to make multiple voices. You can use it for small,
864 short-lived voices (make a chord of voices) or for single chords:
866 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
867 \context Voice = VA \apply #voicify-music \relative c'' {
868 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ c, \\ f \\ d >
872 The function @code{voicify-music} instantiates @internalsref{Voice}
873 contexts, bearing the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.
875 To explicity typeset polyphonic music, instantiate a separate Voice
876 context for each part, and assign a stem direction to each part.
878 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
880 < \context Voice = VA { \stemUp b'4 a' g' f' e' }
881 \context Voice = VB { \stemDown g'4 g' g' g' g' } >
884 When there are more than two voices on a staff, you must also indicate
885 which voice should moved horizontally in case of a collision. This can
886 be done with the identifiers @code{\shiftOff}, @code{\shiftOn},
887 @code{\shiftOnn}, etc. (which sets the grob property @code{horizontal-shift}
888 in @internalsref{NoteColumn}).
890 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
891 \context Staff \notes\relative c''<
898 \context Voice=three {
899 \shiftOnn \stemUp ais
901 \context Voice=four {
902 \shiftOnnn \stemUp fis
907 The most convenient way is to use the identifiers @code{\voiceOne}
908 through @code{\voiceFour}, which also set slur and tie directions in the
911 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
913 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
914 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
915 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
918 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
919 if you set the grob property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
921 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
923 \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne
925 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
928 \context Voice = VB { \voiceTwo [g'8. f16] [g'8. f'16] }
932 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
934 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
936 \context Voice { \stemUp c''4 }
937 \context Voice =VB { r4 }
941 Note head collisions (horizontal shifting of note heads) are handled by
942 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} grob. @internalsref{RestCollision}
943 handles vertical shifting of rests.
951 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
952 handles a few situations. When it can not cope, you are advised to use
953 @code{force-hshift} of the NoteColumn grob and @code{staff-position} of
954 the Rest grob to override typesetting decisions.
959 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
960 the metrum. LilyPond guesses where beams should be inserted. If you're
961 not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can specify which patterns
962 to beam automatically. In specific cases, you can also enter the beams
966 @c . {Automatic beams}
967 @subsection Automatic beams
969 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}
970 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
971 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
974 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
975 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
976 or at durations specified by the properties in
977 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
978 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
980 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
981 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
983 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
984 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
986 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
987 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
988 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
989 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
990 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
993 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
994 you can use the following:
996 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
997 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
999 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1000 entered as @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
1002 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1003 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
1005 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1006 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1008 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1009 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1010 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1012 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
1013 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1014 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1015 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1017 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1018 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1021 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
1022 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
1023 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
1024 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
1028 @c Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
1030 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1031 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1033 @cindex automatic beam generation
1035 @cindex @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming}
1037 Automatic beaming is on by default, but can be switched off by setting
1038 @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming} to true. You you may find this necessary for
1039 a melody that goes with lyrics.
1043 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1044 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1045 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
1046 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,relative]
1047 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1048 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1049 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
1052 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1053 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1054 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1057 @cindex Automatic beams
1058 @subsection Manual beams
1059 @cindex beams, manual
1063 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
1064 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
1065 rests or bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point
1066 manually using a @code{[} before the first beamed note and a @code{]}
1067 after the last note:
1069 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1071 r4 [r8 g' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
1074 Whenever an manual beam is busy, the automatic beamer will not produce
1077 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1079 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1080 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1081 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount}. can
1082 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
1083 property, it's value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1085 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1088 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
1091 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1093 The beam symbol (grob @internalsref{Beam} in @internalsref{Voice}
1094 context), both for automatic and manual beams) can be tweaked through
1095 grob-properties @code{height} and @code{staff-position}. These specify
1096 vertical location and vertical span. Both are measured in half
1097 staff-spaces, @code{staff-position=0} corresponds to the middle staff
1100 Set @code{height} to zero, to get horizontal beams:
1102 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1103 \property Voice.Beam \set #'direction = #1
1104 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #0
1108 Here's how you'd specify a weird looking beam that instead of being
1109 horizontal, falls two staff spaces:
1115 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1116 \property Voice.Beam \set #'staff-position = #4
1117 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #-4
1121 [TODO: doc autokneeing ? ]
1123 @c TODO -> why this ref? Document?
1124 @cindex @code{neutral-direction}
1126 @node Expressive marks
1127 @section Expressive marks
1142 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1143 They are entered using parentheses:
1145 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1146 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
1150 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1151 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1152 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1153 grob-property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1154 @internalsref{Voice} context It's value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1155 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1157 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1158 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1159 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1161 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1165 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1166 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1167 stems might look better:
1169 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1170 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
1171 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1173 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1178 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
1179 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
1180 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this decision
1181 is in @internalsref{Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}. It is loosely
1182 related to the enclosed area between the slur and the notes. Usually,
1183 the default setting works well, but in some cases you may prefer a
1184 curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved one. You can
1185 indicate this preference by increasing the @code{beautiful} value:
1187 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
1188 \property Voice.Beam \override #'direction = #-1
1189 \property Voice.Slur \override #'direction = #1
1190 c16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
1191 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1192 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
1193 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1198 @code{beautiful} is an arbitrary parameter in the slur formatter.
1199 Useful values can only be determined by trial and error.
1201 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1203 @node Phrasing slurs
1204 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1206 @cindex phrasing slurs
1207 @cindex phrasing marks
1209 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1210 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1213 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1214 \time 6/4 c' \( ( d ) e f ( e ) \) d
1217 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
1218 slur. The grob associated with it is @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, in
1219 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1222 @subsection Breath marks
1224 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}. The result is a
1225 @internalsref{BreathingSign} grob in @internalsref{Voice} context.
1227 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1236 The current layout of the default comma style breath marks
1237 could be improved and more optional symbols should be added to the
1246 @cindex beats per minute
1247 @cindex metronome marking
1249 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1251 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1253 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1256 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1261 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1262 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1263 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1268 @subsection Text spanners
1269 @cindex Text spanners
1271 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando or accelerando, often extend
1272 over many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1273 dotted line. You can create such texts using text spanners. The syntax
1276 \spanrequest \start "text"
1277 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1279 LilyPond will respond by creating a @internalsref{TextSpanner} grob (typically
1280 in @internalsref{Voice} context). The string to be printed, as well as the
1281 style is set through grob properties.
1283 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1284 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1285 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1286 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1287 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1288 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1289 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1290 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1308 @subsection Articulations
1309 @cindex Articulations
1311 @cindex articulations
1315 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1316 different characteristics of the performance. These symbols can be
1317 added to a note with `@var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}'. Numerous symbols
1318 are defined in @file{script.ly}. Symbols can be forced to appear above
1319 or below the note by writing `@var{note}@code{^\}@var{name}' and
1320 `@var{note}@code{_\}@var{name}' respectively. Here is a chart showing
1321 symbols on notes, with the name of the corresponding symbol appearing
1327 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-family =#'typewriter
1328 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1329 \context Staff \notes {
1330 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''^\fermata
1331 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\upbow
1332 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1333 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1334 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1335 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1336 c''-\upmordent c''-\downmordent c''-\pralldown c''-\prallup
1337 c''-\lineprall c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1339 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1340 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1341 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ upbow
1342 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1343 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1344 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1345 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1346 upmordent__ downmordent__ pralldown__ prallup__
1347 lineprall__ thumb__ segno__ coda
1351 linewidth = 5.875\in
1357 To save typing work, some shorthands are available:
1358 @lilypond[singleline]
1360 \notes \context Voice {
1361 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1362 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1368 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1375 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand. For
1376 changes, some markup texts would be needed:
1377 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1378 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1383 @cindex @code{\script}
1388 You can add scripts by editing @file{scm/script.scm}. This file contains
1389 a table, listing script definitions and aliases. The following syntax
1390 accesses a script definition from the table:
1396 Usually the @code{\script} keyword is not used directly. Various
1397 helpful identifier definitions appear in @file{script.ly}.
1399 Grobs for these objects are @internalsref{Script} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
1403 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1404 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1406 Unfortunately, there is no support for adding fingering instructions or
1407 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1408 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1413 @subsection Text scripts
1414 @cindex Text scripts
1416 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1417 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1420 By default, these indications do not influence the note spacing, but
1421 if @code{Voice.textNonEmpty} is set to true the widths will be taken
1422 into account. The identifier @code{\fatText} is defined in the standard
1424 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
1425 \relative c' { c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1428 Text scripts are created in form of @internalsref{TextScript} grobs, in
1429 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1431 @ref{Text markup} describes how to change the font or access
1432 special symbols in text scripts.
1436 @subsection Grace notes
1445 @cindex @code{\grace}
1448 @cindex @code{graceAlignPosition}
1450 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out, but do not take up any
1451 logical time in a measure. LilyPond has limited support for grace notes.
1452 The syntax is as follows.
1454 \grace @var{musicexpr}
1457 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1460 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1461 \relative c'' \context Voice {
1462 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1464 \property Voice.Stem \override #'flag-style = #'()
1466 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'flag-style
1471 A grace note expression has duration 0; the next real note is assumed to
1472 be the main note. If you want the note to appear after the main note,
1473 set @code{Voice.graceAlignPosition} to @code{1}.
1477 Nesting @code{\grace} notes is not supported. The following may cause
1478 run-time errors: @example
1479 @code{\grace @{ \grace c32 c16 @} c4}
1481 Since the meaning of such a construct is unclear, we don't consider this
1482 a loss. Similarly, juxtaposing two @code{\grace} sections is
1483 syntactically valid, but makes no sense and may cause runtime errors.
1484 Ending a staff or score with grace notes may also generate a run-time
1485 error, since there will be no main note to attach the grace notes to.
1496 @subsection Glissando
1499 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1501 A glissando line (grob @internalsref{Glissando}) can be requested by
1502 attaching a @code{\glissando} to a notte:
1504 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1510 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1517 @subsection Dynamics
1530 @cindex @code{\ffff}
1540 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an identifier after a
1541 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
1542 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
1543 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
1544 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
1546 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
1547 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
1553 @cindex @code{\decr}
1554 @cindex @code{\rced}
1560 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
1561 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
1562 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
1563 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
1564 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
1565 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
1566 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
1567 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
1568 want several marks during one note, you have to use spacer notes.
1570 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1571 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
1572 < f''1 { s4 s4 \< \! s4 \> \! s4 } >
1575 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
1576 is an example how to do it:
1581 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1583 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc."
1584 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
1589 For everyday use, we recommend the identifiers @code{\cresc},
1590 @code{endcresc}, @code{\dim} and @code{\enddim}.
1594 Dynamics are grobs of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
1595 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is handled
1596 by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. If you want to adjust
1597 padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you must set properties
1598 for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. Predefined identifiers
1599 to set the vertical direction are \dynamicUp and \dynamicDown.
1601 @cindex direction, of dynamics
1602 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
1603 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
1611 @cindex @code{\repeat}
1613 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
1614 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
1615 different variants of repeats.
1619 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
1620 output, and entering repetitive music.
1623 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
1624 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
1627 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
1628 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
1629 @file{input/star-spangled-banner.ly}.
1635 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
1641 * Manual repeat commands::
1643 * Tremolo subdivisions::
1648 @subsection Repeat syntax
1650 The syntax for repeats is
1653 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
1656 If you have alternative endings, you may add
1657 @cindex @code{\alternative}
1659 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
1661 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
1663 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
1665 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
1666 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1668 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
1669 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
1672 With alternative endings:
1673 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1675 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1676 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1679 Folded repeats look like this:
1682 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1684 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1685 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1689 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
1690 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
1691 the specified number of repeats.
1693 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1697 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
1698 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
1703 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
1704 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
1706 @cindex expanding repeats
1708 For instructions on how to unfoldi repeats for MIDI output, see
1709 the example file @file{input/test/unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
1714 Notice that timing information is not remembered at the start of an
1715 alternative, so you have to reset timing information after a repeat,
1716 e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting
1717 @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties
1718 are also not repeated.
1720 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}s, although this probably is only
1721 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
1723 Folded repeats offer little more over simultaneous music. However, it
1724 is to be expected that more functionality -- especially for the MIDI
1725 backend -- will be implemented at some point in the future.
1727 Volta repeats are printed over all staves in a score. You must turn them
1728 off explicitly, for example by doing
1730 \property Staff.VoltaBracket = \turnOff
1732 in all but the top staff.
1734 @node Manual repeat commands
1735 @subsection Manual repeat commands
1737 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
1739 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
1740 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
1748 @item (volta . @var{text})
1749 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
1751 Stop a running volta bracket
1754 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
1756 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
1758 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
1763 Repeats brackets are @internalsref{VoltaBracket} grobs.
1765 @node Tremolo repeats
1766 @subsection Tremolo repeats
1767 @cindex tremolo beams
1769 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
1771 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
1773 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
1774 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
1775 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
1776 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
1777 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
1782 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} grobs. Single stem tremolos are
1783 @internalsref{StemTremolo}.
1788 At present, the spacing between tremolo beams is not regular, since the
1789 spacing engine does not notice that not all notes are printed.
1791 @node Tremolo subdivisions
1792 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
1793 @cindex tremolo marks
1794 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
1796 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
1797 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
1798 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
1799 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
1800 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
1802 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
1803 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
1809 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
1812 @node Measure repeats
1813 @subsection Measure repeats
1815 @cindex percent repeats
1816 @cindex measure repeats
1818 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
1819 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
1820 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
1821 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
1823 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1824 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
1825 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
1829 The signs are represented by these grobs: @internalsref{RepeatSlash} and
1830 @internalsref{PercentRepeat} and @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
1834 You can not nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
1835 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
1837 @node Rhythmic music
1838 @section Rhythmic music
1845 @node Rhythmic staves
1846 @subsection Rhythmic staves
1848 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
1849 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
1850 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
1852 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1853 \context RhythmicStaff {
1855 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1862 @section Piano music
1864 Piano music is an odd type of notation. Piano staves are two normal
1865 staves coupled with a brace. The staves are largely independent, but
1866 sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. The
1867 @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
1868 behavior. In this section we discuss the @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some
1869 other pianistic peculiarities.
1872 * Automatic staff changes::
1873 * Manual staff switches::
1876 * Voice follower lines::
1880 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
1881 @node Automatic staff changes
1882 @subsection Automatic staff changes
1883 @cindex Automatic staff changes
1885 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
1886 staff. The syntax for this is
1888 \autochange @var{contexttype} \context @var{childcontexttype}
1889 @var{musicexp} @end example This will switch the
1890 interpretation context of @var{musicexp} between a @var{contexttype}
1891 named @code{up} and @code{down}. Typically, you use
1892 @internalsref{Staff} for @var{contexttype}, and @internalsref{Voice}
1893 for @var{childcontexttype}. The autochanger switches on basis of pitch
1894 (central C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping over
1895 rests to switch rests in advance.
1897 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1898 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
1899 \context Staff = "up" {
1900 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
1901 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
1902 \context Staff = "down" {
1908 Note how spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
1909 terminating too soon.
1912 @node Manual staff switches
1913 @subsection Manual staff switches
1915 @cindex manual staff switches
1916 @cindex staff switch, manual
1918 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
1920 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
1922 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
1923 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
1924 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
1927 The formal definition of this construct is obtuse, but for the sake of
1928 completeness we give it here.
1929 @cindex @code{\translator}
1931 \translator @var{contexttype} = @var{name}
1933 Formally, this construct is a music expression indicating
1934 that the context which is a direct child of the context of type
1935 @var{contexttype} should be shifted to a context of type
1936 @var{contexttype} and the specified name.
1944 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
1945 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
1946 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
1948 These identifiers are shorthands for spanner commands of the types
1949 @internalsref{Sustain}, @internalsref{UnaCorda} and @internalsref{Sostenuto}:
1951 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1952 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4
1953 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
1956 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
1957 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal types:
1958 Sustain, Sostenuto or UnaCorda. Refer to the generated documentation of
1959 @rgrob{SustainPedal}, for example, for more information.
1961 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
1962 @code{pedal-type} property of SustainPedal grobs:
1964 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1965 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'bracket
1966 c''4 \sustainDown d''4 e''4 a'4 \sustainUp \sustainDown f'4 g'4 a'4 \sustainUp
1969 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
1970 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
1972 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1973 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'mixed
1974 c''4 \sustainDown d''4 e''4 c'4 \sustainUp \sustainDown f'4 g'4 a'4 \sustainUp
1977 The default '*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
1978 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
1979 for a sostenuto pedal:
1981 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1982 c''4 \sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4 \sostenutoUp
1985 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
1986 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
1987 @code{PianoPedalBracket} grobs (see the detailed documentation of
1988 @rgrob{PianoPedalBracket}) can be modified. For example, the bracket
1989 may be extended to the end of the note head.
1991 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1992 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
1993 c''4 \sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4 \sostenutoUp
2000 @subsection Arpeggio
2003 @cindex broken arpeggio
2004 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
2006 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
2007 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
2010 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2011 \context Voice <c\arpeggio e g c>
2014 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
2015 to the chords in both staves, and set
2016 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
2018 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2019 \context PianoStaff <
2020 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2021 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2022 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2026 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} grobs. Cross staff arpeggios
2027 are @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio}.
2029 To add an arrow head to explicitly specify the direction of the
2030 arpeggio, you should set the arpeggio grob property
2031 @code{arpeggio-type}.
2033 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2035 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #1
2037 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
2042 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
2043 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
2044 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
2045 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} grobs to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
2046 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before.
2048 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2049 \context PianoStaff <
2050 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2051 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
2052 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2053 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2060 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios
2065 @node Voice follower lines
2066 @subsection Voice follower lines
2068 @cindex follow voice
2069 @cindex staff switching
2072 @cindex @code{followVoice}
2074 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
2075 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
2076 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
2078 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2079 \context PianoStaff <
2080 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2081 \context Staff \context Voice {
2083 \translator Staff=two
2086 \context Staff=two {\clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2090 The associated grob is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2100 * Automatic syllable durations::
2106 @subsection Lyrics mode
2109 To print lyrics, you must first make a music expression from the lyric
2110 text. That music expression can be printed by selecting an appropriate
2114 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
2116 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
2117 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
2118 The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
2119 punctuation and accents without any hassle.
2121 Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text. For
2122 example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that
2123 the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
2126 Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes:
2127 @code{"He could"4 not4} or by using an underscore without quotes:
2128 @code{He_could4 not4}. All unquoted underscores are converted to
2131 The precise definition of this mode can be found in @ref{Lyrics mode
2134 @c . {Printing lyrics}
2135 @node Printing lyrics
2136 @subsection Printing lyrics
2139 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the @internalsref{Lyrics} context.
2141 @c Maybe more pedagogical to avoid \addlyrics in this first example? /MB
2142 @c Add tied and beamed melismata too.
2143 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2145 \notes \relative c' {
2147 \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t
2148 d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
2149 b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 }
2150 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2152 share the soft -- ware; }
2156 Notes and syllable durations are matched automatically. This is
2157 accomplished using @code{\addlyrics}, which is documented in
2158 @ref{Automatic syllable durations}. Setting @code{automaticMelismata} in
2159 the melody staff will cause tied, slurred or beamed notes to be
2160 interpreted as melismata.
2162 The Lyric syllables are @code{LyricsVoice.LyricSyllable} grobs.
2165 @cindex lyric extender
2168 As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will
2169 create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of the
2170 lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric,
2171 so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
2172 The grob for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricExtender}.
2177 If you want to have hyphens centered between syllables (rather than
2178 attached to the end of the first syllable) you can use the special
2179 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. This
2180 will result in a hyphen whose length varies depending on the space
2181 between syllables. It will be centered between the syllables. The grob
2182 for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricHyphen}.
2184 @cindex Lyric hyphen
2186 @node Automatic syllable durations
2187 @subsection Automatic syllable durations
2188 @cindex Automatic syllable durations
2190 @cindex automatic lyric durations
2191 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
2193 If you have lyrics that are set to a melody, you can copy the rhythm
2194 of that melody into the lyrics using @code{\addlyrics}. The syntax for
2197 \addlyrics @var{musicexpr1 musicexpr2}
2200 Both @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} are interpreted, but every
2201 music event (``every syllable'') in @var{musicexpr2} is interpreted only
2202 when there are events in @var{musicexpr1}.
2204 @cindex @code{automaticMelismata}
2206 If the property @code{automaticMelismata} is set in the
2207 context of @var{musicexpr1}, no lyrics will be put on slurred or tied
2210 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2213 \property Voice.automaticMelismata = ##t
2214 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2216 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2220 If you want the lyric lines to be above the melody staff, or in some
2221 other, more complex configuration, then build that configuration first
2222 using simultaneous music, and use @code{\addlyrics} after that.
2224 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
2226 \context Lyrics = LA { s1 }
2227 \context Staff = SA { s1 }
2229 \context Staff = SA \relative c' { c4 e g g }
2230 \context Lyrics = LA \lyrics { geen ge -- don -- der } >
2233 For @code{\addlyrics} you should use a single rhythm melody, and single
2234 rhythm lyrics (a constant duration is the obvious choice). If you do
2235 not, you can get undesired effects when using multiple stanzas:
2237 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2240 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2242 \context Lyrics \lyrics
2247 It is valid (but probably not very useful) to use notes instead of
2248 lyrics for @var{musicexpr2}.
2251 @subsection More stanzas
2255 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
2256 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
2257 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
2259 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice
2260 to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
2261 In the following example, the Voice
2262 identity is @code{duet}, and the identities of the LyricsVoices are
2263 @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
2266 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2269 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
2271 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
2272 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
2273 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
2274 Hi, my name is bert. }
2275 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
2276 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
2277 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
2282 You can add stanza numbers by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the
2283 first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following
2284 systems. Notice how you must surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics}
2290 @cindex stanza numbering
2298 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords. Chords are
2299 characterized by a set of pitches. They are
2300 internally stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can
2301 enter chords by name and print them as note head, enter them as notes
2302 and print them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by
2303 name, and print them as name.
2306 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2307 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
2317 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
2318 \context Voice \twoWays > }
2321 Note that this example also shows that the chord printing routines do
2322 not attempt to be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not
2323 interpret this as an inversion.
2327 * Printing named chords::
2332 @subsection Chords mode
2335 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
2336 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
2337 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
2338 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc).
2340 Dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions and subtractions,
2341 so articulation scripts can not be entered in Chord mode.
2343 The syntax for named chords is as follows:
2345 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
2348 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration} is
2349 the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
2350 modifiers. One type is formed by @emph{chord additions}. Additions are
2351 obtained by listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written
2352 by its number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising
2353 or lowering by half a step. Chord additions have two effects: they adds
2354 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
2355 chord, and they may lower or raise the specified interval.
2357 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
2358 using @code{\transpose}.
2360 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2364 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5-
2374 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
2375 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
2376 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
2377 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
2378 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
2379 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
2380 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
2382 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2385 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
2391 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
2392 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
2395 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2404 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
2405 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
2406 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the note
2407 is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
2409 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2419 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
2420 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
2421 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
2422 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
2424 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2435 Implementation details are quite gory. For example @code{c:4} not only
2436 adds a fourth, but also removes the third.
2439 @c . {Printing named chords}
2440 @node Printing named chords
2441 @subsection Printing named chords
2443 @cindex printing chord names
2447 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
2448 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
2449 directly using simultaneous music.
2451 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2453 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
2457 \context ChordNames \scheme
2458 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2463 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
2464 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
2465 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of a
2470 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
2474 \context ChordNames {
2475 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
2477 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2481 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
2482 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
2483 an added bass note, which may result in strange chord names when chords
2484 are entered as a list of pitches:
2486 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2495 \context ChordNames \scheme
2496 \context Staff \scheme
2502 By default, a chord name system proposed by Harald Banter (See
2503 @ref{Literature}) is used. The system is very regular and predictable.
2504 Typical American style chord names may be selected by setting the
2505 @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName} grob to
2506 @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz chordnames.
2508 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
2509 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
2510 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}. Here's an example showing the differences in
2514 @c maybe just junk verbatim option?
2515 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2525 \context ChordNames = banter \scheme
2526 \context ChordNames = american {
2527 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2528 #'style = #'american \scheme }
2529 \context ChordNames = jazz {
2530 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2531 #'style = #'jazz \scheme }
2532 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2539 @section Writing parts
2541 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
2542 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
2543 problems in orchestral music.
2550 * Instrument names::
2552 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
2553 * Multi measure rests::
2554 * Automatic part combining::
2555 * Hara kiri staves::
2558 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
2559 @node Rehearsal marks
2560 @subsection Rehearsal marks
2561 @cindex Rehearsal marks
2563 @cindex @code{\mark}
2567 \mark @var{unsigned}
2572 This command prints a rehearsal mark above the system. You can provide
2573 a number, a string or a markup text as argument. If you use
2574 @code{\default}, the value of property @code{rehearsalMark} is used and
2575 automatically incremented.
2577 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2583 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-segno")
2588 The grob is @internalsref{RehearsalMark} in @internalsref{Score} context. See
2589 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} if you need boxes around the marks.
2592 @subsection Bar numbers
2596 @cindex measure numbers
2597 @cindex currentBarNumber
2599 Bar numbers are @internalsref{BarNumber} grobs. They are printed at the
2600 start of the line. The number itself is a property that can be set by
2601 modifying the @code{currentBarNumber} property, i.e.
2603 \property Score.currentBarNumber = #217
2606 If you want boxed bar numbers, see the example file
2607 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly}.
2611 It is not possible to have bar numbers printed at regular intervals
2614 @node Instrument names
2615 @subsection Instrument names
2617 You can specify an instrument name for a staff by setting
2618 @code{Staff.instrument} and @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string
2619 before the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
2620 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
2622 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2623 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
2626 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
2630 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2632 '((font-relative-size . -2 ) (music "accidentals--1")))
2635 \property Staff.instrument = #`((kern . 0.5) (lines
2636 "2 Clarinetti" (columns " (B" ,text-flat ")")))
2644 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
2645 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
2646 the name to avoid a collision.
2649 @subsection Transpose
2651 @cindex transposition of pitches
2652 @cindex @code{\transpose}
2654 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
2657 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
2660 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
2663 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
2664 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
2665 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
2668 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2671 { \key e \major c d e f }
2673 \transpose des'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2674 \transpose cis'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2678 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
2679 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
2680 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
2682 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
2683 @subsection Sound output transposing instruments
2685 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed and
2687 instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch offset (in
2688 semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done using the
2689 @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed output.
2691 @cindex @code{transposing}
2694 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
2695 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
2698 @c . {Multi measure rests}
2699 @node Multi measure rests
2700 @subsection Multi measure rests
2701 @cindex Multi measure rests
2705 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
2706 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
2708 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
2709 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
2710 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
2713 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2714 \time 3/4 r2. | R2. | R2.*2 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
2717 Notice that the @code{R2.} is printed as a whole rest, centered in the
2720 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
2722 The grob for this object is @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
2726 Currently, there is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into
2727 a single multimeasure rest.
2729 @cindex condensing rests
2731 @node Automatic part combining
2732 @subsection Automatic part combining
2733 @cindex automatic part combining
2734 @cindex part combiner
2737 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
2738 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting
2739 orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
2740 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are
2741 typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically.
2742 Also, solo and @emph{a due} parts can be identified and marked.
2744 The syntax for part combining is
2747 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
2749 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
2750 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
2751 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
2754 The most useful function of the part combiner is to combine parts into
2755 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
2757 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2759 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2760 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2763 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2769 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
2770 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
2771 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
2772 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
2773 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
2776 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
2777 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
2779 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2781 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
2782 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2783 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2786 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2792 There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak the
2793 behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
2794 documentation of @reng{Thread_devnull_engraver} and
2795 @reng{Voice_devnull_engraver}. Look at the documentation of the
2796 responsible engravers, @code{Thread_devnull_engraver},
2797 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
2801 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
2802 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
2805 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
2807 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2808 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2811 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2817 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2818 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
2819 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
2821 @node Hara kiri staves
2822 @subsection Hara kiri staves
2824 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
2825 This saves some space. LilyPond also supports this through the hara
2826 kiri@footnote{Hara kiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
2827 the Japanese Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when
2828 it finds itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will
2829 not disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
2832 The hara kiri staff is specialized version of the @internalsref{Staff}
2833 context. It is available as the context identifier
2834 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
2835 example disappears in the second line.
2839 \notes \relative c' <
2840 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
2841 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
2845 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
2858 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
2859 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
2860 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
2861 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2862 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2867 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
2872 \consists Custos_engraver
2878 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century.
2879 There were different appearances for different notation styles.
2880 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
2881 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
2884 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
2885 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
2886 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
2887 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
2888 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
2895 \consists Custos_engraver
2896 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2901 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
2906 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
2907 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
2914 @section Figured bass
2916 @cindex Basso continuo
2918 TODO. see figured-bass.ly
2920 @c . {Tuning output}
2922 @section Tuning output
2924 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
2925 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
2926 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
2927 ways to do just that.
2929 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called grobs (graphic
2930 objects). Each grob carries with it a set of properties (grob
2931 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem grob has
2932 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
2934 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
2935 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
2936 temporarily change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus
2937 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
2938 object, and set a grob property in that object.
2941 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
2942 * Tuning per grob ::
2950 @node Tuning groups of grobs
2951 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
2953 @cindex grob description
2957 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a
2958 context property. By assigning to that property (using plain
2959 @code{\property}), you can change the resulting grobs.
2961 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2962 c'4 \property Voice.Stem = #'((meta . ((interfaces . ())))) c'4
2965 The @code{\property} assignment effectively empties the definition of
2966 the Stem object. One of the effects is that the recipe of how it should be
2967 printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible. The above
2968 assignment is available as a standard identifier, for the case that you
2972 \property Voice.Stem = \turnOff
2979 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
2980 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
2983 The definition of a grob is actually a list of default grob
2984 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem grob (available in
2985 @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), defines the following values for
2990 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
2991 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
2995 You can add a property on top of the existing definition, or remove a
2996 property, thus overriding the system defaults:
2998 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
2999 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
3002 You should balance @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. If that's too
3003 much work, you can use the @code{\set} shorthand. It performs a revert
3004 followed by an override. The following example gives exactly the same
3005 result as the previous one.
3007 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
3008 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
3011 If you use @code{\set}, you must explicitly restore the default.
3014 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
3016 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3017 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3018 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
3020 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
3021 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
3024 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
3025 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
3026 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
3027 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and @code{\revert},
3028 must be carefully balanced.
3030 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
3033 A clumsy but correct form:
3035 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
3038 Shorter version of the same:
3040 \override \set \set \revert
3043 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
3046 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
3049 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the grob property is unset),
3052 \set \set \set \revert
3055 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
3056 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a
3057 stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
3058 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding
3059 automatic beaming settings.
3063 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
3064 The backend is not very strict in type-checking grob properties. If you
3065 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
3068 Some grobs are created at the moment that their context is created. An
3069 example of such a grob is the staff itself (i.e. the horizontal lines).
3070 You can not change the appearance of the staff symbol by manipulating
3071 @code{\property Staff.StaffSymbol}. At the moment that @code{\property
3072 Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and the StaffSymbol is
3073 created before any @code{\override} is effective. You can deal with this
3074 either overriding properties in a @code{\translator} definition, or by
3075 using @code{\outputproperty}.
3080 @node Tuning per grob
3081 @subsection Tuning per grob
3083 @cindex \outputproperty
3085 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
3086 feature. The syntax is as follows:
3088 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3090 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
3091 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
3092 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
3093 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
3094 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
3096 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
3097 the appropriate context to apply this to.
3099 Here are some random examples.
3102 In the following example, all note heads occurring at current staff
3103 level, are shifted up and right by setting their @code{extra-offset}
3106 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3108 \context Staff \outputproperty
3109 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
3110 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
3114 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
3116 In this example, the predicate checks the @code{text} grob property, to
3117 shift only the `m.d.' text, but not the fingering instruction "2".
3118 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3119 #(define (make-text-checker text)
3120 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
3123 \notes\relative c''' {
3124 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
3125 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
3126 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
3134 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
3135 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
3141 @subsection What to tune?
3143 This all tells you how to tune grobs, but you don't know what variables
3144 to set? The question is not answered in this part of the manual
3145 (although you may encounter some examples.).
3147 Grob properties are tied directly to the implementation of LilyPond, and
3148 they are thus a moving target. Documentation of such variables is in the
3149 automatically generated documentation. Description of properties are
3150 generated from the source code for each version. This documentation is
3151 therefore more up to date. It should be available from the same place
3152 where you got this manual.
3154 To decide how to tune a grob, you need to find the following information
3157 which grob to modify
3159 which property to modify
3161 which context the grob comes from.
3164 Included with the automatically generated documentation is a master list
3165 of grobs. Selecting a grob will take you to an overview of the
3166 properties available for that grob.
3168 There is also a master list of contexts. Selecting one takes you to an
3169 overview of that context which lists which grob types are created there.
3172 @node Font selection
3173 @subsection Font selection
3175 Most graphics in LilyPond are composed of characters of fonts. You can
3176 alter the characteristics of the font by setting certain grob
3177 properties. The mechanism that is used for this resembles La@TeX{}'s New
3178 Font Selection Scheme. Within this scheme, a font is entirely
3179 characterized by its font name.
3181 For each grob that uses fonts (in other words, each grob that supports
3182 @code{font-interface}) a font-name must be selected before it can be
3183 printed. The font name is selected by looking at a number of grob
3188 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
3189 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff braces),
3190 @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic
3191 signs) and @code{typewriter}
3194 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
3195 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
3196 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
3199 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
3200 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
3203 @item font-relative-size
3204 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
3205 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
3206 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
3208 @item font-design-size
3209 A number indicating the design size of the font.
3211 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
3212 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
3213 which enhances readability. Scalable type faces such TrueType and Adobe
3214 Type1 usually come as ``one design fits all sizes''.
3217 The name of the font, without the design size, e.g. @code{cmr},
3218 @code{cmti}, etc. Setting this overrides font-family, font-shape and
3225 The font is selected by taking the first font that satisfies all
3226 qualifiers specified. You can override any of these fields through
3227 @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The special value @code{*} matches
3228 any value for that qualifier.
3231 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
3232 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
3235 @cindex @code{font-style}
3237 There are also pre-cooked font selection qualifiers. These are selected
3238 through the grob property @code{font-style}. For example, the style
3239 @code{finger} selects family @code{number} and relative size @code{-3}.
3240 Styles available include @code{volta}, @code{finger}, @code{tuplet},
3241 @code{timesig}, @code{mmrest}, @code{script}, @code{large}, @code{Large}
3244 The style sheets and tables for selecting fonts are located in
3245 @file{scm/font.scm}. Refer to this file for more information.
3248 Setting @code{font-name} overrides all other qualifiers. The value for
3249 this property should be a string, the file name of the font. You may use
3250 this to use special fonts, which are not a part of the style sheet, or
3251 which have special encodings.
3253 The size of the font may be set with the grob property
3254 @code{font-magnification}. It is the size of font, relative to its
3255 standard size. For example, @code{1.0} is normal size.
3259 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
3261 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
3264 @cindex font selection
3265 @cindex font magnification
3266 @cindex @code{font-interface}
3270 @subsection Text markup
3274 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
3275 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
3276 in the following way.
3278 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3283 c^#'(italic "italic")
3284 d_#'((bold italic) "ff")
3286 f_#'(lines "one" (bold "two"))
3287 g^#'(music "noteheads-2" ((raise . 2.4) "flags-u3"))
3291 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
3292 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
3295 text: string | (head? text+)
3296 head: markup | (markup+)
3297 markup-item: property | abbrev
3298 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
3299 abbrev: @code{columns lines roman music bold italic named super sub}
3300 @code{overstrike text finger volta timesig mmrest mark script}
3301 @code{large Large dynamic}
3304 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
3305 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
3306 pair is a grob property. A list of properties available is included in
3307 the generated documentation for @rint{Text_interface}.
3309 The following abbreviations are currently defined:
3312 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
3314 vertical mode: set every text on a new line
3318 selects the Feta font (the standard font for music notation glyphs),
3319 and uses named lookup
3326 lookup by character name
3328 plain text lookup (by character value)
3334 the next text or character overstrikes this one
3336 select fingering number fontstyle
3338 select volta number fontstyle
3340 select time signature number fontstyle
3342 select multi measure rest number fontstyle
3344 select mark number fontstyle
3346 select scriptsize roman fontstyle
3348 select large roman fontstyle
3350 select Large roman fontstyle
3352 select dynamics fontstyle
3356 @cindex metronome mark
3358 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
3362 #(define note '(columns
3363 (music "noteheads-2" ((kern . -0.1) "flags-stem"))))
3364 #(define eight-note `(columns ,note ((kern . -0.1)
3365 (music ((raise . 3.5) "flags-u3")))))
3366 #(define dotted-eight-note
3367 `(columns ,eight-note (music "dots-dot")))
3370 \notes\relative c'' {
3371 a1^#`((columns (font-relative-size . -1)) ,dotted-eight-note " = 64")
3377 TextScript \override #'font-shape = #'upright
3383 @node Invisible grobs
3384 @subsection Invisible grobs
3385 @cindex invisible grobs
3389 ben nog steeds niet kapot van de informatiedichtheid hier.
3395 You can imagine a number of situations where you would want to make
3396 certain grobs not show up in the output. There may be aesthetic
3397 reasons, to make the output resemble an (old) manuscript as close as
3398 possible, or to make lessons or exercises for students.
3400 Grobs can be made invisible in a number of ways:
3402 Here's an example with blanked-out notes and stems:
3403 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3405 \property Voice.NoteHead \override
3407 \property Voice.Stem \override
3408 #'transparent = ##t }
3411 \property Voice.NoteHead \revert #'transparent
3412 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'transparent }
3415 \notes\relative c'' {
3417 a b c b \blanknotes c \unblanknotes d
3421 This method makes the grobs invisible but they still take the normal space.
3422 To remove all traces of the grob, you can redefine the function
3426 \notes\relative c'' {
3429 as bes c bes c d \break
3430 \property Staff.KeySignature \override #'molecule-callback = #'()
3433 \paper{linewidth=5.0\cm indent=0}
3437 A very rigorous way of removing grobs from the whole score is to remove
3438 the engraver that creates them. For example,
3440 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3441 \score {\notes { c'4 d'8 e'8 g2 }
3442 \paper { \translator {
3444 \remove Stem_engraver
3450 @subsection Dirty tricks
3451 @cindex embedded tex
3453 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
3454 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
3455 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
3456 commands won't work with direct PostScript output (see @ref{PostScript
3459 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3460 a'^"3 $\\times$ \\`a deux"
3463 You can also use raw PostScript commands embedded in text scripts. This
3464 offers ultimate flexibility, but requires you to learn PostScript.
3465 Currently, embedded PostScript will @strong{not} work with direct
3466 PostScript output. Note that all dimensions that you use are in staff
3471 \notes \relative c'' {
3472 a-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 5 3 rlineto stroke}"
3473 -#"\\embeddedps{ [ 0 1 ] 0 setdash 3 5 moveto 5 -3 rlineto stroke}"
3474 b-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 0 0 1 2 8 4 20 3.5 rcurveto stroke}"
3478 \paper { linewidth = 70*\staffspace }
3485 @section Page layout
3488 The page layout is the combined product of LilyPond formatting notation,
3489 and (La)@TeX{} putting the notation on a page, including page breaks.
3490 The part of LilyPond is documented here.
3504 @subsection Paper block
3507 The most important output definition is the @code{\paper} block, for
3508 music notation. The syntax is
3511 @code{\paper @{} [@var{paperidentifier}] @var{items} @code{@}}
3514 where each of the items is one of
3517 @item An assignment.
3519 @item A context definition. See @ref{Interpretation context} for
3520 more information on context definitions.
3522 @item \stylesheet declaration. Its syntax is
3524 \stylesheet @var{alist}
3527 See @file{scm/font.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
3528 @item an @code{\elementdescriptions} declaration.
3530 \elementdescriptions @var{alist}
3532 See @file{scm/grob-description.scm} for details of
3533 @var{alist}. This command is not user-serviceable.
3537 @c . {Paper variables}
3538 @node Paper variables
3539 @subsection Paper variables
3540 @cindex Paper variables
3542 The paper block has some variables you may want to use or change:
3545 @cindex @code{indent}
3547 The indentation of the first line of music.
3548 @cindex @code{staffspace}
3550 @item @code{staffspace}
3551 The distance between two staff lines, calculated from the center
3554 @cindex @code{linewidth}
3555 @item @code{linewidth}
3556 Sets the width of the lines.
3558 If set to a negative value, a single unjustified line is produced.
3559 @c rename to singleLinePaper ?
3560 The shorthand @code{\singleLine} defines a default paper block that
3561 produces a single line.
3563 @cindex @code{textheight}
3565 @item @code{textheight}
3566 Sets the total height of the music on each page. Only used by
3569 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
3571 @item @code{interscoreline}
3572 Sets the spacing between systems. The default is 16pt.
3574 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
3576 @item @code{interscorelinefill}
3577 If set to a positive number, the distance between the score
3578 lines will stretch in order to fill the full page. In that
3579 case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
3584 @cindex @code{stafflinethickness}
3586 @item @code{stafflinethickness}
3587 Determines the thickness of staff lines, and also acts as a scaling
3588 parameter for other line thicknesses.
3591 You may enter these dimension using units (@code{cm}, @code{in},
3592 @code{mm}, @code{pt}), or relative to another dimension
3594 linewidth = 20.0 * \staffspace
3601 @subsection Font size
3602 @cindex font size, setting
3603 @cindex staff size, setting
3604 @cindex @code{paper} file
3606 The Feta font provides musical symbols at six different sizes. These
3607 fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point, 23 point, and 26
3608 point. The point size of a font is the height of the five lines in a
3609 staff when displayed in the font.
3611 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
3612 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any of
3613 these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven}, @code{paperThirteen},
3614 @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and
3615 @code{paperTwentysix} are defined respectively. The default
3616 @code{\paper} block is also set. These files should be imported at toplevel, i.e.
3618 \include "paper26.ly"
3622 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
3623 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
3629 @subsection Paper size
3634 @cindex @code{papersize}
3636 To change the paper size, you must first set the
3637 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
3638 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
3639 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
3640 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
3643 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
3644 \include "paper16.ly"
3647 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
3648 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
3649 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
3653 @subsection Line break
3656 @cindex breaking lines
3658 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
3659 that it looks neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines have
3662 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do
3663 this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at this
3664 point. Do remember that line breaks can only occur at places where there
3665 are bar lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no
3666 bar line, you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
3667 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain point.
3669 If you want linebreaks at regular intervals, you can use the following:
3672 < \repeat 7 unfold @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
3676 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
3680 @cindex @code{\penalty}
3682 The @code{\break} and @code{\noBreak} commands are defined in terms of
3683 the penalty command:
3688 This encourages or discourages LilyPond to make a line break at this
3693 The scaling of the @code{\penalty} argument is not well-defined. The
3694 command is rather kludgey, and slated for rewriting.
3698 @subsection Page break
3701 @cindex breaking pages
3703 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
3704 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into the
3705 @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages, by inserting
3706 the command @code{\newpage}
3707 @cindex @code{\newpage}
3713 @c why do so difficult?
3714 @c maybe should explain contents of between-system.ly,
3715 @c but not now, we're talking about page breaks here.
3717 @c details, see the example file @file{input/test/between-systems.ly}
3720 @c . {Output scaling}
3721 @node Output scaling
3722 @subsection Output scaling
3737 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3738 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts.
3742 @c . {Output formats}
3743 @node Output formats
3744 @section Output formats
3746 LilyPond can output processed music in different output formats.
3750 * PostScript output::
3752 * ASCIIScript output::
3756 @subsection TeX output
3759 LilyPond will use @TeX{} by default. Even if you want to produce
3760 PostScript output for viewing or printing, you should normally have
3761 LilyPond produce @TeX{} first. The .tex output must be processed by
3762 @TeX{} (@strong{not} La@TeX{}) to generate a .dvi. Then, @file{Dvips}
3763 is used to generate PostScript. Alternatively, @file{ly2dvi} can be
3764 used to generate the .dvi for you.
3768 Titling is not generated unless you use @file{ly2dvi}.
3771 @node PostScript output
3772 @subsection PostScript output
3773 @cindex PostScript output
3774 @cindex direct PostScript output
3776 LilyPond can produce PostScript directly, without going through @TeX{}.
3777 Currently, this is mainly useful if you cannot use TeX, because direct
3778 PostScript output has some problems; see Bugs below.
3781 $ lilypond -fps foo.ly
3782 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3783 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3785 Interpreting music...[3]
3786 Preprocessing elements...
3787 Calculating column positions...
3788 paper output to foo.ps...
3790 $ cat /usr/share/lilypond/pfa/feta20.pfa foo.ps | lpr
3796 Text font selection is broken.
3798 The .ps file does not contain the .pfa font files. To print a .ps
3799 created through direct postscript output, you should prepend the
3800 necessary .pfa files to LilyPond's .ps output, or upload them to the
3801 printer before printing.
3803 The line height calculation is broken, you must set @var{lineheight} in
3804 the paperblock if you have more than one staff in your score, e.g.
3809 % Set line height to 40 staff spaces
3815 @subsection Scheme output
3816 @cindex Scheme output
3818 In the typesetting stage, LilyPond builds a page description, which is
3819 then written to disk in postscript, @TeX{} or ASCII art. Before it is
3820 written, the page description is represented as Scheme expressions. You
3821 can also dump these Scheme expressions to a file, which may be
3822 convenient for debugging output routines. This is done with the Scheme
3826 $ lilypond -fscm foo.ly
3827 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3828 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3830 Interpreting music...[3]
3831 Preprocessing elements...
3832 Calculating column positions...
3833 paper output to foo.scm...
3836 ;;; Usage: guile -s x.scm > x.tex
3837 (primitive-load-path 'standalone.scm)
3841 $ guile -s foo.scm > foo.tex
3845 @node ASCIIScript output
3846 @subsection ASCIIScript output
3847 @cindex ASCIIScript output
3848 @cindex ascii script
3851 LilyPond can output ASCII Art. This is a two step process, LilyPond
3852 produces an ASCII description file, dubbed ASCIIScript (extension
3853 @file{.as}). ASCIIScript has a small and simple command set that
3854 includes font selection, character and string printing and line drawing
3855 commands. The program @file{as2text} is used to translate an .as file
3858 To produce ASCII Art, you must include an ASCII Art paper definition
3859 file in your .ly, one of:
3861 \include "paper-as5.ly"
3862 \include "paper-as9.ly"
3865 Here's an example use for ASCII Art output (the example file
3866 @file{as-email.ly} is included in the LilyPond distribution), the staff
3867 symbol has been made invisible:
3870 $ lilypond -fas as-email.ly
3871 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3872 Now processing: `as-email.ly'
3874 Interpreting music...[3]
3875 Preprocessing elements...
3876 Calculating column positions... [2]
3877 paper output to as-email.as...
3879 $ as2text as-email.as 2>/dev/null
3881 |/ |##|##| | | | | |
3882 /| | | | | |\ |\ |\ |\ |\ |
3883 / |_ 3 | | | | 5 | )| )| )| )| )|
3884 | /| \ 8 * * * | 8 * * * * * |
3894 The ASCII Art fonts are far from complete and not very well designed.
3895 It's easy to change the glyphs, though; if you think you can do better,
3896 have a look at @file{mf/*.af}.
3898 Lots of resizable symbols such as slurs, ties and tuplets are missing.
3900 The poor looks of most ASCII Art output and its limited general
3901 usefulness gives ASCII Art output a low priority; it may be
3902 dropped in future versions.
3909 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
3910 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, etc., but it
3911 is good enough for proof-hearing the music you have entered. Ties,
3912 dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
3914 Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume
3915 levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available
3916 MIDI volume range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary
3917 linearly between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
3918 overriding the @code{absolute-volume-alist} defined in
3919 @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3921 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
3922 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
3923 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. You can add
3924 instruments and ranges or change the default settings by overriding the
3925 @code{instrument-equalizer-alist} defined in @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3927 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
3932 It is currently not possible to use the percussion channel (generally
3933 channel 10 of a MIDI file).
3937 * MIDI instrument names::
3942 @subsection MIDI block
3946 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
3947 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
3951 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
3952 @item context definitions
3955 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
3959 @cindex context definition
3961 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
3962 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
3963 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer.ly}.
3966 @node MIDI instrument names
3967 @subsection MIDI instrument names
3969 @cindex instrument names
3970 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3971 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
3973 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3974 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
3975 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
3976 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
3980 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
3981 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by
3991 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
3994 @section Music entry
4002 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce errors. This
4003 section deals with tricks and features that help you enter music, and
4004 find and correct mistakes.
4008 @subsection Relative
4010 @cindex relative octave specification
4012 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
4013 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
4014 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
4015 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
4017 @cindex @code{\relative}
4019 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
4022 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
4023 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
4024 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
4025 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
4026 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
4029 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
4030 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
4031 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
4032 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
4034 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
4035 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
4041 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
4042 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4044 c g c f, c' a, e'' }
4047 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
4048 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
4049 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
4052 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4059 @cindex @code{\notes}
4061 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
4062 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
4063 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
4066 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
4067 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
4068 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
4069 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
4074 @subsection Bar check
4078 @cindex @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}
4082 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
4083 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
4084 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
4085 @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
4086 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
4088 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}:
4090 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
4095 @cindex skipTypesetting
4097 Failed bar checks are most often caused by entering incorrect
4098 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
4099 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the score
4100 by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To speed up
4101 this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting} (See @ref{Skipping
4102 corrected music})). Bar
4105 @c . {Point and click}
4106 @node Point and click
4107 @subsection Point and click
4109 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
4110 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
4111 error in the sheet music.
4113 To use it, you need the following software
4115 @unnumberedsubsec Installation
4119 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,plain
4120 Xdvi} version 22.36 or newer.
4122 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is a
4123 different and less well maintained program. To find out which xdvi you
4124 are running, try @code{xdvi --version} or @code{xdvi.bin --version}.
4128 Xdvi must be configured to find the TeX fonts and music
4129 fonts. Refer to the Xdvi documentation for more information.
4132 @unnumberedsubsec Using it
4134 Add one of these lines to the top of your .ly file. The first one is for
4135 line location only. The second one is more convenient, but requires
4136 patching @code{emacsclient} and @code{server.el}.
4139 #(set! point-and-click line-location)
4142 In the emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}), add the following
4147 Make sure that the environment variable @code{XEDITOR} is set
4150 emacsclient --no-wait +%l %f
4152 The second one, that also specifies the column, only works if you have
4153 patched your emacsclient and server, and have compiled your @code{.ly}
4154 file using the @code{line-column-location} setting.
4156 When viewing, control-mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
4157 spot in the @file{.ly} file. Control-mousebutton 2 will show all
4161 @unnumberedsubsec Column location
4163 If you want emacs to jump to the exact spot (and not just the line) on a
4164 click, you must enable column positioning. To do so, you need to patch
4165 emacsclient. Apply @file{emacsclient.patch} (included with the source
4166 package) to @file{emacsclient.c} and @file{server.el} from the emacs
4167 source code. Recompile and stick the recompiled emacsclient into a bin
4168 directory, and put @file{server.el} into a elisp directory
4169 (e.g. @file{~/usr/share/emacs/}). Add the following to your @file{.emacs}
4170 init file, before invoking server-start.
4173 (setq load-path (cons "~/usr/share/emacs" load-path))
4176 Set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{emacsclient --no-wait +%l:%c %f}
4178 At the top of the @code{ly} file, replace the @code{set!} line with the
4181 #(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
4184 One final hint: if you correct large files with point-and-click, then
4185 start correcting at the end of the file. When you start at the top, and
4186 insert one line, all subsequent locations will be off by a line.
4191 When you convert the @TeX{} file to PostScript using @code{dvips}, it
4192 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. Those complaints
4193 are harmless, and can be ignored.
4195 @node Skipping corrected music
4196 @section Skipping corrected music
4198 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
4199 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
4200 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
4201 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
4204 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4205 \relative c'' { c8 d
4206 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
4208 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
4213 @node Interpretation context
4214 @section Interpretation context
4217 * Creating contexts::
4218 * Default contexts::
4219 * Context properties::
4220 * Engravers and performers::
4221 * Changing context definitions::
4222 * Defining new contexts::
4226 Interpretation contexts are objects that only exist during a run of
4227 LilyPond. During the interpretation phase of LilyPond (when it prints
4228 "interpreting music"), the music expression in a @code{\score} block is
4229 interpreted in time order. This is the same order that humans hear and
4232 During this interpretation, the interpretation context holds the
4233 state for the current point within the music. It contains information
4237 @item What notes are playing at this point?
4238 @item What symbols will be printed at this point?
4239 @item What is the current key signature, time signature, point within
4243 Contexts are grouped hierarchically: A @internalsref{Voice} context is
4244 contained in a @internalsref{Staff} context (because a staff can contain
4245 multiple voices at any point), a @internalsref{Staff} context is contained in
4246 @internalsref{Score}, @internalsref{StaffGroup}, or @internalsref{ChoirStaff} context.
4248 Contexts associated with sheet music output are called @emph{notation
4249 contexts}, those for sound output are called @emph{performance
4250 contexts}. The default definitions of the standard notation and
4251 performance contexts can be found in @file{ly/engraver.ly} and
4252 @file{ly/performer.ly}, respectively.
4255 @node Creating contexts
4256 @subsection Creating contexts
4258 @cindex @code{\context}
4259 @cindex context selection
4261 Contexts for a music expression can be selected manually, using the
4262 following music expression.
4265 \context @var{contexttype} [= @var{contextname}] @var{musicexpr}
4268 This instructs lilypond to interpret @var{musicexpr} within the context
4269 of type @var{contexttype} and with name @var{contextname}. If this
4270 context does not exist, it will be created.
4272 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4274 \notes \relative c'' {
4275 c4 <d4 \context Staff = "another" e4> f
4281 In this example, the @code{c} and @code{d} are printed on the
4282 default staff. For the @code{e}, a context Staff called
4283 @code{another} is specified; since that does not exist, a new
4284 context is created. Within @code{another}, a (default) Voice context
4285 is created for the @code{e4}. When all music referring to a
4286 context is finished, the context is ended as well. So after the
4287 third quarter, @code{another} is removed.
4291 @node Default contexts
4292 @subsection Default contexts
4294 Most music expressions don't need an explicit @code{\context}
4295 declaration: they inherit the
4296 notation context from their parent. Each note is a music expression, and
4297 as you can see in the following example, only the sequential music
4298 enclosing the three notes has an explicit context.
4300 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4301 \score { \notes \context Voice = goUp { c'4 d' e' } }
4304 There are some quirks that you must keep in mind when dealing with
4307 First, every top level music is interpreted by the Score context, in other
4308 words, you may think of @code{\score} working like
4311 \context Score @var{music}
4315 Second, contexts are created automatically to be able to interpret the
4316 music expressions. Consider the following example.
4318 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4319 \score { \context Score \notes { c'4 ( d' )e' } }
4322 The sequential music is interpreted by the Score context initially
4323 (notice that the @code{\context} specification is redundant), but when a
4324 note is encountered, contexts are setup to accept that note. In this
4325 case, a Thread, Voice and Staff are created. The rest of the sequential
4326 music is also interpreted with the same Thread, Voice and Staff context,
4327 putting the notes on the same staff, in the same voice.
4329 This is a convenient mechanism, but do not expect opening chords to work
4330 without @code{\context}. For every note, a separate staff is
4333 @cindex explicit context
4334 @cindex starting with chords
4335 @cindex chords, starting with
4337 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4338 \score { \notes <c'4 es'> }
4341 Of course, if the chord is preceded by a normal note in sequential
4342 music, the chord will be interpreted by the Thread of the preceding
4344 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4345 \score { \notes { c'4 <c'4 es'> } }
4350 @node Context properties
4351 @subsection Context properties
4353 Notation contexts have properties. These properties are from
4354 the @file{.ly} file using the following expression:
4355 @cindex @code{\property}
4357 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} = @var{value}
4360 Sets the @var{propname} property of the context @var{contextname} to the
4361 specified Scheme expression @var{value}. All @var{propname} and
4362 @var{contextname} are strings, which are typically unquoted.
4364 Properties that are set in one context are inherited by all of the
4365 contained contexts. This means that a property valid for the
4366 @internalsref{Voice} context can be set in the @internalsref{Score} context (for
4367 example) and thus take effect in all @internalsref{Voice} contexts.
4369 Properties can be unset using the following expression:
4371 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} \unset
4374 @cindex properties, unsetting
4375 @cindex @code{\unset}
4377 This removes the definition of @var{propname} in @var{contextname}. If
4378 @var{propname} was not defined in @var{contextname} (but was inherited
4379 from a higher context), then this has no effect.
4384 The syntax of @code{\unset} is asymmetric: @code{\property \unset} is not
4385 the inverse of @code{\property \set}.
4387 @node Engravers and performers
4388 @subsection Engravers and performers
4392 Basic building blocks of translation are called engravers; they are
4393 special C++ classes.
4397 @c . {Context definitions}
4398 @node Changing context definitions
4399 @subsection Changing context definitions
4401 @cindex context definition
4402 @cindex translator definition
4404 The most common way to define a context is by extending an existing
4405 context. You can change an existing context from the paper block, by
4406 first initializing a translator with an existing context identifier:
4410 @var{context-identifier}
4413 Then you can add and remove engravers using the following syntax:
4415 \remove @var{engravername}
4416 \consists @var{engravername}
4420 Here @var{engravername} is a string, the name of an engraver in the
4424 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4428 \translator { \StaffContext
4429 \remove Clef_engraver
4435 You can also set properties in a translator definition. The syntax is as
4438 @var{propname} = @var{value}
4439 @var{propname} \set @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4440 @var{propname} \override @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4441 @var{propname} \revert @var{grob-propname}
4443 @var{propname} is a string, @var{grob-propname} a symbol, @var{value}
4444 and @code{pvalue} are Scheme expressions. These type of property
4445 assignments happen before interpretation starts, so a @code{\property}
4446 command will override any predefined settings.
4449 To simplify editing translators, all standard contexts have standard
4450 identifiers called @var{name}@code{Context}, e.g. @code{StaffContext},
4451 @code{VoiceContext}, see @file{ly/engraver.ly}.
4453 @node Defining new contexts
4454 @subsection Defining new contexts
4456 If you want to build a context from scratch, you must also supply the
4457 following extra information:
4459 @item A name, specified by @code{\name @var{contextname}}.
4461 @item A cooperation module. This is specified by @code{\type
4468 \type "Engraver_group_engraver"
4471 \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4472 \consists "Note_head_engraver"
4473 \consistsend "Axis_group_engraver"
4477 The argument of @code{\type} is the name for a special engraver that
4478 handles cooperation between simple engravers such as
4479 @code{Note_head_engraver} and @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. Alternatives
4480 for this engraver are the following:
4482 @cindex @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4483 @item @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4484 The standard cooperation engraver.
4486 @cindex @code{Score_engraver}
4488 @item @code{Score_engraver}
4489 This is cooperation module that should be in the top level context,
4490 and only the top level context.
4492 @cindex @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4494 @item @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4495 This is a special cooperation module (resembling
4496 @code{Score_engraver}) that is used to create an embedded
4503 @item @code{\alias} @var{alternate-name}
4504 This specifies a different name. In the above example,
4505 @code{\property Staff.X = Y} will also work on @code{SimpleStaff}s
4507 @item @code{\consistsend} @var{engravername}
4508 Analogous to @code{\consists}, but makes sure that
4509 @var{engravername} is always added to the end of the list of
4512 Some engraver types need to be at the end of the list; this
4513 insures they stay there even if a user adds or removes engravers.
4514 End-users generally don't need this command.
4516 @item @code{\accepts} @var{contextname}
4517 Add @var{contextname} to the list of contexts this context can
4518 contain in the context hierarchy. The first listed context is the
4519 context to create by default.
4521 @item @code{\denies}. The opposite of @code{\accepts}. Added for
4522 completeness, but is never used in practice.
4525 @item @code{\name} @var{contextname}
4526 This sets the type name of the context, e.g. @internalsref{Staff},
4527 @internalsref{Voice}. If the name is not specified, the translator won't do
4531 In the @code{\paper} block, it is also possible to define translator
4532 identifiers. Like other block identifiers, the identifier can only
4533 be used as the very first item of a translator. In order to define
4534 such an identifier outside of @code{\score}, you must do
4539 foo = \translator @{ @dots{} @}
4546 \translator @{ \foo @dots{} @}
4554 @cindex paper types, engravers, and pre-defined translators
4561 @c . {Syntactic details}
4562 @node Syntactic details
4563 @section Syntactic details
4564 @cindex Syntactic details
4566 This section describes details that were too boring to be put elsewhere.
4571 * Music expressions::
4572 * Manipulating music expressions::
4580 @subsection Top level
4583 This section describes what you may enter at top level.
4587 @subsubsection Score
4590 @cindex score definition
4592 The output is generated combining a music expression with an output
4593 definition. A score block has the following syntax:
4596 \score @{ @var{musicexpr} @var{outputdefs} @}
4599 @var{outputdefs} are zero or more output definitions. If none is
4600 supplied, the default @code{\paper} block will be added.
4604 @c . {Default output}
4605 @subsubsection Default output
4607 Default values for the @code{\paper} and @code{\midi} block are set by
4608 entering such a block at the top level.
4611 @subsubsection Header
4613 @cindex @code{\header}
4616 A header describes bibliographic information of the file's contents. It
4617 can also appear in a @code{\score} block. Tools like @code{ly2dvi} can
4618 use this information for generating titles. Key values that are used by
4619 @code{ly2dvi} are: title, subtitle, composer, opus, poet, instrument,
4620 meter, arranger, piece and tagline.
4622 @cindex @code{ly2dvi}
4626 \header @{ @var{key1} = @var{val1}
4627 @var{key2} = @var{val2} @dots{} @}
4630 It is customary to put the @code{\header} at the top of the file.
4632 @subsubsection Default output
4634 A @code{\midi} or @code{\paper} block at top level sets the default
4635 paper block for all scores that lack an explicit paper block.
4639 @subsection Identifiers
4643 What has this section got to do with identifiers?
4644 It seems more appropriate in the introduction to Chapter 4,
4650 All of the information in a LilyPond input file, is internally
4651 represented as a Scheme value. In addition to normal Scheme data types
4652 (such as pair, number, boolean, etc.), LilyPond has a number of
4653 specialized data types,
4660 @item Translator_def
4664 @item Music_output_def
4665 @item Moment (rational number)
4668 LilyPond also includes some transient object types. Objects of these
4669 types are built during a LilyPond run, and do not `exist' per se within
4670 your input file. These objects are created as a result of your input
4671 file, so you can include commands in the input to manipulate them,
4672 during a lilypond run.
4675 @item Grob: short for Graphical object. See @ref{Grobs}.
4676 @item Molecule: device-independent page output object,
4677 including dimensions. Produced by some Grob functions
4679 @item Translator: object that produces audio objects or Grobs. This is
4680 not yet user accessible.
4681 @item Font_metric: object representing a font.
4685 @node Music expressions
4686 @subsection Music expressions
4688 @cindex music expressions
4690 Music in LilyPond is entered as a music expression. Notes, rests, lyric
4691 syllables are music expressions, and you can combine music expressions
4692 to form new ones, for example by enclosing a list of expressions in
4693 @code{\sequential @{ @}} or @code{< >}. In the following example, a
4694 compound expression is formed out of the quarter note @code{c} and a
4695 quarter note @code{d}:
4698 \sequential @{ c4 d4 @}
4701 @cindex Sequential music
4702 @cindex @code{\sequential}
4703 @cindex sequential music
4706 @cindex Simultaneous music
4707 @cindex @code{\simultaneous}
4709 The two basic compound music expressions are simultaneous and
4713 \sequential @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4714 \simultaneous @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4716 For both, there is a shorthand:
4718 @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4722 @code{<} @var{musicexprlist} @code{>}
4724 for simultaneous music.
4725 In principle, the way in which you nest sequential and simultaneous to
4726 produce music is not relevant. In the following example, three chords
4727 are expressed in two different ways:
4729 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4730 \notes \context Voice {
4731 <a c'> <b d' > <c' e'>
4732 < { a b c' } { c' d' e' } >
4737 Other compound music expressions include
4740 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{expr}
4741 \apply @var{func} @var{expr}
4742 \context @var{type} = @var{id} @var{expr}
4743 \times @var{fraction} @var{expr}
4747 @c . {Manipulating music expressions}
4748 @node Manipulating music expressions
4749 @subsection Manipulating music expressions
4751 The @code{\apply} mechanism gives you access to the internal
4752 representation of music. You can write Scheme-functions that operate
4753 directly on it. The syntax is
4755 \apply #@var{func} @var{music}
4757 This means that @var{func} is applied to @var{music}. The function
4758 @var{func} should return a music expression.
4760 This example replaces the text string of a script. It also shows a dump
4761 of the music it processes, which is useful if you want to know more
4762 about how music is stored.
4764 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4765 #(define (testfunc x)
4766 (if (equal? (ly-get-mus-property x 'text) "foo")
4767 (ly-set-mus-property x 'text "bar"))
4769 (ly-set-mus-property x 'elements
4770 (map testfunc (ly-get-mus-property x 'elements)))
4775 \apply #testfunc { c'4_"foo" }
4779 For more information on what is possible, see the automatically
4780 generated documentation.
4783 Directly accessing internal representations is dangerous: the
4784 implementation is subject to changes, so you should avoid this feature
4787 A final example is a function that reverses a piece of music in time:
4789 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4790 #(define (reverse-music music)
4791 (let* ((elements (ly-get-mus-property music 'elements))
4792 (reversed (reverse elements))
4793 (span-dir (ly-get-mus-property music 'span-direction)))
4794 (ly-set-mus-property music 'elements reversed)
4796 (ly-set-mus-property music 'span-direction (- span-dir)))
4797 (map reverse-music reversed)
4800 music = \notes { c'4 d'4( e'4 f'4 }
4802 \score { \context Voice {
4804 \apply #reverse-music \music
4809 More examples are given in the distributed example files in
4812 @c . {Span requests}
4818 @subsubsection Span requests
4819 @cindex Span requests
4821 Notational constructs that start and end on different notes can be
4822 entered using span requests. The syntax is as follows:
4826 \spanrequest @var{startstop} @var{type}
4830 @cindex @code{\start}
4831 @cindex @code{\stop}
4833 This defines a spanning request. The @var{startstop} parameter is either
4834 -1 (@code{\start}) or 1 (@code{\stop}) and @var{type} is a string that
4835 describes what should be started. Much of the syntactic sugar is a
4836 shorthand for @code{\spanrequest}, for example,
4838 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4839 c'4-\spanrequest \start "slur"
4840 c'4-\spanrequest \stop "slur"
4843 Among the supported types are @code{crescendo}, @code{decrescendo},
4844 @code{beam}, @code{slur}. This is an internal command. Users are
4845 encouraged to use the shorthands which are defined in the initialization
4846 file @file{spanners.ly}.
4851 @subsection Assignments
4854 Identifiers allow objects to be assigned to names during the parse
4855 stage. To assign an identifier, you use @var{name}@code{=}@var{value}
4856 and to refer to an identifier, you precede its name with a backslash:
4857 `@code{\}@var{name}'. @var{value} is any valid Scheme value or any of
4858 the input-types listed above. Identifier assignments can appear at top
4859 level in the LilyPond file, but also in @code{\paper} blocks.
4861 An identifier can be created with any string for its name, but you will
4862 only be able to refer to identifiers whose names begin with a letter,
4863 being entirely alphabetical. It is impossible to refer to an identifier
4864 whose name is the same as the name of a keyword.
4866 The right hand side of an identifier assignment is parsed completely
4867 before the assignment is done, so it is allowed to redefine an
4868 identifier in terms of its old value, e.g.
4874 When an identifier is referenced, the information it points to is
4875 copied. For this reason, an identifier reference must always be the
4876 first item in a block.
4880 \paperIdent % wrong and invalid
4884 \paperIdent % correct
4889 @c . {Lexical modes}
4891 @subsection Lexical modes
4892 @cindex Lexical modes
4895 @cindex @code{\notes}
4896 @cindex @code{\chords}
4897 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
4899 To simplify entering notes, lyrics, and chords, LilyPond has three
4900 special input modes in addition to the default mode: note, lyrics and
4901 chords mode. These input modes change the way that normal, unquoted
4902 words are interpreted: for example, the word @code{cis} may be
4903 interpreted as a C-sharp, as a lyric syllable `cis' or as a C-sharp
4904 major triad respectively.
4906 A mode switch is entered as a compound music expression
4908 @code{\notes} @var{musicexpr}
4909 @code{\chords} @var{musicexpr}
4910 @code{\lyrics} @var{musicexpr}.
4913 In each of these cases, these expressions do not add anything to the
4914 meaning of their arguments. They just instruct the parser in what mode
4915 to parse their arguments. The modes are treated in more detail in
4916 @ref{Lyrics} and @ref{Chords}.
4918 Different input modes may be nested.
4922 @subsection Ambiguities
4927 The grammar contains a number of ambiguities. We hope to resolve them at
4931 @item The assignment
4936 is interpreted as the string identifier assignment. However,
4937 it can also be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
4938 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo}
4939 containing the syllable `bar'.
4941 @item If you do a nested repeat like
4953 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the
4954 @code{\alternative} belongs. This is the classic if-then-else
4955 dilemma. It may be solved by using braces.
4957 @item The parser is not sophisticated enough to distinguish at the
4959 @code{c4*2 / 3 } and @code{c4*2 / g} (in chord mode).
4966 @c . {Lexical details}
4967 @node Lexical details
4968 @section Lexical details
4970 Even more boring details, now on lexical side of the input parser.
4981 * Version information::
4986 @subsection Comments
4989 @cindex block comment
4990 @cindex line comment
4994 A one line comment is introduced by a @code{%} character.
4995 Block comments are started by @code{%@{} and ended by @code{%@}}.
4996 They cannot be nested.
4999 @subsection Direct Scheme
5003 @cindex Scheme, in-line code
5006 LilyPond contains a Scheme interpreter (the GUILE library) for
5007 internal use. In some places, Scheme expressions also form valid syntax:
5008 wherever it is allowed,
5012 evaluates the specified Scheme code. Example:
5014 \property Staff.TestObject \override #'foobar = #(+ 1 2)
5016 @code{\override} expects two Scheme expressions, so there are two Scheme
5017 expressions. The first one is a symbol (@code{foobar}), the second one
5018 an integer (namely, 3).
5020 In-line scheme may be used at the top level. In this case the result is
5023 Scheme is a full-blown programming language, and a full discussion is
5024 outside the scope of this document. Interested readers are referred to
5025 the website @uref{http://www.schemers.org/} for more information on
5030 @subsection Keywords
5034 Keywords start with a backslash, followed by a number of lower case
5035 alphabetic characters. These are all the keywords.
5038 apply arpeggio autochange spanrequest commandspanrequest
5039 simultaneous sequential accepts alternative bar breathe
5040 char chordmodifiers chords clef cm consists consistsend
5041 context denies duration dynamicscript elementdescriptions
5042 font grace header in lyrics key mark pitch
5043 time times midi mm name pitchnames notes outputproperty
5044 override set revert partial paper penalty property pt
5045 relative remove repeat addlyrics partcombine score
5046 script stylesheet skip textscript tempo translator
5051 @subsection Integers
5059 Formed from an optional minus sign followed by digits. Arithmetic
5060 operations cannot be done with integers, and integers cannot be mixed
5065 @cindex real numbers
5071 Formed from an optional minus sign and a sequence of digits followed
5072 by a @emph{required} decimal point and an optional exponent such as
5073 @code{-1.2e3}. Reals can be built up using the usual operations:
5074 `@code{+}', `@code{-}', `@code{*}', and
5075 `@code{/}', with parentheses for grouping.
5083 A real constant can be followed by one of the dimension keywords:
5084 @code{\mm} @code{\pt}, @code{\in}, or @code{\cm}, for millimeters,
5085 points, inches and centimeters, respectively. This converts the number
5086 a number that is the internal representation of that dimension.
5094 Begins and ends with the @code{"} character. To include a @code{"}
5095 character in a string write @code{\"}. Various other backslash
5096 sequences have special interpretations as in the C language. A string
5097 that contains no spaces can be written without the quotes. Strings can
5098 be concatenated with the @code{+} operator.
5102 @subsection Main input
5105 @cindex @code{\maininput}
5107 The @code{\maininput} command is used in init files to signal that the
5108 user file must be read. This command cannot be used in a user file.
5110 @node File inclusion
5111 @subsection File inclusion
5112 @cindex @code{\include}
5114 \include @var{filename}
5117 Include @var{filename}. The argument @var{filename} may be a quoted string (an
5118 unquoted string will not work here!) or a string identifier. The full
5119 filename including the @file{.ly} extension must be given,
5122 @node Version information
5123 @subsection Version information
5124 @cindex @code{\version}
5126 \version @var{string}
5129 Specify the version of LilyPond that a file was written for. The
5130 argument is a version string in quotes, for example @code{"1.2.0"}.
5131 This is used to detect invalid input, and to aid
5132 @code{convert-ly} a tool that automatically upgrades input files. See
5133 See @ref{convert-ly} for more information on @code{convert-ly}.
5141 @c broken with emacs-21
5142 @c {Local emac s vars}
5143 @c Local varia bles:
5145 @c minor-mod e: font-lock
5146 @c minor-mo de: outline
5147 @c outline -layout: (-1 : 0)
5148 @c outlin e-use-mode-specific-leader: "@c \."
5149 @c outli ne-primary-bullet: "{"
5150 @c outli ne-stylish-prefixes: nil
5151 @c outli ne-override-protect: t