3 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
4 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
5 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
7 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
11 @chapter Notation manual
13 This chapter describes all the different types of notation supported
14 by LilyPond. It is intended as a reference for users that are already
15 somewhat familiar with using LilyPond.
19 * Easier music entry::
33 * Contemporary notation::
40 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
46 The basic elements of any piece of music are the notes. This section
47 is about basic notation elements notes, rests and related constructs,
48 such as stems, tuplets and ties.
53 * Chromatic alterations::
68 A note is printed by specifying its pitch and then its duration:
69 @footnote{Notes constitute the most basic elements of LilyPond input,
70 but they do not form valid input on their own without a @code{\score}
71 block. However, for the sake of brevity and simplicity we will
72 generally omit @code{\score} blocks and @code{\paper} declarations in
75 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
84 @cindex Note specification
86 @cindex entering notes
88 The most common syntax for pitch entry is used in @code{\chords} and
89 @code{\notes} mode. In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated
90 by names. The notes are specified by the letters @code{a} through
91 @code{g}, while the octave is formed with notes ranging from @code{c}
92 to @code{b}. The pitch @code{c} is an octave below middle C and the
93 letters span the octave above that C:
95 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
97 a,4 b, c d e f g a b c' d' e' \clef treble f' g' a' b' c''
100 @cindex note names, Dutch
102 A sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch name and
103 a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double flats
104 are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. These
105 names are the Dutch note names. In Dutch, @code{aes} is contracted to
106 @code{as}, but both forms are accepted. Similarly, both
107 @code{es} and @code{ees} are accepted.
109 Half-flats and half-sharps are formed by adding @code{-eh} and
110 @code{-ih}; the following is a series of Cs with increasing pitches:
112 @cindex quarter tones
113 @cindex semi-flats, semi-sharps
115 @lilypond[verbatim,relative=2]
127 There are predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
128 To use them, include the language specific init file. For
129 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files
130 and the note names they define are:
135 Note Names sharp flat
136 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
137 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
139 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
140 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
141 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
142 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
143 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
144 espanol.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -s -b
153 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
154 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
155 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
156 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave:
158 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
159 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
165 Notes can be hidden and unhidden with the following commands:
167 @cindex @code{\hideNotes}
169 @cindex @code{\unHideNotes}
175 Internals: @internalsref{NoteEvent}, and @internalsref{NoteHead}.
177 @node Chromatic alterations
178 @subsection Chromatic alterations
180 Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also
181 print them manually. A reminder accidental
182 @cindex reminder accidental
184 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!}
185 after the pitch. A cautionary accidental
186 @cindex cautionary accidental
187 @cindex parenthesized accidental
188 (i.e. an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the
189 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch:
191 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
192 cis' cis' cis'! cis'?
196 The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many
197 ways. For more information, refer to @ref{Accidentals}.
202 A chord is formed by a enclosing a set of pitches in @code{<} and
203 @code{>}. A chord may be followed by a duration, and a set of
204 articulations, just like simple notes.
214 Rests are entered like notes, with the note name @code{r}:
216 @lilypond[raggedright,verbatim]
220 Whole bar rests, centered in middle of the bar,
221 must be done with multi measure rests. They are discussed in
222 @ref{Multi measure rests}.
225 A rest's vertical position may be explicitly specified by entering a
226 note with the @code{\rest} keyword appended. This makes manual
227 formatting in polyphonic music easier. Rest collision testing will
228 leave these rests alone:
230 @lilypond[raggedright,verbatim]
236 Internals: @internalsref{RestEvent}, and @internalsref{Rest}.
243 @cindex Invisible rest
246 An invisible rest (also called a `skip') can be entered like a note
247 with note name `@code{s}' or with @code{\skip @var{duration}}:
249 @lilypond[raggedright,verbatim]
253 The @code{s} syntax is only available in Note mode and Chord mode. In
254 other situations, you should use the @code{\skip} command:
256 @lilypond[raggedright,verbatim]
259 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
260 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
265 The skip command is merely an empty musical placeholder. It does not
266 produce any output, not even transparent output.
270 Internals: @internalsref{SkipEvent}.
275 @subsection Durations
281 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations are designated by numbers
282 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For example,
283 a quarter note is entered using a @code{4} (since it is a 1/4 note), while
284 a half note is entered using a @code{2} (since it is a 1/2 note). For notes
285 longer than a whole you must use variables:
287 @c FIXME: what is an identifier? I do not think it's been introduced yet.
288 @c and if it has, I obviously skipped that part. - Graham
292 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
294 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
299 \notes \relative c'' {
301 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
303 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
308 \remove "Clef_engraver"
309 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
310 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
311 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
318 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previously entered
319 duration. The default for the first note is a quarter note. The duration
320 can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') in order to obtain dotted note
324 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
325 a' b' c''8 b' a'4 a'4. b'4.. c'8.
330 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M}
331 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
332 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
333 In the following example, the first three notes take up exactly two
335 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
337 a4*2/3 gis4*2/3 a4*2/3
344 Dots are normally moved up to avoid staff lines, except in polyphonic
345 situations. The following commands may be used to force a particular
348 @cindex @code{\dotsUp}
350 @cindex @code{\dotsDown}
352 @cindex @code{\dotsBoth}
357 Internals: @internalsref{Dots}, and @internalsref{DotColumn}.
362 Whenever a note is found, a @internalsref{Stem} object is created
363 automatically. For whole notes and rests, they are also created but
368 @cindex @code{\stemUp}
370 @cindex @code{\stemDown}
372 @cindex @code{\stemBoth}
383 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in
384 effect extends the length of a note. Ties should not be confused with
385 slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate
386 musical phrasing. A tie is entered using the tilde symbol `@code{~}':
388 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
389 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
392 When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads whose pitches match
393 are connected. When no note heads match, no ties will be created.
395 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
396 to the augmentation dot; in the following example there are two ways of
397 notating exactly the same concept:
399 @lilypond[fragment,raggedright,quote]
400 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
402 If you need to tie a lot of notes over bars, it may be easier to use automatic
403 note splitting (see @ref{Automatic note splitting}).
408 @cindex @code{\tieUp}
410 @cindex @code{\tieDown}
412 @cindex @code{\tieBoth}
414 @cindex @code{\tieDotted}
416 @cindex @code{\tieSolid}
421 In this manual: @ref{Automatic note splitting}.
423 Internals: @internalsref{TieEvent}, @internalsref{NewTieEvent},
426 Examples: if you want less ties created for a chord, see
427 @inputfileref{input/test,tie-sparse.ly}.
429 For tying only a subset of the note heads of a pair of chords, see
430 @inputfileref{input/regression,tie-chord-partial.ly}.
435 Switching staves when a tie is active will not produce a slanted tie.
437 Formatting of ties is a difficult subject. The results are often not
447 @cindex @code{\times}
449 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all durations
452 @cindex @code{\times}
454 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
458 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
459 The fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes, optionally
460 with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in which 3
461 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of their written
464 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
465 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
468 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each
469 bracket should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while
470 typing @code{\times} only once, saving lots of typing. In the next
471 example, there are two triplets shown, while @code{\times} was only
474 @lilypond[fragment,relative,raggedright,verbatim]
475 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
476 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
479 The format of the number is determined by the property
480 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
481 denominator, but if it is set to the Scheme function
482 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, @var{num}:@var{den} will be printed
486 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
487 @cindex tuplet formatting
492 @cindex @code{\tupletUp}
494 @cindex @code{\tupletDown}
496 @cindex @code{\tupletBoth}
501 Internals: @internalsref{TupletBracket}, and @internalsref{TimeScaledMusic}.
503 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,tuplet-nest.ly}.
507 Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically. In this case, outer
508 tuplet brackets should be moved manually, which is demonstrated in
509 @inputfileref{input/regression,tuplet-nest.ly}.
513 @node Easier music entry
514 @section Easier music entry
517 When entering music it is easy to introduce errors. This section deals
518 with tricks and features of the input language that were added solely
519 to help entering music, and find and correct mistakes.
521 It is also possible to use external programs, for example GUI
522 interfaces, or MIDI transcription programs, to enter or edit
523 music. Refer to the website for more information. Finally, there are
524 tools make debugging easier, by linking the input file and the output
525 shown on screen. See @ref{Point and click} for more information.
532 * Skipping corrected music::
533 * Automatic note splitting::
539 @node Relative octaves
540 @subsection Relative octaves
542 @cindex relative octave specification
544 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
545 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch
546 in the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. The relative
547 octave mode prevents these errors: a single error puts the rest of the
548 piece off by one octave:
550 @cindex @code{\relative}
552 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
555 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
556 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
557 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
558 (; this distance is determined without regarding alterations: a
559 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
562 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise
563 or lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode,
564 an absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
565 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
567 Here is the relative mode shown in action:
568 @lilypond[fragment,raggedright,verbatim,center]
574 Octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth:
575 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
580 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
581 to determine the first note of the next chord:
583 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
590 @cindex @code{\notes}
592 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
593 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
594 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
597 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
598 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
599 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
600 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
603 @subsection Octave check
606 Octave checks make octave errors easier to correct: a note may be
607 followed by @code{=}@var{quotes} which indicates what its absolute
608 octave should be. In the following example,
610 \relative c'' @{ c='' b=' d,='' @}
614 @c take care with @code, adds confusing quotes.
615 the d will generate a warning, because a d'' is expected, but a d' is
616 found. In the output, the octave is corrected this and the following
621 There is also a syntax that is separate from the notes.
626 This checks that @var{pitch} (without octave) yields @var{pitch} (with
627 octave) in \relative mode. If not, a warning is printed, and the
628 octave is corrected, for example, the first check is passed
629 successfully. The second check fails with an error message. The
630 octave is adjusted so the following notes are in the correct octave
641 The octave of a note following an octave check is determined with
642 respect to the note preceding it. In the next fragment, the last note
643 is a @code{a'}, above central C. Hence, the @code{\octave} check may
644 be deleted without changing the meaning of the piece.
646 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
655 @subsection Bar check
659 @cindex @code{barCheckSynchronize}
662 Bar checks help detect errors in the durations. A bar check is
663 entered using the bar symbol, `@code{|}'. Whenever it is encountered
664 during interpretation, it should fall on a measure boundary. If it
665 does not, a warning is printed. Depending on the value of
666 @code{barCheckSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
669 In the next example, the second bar check will signal an error:
671 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2 |
674 Bar checks can also be used in lyrics, for example
679 Twin -- kle | Twin -- kle
684 @cindex skipTypesetting
686 Failed bar checks are caused by entering incorrect
687 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
688 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the
689 score by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To
690 speed up this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting}, described
693 @node Skipping corrected music
694 @subsection Skipping corrected music
696 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
697 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
698 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
699 This can be used to skip over the parts of a score that have already
700 been checked for errors:
702 @lilypond[fragment,raggedright,verbatim]
704 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
706 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
710 @node Automatic note splitting
711 @subsection Automatic note splitting
713 Long notes can be converted automatically to tied notes. This is done
714 by replacing the @internalsref{Note_heads_engraver} by the
715 @internalsref{Completion_heads_engraver}.
716 In the following examples, notes crossing the barline are split and tied.
719 @lilypond[noindent,verbatim]
721 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
722 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
724 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
728 This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts
729 ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are
730 not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how much each measure
735 Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be
736 represented exactly; the engraver will not insert tuplets.
740 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,completion-heads.ly}
742 Internals: @internalsref{Completion_heads_engraver}
746 @section Staff notation
748 This section describes music notation that occurs on staff level,
749 such as keys, clefs and time signatures.
751 @cindex Staff notation
765 @subsection Staff symbol
767 @cindex adjusting staff symbol
768 @cindex StaffSymbol, using \property
770 Notes, dynamic signs, etc. are grouped
771 with a set of horizontal lines, into a staff (plural `staves'). In our
772 system, these lines are drawn using a separate layout object called
776 @cindex staff lines, setting number of
777 @cindex staff lines, setting thickness of
778 @cindex thickness of staff lines, setting
779 @cindex number of staff lines, setting
783 Internals: @internalsref{StaffSymbol},
785 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,staff-lines.ly},
786 @inputfileref{input/test,staff-size.ly}
790 If a staff is ended halfway a piece, the staff symbol may not end
791 exactly on the barline.
795 @subsection Key signature
796 @cindex Key signature
800 The key signature indicates the scale in which a piece is played. It
801 is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of
806 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
809 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
812 @cindex @code{\minor}
813 @cindex @code{\major}
814 @cindex @code{\minor}
815 @cindex @code{\ionian}
816 @cindex @code{\locrian}
817 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
818 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
819 @cindex @code{\lydian}
820 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
821 @cindex @code{\dorian}
823 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
824 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
825 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
826 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
827 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
829 This command sets the context property
830 @internalsref{Staff}.@code{keySignature}. Non-standard key signatures
831 can be specified by setting this property directly.
833 Accidentals and key signatures often confuse new users, because
834 unaltered notes get natural signs depending on the keysignature. The
835 tutorial explains why this is so in @ref{More about pitches}.
839 The ordering of a key cancellation is wrong when it is combined with
840 repeat bar lines. The cancellation is also printed after a line break.
844 Internals: @internalsref{KeyChangeEvent}, and @internalsref{KeySignature}.
846 @cindex @code{keySignature}
853 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
858 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command:
859 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
860 \key f\major c''2 \clef alto g'2
863 Supported clef-names include:
864 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
868 @item treble, violin, G, G2
881 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
886 @cindex mezzosoprano clef
889 @cindex baritone clef
892 @cindex varbaritone clef
901 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
902 transposed one octave down or up, respectively, and @code{_15} and
903 @code{^15} transposes by two octaves. The argument @var{clefname}
904 must be enclosed in quotes when it contains underscores or digits. For
908 @cindex choral tenor clef
909 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative]
913 This command is equivalent to setting @code{clefGlyph},
914 @code{clefPosition} (which controls the Y position of the clef),
915 @code{centralCPosition} and @code{clefOctavation}. A clef is printed
916 when any of these properties are changed.
920 Internals: the object for this symbol is @internalsref{Clef}.
924 @node Ottava brackets
925 @subsection Ottava brackets
927 ``Ottava'' brackets introduce an extra transposition of an octave for
928 the staff. They are created by invoking the function
929 @code{set-octavation}:
935 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
944 The @code{set-octavation} function also takes -1 (for 8va bassa) and 2
945 (for 15ma) as arguments. Internally the function sets the properties
946 @code{ottavation} (eg. to @code{"8va"}) and
947 @code{centralCPosition}. For overriding the text of the bracket, set
948 @code{ottavation} after invoking @code{set-octavation}, i.e.,
952 \property Staff.ottavation = #"8"
957 Internals: @internalsref{OttavaBracket}.
959 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,ottava.ly},
960 @inputfileref{input/regression,ottava-broken.ly}.
964 @code{set-octavation} will get confused when clef changes happen
965 during an octavation bracket.
968 @subsection Time signature
969 @cindex Time signature
973 Time signature indicates the metrum of a piece: a regular pattern of
974 strong and weak beats. It is denoted by a fraction at the start of the
979 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
981 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
982 \time 2/4 c'2 \time 3/4 c'2.
985 The symbol that is printed can be customized with the @code{style}
986 property. Setting it to @code{#'()} uses fraction style for 4/4 and
987 2/2 time. There are many more options for its layout. See
988 @inputfileref{input/test,time.ly} for more examples.
991 This command sets the property @code{timeSignatureFraction},
992 @code{beatLength} and @code{measureLength} in the @code{Timing}
993 context, which is normally aliased to @internalsref{Score}. The
994 property @code{measureLength} determines where bar lines should be
995 inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated. Changing the
996 value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes the symbol to be
999 More options are available through the Scheme function
1000 @code{set-time-signature}. In combination with the
1001 @internalsref{Measure_grouping_engraver}, it will create
1002 @internalsref{MeasureGrouping} signs. Such signs ease reading
1003 rhythmically complex modern music. In the following example, the 9/8
1004 measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to
1005 @code{set-time-signature} as the third argument @code{(2 2 2 3)}:
1008 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
1009 #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3))
1010 g8[ g] d[ d] g[ g] a8[( bes g]) |
1011 #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2))
1016 \translator { \StaffContext
1017 \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
1023 Internals: @internalsref{TimeSignature}, and @internalsref{Timing_engraver}.
1028 Automatic beaming does not use measure grouping specified with
1029 @code{set-time-signature}.
1031 @node Partial measures
1032 @subsection Partial measures
1035 @cindex partial measure
1036 @cindex measure, partial
1037 @cindex shorten measures
1038 @cindex @code{\partial}
1040 Partial measures, for example in upsteps, are entered using the
1041 @code{\partial} command:
1042 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
1043 \partial 16*5 c16 cis d dis e | a2. c,4 | b2
1046 The syntax for this command is
1048 \partial @var{duration}
1050 This is internally translated into
1052 \property Timing.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
1055 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
1056 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
1058 @node Unmetered music
1059 @subsection Unmetered music
1061 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
1062 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. By setting
1063 @code{Score.timing} to false, this automatic timing can be switched
1069 @cindex @code{\cadenzaOn}
1071 @cindex @code{\cadenzaOff}
1075 @subsection Bar lines
1079 @cindex measure lines
1083 Bar lines delimit measures, but are also used to indicate repeats.
1084 Normally, they are inserted automatically. Line breaks may only
1090 of barlines can be forced with the @code{\bar} command:
1092 @lilypond[relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
1096 The following bar types are available:
1097 @lilypond[fragment,relative,raggedright,verbatim]
1110 For allowing linebreaks, there is a special command,
1114 This will insert an invisible barline, and allow linebreaks at this
1117 In scores with many staves, a @code{\bar} command in one staff is
1118 automatically applied to all staves. The resulting bar lines are
1119 connected between different staves of a @internalsref{StaffGroup}:
1121 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1122 << \context StaffGroup <<
1126 \new Staff { \clef bass c4 g e g } >>
1127 \new Staff { \clef bass c2 c2 } >>
1131 The command @code{\bar @var{bartype}} is a short cut for doing
1132 @code{\property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}} Whenever
1133 @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
1134 created. At the start of a measure it is set to
1135 @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of @code{repeatCommands} are used
1136 to override default measure bars.
1138 Property @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property}
1139 or @code{\bar}. These settings take precedence over the automatic
1140 @code{whichBar} settings.
1143 @cindex repeatCommands
1144 @cindex defaultBarType
1146 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
1153 In this manual: @ref{Repeats}.
1156 Internals: the bar line objects that are created at
1157 @internalsref{Staff} level are called @internalsref{BarLine}, the bar
1158 lines that span staves are @internalsref{SpanBar}s.
1160 @cindex bar lines at start of system
1161 @cindex start of system
1163 The barlines at the start of each system are
1164 @internalsref{SystemStartBar}, @internalsref{SystemStartBrace}, and
1165 @internalsref{SystemStartBracket}. Only one of these types is created
1166 in every context, and that type is determined by the property
1167 @code{systemStartDelimiter}.
1169 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,bar-lines.ly},
1175 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff
1176 is to split chords using the separator @code{\\}. You can use it for
1177 small, short-lived voices or for single chords:
1179 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
1180 \context Staff \relative c'' {
1181 c4 << { f d e } \\ { b c2 } >>
1182 c4 << g' \\ b, \\ f' \\ d >>
1186 The separator causes @internalsref{Voice} contexts@footnote{Polyphonic
1187 voices are sometimes called "layers" other notation packages}
1189 to be instantiated. They bear the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc. In
1190 each of these contexts, vertical direction of slurs, stems, etc. is set
1193 @cindex @code{\voiceOne}
1194 @cindex @code{\voiceFour}
1196 This can also be done by instantiating @internalsref{Voice} contexts
1197 by hand, and using @code{\voiceOne}, up to @code{\voiceFour} to assign
1198 a stem directions and horizontal shift for each part:
1201 @lilypond[raggedright,verbatim]
1203 \context Staff << \new Voice { \voiceOne cis2 b }
1204 \new Voice { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
1205 \new Voice { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >>
1209 The command @code{\oneVoice} will revert back to the normal setting.
1210 @cindex @code{\oneVoice}
1213 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
1214 when the object property @code{merge-differently-dotted} is set in
1215 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} object, they are merged:
1216 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,raggedright]
1217 \relative c'' \context Voice << {
1219 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override
1220 #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
1222 } \\ { g8.[ f16] g8.[ f16] }
1226 Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting
1227 @code{merge-differently-headed}:
1228 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
1231 \property Staff.NoteCollision
1232 \override #'merge-differently-headed = ##t
1233 c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >>
1236 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem:
1239 @lilypond[raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
1240 \context Voice << c''4 \\ r4 >>
1248 @cindex @code{\oneVoice}
1250 @cindex @code{\voiceOne}
1252 @cindex @code{\voiceTwo}
1254 @cindex @code{\voiceThree}
1256 @cindex @code{\voiceFour}
1260 The following commands specify in what chords of the current voice
1261 should be shifted: the outer voice has @code{\shiftOff}, and the inner
1262 voices have @code{\shiftOn}, @code{\shiftOnn}, etc.
1265 @cindex @code{\shiftOn}
1267 @cindex @code{\shiftOnn}
1269 @cindex @code{\shiftOnnn}
1271 @cindex @code{\shiftOff}
1278 Internals: the objects responsible for resolving collisions are
1279 @internalsref{NoteCollision} and @internalsref{RestCollision}.
1281 Examples: See also example files
1282 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-dots.ly},
1283 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-head-chords.ly},
1284 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-heads.ly},
1285 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-mesh.ly}, and
1286 @inputfileref{input/regression,collisions.ly}.
1291 Resolving collisions is a intricate subject, and only a few situations
1292 are handled. When LilyPond cannot cope, the @code{force-hshift}
1293 property of the @internalsref{NoteColumn} object and pitched rests can
1294 be used to override typesetting decisions.
1296 When using @code{merge-differently-headed} with an upstem 8th or a shorter
1297 note, and a downstem half note, the 8th note gets the wrong offset.
1299 There is no support for clusters where the same note occurs with
1300 different accidentals in the same chord. In this case, it is
1301 recommended to use enharmonic transcription, or to use special cluster
1302 notation (see @ref{Clusters}).
1307 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
1308 the metrum. They are inserted automatically in most cases:
1310 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
1311 \time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
1314 When these automatic decisions are not good enough, beaming can be
1315 entered explicitly. It is also possible to define beaming patterns
1316 that differ from the defaults.
1320 Internals: @internalsref{Beam}.
1323 @cindex Automatic beams
1326 * Setting automatic beam behavior::
1330 @subsection Manual beams
1331 @cindex beams, manual
1335 In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming
1336 algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not put beams over rests
1337 or bar lines. Such beams are specified by manually: the begin and end
1338 point are marked with @code{[} and @code{]}:
1340 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1342 r4 r8[ g' a r8] r8 g[ | a] r8
1346 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1348 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1349 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1350 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount} can
1351 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If either property
1352 is set, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1354 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1357 f8[ r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
1360 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1363 The property @code{subdivideBeams} can be set in order to subdivide
1364 all 16th or shorter beams at beat positions, as defined by the
1365 @code{beatLength} property . This accomplishes the same effect as
1366 twiddling with @code{stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{stemRightBeamCount},
1367 but it take less typing:
1370 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,noindent]
1372 \property Voice.subdivideBeams = ##t
1374 \property Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
1377 @cindex subdivideBeams
1379 Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap is detected
1380 between the note heads. This behavior can be tuned through the object
1381 property @code{auto-knee-gap}.
1383 Normally, line breaks are forbidden when beams cross bar lines. This
1384 behavior can be changed by setting @code{allowBeamBreak}.
1386 @cindex @code{allowBeamBreak}
1387 @cindex beams and line breaks
1389 @cindex beams, kneed
1391 @cindex auto-knee-gap
1397 @cindex Frenched staves
1399 Automatically kneed beams cannot be used together with hidden staves.
1404 @node Setting automatic beam behavior
1405 @subsection Setting automatic beam behavior
1407 @cindex @code{autoBeamSettings}
1408 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
1409 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
1410 @cindex automatic beams, tuning
1411 @cindex tuning automatic beaming
1413 @c [TODO: use \applycontext]
1415 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
1416 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
1417 or at durations specified by the properties in
1418 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
1419 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
1421 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
1422 @code{\override} and restored with @code{\revert}:
1424 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
1425 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
1427 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
1428 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
1429 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
1430 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
1431 signature (wildcards `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
1434 For example, if automatic beams should end on every quarter note, use
1437 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1438 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
1440 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1441 entered as @code{(ly:make-moment 1 4)}.
1443 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1444 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note:
1446 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1447 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1449 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1450 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1451 3/8, has passed within the measure).
1453 Rules can also be restricted to specific time signatures. A rule that
1454 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1455 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1456 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1458 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1459 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1462 If a rule should be to applied only to certain types of beams, use the
1463 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the
1464 shortest note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies
1465 to beams with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), use @code{(end 1 32 *
1468 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1469 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1471 @cindex automatic beam generation
1473 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeaming}
1476 For melodies that have lyrics, you may want to switch off
1477 automatic beaming. This is done by setting @code{Voice.autoBeaming} to
1482 @cindex @code{\autoBeamOff}
1483 @code{\autoBeamOff},
1484 @cindex @code{\autoBeamOn}
1490 The rules for ending a beam depend on the shortest note in a beam.
1491 So, while it is possible to have different ending rules for eight
1492 beams and sixteenth beams, a beam that contains both eight and
1493 sixteenth notes will use the rules for the sixteenth beam.
1495 In the example below, the autobeamer makes eight beams and sixteenth
1496 end at 3 eights; the third beam can only be corrected by specifying
1499 @lilypond[raggedright,fragment,relative,noverbatim,quote]
1500 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1501 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1502 % rather show case where it goes wrong
1503 %\time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c[ c c c] c8[ c] c4
1504 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c c c c c8 c c4
1506 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1507 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1508 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1511 @section Accidentals
1514 This section describes how to change the way that accidentals are
1515 inserted automatically before the running notes.
1519 * Using the predefined accidental variables::
1520 * Customized accidental rules::
1523 @node Using the predefined accidental variables
1524 @subsection Using the predefined accidental variables
1526 The constructs for describing the accidental typesetting rules are
1527 quite hairy, so non-experts should stick to the variables
1528 defined in @file{ly/property-init.ly}.
1529 @cindex @file{property-init.ly}
1531 The variables set properties in the ``@code{Current}'' context (see
1532 @ref{Context properties}). This means that the variables should
1533 normally be added right after the creation of the context in which the
1534 accidental typesetting described by the variable is to take
1535 effect. For example, if you want to use piano-accidentals in a piano
1536 staff then issue @code{\pianoAccidentals} first thing after the
1537 creation of the piano staff:
1540 \notes \relative c'' <<
1541 \new Staff @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1542 \context GrandStaff <<
1544 \new Staff @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1545 \new Staff @{ es2 c @}
1547 \new Staff @{ es2 c @}
1551 @lilypond[raggedright]
1553 \notes \relative c'' <<
1554 \new Staff { cis4 d e2 }
1555 \context GrandStaff <<
1557 \new Staff { cis4 d e2 }
1558 \new Staff { es2 c }
1560 \new Staff { es2 c }
1565 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 4.0)
1573 @item \defaultAccidentals
1574 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1575 This is the default typesetting behaviour. It should correspond
1576 to 18th century common practice: Accidentals are
1577 remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and
1578 only on their own octave.
1580 @item \voiceAccidentals
1581 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1583 The normal behaviour is to
1584 remember the accidentals on Staff-level. This variable, however,
1585 typesets accidentals individually for each voice. Apart from that the
1586 rule is similar to @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1588 This leads to some weird and often unwanted results
1589 because accidentals from one voice do not get cancelled in other
1591 @lilypond[raggedright,relative,fragment,verbatim,quote]
1599 Hence you should only use @code{\voiceAccidentals} if the voices
1600 are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff is to be
1601 used by one musician (e.g. a conductor) then you use
1602 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals} or @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1605 @item \modernAccidentals
1606 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1607 This rule corresponds to the common practice in the 20th
1609 The rule is more complex than @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1610 You get all the same accidentals, but temporary
1611 accidentals also get cancelled in other octaves. Furthermore,
1612 in the same octave, they also get cancelled in the following measure:
1613 @lilypond[raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
1615 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1618 @item \modernCautionaries
1619 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1620 This rule is similar to @code{\modernAccidentals}, but the
1621 ``extra'' accidentals (the ones not typeset by
1622 @code{\defaultAccidentals}) are typeset as cautionary accidentals.
1623 They are printed in reduced size or with parentheses:
1624 @lilypond[raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
1626 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1629 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1630 @item \modernVoiceAccidentals
1631 is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians
1632 playing one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are
1633 typeset for each voice, but they @emph{are} cancelled across voices in
1634 the same @internalsref{Staff}.
1636 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1637 @item \modernVoiceCautionaries
1638 is the same as @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}, but with the extra
1639 accidentals (the ones not typeset by @code{\voiceAccidentals}) typeset
1640 as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset by
1641 @code{\defaultAccidentals} @emph{are} typeset by this variable then
1642 some of them are typeset as cautionaries.
1644 @item \pianoAccidentals
1645 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1646 20th century practice for piano notation. Very similar to
1647 @code{\modernAccidentals} but accidentals also get cancelled
1648 across the staves in the same @internalsref{GrandStaff} or
1649 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.
1651 @item \pianoCautionaries
1652 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1653 As @code{\pianoAccidentals} but with the extra accidentals
1654 typeset as cautionaries.
1657 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1658 Same as @code{\defaultAccidentals} but with accidentals lasting
1659 ``forever'' and not only until the next measure:
1660 @lilypond[raggedright,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1665 @item \forgetAccidentals
1666 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1667 This is sort of the opposite of @code{\noResetKey}: Accidentals
1668 are not remembered at all---and hence all accidentals are
1669 typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what was
1670 before in the music:
1671 @lilypond[raggedright,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1673 \key d\major c4 c cis cis d d dis dis
1677 @node Customized accidental rules
1678 @subsection Customized accidental rules
1680 For determining when to print an accidental, several different rules
1681 are tried. The rule that gives the highest number of accidentals is
1682 used. Each rule consists of
1685 In which context is the rule applied. For example, if
1686 @var{context} is @internalsref{Score} then all staves share
1687 accidentals, and if @var{context} is @internalsref{Staff} then all
1688 voices in the same staff share accidentals, but staves do not.
1690 Whether the accidental changes all octaves or only the current
1693 Over how many barlines the accidental lasts.
1694 If @var{lazyness} is @code{-1} then the accidental is forget
1695 immediately, and if @var{lazyness} is @code{#t} then the accidental
1698 @c [TODO: should use +infinity for this case?]
1704 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1705 @code{\defaultAccidentals},
1706 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1707 @code{\voiceAccidentals},
1708 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1709 @code{\modernAccidentals},
1710 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1711 @code{\modernCautionaries},
1712 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1713 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals},
1714 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1715 @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries},
1716 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1717 @code{\pianoAccidentals},
1718 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1719 @code{\pianoCautionaries},
1720 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1722 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1723 @code{\forgetAccidentals}.
1727 Internals: @internalsref{Accidental_engraver},
1728 @internalsref{Accidental}, and @internalsref{AccidentalPlacement}.
1733 Currently the simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in
1734 sequential mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are
1735 typeset as if the notes in the chord happened once at a time - in the
1736 order in which they appear in the input file.
1738 This is only a problem when there are simultaneous notes whose
1739 accidentals depend on each other. The problem only occurs when using
1740 non-default accidentals. In the default scheme, accidentals only
1741 depend on other accidentals with the same pitch on the same staff, so
1742 no conflicts possible.
1744 This example shows two examples of the same music giving different
1745 accidentals depending on the order in which the notes occur in the
1748 @lilypond[raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
1749 \property Staff.autoAccidentals = #'( Staff (any-octave . 0) )
1750 cis'4 <c'' c'> r2 | cis'4 <c' c''> r2
1751 | <cis' c''> r | <c'' cis'> r |
1754 This problem can be solved by manually inserting @code{!} and @code{?}
1755 for the problematic notes.
1757 @node Expressive marks
1758 @section Expressive marks
1761 @c todo: should change ordering
1762 @c where to put text spanners, metronome marks,
1771 * Analysis brackets::
1773 * Fingering instructions::
1784 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1788 They are entered using parentheses:
1789 @lilypond[relative=1,fragment,verbatim,center]
1790 f( g)( a) a8 b( a4 g2 f4)
1795 @c TODO: should explain that ^( and _( set directions
1796 @c should set attachments with ^ and _ ?
1798 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1799 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1800 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1801 object property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1802 @internalsref{Voice} context. Its value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1803 the attachment type of the left and right end points:
1805 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1807 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1809 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1813 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1814 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1815 stems might look better:
1817 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1820 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1827 @cindex @code{\slurUp}
1829 @cindex @code{\slurDown}
1831 @cindex @code{\slurBoth}
1833 @cindex @code{\slurDotted}
1835 @cindex @code{\slurSolid}
1840 Internals: @seeinternals{Slur}, and @internalsref{SlurEvent}.
1845 Producing nice slurs is a difficult problem, and LilyPond currently
1846 uses a simple, empiric method to produce slurs. In some cases, its
1850 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1852 @node Phrasing slurs
1853 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1855 @cindex phrasing slurs
1856 @cindex phrasing marks
1858 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1859 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1862 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1863 \time 6/4 c'\( d( e) f( e) d\)
1866 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a
1867 normal slur. However, they are treated as different objects. A
1868 @code{\slurUp} will have no effect on a phrasing slur; instead, you
1869 should use @code{\phrasingSlurUp}, @code{\phrasingSlurDown}, and
1870 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}.
1872 The commands @code{\slurUp}, @code{\slurDown}, and @code{\slurBoth}
1873 will only affect normal slurs and not phrasing slurs.
1877 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurUp}
1878 @code{\phrasingSlurUp},
1879 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurDown}
1880 @code{\phrasingSlurDown},
1881 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}
1882 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth},
1886 Internals: see also @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, and
1887 @internalsref{PhrasingSlurEvent}.
1891 Phrasing slurs have the same limitations in their formatting as normal
1892 slurs. Putting phrasing slurs over rests leads to spurious warnings.
1895 @subsection Breath marks
1897 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}:
1900 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1904 The glyph of the breath mark can be tweaked by overriding the
1905 @code{text} property of the @code{BreathingSign} layout object with
1906 any markup text. For example,
1907 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative]
1909 \property Voice.BreathingSign \override #'text
1910 = #(make-musicglyph-markup "scripts-rvarcomma")
1917 Internals: @internalsref{BreathingSign},
1918 @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent}
1920 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,breathing-sign.ly}.
1923 @node Metronome marks
1924 @subsection Metronome marks
1927 @cindex beats per minute
1928 @cindex metronome marking
1930 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1932 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1935 In the MIDI output, they are interpreted as a tempo change, and in the
1936 paper output, a metronome marking is printed:
1937 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1938 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1944 Internals: @internalsref{MetronomeChangeEvent}.
1949 @subsection Text spanners
1950 @cindex Text spanners
1952 Some performance indications, e.g. @i{rallentando} or @i{accelerando},
1953 are written as texts, and extended over many measures with dotted
1954 lines. You can create such texts using text spanners: attach
1955 @code{\startTextSpan} and @code{\stopTextSpan} to the
1956 start and ending note of the spanner.
1958 The string to be printed, as well as the style, is set through object
1961 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1963 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'direction = #-1
1964 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("rall " . "")
1965 c2\startTextSpan b c\stopTextSpan a }
1971 Internals @internalsref{TextSpanEvent},
1972 @internalsref{TextSpanner}.
1974 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,text-spanner.ly}.
1977 @node Analysis brackets
1978 @subsection Analysis brackets
1980 @cindex phrasing brackets
1981 @cindex musicological analysis
1982 @cindex note grouping bracket
1984 Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical
1985 pieces. LilyPond supports a simple form of nested horizontal brackets.
1986 To use this, add the @internalsref{Horizontal_bracket_engraver} to
1987 @internalsref{Staff} context. A bracket is started with
1988 @code{\startGroup} and closed with @code{\stopGroup}:
1990 @lilypond[raggedright,verbatim]
1991 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
1992 c4\startGroup\startGroup
1995 c4\stopGroup\stopGroup
1997 \paper { \translator {
1998 \StaffContext \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
2004 Internals: @internalsref{HorizontalBracket},
2005 @internalsref{NoteGroupingEvent}
2007 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,note-group-bracket.ly}.
2011 @subsection Articulations
2012 @cindex Articulations
2014 @cindex articulations
2018 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
2019 different characteristics of the performance. They are added to a note
2020 by adding a dash and the character signifying the
2021 articulation. They are demonstrated here:
2023 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-abbreviations.ly}
2025 The meanings of these shorthands can be changed: see
2026 @file{ly/script-init.ly} for examples.
2029 The script is automatically placed, but if you need to force
2030 directions, you can use @code{_} to force them down, or @code{^} to
2032 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2036 Other symbols can be added using the syntax
2037 @var{note}@code{\}@var{name}, e.g. @code{c4\fermata}. Again, they
2038 can be forced up or down using @code{^} and @code{_},
2041 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
2042 c\fermata c^\fermata c_\fermata
2049 @cindex staccatissimo
2058 @cindex organ pedal marks
2067 @cindex prallmordent
2071 @cindex thumb marking
2076 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-chart.ly}
2081 @cindex @code{\scriptUp}
2083 @cindex @code{\scriptDown}
2085 @cindex @code{\scriptBoth}
2090 Internals: @internalsref{ScriptEvent}, and @internalsref{Script}.
2094 These note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
2095 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
2098 @node Fingering instructions
2099 @subsection Fingering instructions
2103 Fingering instructions can be entered using
2105 @var{note}-@var{digit}
2107 For finger changes, use markup texts:
2109 @lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,fragment]
2110 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
2111 c'^\markup { \fontsize #-3 \number "2-3" }
2114 @cindex finger change
2119 You can use the thumb-script to indicate that a note should be
2120 played with the thumb (e.g. in cello music):
2122 @lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,fragment]
2123 <a' a''-3>8(_\thumb <b' b''-3>)_\thumb
2124 <c'' c'''-3>(_\thumb <d'' d'''-3>)_\thumb
2127 Fingerings for chords can also be added to individual notes
2128 of the chord by adding them after the pitches:
2129 @lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,fragment,relative=1]
2130 < c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 > 4
2134 In this case, setting @code{fingeringOrientations} will put fingerings next
2137 @lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,fragment,relative=1]
2138 \property Voice.fingeringOrientations = #'(left down)
2139 <c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 > 4
2140 \property Voice.fingeringOrientations = #'(up right down)
2141 <c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 > 4
2144 By using single note chords, fingering instructions can be put close
2145 to note heads in monophonic music.
2149 Internals: @internalsref{FingerEvent}, and @internalsref{Fingering}.
2151 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,finger-chords.ly}
2154 @subsection Text scripts
2155 @cindex Text scripts
2157 @cindex text items, non-empty
2158 @cindex non-empty texts
2160 It is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup text (see
2161 @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
2162 @code{c^"text"}. By default, these indications do not influence the
2163 note spacing, but by using the command @code{\fatText}, the widths
2164 will be taken into account:
2166 @lilypond[fragment,raggedright,verbatim] \relative c' {
2167 c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
2170 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should
2171 be avoided because the exact dimensions of the string can then no
2176 @refcommand{fatText}, @refcommand{emptyText}.
2181 In this manual: @ref{Text markup}.
2183 Internals: @internalsref{TextScriptEvent}, @internalsref{TextScript}
2189 @subsection Grace notes
2192 @c should have blurb about accaciatura / appogiatura
2194 @cindex @code{\grace}
2198 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out. The most common ones
2199 are acciaccatura, which should be played as very short. It is denoted
2200 by a slurred small note with a slashed stem. The appoggiatura is a
2201 grace note that takes a fixed fraction of the main note, is and
2202 denoted as a slurred note in small print without a slash.
2203 They are entered with the commands @code{\acciaccatura} and
2204 @code{\appoggiatura}, as demonstrated in the following example:
2207 @cindex appoggiatura
2208 @cindex acciaccatura
2210 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2211 b4 \acciaccatura d8 c4 \appoggiatura e8 d4
2212 \acciaccatura { g16[ f] } e4
2215 Both are special forms of the @code{\grace} command. By prefixing this
2216 keyword to a music expression, a new one is formed, which will be
2217 printed in a smaller font and takes up no logical time in a measure.
2218 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2220 \grace { c16[ d16] } c2 c4
2224 Unlike @code{\acciaccatura} and @code{\appoggiatura}, the
2225 @code{\grace} command does not start a slur.
2227 Internally, timing for grace notes is done using a second, `grace'
2228 time. Every point in time consists of two rational numbers: one
2229 denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing. The above
2230 example is shown here with timing tuples:
2232 @lilypond[raggedright]
2235 c4 \grace c16 c4 \grace {
2238 \new Lyrics \lyrics {
2241 ( \fraction 1 4 , \fraction -1 16 ) } 16 }
2242 \markup { (\fraction 1 4 , 0 ) } 4
2244 \markup { (\fraction 2 4 , \fraction "-1" 8 ) } 16
2245 \markup { (\fraction 2 4 , \fraction "-1" 16 ) } 16
2247 \markup { ( \fraction 2 4 , 0 ) }
2252 The placement of grace notes is synchronized between different staves.
2253 In the following example, there are two sixteenth graces notes for
2254 every eighth grace note:
2256 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2257 << \new Staff { e4 \grace { c16[ d e f] } e4 }
2258 \new Staff { c'4 \grace { g8[ b] } c4 } >>
2263 If you want to end a note with a grace, then the standard trick
2264 is to put the grace notes after a ``space note'', e.g.
2265 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
2268 { s2 \grace { c16[ d] } } >>
2274 By adjusting the duration of the skip note (here it is a half-note),
2275 the space between the main-note and the grace is adjusted.
2278 A @code{\grace} section will introduce special typesetting settings,
2279 for example, to produce smaller type, and set directions. Hence, when
2280 introducing layout tweaks, they should be inside the grace section,
2282 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
2285 \property Voice.Stem \override #'direction = #-1
2287 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'direction
2294 The overrides should also be reverted inside the grace section.
2296 If the layout of grace sections must be changed throughout the music,
2297 then this can be accomplished through the function
2298 @code{add-grace-property}. The following example
2299 undefines the Stem direction grace section, so stems do not always
2304 #(add-grace-property "Voice" Stem direction '())
2310 Another option is to change the variables @code{startGraceMusic},
2311 @code{stopGraceMusic}, @code{startAccacciaturaMusic},
2312 @code{stopAccacciaturaMusic}, @code{startAppoggiaturaMusic},
2313 @code{stopAppoggiaturaMstuic}. More information is in the file
2314 @file{ly/grace-init.ly}
2319 Internals: @internalsref{GraceMusic}.
2323 A score that starts with an @code{\grace} section needs an explicit
2324 @code{\context Voice} declaration, otherwise the main note and grace
2325 note end up on different staves.
2327 Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation,
2328 such as key signatures, barlines, etc. are also synchronized. Take
2329 care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without, for example,
2331 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2332 << \new Staff { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
2333 \new Staff { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >>
2336 Grace sections should only be used within sequential music
2337 expressions. Nesting or juxtaposing grace sections is not supported,
2338 and might produce crashes or other errors.
2342 @subsection Glissando
2345 @cindex @code{\glissando}
2347 A glissando is a smooth change in pitch. It is denoted by a line or a
2348 wavy line between two notes.
2352 A glissando line can be requested by attaching a @code{\glissando} to
2355 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2361 Internals: @internalsref{Glissando}, and @internalsref{GlissandoEvent}.
2366 Adding additional texts (such as @emph{gliss.}) is not supported.
2370 @subsection Dynamics
2383 @cindex @code{\ffff}
2393 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an variable after a
2394 note: @code{c4\ff}. The available dynamic marks are @code{\ppp},
2395 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
2396 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
2397 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}:
2399 @lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,fragment,relative]
2400 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
2406 @cindex @code{\decr}
2407 @cindex @code{\rced}
2414 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\<} and terminated with
2415 @code{\!}. A decrescendo is started with @code{\>} and also terminated
2416 with @code{\!}. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you must
2417 use spacer notes if multiple marks during one note are needed:
2419 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,quote]
2420 c''\< c''\! d''\decr e''\rced
2421 << f''1 { s4 s4\< s4\! \> s4\! } >>
2423 This may give rise to very short hairpins. Use @code{minimum-length}
2424 in @internalsref{Voice}.@internalsref{Hairpin} to lengthen them, for
2428 \property Staff.Hairpin \override #'minimum-length = #5
2431 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
2432 is an example how to do it:
2434 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
2435 c4 \cresc c4 c c c \endcresc c4
2441 You can also supply your own texts:
2442 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2444 \property Voice.crescendoText = \markup { \italic "cresc. poco" }
2445 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
2455 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
2457 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
2458 @code{\dynamicDown},
2459 @cindex @code{\dynamicBoth}
2460 @code{\dynamicBoth}.
2462 @cindex direction, of dynamics
2466 Internals: @internalsref{CrescendoEvent}, @internalsref{DecrescendoEvent}, and
2467 @internalsref{AbsoluteDynamicEvent}.
2469 Dynamics are objects of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
2470 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is
2471 handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2473 If you want to adjust padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you
2474 must set properties for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2482 @cindex @code{\repeat}
2485 Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist
2486 for repetitions. In LilyPond, most of these notations can be captured
2487 in a uniform syntax. One of the advantages is that they can be
2488 rendered in MIDI accurately.
2490 The following types of repetition are supported:
2494 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
2495 output, and entering repetitive music.
2498 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
2499 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
2503 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
2504 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
2505 @inputfileref{input,star-spangled-banner.ly}.
2513 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
2519 * Repeats and MIDI::
2520 * Manual repeat commands::
2522 * Tremolo subdivisions::
2527 @subsection Repeat syntax
2531 LilyPond has one syntactic construct for specifying different types of
2532 repeats. The syntax is
2535 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
2538 If you have alternative endings, you may add
2539 @cindex @code{\alternative}
2541 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
2543 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
2545 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression. If you do not
2546 give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then the first
2547 alternative is assumed to be played more than once.
2549 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
2550 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
2552 \repeat volta 2 { c4 d e f }
2553 \repeat volta 2 { f e d c }
2556 With alternative endings:
2557 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
2559 \repeat volta 2 {c4 d e f}
2560 \alternative { {d2 d} {f f,} }
2564 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
2567 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
2568 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
2574 If you do a nested repeat like
2583 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the @code{\alternative}
2584 belongs. This ambiguity is resolved by always having the
2585 @code{\alternative} belong to the inner @code{\repeat}. For clarity,
2586 it is advisable to use braces in such situations.
2589 @node Repeats and MIDI
2590 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
2592 @cindex expanding repeats
2594 For instructions on how to unfold repeats for MIDI output, see the
2595 example file @inputfileref{input/test,unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
2600 Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative,
2601 so after a repeat timing information must be reset by hand, for
2602 example by setting @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering
2603 @code{\partial}. Similarly, slurs or ties are also not repeated.
2606 @node Manual repeat commands
2607 @subsection Manual repeat commands
2609 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
2611 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
2612 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
2616 @item the symbol @code{start-repeat},
2617 which prints a @code{|:} bar line,
2618 @item the symbol @code{end-repeat},
2619 which prints a @code{:|} bar line,
2620 @item the list @code{(volta @var{text})},
2621 which prints a volta bracket saying @var{text}: The text can be specified as
2622 a text string or as a markup text, see @ref{Text markup}. Do not
2623 forget to change the font, as the default number font does not contain
2624 alphabetic characters. Or,
2625 @item the list @code{(volta #f)}, which
2626 stops a running volta bracket:
2629 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
2631 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
2633 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
2640 Internals: @internalsref{VoltaBracket}, @internalsref{RepeatedMusic},
2641 @internalsref{VoltaRepeatedMusic},
2642 @internalsref{UnfoldedRepeatedMusic}, and
2643 @internalsref{FoldedRepeatedMusic}.
2645 @node Tremolo repeats
2646 @subsection Tremolo repeats
2647 @cindex tremolo beams
2649 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
2651 @lilypond[verbatim,raggedright]
2653 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
2654 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
2655 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
2656 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
2661 Tremolo marks can also be put on a single note. In this case, the
2662 note should not be surrounded by braces.
2663 @lilypond[verbatim,raggedright]
2664 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
2667 A similar mechanism is the tremolo subdivision, described in
2668 @ref{Tremolo subdivisions}.
2672 In this manual: @ref{Tremolo subdivisions}, @ref{Repeats}.
2674 Internals: tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} objects. Single stem
2675 tremolos are @internalsref{StemTremolo}s. The music expression is
2676 @internalsref{TremoloEvent},
2678 Example files: @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-tremolo.ly},
2679 @inputfileref{input/regression,stem-tremolo.ly}.
2681 @node Tremolo subdivisions
2682 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
2683 @cindex tremolo marks
2684 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
2686 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
2687 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
2688 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
2689 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
2690 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used:
2692 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
2693 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
2696 @c [TODO : stok is te kort bij 32en]
2700 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
2704 In this manual: @ref{Tremolo repeats}.
2706 Elsewhere: @internalsref{StemTremolo}, @internalsref{TremoloEvent}.
2708 @node Measure repeats
2709 @subsection Measure repeats
2711 @cindex percent repeats
2712 @cindex measure repeats
2714 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
2715 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
2716 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
2717 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes:
2719 @lilypond[verbatim,raggedright]
2720 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
2721 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
2727 Internals: @internalsref{RepeatSlash}, @internalsref{PercentRepeat},
2728 @internalsref{PercentRepeatedMusic}, and
2729 @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
2733 @node Rhythmic music
2734 @section Rhythmic music
2738 * Showing melody rhythms::
2739 * Percussion staves::
2743 @node Showing melody rhythms
2744 @subsection Showing melody rhythms
2746 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This
2747 can be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a
2748 staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single line:
2750 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2751 \context RhythmicStaff {
2753 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
2759 Internals: @internalsref{RhythmicStaff}.
2761 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,rhythmic-staff.ly}.
2764 @node Percussion staves
2765 @subsection Percussion staves
2769 A percussion part for more than one instrument typically uses a
2770 multiline staff where each position in the staff refers to one piece
2775 Percussion notes may be entered in @code{\drums} mode, which is
2776 similar to @code{notes}. Each piece of percussion has a full name and
2777 an abbreviated name, and both be used in input files:
2779 @lilypond[raggedright]
2780 \drums { hihat4 hh4 }
2783 To typeset the music, the notes must be interpreted in a
2784 @internalsref{DrumStaff} and @internalsref{DrumVoice} contexts:
2787 @lilypond[raggedright,verbatim,quote]
2788 up = \drums { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2789 down = \drums { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2792 << \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
2793 \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
2797 There are also other layout possibilities. To use these, set the
2798 property @code{drumStyleTable} in context @internalsref{DrumVoice}.
2799 The following variables have been predefined:
2803 is the default. It typesets a typical drum kit on a five-line staff
2806 nam = \lyrics { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2807 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
2808 mus = \drums { cymc cyms cymr hh | hhc hho hhho hhp | \break cb hc
2809 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
2811 << \new DrumStaff\with {
2812 \remove Bar_engraver
2813 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2814 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
2815 Stem \set #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
2816 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
2818 \context LyricsVoice \nam
2821 %% need to do this, because of indented @itemize
2823 \translator { \ScoreContext
2824 BarNumber \set #'transparent =##T
2828 The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there fewer toms, simply
2829 select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e. to get toms on
2830 the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml} and
2833 @item timbales-style
2834 to typeset timbales on a two line staff:
2836 @lilypond[raggedright]
2837 nam = \lyrics { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
2838 mus = \drums { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
2841 \context DrumStaff \with {
2842 \remove Bar_engraver
2843 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2844 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
2845 Stem \set #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
2846 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2847 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2848 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2849 drumStyleTable = #timbales-style
2851 \context LyricsVoice \nam
2856 to typeset congas on a two line staff:
2858 @lilypond[raggedright]
2859 nam = \lyrics { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
2860 mus = \drums { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
2863 \context DrumStaff\with {
2864 \remove Bar_engraver
2865 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2866 drumStyleTable = #congas-style
2867 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2869 %% this sucks; it will lengthen stems.
2870 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2871 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
2872 Stem \set #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
2874 \context LyricsVoice \nam
2879 to typeset bongos on a two line staff:
2881 @lilypond[raggedright]
2882 nam = \lyrics { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
2883 mus = \drums { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
2886 \context DrumStaff\with {
2887 \remove Bar_engraver
2888 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2889 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2890 drumStyleTable = #bongos-style
2892 %% this sucks; it will lengthen stems.
2893 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2894 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
2895 Stem \set #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
2897 \context LyricsVoice \nam
2902 @item percussion-style
2903 to typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves:
2904 @lilypond[raggedright]
2905 nam = \lyrics { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
2906 mus = \drums { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
2909 \context DrumStaff\with{
2910 \remove Bar_engraver
2911 drumStyleTable = #percussion-style
2912 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #1
2913 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2914 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
2915 Stem \set #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
2917 \context LyricsVoice \nam
2923 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
2924 list at the top of your file:
2926 @lilypond[raggedright,verbatim]
2928 (bassdrum default #f -1)
2929 (snare default #f 0)
2931 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" 2)
2932 (lowtom diamond #f 3)
2934 up = \drums { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
2935 down = \drums { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
2938 \property DrumStaff.drumStyleTable
2939 = #(alist->hash-table mydrums)
2940 \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
2941 \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
2949 Init files: @file{ly/drumpitch-init.ly}
2951 Internals: @internalsref{DrumStaff}, @internalsref{DrumVoice}
2955 Short polyphonic notation, @code{<< @dots{} \\ @dots{} >>}, does not
2956 work for @internalsref{DrumVoices}.
2958 Because general MIDI does not contain rimshots the sidestick is used
2959 for this purpose instead.
2962 @section Piano music
2964 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
2965 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
2966 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
2967 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
2968 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
2969 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
2973 * Automatic staff changes::
2974 * Manual staff switches::
2977 * Staff switch lines::
2982 There is no support for putting chords across staves. You can get
2983 this result by increasing the length of the stem in the lower stave so
2984 it reaches the stem in the upper stave, or vice versa. An example is
2985 included with the distribution as
2986 @inputfileref{input/test,stem-cross-staff.ly}.
2988 Dynamics are not centered, but kludges do exist. See
2989 @inputfileref{input/template,piano-dynamics.ly}.
2991 @cindex cross staff stem
2992 @cindex stem, cross staff
2995 @c fixme: should have hyperlinks as well.
3001 @node Automatic staff changes
3002 @subsection Automatic staff changes
3003 @cindex Automatic staff changes
3005 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
3006 staff. The syntax for this is
3008 \autochange \context Voice @{ @dots{}@var{music}@dots{} @}
3010 The two staffs of the piano staff must be named @code{up} and
3013 The autochanger switches on basis of pitch (central C is the turning
3014 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch in
3015 advance. Here is a practical example:
3017 @lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,quote]
3018 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <<
3019 \context Staff = "up" {
3020 \autochange \new Voice \relative c' {
3021 g4 a b c d r4 a g } }
3022 \context Staff = "down" {
3029 In this example, spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
3030 terminating too soon.
3035 In this manual: @ref{Manual staff switches}
3037 Internals: @internalsref{AutoChangeMusic}.
3043 The staff switches often do not end up in optimal places. For high
3044 quality output, staff switches should be specified manually.
3048 @node Manual staff switches
3049 @subsection Manual staff switches
3051 @cindex manual staff switches
3052 @cindex staff switch, manual
3054 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
3056 \change Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
3060 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
3061 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
3062 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
3071 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound are produced. Generally, a
3072 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
3076 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
3077 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
3078 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
3081 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3082 c'4\sustainDown c'4\sustainUp
3085 What is printed can be modified by setting @code{pedal@var{X}Strings},
3086 where @var{X} is one of the pedal types: @code{Sustain},
3087 @code{Sostenuto} or @code{UnaCorda}. Refer to the generated
3088 documentation of @internalsref{SustainPedal} for more information.
3090 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
3091 @code{pedalSustainStyle} property to @code{bracket} objects:
3093 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3094 \property Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'bracket
3095 c''4\sustainDown d''4 e''4
3096 a'4\sustainUp\sustainDown
3097 f'4 g'4 a'4\sustainUp
3100 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
3101 obtained by setting the @code{pedalSustainStyle} style property to
3104 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3105 \property Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'mixed
3106 c''4\sustainDown d''4 e''4
3107 c'4\sustainUp\sustainDown
3108 f'4 g'4 a'4\sustainUp
3111 The default `*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
3112 style @code{#'text}. The sostenuto pedal uses @code{mixed} style by
3115 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3116 c''4\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4\sostenutoUp
3119 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
3120 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
3121 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (see
3122 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket} in the Program reference) can be modified. For example, the
3123 bracket may be extended to the end of the note head:
3125 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3126 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override
3127 #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
3128 c''4\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4
3129 f'4 g'4 a'4\sostenutoUp
3133 @subsection Arpeggio
3136 @cindex broken arpeggio
3137 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
3139 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
3140 @code{\arpeggio} to a chord:
3143 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3147 When an arpeggio crosses staves, you attach an arpeggio to the chords
3148 in both staves, and set
3149 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@code{connectArpeggios}:
3151 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3152 \context PianoStaff <<
3153 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
3154 \new Staff { <c' e g c>\arpeggio }
3155 \new Staff { \clef bass <c,, e g>\arpeggio }
3159 The direction of the arpeggio is sometimes denoted by adding an
3160 arrowhead to the wiggly line. This can be typeset by setting
3161 @code{arpeggio-direction}:
3163 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3165 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #1
3167 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
3172 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
3173 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
3174 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
3175 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} objects to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
3176 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before:
3178 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3179 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override
3180 #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
3186 @cindex @code{\arpeggioBracket}
3187 @code{\arpeggioBracket},
3188 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
3193 Internals: @internalsref{ArpeggioEvent} music expressions lead to
3194 @internalsref{Arpeggio} objects. Cross staff arpeggios are
3195 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@internalsref{Arpeggio}.
3199 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected
3200 arpeggios in one @internalsref{PianoStaff} at the same time.
3202 @node Staff switch lines
3203 @subsection Staff switch lines
3206 @cindex follow voice
3207 @cindex staff switching
3210 @cindex @code{followVoice}
3212 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
3213 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
3214 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
3216 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3217 \context PianoStaff <<
3218 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
3219 \context Staff \context Voice {
3224 \context Staff=two { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
3228 The associated object is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
3232 @cindex @code{\showStaffSwitch}
3233 @code{\showStaffSwitch},
3234 @cindex @code{\hideStaffSwitch}
3235 @code{\hideStaffSwitch}.
3239 @section Vocal music
3241 This section discusses how to enter and print lyrics.
3245 * The Lyrics context::
3250 @node Entering lyrics
3251 @subsection Entering lyrics
3255 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
3258 Lyrics are entered in a special input mode. This mode is is introduced
3259 by the keyword @code{\lyrics}. In this mode you can enter lyrics, with
3260 punctuation and accents without any hassle. Syllables are entered like
3261 notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example,
3263 \lyrics @{ Twin-4 kle4 twin- kle litt- le star2 @}
3266 A word in Lyrics mode begins with: an alphabetic character, @code{_},
3267 @code{?}, @code{!}, @code{:}, @code{'}, the control characters @code{^A}
3268 through @code{^F}, @code{^Q} through @code{^W}, @code{^Y}, @code{^^},
3269 any 8-bit character with ASCII code over 127, or a two-character
3270 combination of a backslash followed by one of @code{`}, @code{'},
3271 @code{"}, or @code{^}.
3273 Subsequent characters of a word can be any character that is not a digit
3274 and not white space. One important consequence of this is that a word
3275 can end with @code{@}}. The following example is usually a bug. The
3276 syllable includes a @code{@}}, and hence the opening brace is not balanced:
3278 \lyrics @{ twinkle@}
3281 @cindex @code{\property}, in @code{\lyrics}
3282 Similarly, a period following a alphabetic sequence, is included in the
3283 resulting string. As a consequence, spaces must be inserted around
3284 @code{\property} commands:
3286 \property Lyrics . LyricText \set #'font-shape = #'italic
3290 @cindex spaces, in lyrics
3291 @cindex quotes, in lyrics
3293 Any @code{_} character which appears in an unquoted word is converted
3294 to a space. This provides a mechanism for introducing spaces into words
3295 without using quotes. Quoted words can also be used in Lyrics mode to
3296 specify words that cannot be written with the above rules:
3299 \lyrics @{ He said: "\"Let" my peo ple "go\"" @}
3303 Hyphens can be entered as ordinary hyphens at the end of a syllable, i.e.
3308 These will be attached to the end of the first syllable.
3310 Centered hyphens are entered using the special `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric
3311 as a separate word between syllables. The hyphen will have variable
3312 length depending on the space between the syllables and it will be
3313 centered between the syllables.
3318 When a lyric is sung over many notes (this is called a melisma), this is
3319 indicated with a horizontal line centered between a syllable and the
3320 next one. Such a line is called an extender line, and it is entered as
3325 Internals: @internalsref{LyricEvent}, @internalsref{HyphenEvent}, and
3326 @internalsref{ExtenderEvent}.
3330 The definition of lyrics mode is too complex.
3334 @node The Lyrics context
3335 @subsection The Lyrics context
3337 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in a @internalsref{LyricsVoice} context:
3339 \context LyricsVoice \lyrics @dots{}
3342 @cindex automatic syllable durations
3343 @cindex @code{\lyricsto}
3344 @cindex lyrics and melodies
3346 This will place the lyrics according to the durations that were
3347 entered. The lyrics can also be aligned under a given melody
3348 automatically. In this case, it is no longer necessary to enter the
3349 correct duration for each syllable. This is achieved by combining the
3350 melody and the lyrics with the @code{\lyricsto} expression:
3352 \lyricsto @var{name} \new LyricsVoice @dots{}
3355 This aligns the lyrics to the
3357 notes of the @internalsref{Voice} context called @var{name}, which has
3358 to exist. Therefore, normally the @code{Voice} is specified first, and
3359 then the lyrics are specified with @code{\lyricsto}.
3361 For different or more complex orderings, the best way is to setup the
3362 hierarchy of staves and lyrics first, e.g.
3364 \context ChoirStaff \notes <<
3365 \context LyricsVoice = sopranoLyrics @{ s1 @}
3366 \context Voice = soprano @{ @emph{music} @}
3367 \context LyricsVoice = tenor @{ s1 @}
3368 \context Voice = tenorLyrics @{ @emph{music} @}
3371 and then combine the appropriate melodies and lyric lines:
3373 \lyricsto "soprano" \new LyricsVoice @emph{the lyrics}
3377 The final input would resemble
3380 << \context ChoirStaff \notes << @emph{setup the music} >>
3381 \lyricsto "soprano" @emph{etc}
3382 \lyricsto "alto" @emph{etc}
3388 The @code{\lyricsto} command detects melismata: it only puts one
3389 syllable under a tied or slurred group of notes. If you want to force
3390 an unslurred group of notes to be a melisma, then insert
3391 @code{\melisma} after the first note of the group, and
3392 @code{\melismaEnd} after the last one, e.g.
3394 @lilypond[relative=1,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
3395 << \context Voice = "lala" { \time 3/4
3401 \lyricsto "lala" \new LyricsVoice \lyrics {
3406 In addition, notes are considered a melisma if they are manually
3407 beamed, and automatic beaming (see @ref{Setting automatic beam
3408 behavior}) is switched off. The criteria for deciding melismata
3409 can be tuned with the property @code{melismaBusyProperties}. See
3410 @internalsref{Melisma_engraver} for more information.
3412 When multiple stanzas are put on the same melody, it can happen that
3413 two stanzas have melismata in different locations. This can be
3414 remedied by switching off melismata for one
3415 @internalsref{LyricsVoice}. This is achieved by setting
3416 the @code{ignoreMelismata} property to @code{#t}. An example is shown
3417 in @inputfileref{input/regression,lyric-combine-new.ly}.
3420 @cindex choral score
3422 A complete example of a SATB score setup is in the file
3423 @inputfileref{input/template,satb.ly}.
3427 @code{\melisma}, @code{\melismaEnd}
3428 @cindex @code{\melismaEnd}
3429 @cindex @code{\melisma}
3433 Internals: Music expressions: @internalsref{LyricCombineMusic},
3434 Contexts: @internalsref{LyricsVoice}, @internalsref{Melisma_engraver}.
3436 Examples: @inputfileref{input/template,satb.ly},
3437 @inputfileref{input/regression,lyric-combine-new.ly}.
3441 Melismata are not detected automatically, and extender lines must be
3445 For proper processing of extender lines, the
3446 @internalsref{LyricsVoice} and @internalsref{Voice} should be
3447 linked. This can be achieved either by using @code{\lyricsto} or by
3448 setting corresponding names for both contexts. The latter is explained
3449 in @ref{More stanzas}.
3452 @subsection More stanzas
3454 @cindex phrasing, in lyrics
3457 The lyrics should be aligned with the note heads of the melody. To
3458 achieve this, each line of lyrics should be marked to correspond with
3459 the melodic line. This is done automatically when @code{\lyricsto},
3460 but it can also be done manually.
3462 To this end, give the @internalsref{Voice} context an identity:
3464 \context Voice = duet @{
3469 Then set the @internalsref{LyricsVoice} contexts to names starting with
3470 that identity followed by a dash. In the preceding example, the
3471 @internalsref{Voice} identity is @code{duet}, so the identities of the
3472 @internalsref{LyricsVoice}s are marked @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}:
3474 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" @{
3475 Hi, my name is bert. @}
3476 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" @{
3477 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. @}
3480 The complete example is shown here:
3481 @lilypond[raggedright,verbatim]
3483 << \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
3485 \lyrics << \lyricsto "duet" \new LyricsVoice {
3486 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "1"
3487 Hi, my name is bert. }
3488 \lyricsto "duet" \new LyricsVoice {
3489 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "2"
3490 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
3495 @cindex stanza number
3496 @cindex singer's names
3497 @cindex name of singer
3499 Stanza numbers can be added by setting @code{LyricsVoice.stanza}, e.g.
3502 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3504 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3507 Notice how dots are surrounded with spaces in @code{\lyrics} mode, to
3508 prevent @code{LyricsVoice.stanza} being interpreted as a single
3511 Names of the singers should be added using @code{LyricsVoice
3512 . vocalName} and @code{LyricsVoice . vocNam}, analogous to instrument
3513 annotations for staves.
3515 To make empty spaces in lyrics, use @code{\skip}.
3520 Internals: Layout objects @internalsref{LyricText}
3521 @internalsref{VocalName}. Music expressions:
3522 @internalsref{LyricEvent}.
3528 Input for lyrics introduces a syntactical ambiguity:
3535 is interpreted as assigning a string identifier @code{\foo} such that
3536 it contains @code{"bar"}. However, it could also be interpreted as
3537 making or a music identifier @code{\foo} containing the syllable
3538 `bar'. The force the latter interpretation, use
3550 The term @emph{ambitus} (plural: ambituses) denotes a range of pitches
3551 for a given voice in a part of music. It also may denote the pitch
3552 range that a musical instrument is capable of playing. Most musical
3553 instruments have their ambitus standardized (or at least there is
3554 agreement upon the minimal ambitus of a particular type of
3555 instrument), such that a composer or arranger of a piece of music can
3556 easily meet the ambitus constraints of the targeted instrument.
3557 However, the ambitus of the human voice depends on individual
3558 physiological state, including education and training of the voice.
3559 Therefore, a singer potentially has to check for each piece of music
3560 if the ambitus of that piece meets his individual capabilities. This
3561 is why the ambitus of a piece may be of particular value to vocal
3564 The ambitus is typically notated on a per-voice basis at the very
3565 beginning of a piece, e.g. nearby the initial clef or time signature of
3566 each staff. The range is graphically specified by two noteheads, that
3567 represent the minimum and maximum pitch. Some publishers use a textual
3568 notation: they put the range in words in front of the corresponding
3569 staff. LilyPond only supports the graphical ambitus notation.
3571 To apply, add the @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the
3572 @internalsref{Voice} context, i.e.
3578 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3583 This results in the following output:
3584 @lilypond[raggedright]
3585 upper = \notes \relative c {
3588 as'' c e2 bes f cis d4 e f2 g
3590 lower = \notes \relative c {
3593 e'4 b g a c es fis a cis b a g f e d2
3596 \context ChoirStaff {
3598 \new Staff { \upper }
3599 \new Staff { \lower }
3605 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3611 If you have multiple voices in a single staff, and you want a single
3612 ambitus per staff rather than per each voice, then add the
3613 @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the @internalsref{Staff} context
3614 rather than to the @internalsref{Voice} context.
3616 It is possible to tune individual ambituses for multiple voices on a
3617 single staff, for example by erasing or shifting them horizontally. An
3618 example is in @inputfileref{input/test,ambitus-mixed.ly}
3622 Internals: @internalsref{Ambitus}
3624 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,ambitus.ly},
3625 @inputfileref{input/test,ambitus-mixed.ly}.
3629 There is no collision handling in the case of multiple per-voice
3635 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
3636 instruments. It notates pitches not by using note heads, but by
3637 indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
3638 offers limited support for tablature.
3641 * Tablatures basic::
3642 * Non-guitar tablatures::
3645 @node Tablatures basic
3646 @subsection Tablatures basic
3647 @cindex Tablatures basic
3649 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
3650 followed by a number, e.g. @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
3651 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
3652 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
3653 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
3654 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts:
3656 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3657 \notes \context TabStaff {
3665 When no string is specified, the first string that does not give a
3666 fret number less than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default
3667 value for @code{minimumFret} is 0:
3671 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3672 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3673 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3678 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3679 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3680 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3683 \context StaffGroup <<
3684 \context Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
3685 \context TabStaff { \frag }
3692 Internals: @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}, and
3693 @internalsref{StringNumberEvent}.
3697 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
3698 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
3702 @node Non-guitar tablatures
3703 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
3704 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
3706 You can change the number of strings, by setting the number of lines
3707 in the @internalsref{TabStaff}.
3709 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
3710 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
3711 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to central C) of an
3712 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
3713 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
3714 by default middle C, in string order. Thus, the notes are e, a, d, and
3717 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3718 \context TabStaff <<
3719 \property TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
3722 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
3727 It is possible to change the Scheme function to format the tablature
3728 note text. The default is @code{fret-number-tablature-format}, which
3729 uses the fret number. For instruments that do not use this notation,
3730 you can create a special tablature formatting function. This function
3731 takes three argument: string number, string tuning and note pitch.
3735 No guitar special effects have been implemented.
3740 @section Chord names
3743 LilyPond has support for both printing chord names. Chords may be
3744 entered in musical chord notation, i.e. @code{< .. >}, but they can
3745 also be entered by name. Internally, the chords are represented as a
3746 set of pitches, so they can be transposed:
3749 @lilypond[verbatim,raggedright]
3750 twoWays = \notes \transpose c c' {
3760 << \context ChordNames \twoWays
3761 \context Voice \twoWays >> }
3764 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
3765 be intelligent. The last chord (@code{f bes d}) is not interpreted as
3771 * Printing chord names::
3776 @subsection Chords mode
3779 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
3780 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}.
3781 In chords mode, a chord is entered by the root, which is entered
3782 like a common pitch:
3783 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote,relative=1]
3784 \chords { es4. d8 c2 }
3789 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon, and introducing a
3790 modifier, and optionally, a number:
3792 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote]
3793 \chords { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
3795 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
3796 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
3798 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3799 \chords { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
3802 @cindex root of chord
3803 @cindex additions, in chords
3804 @cindex removals, in chords
3806 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
3807 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
3808 the colon, and are separated by dots:
3810 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3811 \chords { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
3813 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
3815 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3816 \chords { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
3818 Removals are specified similarly, and are introduced by a caret. They
3819 must come after the additions:
3820 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3821 \chords { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
3824 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
3828 is the minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
3830 is the diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
3833 is the augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
3835 is the major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
3837 is the suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
3838 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
3841 Modifiers can be mixed with additions:
3842 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3843 \chords { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
3846 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
3853 Since an unaltered 11 does not sound good when combined with an
3854 unaltered 13, the 11 is removed in this case (unless it is added
3857 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3858 \chords { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
3863 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
3864 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
3865 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord:
3866 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3867 \chords { c1 c/g c/f }
3871 A bass note can be added instead of transposed out of the chord,
3872 by using @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
3874 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3875 \chords { c1 c/+g c/+f }
3878 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyrics}, @code{\notes} etc. Most
3879 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
3880 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and
3881 @code{\property} may be used to change various settings.
3887 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
3888 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
3891 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3892 \chords { c:5.5-.5+ }
3896 @node Printing chord names
3897 @subsection Printing chord names
3899 @cindex printing chord names
3903 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
3904 The chords may be entered either using the notation
3905 described above, or directly using @code{<} and @code{>}:
3907 @lilypond[verbatim,raggedright]
3909 \chords {a1 b c} <d' f' a'> <e' g' b'>
3913 \context ChordNames \scheme
3914 \context Staff \scheme
3919 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
3920 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
3921 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
3922 the start of a new line:
3924 @lilypond[verbatim,linewidth=9\cm]
3926 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
3930 \context ChordNames {
3931 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
3933 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
3938 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
3939 Klaus Ignatzek (see @ref{Literature list}). It can be tuned through the
3940 following properties:
3943 @cindex chordNameExceptions
3944 @item chordNameExceptions
3945 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
3947 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly}.
3948 @cindex exceptions, chord names.
3951 @cindex majorSevenSymbol
3952 @item majorSevenSymbol
3953 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
3954 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup} and
3955 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
3956 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly} for an example.
3958 @cindex chordNameSeparator
3959 @item chordNameSeparator
3960 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
3961 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
3963 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3964 \context ChordNames \chords {
3966 \property ChordNames.chordNameSeparator
3967 = \markup { \typewriter "|" }
3971 @cindex chordRootNamer
3972 @item chordRootNamer
3973 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
3974 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
3975 function. Special note names (for example, the German ``H'' for a
3976 B-chord) can be produced by storing a new function in this property.
3978 The pre-defined variables @code{\germanChords},
3979 @code{\semiGermanChords} set these variables.
3982 @cindex chordNoteNamer
3983 @item chordNoteNamer
3984 The default is to print single pitch, e.g. the bass note, using the
3985 @code{chordRootNamer}. The @code{chordNoteNamer} property can be set
3986 to a specialized function to change this behavior. For example, the
3987 base can be printed in lower case.
3992 There are also two other chord name schemes implemented: an alternate
3993 Jazz chord notation, and a systematic scheme called Banter chords. The
3994 alternate jazz notation is also shown on the chart in @ref{Chord name
3995 chart}. Turning on these styles is described in the input file
3996 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-jazz.ly}.
4000 @cindex chords, jazz
4005 @cindex @code{\germanChords}
4006 @code{\germanChords},
4007 @cindex @code{\semiGermanChords}
4008 @code{\semiGermanChords}.
4015 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly},
4016 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly},
4017 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-jazz.ly},
4018 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-german.ly}.
4020 Init files: @file{scm/chords-ignatzek.scm}, and @file{scm/chord-entry.scm}.
4025 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
4026 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
4027 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
4028 @code{< .. >} syntax.
4033 @node Orchestral music
4034 @section Orchestral music
4036 @cindex Writing parts
4038 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full
4039 score and the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle
4040 some common problems in orchestral music.
4045 * Multiple staff contexts::
4048 * Instrument names::
4050 * Multi measure rests::
4051 * Automatic part combining::
4053 * Different editions from one source::
4054 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
4057 @node Multiple staff contexts
4058 @subsection Multiple staff contexts
4060 Polyphonic scores consist of many staves. These staves can be
4061 constructed in three different ways:
4063 @item The group is started with a brace at the left. This is done with the
4064 @internalsref{GrandStaff} context.
4065 @item The group is started with a bracket. This is done with the
4066 @internalsref{StaffGroup} context
4067 @item The group is started with a vertical line. This is the default
4071 @cindex Staff, multiple
4072 @cindex bracket, vertical
4073 @cindex brace, vertical
4080 @node Rehearsal marks
4081 @subsection Rehearsal marks
4082 @cindex Rehearsal marks
4084 @cindex @code{\mark}
4086 To print a rehearsal mark, use the @code{\mark} command:
4087 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4098 (The letter I is skipped in accordance with engraving traditions.)
4100 The mark is incremented automatically if you use @code{\mark
4101 \default}, but you can also use an integer argument to set the mark
4102 manually. The value to use is stored in the property
4103 @code{rehearsalMark}.
4105 The style is defined by the property @code{markFormatter}. It is a
4106 function taking the current mark (an integer) and the current context
4107 as argument. It should return a markup object. In the following
4108 example, @code{markFormatter} is set to a canned procedure. After a
4109 few measures, it is set to function that produces a boxed number.
4111 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
4112 \property Score.markFormatter = #format-mark-numbers
4115 \property Score.markFormatter
4116 = #(lambda (mark context)
4117 (make-bold-markup (make-box-markup (number->string mark))))
4122 The file @file{scm/translation-functions.scm} contains the definitions
4123 of @code{format-mark-numbers} (the default format) and
4124 @code{format-mark-letters}. They can be used as inspiration for other
4125 formatting functions.
4128 @cindex coda on bar line
4129 @cindex segno on bar line
4130 @cindex fermata on bar line
4131 @cindex bar lines, symbols on
4133 The @code{\mark} command can also be used to put signs like coda,
4134 segno and fermatas on a barline. Use @code{\markup} to
4135 to access the appropriate symbol:
4137 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
4138 c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts-ufermata" }
4142 In this case, during line breaks, marks must also be printed at the
4143 end of the line, and not at the beginning. Use the following to force
4146 \property Score.RehearsalMark \override
4147 #'break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible
4153 @cindex barlines, putting symbols on
4157 Internals: @internalsref{MarkEvent}, @internalsref{RehearsalMark}
4159 Init files: @file{scm/translation-functions.scm} contains the
4160 definition of @code{format-mark-numbers} and
4161 @code{format-mark-letters}. They can be used as inspiration for other
4162 formatting functions.
4164 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,rehearsal-mark-letter.ly},
4165 @inputfileref{input/regression,rehearsal-mark-number.ly}.
4169 @subsection Bar numbers
4173 @cindex measure numbers
4174 @cindex currentBarNumber
4176 Bar numbers are printed by default at the start of the line. The
4177 number itself is stored in the
4178 @code{currentBarNumber} property,
4179 which is normally updated automatically for every measure.
4181 Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of at the
4182 beginning of each line. This is illustrated in the following example,
4183 whose source is available as
4184 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-regular-interval.ly}:
4186 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-regular-interval.ly}
4191 Internals: @internalsref{BarNumber}.
4193 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-five-reset.ly},
4194 and @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-regular-interval.ly}.
4198 Bar numbers can collide with the @internalsref{StaffGroup} bracket, if
4199 there is one at the top. To solve this, the
4200 @code{padding} property of @internalsref{BarNumber} can be
4201 used to position the number correctly.
4203 @node Instrument names
4204 @subsection Instrument names
4206 In an orchestral score, instrument names are printed left side of the
4209 This can be achieved by setting @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instrument}
4210 and @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instr}. This will print a string before
4211 the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
4212 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used:
4215 @lilypond[verbatim,raggedright]
4216 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
4220 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
4224 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,raggedright]
4226 \property Staff.instrument = \markup {
4227 \column < "Clarinetti"
4229 \smaller \musicglyph #"accidentals--1"
4240 Internals: @internalsref{InstrumentName}.
4244 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
4245 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
4246 the name to avoid a collision.
4249 @subsection Transpose
4251 @cindex transposition of pitches
4252 @cindex @code{\transpose}
4254 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
4257 \transpose @var{from} @var{to} @var{musicexpr}
4260 This means that @var{musicexpr} is transposed by the interval between
4261 the pitches @var{from} and @var{to}: any note with pitch @code{from}
4262 is changed to @code{to}.
4265 For example, consider a piece written in the key of D major. If
4266 this piece is a little too low for its performer, it can be
4267 transposed up to E major with
4269 \tranpose d e @dots{}
4272 Consider a part written for violin (a C instrument). If
4273 this part is to be played on the A clarinet, the following
4274 transposition will produce the appropriate part
4277 \transpose a c @dots{}
4280 Since @var{from} and @var{to} are pitches, @code{\transpose} must be
4281 inside a @code{\notes} section. @code{\transpose} distinguishes
4282 between enharmonic pitches: both @code{\transpose c cis} or
4283 @code{\transpose c des} will transpose up half a tone. The first
4284 version will print sharps and the second version will print flats:
4286 @lilypond[raggedright,verbatim]
4287 mus =\notes { \key d \major cis d fis g }
4288 \score { \notes \context Staff {
4291 \transpose c g' \mus
4292 \transpose c f' \mus
4299 Internals: @internalsref{TransposedMusic}, and
4300 @internalsref{UntransposableMusic}.
4304 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
4305 you must put @code{\transpose} outside of @code{\relative}, since
4306 @code{\relative} will have no effect music that appears inside a
4312 @node Multi measure rests
4313 @subsection Multi measure rests
4314 @cindex multi measure rests
4315 @cindex Rests, multi measure
4319 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
4320 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand
4321 to fill a score with rests, or it can be printed as a single
4322 multimeasure rest. This expansion is controlled by the property
4323 @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true, empty measures will not
4324 be expanded, and the appropriate number is added automatically:
4326 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4327 \time 4/4 r1 | R1 | R1*2
4328 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R1*17 R1*4
4331 The @code{1} in @code{R1} is similar to the duration notation used for
4332 notes. Hence, for time signatures other than 4/4, you must enter other
4333 durations. This can be done with augmentation dots or fractions:
4335 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4336 \property Score.skipBars = ##t
4344 An @code{R} spanning a single measure is printed as either a whole rest
4345 or a breve, centered in the measure regardless of the time signature.
4347 @cindex text on multi-measure rest
4348 @cindex script on multi-measure rest
4349 @cindex fermata on multi-measure rest
4351 Texts can be added to multi-measure rests by using the
4352 @var{note}-@code{markup} syntax (see @ref{Text markup}). In this case, the number is
4353 replaced. If you need both texts and the number, you must add the
4354 number by hand. A variable (@code{\fermataMarkup}) is provided for
4358 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
4360 R2._\markup { "Ad lib" }
4364 If you want to have a text on the left end of a multi-measure rest,
4365 attach the text to a zero-length skip note, i.e.
4373 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
4377 Internals: @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestEvent},
4378 @internalsref{MultiMeasureTextEvent},
4379 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestMusicGroup}, and
4380 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
4382 The layout object @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestNumber} is for the
4383 default number, and @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestText} for user
4388 It is not possible to use fingerings (e.g. @code{R1-4}) to put numbers
4389 over multi-measure rests.
4391 @cindex condensing rests
4393 There is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into a single
4394 multimeasure rest. Multi measure rests do not take part in rest
4397 Be careful when entering multimeasure rests followed by whole
4398 notes. The following will enter two notes lasting four measures each:
4402 When @code{skipBars} is set, then the result will look OK, but the
4403 bar numbering will be off.
4405 @node Automatic part combining
4406 @subsection Automatic part combining
4407 @cindex automatic part combining
4408 @cindex part combiner
4411 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
4412 staff. It is aimed at typesetting orchestral scores. When the two
4413 parts are identical for a period of time, only one is shown. In
4414 places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate
4415 voices, and stem directions are set automatically. Also, solo and
4416 @emph{a due} parts are identified and can be marked.
4420 The syntax for part combining is
4423 \partcombine @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
4426 The music expressions will be interpreted as @internalsref{Voice}
4429 The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part
4430 combiner: putting parts on one staff, and setting stem directions and
4433 @lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,fragment,relative=1]
4434 \new Staff \partcombine
4443 The first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
4444 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
4445 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
4446 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
4447 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
4450 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
4451 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false:
4453 @lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,fragment]
4455 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
4467 Internals: @internalsref{PartCombineMusic},
4468 @internalsref{SoloOneEvent}, and
4469 @internalsref{SoloTwoEvent}, and
4470 @internalsref{UnisonoEvent}.
4474 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
4475 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
4481 @subsection Hiding staves
4483 @cindex Frenched scores
4484 @cindex Hiding staves
4486 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually
4487 removed. This saves some space. This style is called `French Score'.
4488 For @internalsref{Lyrics}, @internalsref{LyricsVoice},
4489 @internalsref{ChordNames} and @internalsref{FiguredBass}, this is
4490 switched on by default. When these line of these contexts turn out
4491 empty after the line-breaking process, they are removed.
4493 For normal staves, a specialized @internalsref{Staff} context is
4494 available, which does the same: staves containing nothing (or only
4495 multi measure rests) are removed. The context definition is stored in
4496 @code{\RemoveEmptyStaffContext} variable. Observe how the second staff
4497 in this example disappears in the second line:
4502 \notes \relative c' <<
4503 \new Staff { e4 f g a \break c1 }
4504 \new Staff { c4 d e f \break R1 }
4508 \translator { \RemoveEmptyStaffContext }
4513 The first page shows all staffs in full. If they should be removed
4514 from the first page too, set @code{remove-first} to false
4515 in @internalsref{RemoveEmptyVerticalGroup}.
4517 @node Different editions from one source
4518 @subsection Different editions from one source
4520 The @code{\tag} command marks music expressions with a name. These
4521 tagged expressions can be filtered out later. With this mechanism it
4522 is possible to make different versions of the same music source.
4524 In the following example, we see two versions of a piece of music, one
4525 for the full score, and one with cue notes for the instrumental part:
4533 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
4541 The same can be applied to articulations, texts, etc.: they are
4544 -\tag #@var{your-tag}
4546 to an articulation, for example,
4551 This defines a note with a conditional fingering indication.
4553 By applying the @code{remove-tag} function, tagged expressions can be
4554 filtered. For example,
4558 \apply #(remove-tag 'score) @var{the music}
4559 \apply #(remove-tag 'part) @var{the music}
4564 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{tag-filter.ly}
4566 The argument of the @code{\tag} command should be a symbol, or a list
4567 of symbols, for example,
4569 \tag #'(original-part transposed-part) @dots{}
4574 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,tag-filter.ly}
4577 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
4578 @subsection Sound output for transposing instruments
4580 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed
4581 and untransposed instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch
4582 offset (in semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done
4583 using the @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed
4586 @cindex @code{transposing}
4589 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
4590 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
4594 @node Ancient notation
4595 @section Ancient notation
4597 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
4598 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
4603 @c [TODO: write more comprehensive introduction on ancient notation]
4605 Support for ancient notation is still under heavy development.
4606 Regardless of all of the current limitations (see the bugs section
4607 below for details), it includes features for mensural
4608 notation and Gregorian Chant notation. There is also limited support
4609 for figured bass notation.
4611 Many graphical objects provide a @code{style} property, see
4612 @ref{Ancient note heads}, @ref{Ancient accidentals}, @ref{Ancient
4613 rests}, @ref{Ancient clefs}, @ref{Ancient flags} and @ref{Ancient time
4614 signatures}. By manipulating such a grob property, the typographical
4615 appearance of the affected graphical objects can be accomodated for a
4616 specific notation flavour without need for introducing any new
4620 Other aspects of ancient notation can not that easily be expressed as
4621 in terms of just changing a style property of a graphical object.
4622 Therefore, some notational concepts are introduced specifically for
4623 ancient notation, see @ref{Custodes}, @ref{Divisiones},
4624 @ref{Ligatures}, and @ref{Figured bass}.
4628 * Ancient note heads::
4629 * Ancient accidentals::
4633 * Ancient time signatures::
4638 * Vaticana style contexts::
4641 If this all is way too much of documentation for you, and you just
4642 want to dive into typesetting without worrying too much about the
4643 details on how to customize a context, then you may have a look at the
4644 predefined contexts (see @ref{Vaticana style contexts}). Use them to
4645 set up predefined style-specific voice and staff contexts, and
4646 directly go ahead with the note entry.
4650 Ligatures need special spacing that has not yet been implemented. As
4651 a result, there is too much space between ligatures most of the time,
4652 and line breaking often is unsatisfactory. Also, lyrics do not
4653 correctly align with ligatures.
4655 Accidentals must not be printed within a ligature, but instead need to
4656 be collected and printed in front of it.
4658 Augmentum dots within ligatures are not handled correctly.
4661 @node Ancient note heads
4662 @subsection Ancient note heads
4668 For ancient notation, a note head style other than the @code{default}
4669 style may be chosen. This is accomplished by setting the @code{style}
4670 property of the NoteHead object to the desired value (@code{baroque},
4671 @code{neo_mensural} or @code{mensural}). The @code{baroque} style
4672 differs from the @code{default} style only in using a square shape for
4673 @code{\breve} note heads. The @code{neo_mensural} style differs from
4674 the @code{baroque} style in that it uses rhomboidal heads for whole
4675 notes and all smaller durations. Stems are centered on the note
4676 heads. This style is in particular useful when transcribing mensural
4677 music, e.g. for the incipit. The @code{mensural} style finally
4678 produces note heads that mimick the look of note heads in historic
4679 printings of the 16th century.
4681 The following example demonstrates the @code{neo_mensural} style:
4683 @lilypond[fragment,raggedright,verbatim]
4684 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4685 a'\longa a'\breve a'1 a'2 a'4 a'8 a'16
4688 When typesetting a piece in Gregorian Chant notation, a Gregorian
4689 ligature engraver will automatically select the proper note heads,
4690 such there is no need to explicitly set the note head style. Still,
4691 the note head style can be set e.g. to @code{vaticana_punctum} to
4692 produce punctum neumes. Similarly, a mensural ligature engraver is
4693 used to automatically assemble mensural ligatures. See
4694 @ref{Ligatures} for how ligature engravers work.
4699 @ref{Percussion staves} use note head styles of their own that are
4700 frequently used in contemporary music notation.
4702 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,note-head-style.ly} gives an
4703 overview over all available note head styles.
4706 @node Ancient accidentals
4707 @subsection Ancient accidentals
4713 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{Accidental} to
4714 select ancient accidentals. Supported styles are
4715 @code{mensural}, @code{vaticana}, @code{hufnagel} and @code{medicaea}.
4717 @lilypond[raggedright,staffsize=26]
4725 { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-vaticana-1"
4726 " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-vaticana0" }
4730 { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-medicaea-1" }
4734 { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-hufnagel-1" }
4738 { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-mensural-1"
4739 " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-mensural1" }
4748 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4752 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4753 \remove "Key_engraver"
4754 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4755 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4756 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4762 As shown, not all accidentals are supported by each style. When
4763 trying to access an unsupported accidental, LilyPond will switch to a
4764 different style, as demonstrated in
4765 @inputfileref{input/test,ancient-accidentals.ly}.
4767 Similarly to local accidentals, the style of the key signature can be
4768 controlled by the @code{style} property of the
4769 @internalsref{KeySignature} grob.
4773 In this manual: @ref{Pitches}, @ref{Chromatic alterations} and
4774 @ref{Accidentals} give a general introduction into the use of
4775 accidentals. @ref{Key signature} gives a general introduction into
4776 the use of key signatures.
4778 Internals: @internalsref{KeySignature}
4780 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,ancient-accidentals.ly}.
4783 @subsection Ancient rests
4789 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{Rest} to select
4790 ancient accidentals. Supported styles are @code{classical},
4791 @code{neo_mensural} and @code{mensural}. @code{classical} differs
4792 from the @code{default} style only in that the quarter rest looks like
4793 a horizontally mirrored 8th rest. The @code{neo_mensural} style suits
4794 well for e.g. the incipit of a transcribed mensural piece of music.
4795 The @code{mensural} style finally mimicks the appearance of rests as
4796 in historic prints of the 16th century.
4798 The following example demonstrates the @code{neo_mensural} style:
4800 @lilypond[fragment,raggedright,verbatim]
4801 \property Voice.Rest \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4802 r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16
4805 There are no 32th and 64th rests specifically for the mensural or
4806 neo-mensural style. Instead, the rests from the default style will be
4807 taken. See @inputfileref{input/test,rests.ly} for a chart of all
4810 There are no rests in Gregorian Chant notation; instead, it uses
4815 In this manual: @ref{Rests} gives a general introduction into the use of rests.
4819 @subsection Ancient clefs
4825 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
4827 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
4828 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but
4829 differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such
4830 cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs.
4831 Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an
4832 arbitrary line, as described in @ref{Clef}. The note printed to the
4833 right side of each clef in the example column denotes the @code{c'}
4834 with respect to that clef.
4836 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .3 .1
4840 @b{Description} @tab
4841 @b{Supported Clefs} @tab
4845 @code{clefs-neo_mensural_c} @tab
4846 modern style mensural C clef @tab
4847 @code{neo_mensural_c1}, @code{neo_mensural_c2},
4848 @code{neo_mensural_c3}, @code{neo_mensural_c4} @tab
4849 @lilypond[relative,notime]
4850 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4851 \clef "neo_mensural_c2" c
4855 @code{clefs-petrucci_c1}
4856 @code{clefs-petrucci_c2}
4857 @code{clefs-petrucci_c3}
4858 @code{clefs-petrucci_c4}
4859 @code{clefs-petrucci_c5}
4862 petrucci style mensural C clefs, for use on different stafflines
4863 (the examples shows the 2nd staffline C clef).
4873 @lilypond[relative,notime]
4874 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4875 \clef "petrucci_c2" c
4879 @code{clefs-petrucci_f} @tab
4880 petrucci style mensural F clef @tab
4881 @code{petrucci_f} @tab
4882 @lilypond[relative,notime]
4883 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4884 \clef "petrucci_f" c
4888 @code{clefs-petrucci_g} @tab
4889 petrucci style mensural G clef @tab
4890 @code{petrucci_g} @tab
4891 @lilypond[relative,notime]
4892 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4893 \clef "petrucci_g" c
4897 @code{clefs-mensural_c} @tab
4898 historic style mensural C clef @tab
4899 @code{mensural_c1}, @code{mensural_c2}, @code{mensural_c3},
4900 @code{mensural_c4} @tab
4901 @lilypond[relative,notime]
4902 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4903 \clef "mensural_c2" c
4907 @code{clefs-mensural_f} @tab
4908 historic style mensural F clef @tab
4909 @code{mensural_f} @tab
4910 @lilypond[relative,notime]
4911 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4912 \clef "mensural_f" c
4916 @code{clefs-mensural_g} @tab
4917 historic style mensural G clef @tab
4918 @code{mensural_g} @tab
4919 @lilypond[relative,notime]
4920 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4921 \clef "mensural_g" c
4925 @code{clefs-vaticana_do} @tab
4926 Editio Vaticana style do clef @tab
4927 @code{vaticana_do1}, @code{vaticana_do2}, @code{vaticana_do3} @tab
4928 @lilypond[relative,notime]
4929 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
4930 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4931 \clef "vaticana_do2" c
4935 @code{clefs-vaticana_fa} @tab
4936 Editio Vaticana style fa clef @tab
4937 @code{vaticana_fa1}, @code{vaticana_fa2} @tab
4938 @lilypond[relative,notime]
4939 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
4940 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4941 \clef "vaticana_fa2" c
4945 @code{clefs-medicaea_do} @tab
4946 Editio Medicaea style do clef @tab
4947 @code{medicaea_do1}, @code{medicaea_do2}, @code{medicaea_do3} @tab
4948 @lilypond[relative,notime]
4949 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
4950 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4951 \clef "medicaea_do2" c
4955 @code{clefs-medicaea_fa} @tab
4956 Editio Medicaea style fa clef @tab
4957 @code{medicaea_fa1}, @code{medicaea_fa2} @tab
4958 @lilypond[relative,notime]
4959 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
4960 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4961 \clef "medicaea_fa2" c
4965 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do} @tab
4966 historic style hufnagel do clef @tab
4967 @code{hufnagel_do1}, @code{hufnagel_do2}, @code{hufnagel_do3} @tab
4968 @lilypond[relative,notime]
4969 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
4970 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4971 \clef "hufnagel_do2" c
4975 @code{clefs-hufnagel_fa} @tab
4976 historic style hufnagel fa clef @tab
4977 @code{hufnagel_fa1}, @code{hufnagel_fa2} @tab
4978 @lilypond[relative,notime]
4979 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
4980 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4981 \clef "hufnagel_fa2" c
4985 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4986 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef @tab
4987 @code{hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4988 @lilypond[relative,notime]
4989 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4990 \clef "hufnagel_do_fa" c
4995 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
4996 @c @item modern style percussion clef (glyph: @code{clefs-percussion})
4999 @c @code{percussion}
5001 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "percussion" c'}
5003 @c @item modern style tab clef (glyph: @code{clefs-tab})
5008 @c @lilypond{\context Staff \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #6 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "tab" c'}
5010 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
5011 transcribed mensural music''.
5013 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
5014 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
5016 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
5017 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
5019 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
5021 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
5022 beams, depending on which staffline it is printed.
5026 In this manual: for the percussion clef, see @ref{Percussion staves}.
5027 For the @code{TAB} clef, see @ref{Tablatures}.
5029 Internals: for modern clefs, see @ref{Clef}.
5033 The mensural g clef is temporarily mapped to the Petrucci g clef,
5034 until a new mensural g clef will have been implemented.
5039 @subsection Ancient flags
5045 Use the @code{flag-style} property of grob @internalsref{Stem} to
5046 select ancient flags. Besides the @code{default} flag style,
5047 only @code{mensural} style is supported:
5049 @lilypond[fragment,raggedright,verbatim]
5050 \property Voice.Stem \set #'flag-style = #'mensural
5051 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #1.0
5052 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
5054 c'8 d'8 e'8 f'8 c'16 d'16 e'16 f'16 c'32 d'32 e'32 f'32 s8
5055 c''8 d''8 e''8 f''8 c''16 d''16 e''16 f''16 c''32 d''32 e''32 f''32
5058 Note that the innermost flare of each mensural flag always is
5059 vertically aligned with a staff line. If you do not like this
5060 behaviour, you can set the @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} property of
5061 grob @internalsref{Stem} to @code{##f}. Then, the vertical position
5062 of the end of each flare is different between notes on staff lines and
5063 notes between staff lines:
5065 @lilypond[fragment,raggedright]
5066 \property Voice.Stem \set #'flag-style = #'mensural
5067 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #1.0
5068 \property Voice.Stem \set #'adjust-if-on-staffline = ##f
5069 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
5071 c'8 d'8 e'8 f'8 c'16 d'16 e'16 f'16 c'32 d'32 e'32 f'32 s8
5072 c''8 d''8 e''8 f''8 c''16 d''16 e''16 f''16 c''32 d''32 e''32 f''32
5075 There is no particular flag style for neo-mensural notation. Hence,
5076 when typesetting e.g. the incipit of a transcibed piece of mensural
5077 music, the default flag style should be used. There are no flags in
5078 Gregorian Chant notation.
5081 @node Ancient time signatures
5082 @subsection Ancient time signatures
5084 @cindex time signatures
5088 There is limited support for mensural time signatures. The
5089 glyphs are hard-wired to particular time fractions. In other words,
5090 to get a particular mensural signature glyph with the @code{\time n/m}
5091 command, @code{n} and @code{m} have to be chosen according to the
5097 \property Score.timing = ##f
5098 \property Score.barAlways = ##t
5099 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 4/4" }
5100 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural4/4" }
5102 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 2/2" }
5103 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural2/2" }
5105 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 6/4" }
5106 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural6/4" }
5108 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 6/8" }
5109 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural6/8" }
5111 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 3/2" }
5112 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural3/2" }
5114 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 3/4" }
5115 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural3/4" }
5117 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 9/4" }
5118 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural9/4" }
5120 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 9/8" }
5121 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural9/8" }
5123 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 4/8" }
5124 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural4/8" }
5126 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 2/4" }
5127 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural2/4" }
5135 \remove Staff_symbol_engraver
5136 \remove Clef_engraver
5137 \remove Time_signature_engraver
5143 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{TimeSignature} to
5144 select ancient time signatures. Supported styles are
5145 @code{neo_mensural} and @code{mensural}. The above table uses the
5146 @code{neo_mensural} style. This style is appropriate e.g. for the
5147 incipit of transcriptions of mensural pieces. The @code{mensural}
5148 style mimicks the look of historical printings of the 16th century.
5150 @inputfileref{input/test,time.ly} gives an overview over all available
5151 ancient and modern styles.
5155 Internals: @ref{Time signature} gives a general introduction into the use of time
5160 Mensural signature glyphs are mapped to time fractions in a
5161 hard-wired way. This mapping is sensible, but still arbitrary: given
5162 a mensural time signature, the time fraction represents a modern meter
5163 that usually will be a good choice when transcribing a mensural piece
5164 of music. For a particular piece of mensural music, however, the
5165 mapping may be unsatisfactory. In particular, the mapping assumes a
5166 fixed transcription of durations (e.g. brevis = half note in 2/2,
5167 i.e. 4:1). Some glyphs (such as the alternate glyph for 6/8 meter)
5168 are not at all accessible through the @code{\time} command.
5170 Mensural time signatures are supported typographically, but not yet
5171 musically. The internal representation of durations is
5172 based on a purely binary system; a ternary division such as 1 brevis =
5173 3 semibrevis (tempus perfectum) or 1 semibrevis = 3 minima (cum
5174 prolatione maiori) is not correctly handled: event times in ternary
5175 modes will be badly computed, resulting e.g. in horizontally
5176 misaligned note heads, and bar checks are likely to erroneously fail.
5178 The syntax and semantics of the @code{\time} command for mensural
5179 music is subject to change.
5182 @subsection Custodes
5187 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
5188 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
5189 of the first note(s) of the following line and thus helps the player
5190 or singer to manage line breaks during performance, thus enhancing
5191 readability of a score.
5193 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th
5194 century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms
5195 of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant
5196 like the @emph{editio vaticana}. There are different custos glyphs
5197 used in different flavours of notational style.
5201 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
5202 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block,
5203 as shown in the following example:
5209 \consists Custos_engraver
5210 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
5215 The result looks like this:
5221 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
5228 \consists Custos_engraver
5235 The custos glyph is selected by the @code{style} property. The styles
5236 supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
5237 @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the following fragment:
5247 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-vaticana-u0" }
5251 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-medicaea-u0" }
5255 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-hufnagel-u0" }
5259 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-mensural-u0" }
5268 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5272 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5273 \remove "Key_engraver"
5274 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5275 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
5276 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5282 If the boolean property @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} is set to
5283 @code{#t} (which it is by default), lily typesets slightly different
5284 variants of the custos glyph, depending on whether the custos, is
5285 typeset on or between stafflines. The glyph will
5286 optically fit well into the staff, with the appendage on the right of
5287 the custos always ending at the same vertical position between two
5288 stafflines regardless of the pitch. If you set
5289 @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} to @code{#f}, then
5290 a compromise between both forms is used.
5292 Just like stems can be attached to noteheads in two directions
5293 @emph{up} and @emph{down}, each custos glyph is available with its
5294 appendage pointing either up or down. If the pitch of a custos is
5295 above a selectable position, the appendage will point downwards; if
5296 the pitch is below this position, the appendage will point upwards.
5297 Use property @code{neutral-position} to select this position. By
5298 default, it is set to @code{0}, such that the neutral position is the
5299 center of the staff. Use property @code{neutral-direction} to control
5300 what happens if a custos is typeset on the neutral position itself.
5301 By default, this property is set to @code{-1}, such that the appendage
5302 will point downwards. If set to @code{1}, the appendage will point
5303 upwards. Other values such as @code{0} are reserved for future
5304 extensions and should not be used.
5308 Internals: @internalsref{Custos}
5310 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,custos.ly}.
5314 @subsection Divisiones
5320 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; latin word for
5321 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
5322 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
5323 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior} and @emph{divisio maxima}
5324 can be characterized as short, medium and long pause, somewhat like
5325 @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not only marks the end of
5326 a chant, but is also frequently used within a single
5327 antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
5331 To use divisiones, include the file @code{gregorian-init.ly}. It
5332 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
5333 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
5334 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
5335 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
5336 Therefore, @code{gregorian-init.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
5339 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{divisiones.ly}
5343 @cindex @code{\virgula}
5345 @cindex @code{\caesura}
5347 @cindex @code{\divisioMinima}
5348 @code{\divisioMinima},
5349 @cindex @code{\divisioMaior}
5350 @code{\divisioMaior},
5351 @cindex @code{\divisioMaxima}
5352 @code{\divisioMaxima},
5353 @cindex @code{\finalis}
5358 In this manual: @ref{Breath marks}.
5360 Internals: @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
5362 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,divisiones.ly}
5365 @subsection Ligatures
5369 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
5370 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
5372 In musical terminology, a ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that
5373 represents at least two distinct notes. Ligatures originally appeared
5374 in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th
5375 century as an allusion to the accent symbols of greek lyric poetry to
5376 denote ascending or descending sequences of notes. Both, the shape
5377 and the exact meaning of ligatures changed tremendously during the
5378 following centuries: In early notation, ligatures were used for
5379 monophonic tunes (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way
5380 of performance in the sense of articulation. With upcoming
5381 multiphony, the need for a metric system arised, since multiple voices
5382 of a piece have to be synchronized some way. New notation systems
5383 were invented that used the manifold shapes of ligatures to now denote
5384 rhythmical patterns (e.g. black mensural notation, mannered notation,
5385 ars nova). With the invention of the metric system of the white
5386 mensural notation, the need for ligatures to denote such patterns
5387 disappeared. Nevertheless, ligatures were still in use in the
5388 mensural system for a couple of decades until they finally disappeared
5389 during the late 16th / early 17th century. Still, ligatures have
5390 survived in contemporary editions of Gregorian chant such as the
5391 Editio Vaticana from 1905/08.
5395 Syntactically, ligatures are simply enclosed by @code{\[} and
5396 @code{\]}. Some ligature styles (such as Editio Vaticana) may need
5397 additional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature.
5398 By default, the @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a
5399 square bracket above the ligature:
5401 @lilypond[raggedright,verbatim]
5403 \notes \transpose c c' {
5411 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver
5412 has to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in
5413 the following subsections. Only white mensural ligatures
5414 are supported with certain limitations. Support for Editio Vaticana
5415 will be added in the future.
5418 * White mensural ligatures::
5419 * Gregorian square neumes ligatures::
5422 @node White mensural ligatures
5423 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
5425 @cindex Mensural ligatures
5426 @cindex White mensural ligatures
5428 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures. The
5429 implementation is still experimental; it may output strange
5430 warnings or even crash in some cases or produce weird results on more
5435 To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the paper block the
5436 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} has to be put into the
5437 @internalsref{Voice} context, and remove the
5438 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}:
5444 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5445 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
5450 There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a
5451 white mensural ligature. The shape is rather determined solely from
5452 the pitch and duration of the enclosed notes. While this approach may
5453 take a new user a while to get accustomed, it has the great advantage
5454 that the full musical information of the ligature is known internally.
5455 This is not only required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for
5456 automatic transcription of the ligatures.
5461 \property Score.timing = ##f
5462 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
5463 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5464 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5466 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
5468 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
5470 @lilypond[raggedright]
5472 \notes \transpose c c' {
5473 \property Score.timing = ##f
5474 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
5475 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5476 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5478 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
5480 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
5485 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5486 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
5492 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
5493 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
5496 @lilypond[raggedright]
5498 \notes \transpose c c' {
5499 \property Score.timing = ##f
5500 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
5501 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5502 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5504 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
5506 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
5512 @node Gregorian square neumes ligatures
5513 @subsubsection Gregorian square neumes ligatures
5515 @cindex Square neumes ligatures
5516 @cindex Gregorian square neumes ligatures
5518 Gregorian square neumes notation (following the style of the Editio
5519 Vaticana) is under heavy development, but not yet really usable for
5520 production purposes. Core ligatures can already be typeset, but
5521 essential issues for serious typesetting are still under development,
5522 such as (among others) horizontal alignment of multiple ligatures,
5523 lyrics alignment and proper accidentals handling. Still, this section
5524 gives a sneak preview of what Gregorian chant may look like once it
5527 The following table contains the extended neumes table of the 2nd
5528 volume of the Antiphonale Romanum (@emph{Liber Hymnarius}), published
5529 1983 by the monks of Solesmes.
5531 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .2 .2 .2
5534 @b{Neuma aut@*Neumarum Elementa} @tab
5535 @b{Figurae@*Rectae} @tab
5536 @b{Figurae@*Liquescentes Auctae} @tab
5537 @b{Figurae@*Liquescentes Deminutae}
5539 @c TODO: \paper block is identical in all of the below examples.
5540 @c Therefore, it should somehow be included rather than duplicated all
5543 @c why not make identifiers in ly/engraver-init.ly? --hwn
5545 @c Because it's just used to typeset plain notes without
5546 @c a staff for demonstration purposes rather than something
5547 @c special of Gregorian chant notation. --jr
5552 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.5\cm]
5553 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5555 \notes \transpose c c' {
5558 \noBreak s^\markup {"a"} \noBreak
5560 % Punctum Inclinatum
5562 \noBreak s^\markup {"b"}
5568 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5572 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5573 \remove "Key_engraver"
5574 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5575 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5576 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5577 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5581 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5582 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5583 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5584 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5590 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=2.5\cm]
5591 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5593 \notes \transpose c c' {
5594 % Punctum Auctum Ascendens
5595 \[ \auctum \ascendens b \]
5596 \noBreak s^\markup {"c"} \noBreak
5598 % Punctum Auctum Descendens
5599 \[ \auctum \descendens b \]
5600 \noBreak s^\markup {"d"} \noBreak
5602 % Punctum Inclinatum Auctum
5603 \[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]
5604 \noBreak s^\markup {"e"}
5610 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5614 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5615 \remove "Key_engraver"
5616 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5617 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5618 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5619 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5623 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5624 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5625 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5626 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5632 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
5633 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5635 \notes \transpose c c' {
5636 % Punctum Inclinatum Parvum
5637 \[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]
5638 \noBreak s^\markup {"f"}
5644 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5648 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5649 \remove "Key_engraver"
5650 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5651 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5652 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5653 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5657 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5658 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5659 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5660 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5669 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
5670 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5672 \notes \transpose c c' {
5675 \noBreak s^\markup {"g"}
5681 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5685 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5686 \remove "Key_engraver"
5687 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5688 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5689 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5690 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5694 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5695 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5696 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5697 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5706 @code{3. Apostropha vel Stropha}
5708 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
5709 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5711 \notes \transpose c c' {
5714 \noBreak s^\markup {"h"}
5720 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5724 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5725 \remove "Key_engraver"
5726 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5727 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5728 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5729 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5733 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5734 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5735 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5736 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5742 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
5743 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5745 \notes \transpose c c' {
5747 \[ \stropha \auctum b \]
5748 \noBreak s^\markup {"i"}
5754 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5758 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5759 \remove "Key_engraver"
5760 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5761 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5762 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5763 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5767 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5768 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5769 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5770 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5780 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
5781 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5783 \notes \transpose c c' {
5786 \noBreak s^\markup {"j"}
5792 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5796 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5797 \remove "Key_engraver"
5798 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5799 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5800 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5801 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5805 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5806 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5807 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5808 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5817 @code{5. Clivis vel Flexa}
5819 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
5820 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5822 \notes \transpose c c' {
5831 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5835 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5836 \remove "Key_engraver"
5837 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5838 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5839 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5840 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5844 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5845 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5846 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5847 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5853 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=2.0\cm]
5854 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5856 \notes \transpose c c' {
5857 % Clivis Aucta Descendens
5858 \[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
5859 \noBreak s^\markup {"l"} \noBreak
5861 % Clivis Aucta Ascendens
5862 \[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]
5863 \noBreak s^\markup {"m"}
5869 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5873 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5874 \remove "Key_engraver"
5875 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5876 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5877 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5878 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5882 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5883 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5884 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5885 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5891 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
5892 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5894 \notes \transpose c c' {
5896 \[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]
5903 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5907 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5908 \remove "Key_engraver"
5909 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5910 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5911 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5912 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5916 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5917 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5918 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5919 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5926 @code{6. Podatus vel Pes}
5928 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
5929 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5931 \notes \transpose c c' {
5940 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5944 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5945 \remove "Key_engraver"
5946 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5947 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5948 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5949 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5953 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5954 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5955 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5956 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5962 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=2.0\cm]
5963 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5965 \notes \transpose c c' {
5966 % Pes Auctus Descendens
5967 \[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5968 \noBreak s^\markup {"p"} \noBreak
5970 % Pes Auctus Ascendens
5971 \[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]
5972 \noBreak s^\markup {"q"}
5978 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5982 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5983 \remove "Key_engraver"
5984 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5985 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5986 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5987 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5991 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5992 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5993 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5994 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6000 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6001 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6003 \notes \transpose c c' {
6005 \[ g \pes \deminutum b \]
6012 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6016 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6017 \remove "Key_engraver"
6018 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6019 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6020 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6021 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6025 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6026 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6027 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6028 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6035 @code{7. Pes Quassus}
6037 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6038 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6040 \notes \transpose c c' {
6042 \[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]
6049 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6053 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6054 \remove "Key_engraver"
6055 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6056 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6057 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6058 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6062 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6063 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6064 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6065 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6071 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6072 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6074 \notes \transpose c c' {
6075 % Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens
6076 \[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6083 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6087 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6088 \remove "Key_engraver"
6089 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6090 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6091 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6092 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6096 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6097 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6098 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6099 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6107 @code{8. Quilisma Pes}
6109 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6110 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6112 \notes \transpose c c' {
6114 \[ \quilisma g \pes b \]
6121 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6125 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6126 \remove "Key_engraver"
6127 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6128 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6129 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6130 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6134 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6135 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6136 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6137 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6143 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6144 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6146 \notes \transpose c c' {
6147 % Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens
6148 \[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6155 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6159 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6160 \remove "Key_engraver"
6161 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6162 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6163 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6164 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6168 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6169 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6170 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6171 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6179 @code{9. Podatus Initio Debilis}
6181 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6182 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6184 \notes \transpose c c' {
6185 % Pes Initio Debilis
6186 \[ \deminutum g \pes b \]
6193 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6197 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6198 \remove "Key_engraver"
6199 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6200 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6201 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6202 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6206 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6207 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6208 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6209 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6215 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6216 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6218 \notes \transpose c c' {
6219 % Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
6220 \[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6227 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6231 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6232 \remove "Key_engraver"
6233 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6234 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6235 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6236 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6240 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6241 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6242 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6243 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6253 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6254 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6256 \notes \transpose c c' {
6258 \[ a \pes b \flexa g \]
6265 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6269 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6270 \remove "Key_engraver"
6271 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6272 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6273 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6274 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6278 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6279 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6280 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6281 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6287 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6288 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6290 \notes \transpose c c' {
6291 % Torculus Auctus Descendens
6292 \[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
6299 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6303 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6304 \remove "Key_engraver"
6305 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6306 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6307 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6308 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6312 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6313 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6314 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6315 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6321 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6322 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6324 \notes \transpose c c' {
6325 % Torculus Deminutus
6326 \[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
6333 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6337 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6338 \remove "Key_engraver"
6339 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6340 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6341 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6342 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6346 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6347 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6348 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6349 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6356 @code{11. Torculus Initio Debilis}
6358 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6359 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6361 \notes \transpose c c' {
6362 % Torculus Initio Debilis
6363 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]
6370 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6374 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6375 \remove "Key_engraver"
6376 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6377 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6378 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6379 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6383 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6384 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6385 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6386 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6392 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6393 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6395 \notes \transpose c c' {
6396 % Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
6397 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
6404 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6408 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6409 \remove "Key_engraver"
6410 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6411 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6412 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6413 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6417 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6418 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6419 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6420 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6426 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6427 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6429 \notes \transpose c c' {
6430 % Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis
6431 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
6438 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6442 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6443 \remove "Key_engraver"
6444 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6445 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6446 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6447 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6451 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6452 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6453 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6454 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6461 @code{12. Porrectus}
6463 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6464 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6466 \notes \transpose c c' {
6468 \[ a \flexa g \pes b \]
6475 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6479 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6480 \remove "Key_engraver"
6481 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6482 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6483 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6484 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6488 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6489 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6490 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6491 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6497 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6498 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6500 \notes \transpose c c' {
6501 % Porrectus Auctus Descendens
6502 \[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6509 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6513 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6514 \remove "Key_engraver"
6515 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6516 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6517 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6518 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6522 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6523 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6524 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6525 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6531 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6532 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6534 \notes \transpose c c' {
6535 % Porrectus Deminutus
6536 \[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]
6543 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6547 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6548 \remove "Key_engraver"
6549 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6550 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6551 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6552 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6556 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6557 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6558 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6559 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6568 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6569 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6571 \notes \transpose c c' {
6573 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]
6580 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6584 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6585 \remove "Key_engraver"
6586 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6587 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6588 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6589 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6593 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6594 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6595 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6596 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6602 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6603 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6605 \notes \transpose c c' {
6607 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]
6614 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6618 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6619 \remove "Key_engraver"
6620 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6621 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6622 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6623 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6627 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6628 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6629 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6630 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6636 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6637 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6639 \notes \transpose c c' {
6640 % Climacus Deminutus
6641 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]
6648 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6652 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6653 \remove "Key_engraver"
6654 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6655 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6656 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6657 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6661 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6662 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6663 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6664 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6671 @code{14. Scandicus}
6673 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6674 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6676 \notes \transpose c c' {
6678 \[ g \pes a \virga b \]
6685 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6689 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6690 \remove "Key_engraver"
6691 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6692 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6693 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6694 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6698 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6699 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6700 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6701 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6707 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6708 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6710 \notes \transpose c c' {
6711 % Scandicus Auctus Descendens
6712 \[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6719 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6723 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6724 \remove "Key_engraver"
6725 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6726 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6727 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6728 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6732 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6733 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6734 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6735 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6741 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6742 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6744 \notes \transpose c c' {
6745 % Scandicus Deminutus
6746 \[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]
6753 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6757 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6758 \remove "Key_engraver"
6759 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6760 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6761 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6762 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6766 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6767 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6768 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6769 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6778 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6779 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6781 \notes \transpose c c' {
6783 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]
6790 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6794 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6795 \remove "Key_engraver"
6796 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6797 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6798 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6799 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6803 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6804 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6805 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6806 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6812 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6813 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6815 \notes \transpose c c' {
6816 % Salicus Auctus Descendens
6817 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6824 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6828 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6829 \remove "Key_engraver"
6830 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6831 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6832 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6833 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6837 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6838 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6839 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6840 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6850 @lilypond[noindent,staffsize=26,nofragment,linewidth=1.0\cm]
6851 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6853 \notes \transpose c c' {
6855 \[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]
6862 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6866 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6867 \remove "Key_engraver"
6868 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6869 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6870 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6871 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6875 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6876 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6877 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6878 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6890 Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the input language for
6891 neumes does not necessarily reflect directly the typographical
6892 appearance, but is designed to solely focuse on musical meaning. For
6893 example, @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]} produces a Torculus consisting
6894 of three Punctum heads, while @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]} produces
6895 a Porrectus with a curved flexa shape and only a single Punctum head.
6896 There is no command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa shape; the
6897 decision of when to typeset a curved flexa shape is purely taken from
6898 the musical input. The idea of this approach is to separate the
6899 musical aspects of the input from the notation style of the output.
6900 This way, the same input can be reused to typeset the same music in a
6901 different style of Gregorian chant notation such as Hufnagel (also
6902 known as German gothic neumes) or Medicaea (kind of a very simple
6903 forerunner of the Editio Vaticana). As soon as Hufnagel ligature
6904 engraver and Medicaea ligature engraver will have been implemented, it
6905 will be as simple as replacing the ligature engraver in the
6906 @internalsref{Voice} context to get the desired notation style from
6909 The following table shows the code fragments that produce the
6910 ligatures in the above neumes table. The letter in the first column
6911 in each line of the below table indicates to which ligature in the
6912 above table it refers. The second column gives the name of the
6913 ligature. The third column shows the code fragment that produces this
6914 ligature, using @code{g}, @code{a} and @code{b} as example pitches.
6916 @multitable @columnfractions .1 .4 .5
6930 Punctum Inclinatum @tab
6931 @code{\[ \inclinatum b \]}
6935 Punctum Auctum Ascendens @tab
6936 @code{\[ \auctum \ascendens b \]}
6940 Punctum Auctum Descendens @tab
6941 @code{\[ \auctum \descendens b \]}
6945 Punctum Inclinatum Auctum @tab
6946 @code{\[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]}
6950 Punctum Inclinatum Parvum @tab
6951 @code{\[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]}
6956 @code{\[ \virga b \]}
6961 @code{\[ \stropha b \]}
6966 @code{\[ \stropha \auctum b \]}
6971 @code{\[ \oriscus b \]}
6975 Clivis vel Flexa @tab
6976 @code{\[ b \flexa g \]}
6980 Clivis Aucta Descendens @tab
6981 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
6985 Clivis Aucta Ascendens @tab
6986 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]}
6991 @code{\[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
6995 Podatus vel Pes @tab
6996 @code{\[ g \pes b \]}
7000 Pes Auctus Descendens @tab
7001 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7005 Pes Auctus Ascendens @tab
7006 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]}
7011 @code{\[ g \pes \deminutum b \]}
7016 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]}
7020 Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens @tab
7021 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7026 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes b \]}
7030 Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens @tab
7031 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7035 Pes Initio Debilis @tab
7036 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes b \]}
7040 Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis @tab
7041 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7046 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]}
7050 Torculus Auctus Descendens @tab
7051 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
7055 Torculus Deminutus @tab
7056 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
7060 Torculus Initio Debilis @tab
7061 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]}
7065 Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis @tab
7066 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
7070 Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis @tab
7071 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
7076 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]}
7080 Porrectus Auctus Descendens @tab
7081 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7085 Porrectus Deminutus @tab
7086 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]}
7091 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]}
7095 Climacus Auctus @tab
7096 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]}
7100 Climacus Deminutus @tab
7101 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]}
7106 @code{\[ g \pes a \virga b \]}
7110 Scandicus Auctus Descendens @tab
7111 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7115 Scandicus Deminutus @tab
7116 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]}
7121 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]}
7125 Salicus Auctus Descendens @tab
7126 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7131 @code{\[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]}
7137 The following head prefixes are supported:
7139 @cindex @code{\virga}
7141 @cindex @code{\stropha}
7143 @cindex @code{\inclinatum}
7145 @cindex @code{\auctum}
7147 @cindex @code{\descendens}
7149 @cindex @code{\ascendens}
7151 @cindex @code{\oriscus}
7153 @cindex @code{\quilisma}
7155 @cindex @code{\deminutum}
7158 Head prefixes can be accumulated, though restrictions apply. For
7159 example, either @code{\descendens} or @code{\ascendens} can be applied
7160 to a head, but not both to the same head.
7163 @cindex @code{\flexa}
7164 Two adjacent heads can be tied together with the @code{\pes} and
7165 @code{\flexa} infix commands for a rising and falling line of melody,
7170 Trigonus: apply equal spacing, regardless of pitch.
7173 @subsection Figured bass
7175 @cindex Basso continuo
7177 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
7181 LilyPond has limited support for figured bass:
7183 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
7185 \context Voice \notes { \clef bass dis4 c d ais}
7186 \context FiguredBass
7188 < 6 >4 < 7 >8 < 6+ [_!] >
7194 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
7195 mode, introduced by @code{\figures}, where you can enter bass figures
7196 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass} that
7197 takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
7199 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
7200 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>>}:
7205 \context FiguredBass
7209 Accidentals are added when you append @code{-}, @code{!} and @code{+}
7216 \context FiguredBass
7217 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> }
7220 Spaces or dashes may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
7221 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}:
7227 \context FiguredBass
7228 \figures { < [4 6] 8 [_! 12]> }
7231 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
7232 support, it works much simpler. The @code{\figures} mode simply
7233 stores the numbers , and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints
7234 them as entered. There is no conversion to pitches, and no
7235 realizations of the bass are played in the MIDI file.
7237 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
7238 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
7239 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
7243 Internals: @internalsref{BassFigureEvent} music, @internalsref{BassFigure} object,
7244 and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context.
7248 Slash notation for alterations is not supported.
7251 @node Vaticana style contexts
7252 @subsection Vaticana style contexts
7254 @cindex VaticanaVoiceContext
7255 @cindex VaticanaStaffContext
7257 The predefined @code{VaticanaVoiceContext} and
7258 @code{VaticanaStaffContext} can be used to easily engrave a piece of
7259 Gregorian Chant in the style of the Editio Vaticana. These contexts
7260 initialize all relevant context properties and grob properties to
7261 proper values. With these contexts, you can immediately go ahead
7262 entering the chant, as the following short excerpt demonstrates:
7264 @lilypond[raggedright,verbatim,noindent]
7265 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
7268 \context VaticanaVoice = "cantus" {
7269 \property Score.BarNumber \set #'transparent = ##t
7271 \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \] \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \] f \divisioMinima
7272 \[ f\melisma \pes a c' c' \pes d'\melismaEnd \] c' \divisioMinima \break
7273 \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \] \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \] f \divisioMinima
7276 \lyricsto "cantus" \new LyricsVoice \lyrics {
7277 San- ctus, San- ctus, San- ctus
7283 @node Contemporary notation
7284 @section Contemporary notation
7286 In the 20th century, composers have greatly expanded the musical
7287 vocabulary. With this expansion, many innovations in musical notation
7288 have been tried. The book by Stone (1980) gives a comprehensive
7289 overview (see @ref{Literature list}). In general, the use of new,
7290 innovative notation makes a piece harder to understand and perform and
7291 its use should therefore be avoided if possible. For this reason,
7292 support for contemporary notation in LilyPond is limited.
7301 @subsection Clusters
7305 In musical terminology, a @emph{cluster} denotes a range of
7306 simultaneously sounding pitches that may change over time. The set of
7307 available pitches to apply usually depends on the accoustic source.
7308 Thus, in piano music, a cluster typically consists of a continous range
7309 of the semitones as provided by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic
7310 scale. In choral music, each singer of the choir typically may sing an
7311 arbitrary pitch within the cluster's range that is not bound to any
7312 diatonic, chromatic or other scale. In electronic music, a cluster
7313 (theoretically) may even cover a continuous range of pitches, thus
7314 resulting in coloured noise, such as pink noise.
7316 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
7317 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
7318 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
7319 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by the
7320 shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical extent of
7321 the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster geometrically
7322 describes the development of a range of pitches (vertical extent) over
7323 time (horizontal extent). Still, the geometrical shape of a cluster
7324 covers the area in wich any single pitch contained in the cluster would
7325 be notated as an ordinary note. From this point of view, it is
7326 reasonable to specify a cluster as the envelope of a set of notes.
7330 A cluster is engraved as the envelope of a set of
7331 cluster-notes. Cluster notes are created by applying the function
7332 @code{notes-to-clusters} to a sequence of chords, e.g.
7334 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim]
7335 \apply #notes-to-clusters { <c e > <b f'> }
7338 The following example (from
7339 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly}) shows what the result
7342 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{cluster.ly}
7344 By default, @internalsref{Cluster_spanner_engraver} is in the
7345 @internalsref{Voice} context. This allows putting ordinary notes and
7346 clusters together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In such a
7347 case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between
7348 ordinary notes and clusters.
7352 Internals: @internalsref{ClusterSpanner},
7353 @internalsref{ClusterSpannerBeacon},
7354 @internalsref{Cluster_spanner_engraver}, and
7355 @internalsref{ClusterNoteEvent}.
7357 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly}.
7361 Music expressions like @code{<< @{ g8 e8 @} a4 >>} are not printed
7362 accurately. Use @code{<g a>8 <e a>8} instead.
7367 @subsection Fermatas
7373 Contemporary music notation frequently uses special fermata symbols to
7374 indicate fermatas of differing lengths.
7378 The following are supported
7380 @lilypond[raggedright]
7382 << \addlyrics \notes {
7402 \context LyricsVoice \lyrics {
7403 "shortfermata" "fermata" "longfermata" "verylongfermata"
7408 See @ref{Articulations} for general instructions how to apply scripts
7409 such as fermatas to a @code{\notes@{@}} block.
7412 @node Special notation
7413 @section Special notation
7417 * Easy Notation note heads::
7421 @subsection Balloon help
7423 Elements of notation can be marked and named with the help of a square
7424 balloon. The primary purpose of this feature is to explain notation.
7426 The following example demonstrates its use.
7428 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,raggedright,relative=1]
7431 #(add-balloon-text 'NoteHead "heads, or tails?"
7437 The function @code{add-balloon-text} takes the name of a grob, the
7438 label to print and where to put the label relative to the object. In
7439 the above example, the text ``heads or tails?'' ends 3 spaces below
7443 @cindex notation, explaining
7447 Internals: @internalsref{text-balloon-interface}
7449 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,balloon.ly}
7451 @node Easy Notation note heads
7452 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
7454 @cindex easy notation
7457 The `easy play' note head includes a note name inside the head. It is
7458 used in music aimed at beginners:
7460 @lilypond[raggedright,verbatim,staffsize=26]
7462 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
7463 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
7467 The @code{EasyNotation} variable overrides a @internalsref{Score}
7468 context. To make the letters readable, it has to be printed in a
7469 large font size. To print with a larger font, see @ref{Font Size}.
7474 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines may show through
7475 the letters. Printing the PostScript file obtained does produce the
7481 @section Tuning output
7483 There are situations where default layout decisions are not
7484 sufficient. In this section we discuss ways to override these
7487 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called objects
7488 (graphic objects). Each object carries with it a set of properties
7489 (object or layout properties) specific to that object. For example, a
7490 stem object has properties that specify its direction, length and
7493 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
7494 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
7495 temporarily change the definition of one type of object, thus
7496 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
7497 object, and set a layout property in that object.
7499 Do not confuse layout properties with translation
7500 properties. Translation properties always use a mixed caps style
7501 naming, and are manipulated using @code{\property}:
7503 \property Context.propertyName = @var{value}
7506 Layout properties are use Scheme style variable naming, i.e. lower
7507 case words separated with dashes. They are symbols, and should always
7508 be quoted using @code{#'}. For example, this could be an imaginary
7509 layout property name:
7511 #'layout-property-name
7516 The introduction of the @ref{Technical manual} gives a more in-depth
7517 treatment of the difference between translation and layout.
7521 * Constructing a tweak::
7529 @node Tuning objects
7530 @subsection Tuning objects
7532 @cindex object description
7534 The definition of an object is a list of default object
7535 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem object (available
7536 in @file{scm/define-grobs.scm}), includes the following definitions
7537 for @internalsref{Stem}:
7541 (beamed-lengths . (3.5 3.5 3.5 4.5 5.0))
7542 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
7547 Adding variables on top of this existing definition overrides the
7548 system default, and alters the resulting appearance of the layout
7554 Changing a variable for only one object is commonly achieved with
7558 \once \property @var{context}.@var{objectname}
7559 \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
7561 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
7562 and @var{objectname} is a string and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
7563 This command applies a setting only during one moment in the score.
7565 In the following example, only one @internalsref{Stem} object is
7566 changed from its original setting:
7568 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
7570 \once \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4
7574 @cindex @code{\once}
7576 For changing more objects, the same command, without @code{\once} can
7579 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
7581 This command adds @code{@var{symbol} = @var{value}} to the definition
7582 of @var{objectname} in the context @var{context}, and this definition
7583 stays in place until it is removed.
7585 An existing definition may be removed by the following command:
7588 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \revert @var{symbol}
7591 All @code{\override} and @code{\revert} commands should be balanced.
7592 The @code{\set} shorthand performs a revert followed by an override,
7593 and is often more convenient to use
7596 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
7600 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
7601 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
7603 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
7607 The following example gives exactly the same result as the previous
7608 one (assuming the system default for stem thickness is 1.3):
7610 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
7611 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
7613 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #1.3
7617 Reverting a setting which was not set in the first place has no
7618 effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, this may
7619 remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
7620 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and
7621 @code{\revert} must be carefully balanced. The following are examples
7622 of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set}, @code{\revert}:
7626 a clumsy but correct form:
7628 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
7632 shorter version of the same:
7634 \override \set \set \revert
7638 a short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
7641 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
7645 if there is no default (i.e. by default, the object property is unset),
7648 \set \set \set \revert
7652 The object description is an Scheme association list. Since a Scheme
7653 list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a stack, and
7654 @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are push and pop operations. The
7655 association list is stored in a normal context property, hence
7657 \property Voice.NoteHead = #'()
7659 will effectively erase @internalsref{NoteHead}s from the current
7660 @internalsref{Voice}. Typically, this will blank the object. However,
7661 this mechanism should not be used: it may cause crashes or other
7666 Internals: @internalsref{OverrideProperty}, @internalsref{RevertProperty},
7667 @internalsref{PropertySet}, @internalsref{All-backend-properties}, and
7668 @internalsref{All-layout-objects}.
7673 The backend is not very strict in type-checking object properties.
7674 Cyclic references in Scheme values for properties cause hangs and/or
7675 crashes. Reverting properties that are system defaults may also lead
7678 A property tweak of modifies a local copy of the object definition.
7679 After such a tweak, the definition is independent of the objects in
7680 enclosing contexts. For example
7682 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
7683 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #UP
7685 \property Staff.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
7690 In this fragment, @code{direction} is tweaked. As a result, the
7691 current @internalsref{Voice} gets a private version of the
7692 @internalsref{Stem} object. The following tweak modifies the
7693 definition at @internalsref{Staff} level. Since it a different
7694 definition, the thickness of the first @code{d'} is unaffected. For
7695 the third note, a new Voice is created, which inherits the new
7696 definition, including the changed thickness, but excluding the new
7702 * Constructing a tweak::
7708 @node Constructing a tweak
7709 @subsection Constructing a tweak
7712 @cindex internal documentation
7713 @cindex finding graphical objects
7714 @cindex graphical object descriptions
7716 @cindex @code{\override}
7718 @cindex internal documentation
7722 Three pieces of information are required to use @code{\override} and
7723 @code{\set}: the name of the layout object, the context and the name
7724 of the property. We demonstrate how to glean this information from
7725 the notation manual and the generated documentation.
7727 The generated documentation is a set of HTML pages which should be
7728 included if you installed a binary distribution, typically in
7729 @file{/usr/share/doc/lilypond}. They are also available on the web:
7730 go to the @uref{http://lilypond.org,LilyPond website}, click
7731 ``Documentation'', select the correct version, and click then
7732 ``Program reference.'' It is advisable to bookmark the local HTML
7733 files. They will load faster than the ones on the web. If you use the
7734 version from the web, you must check whether the documentation matches
7735 the program version: it is generated from the definitions that the
7736 program uses, and therefore it is strongly tied to the LilyPond
7740 @c [TODO: revise for new site.]
7742 Suppose we want to move the fingering indication in the fragment below:
7744 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim]
7750 If you visit the documentation of @code{Fingering} (in @ref{Fingering
7751 instructions}), you will notice that there is written:
7756 Internals: @internalsref{FingerEvent} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
7763 In other words, the fingerings once entered, are internally stored as
7764 @code{FingerEvent} music objects. When printed, a @code{Fingering}
7765 layout object is created for every @code{FingerEvent}.
7767 The Fingering object has a number of different functions, and each of
7768 those is captured in an interface. The interfaces are listed under
7769 @internalsref{Fingering} in the program reference.
7773 The @code{Fingering} object has a fixed size
7774 (@internalsref{item-interface}), the symbol is a piece of text
7775 (@internalsref{text-interface}), whose font can be set
7776 (@internalsref{font-interface}). It is centered horizontally
7777 (@internalsref{self-alignment-interface}), it is placed next to other
7778 objects (@internalsref{side-position-interface}) vertically, and its
7779 placement is coordinated with other scripts
7780 (@internalsref{text-script-interface}). It also has the standard
7781 @internalsref{grob-interface} (grob stands for Graphical object)
7783 @cindex graphical object
7784 @cindex layout object
7785 @cindex object, layout
7786 with all the variables that come with
7787 it. Finally, it denotes a fingering instruction, so it has
7788 @internalsref{finger-interface}.
7790 For the vertical placement, we have to look under
7791 @code{side-position-interface}:
7793 @code{side-position-interface}
7795 Position a victim object (this one) next to other objects (the
7796 support). In this case, the property @code{direction} signifies where to put the
7797 victim object relative to the support (left or right, up or down?)
7802 below this description, the variable @code{padding} is described as
7806 (dimension, in staff space)
7808 add this much extra space between objects that are next to each
7809 other. Default value: @code{0.6}
7813 By increasing the value of @code{padding}, we can move away the
7814 fingering. The following command inserts 3 staff spaces of white
7815 between the note and the fingering:
7817 \once \property Voice.Fingering \set #'padding = #3
7820 Inserting this command before the Fingering object is created,
7821 i.e. before @code{c2}, yields the following result:
7823 @lilypond[relative=2,fragment,verbatim]
7824 \once \property Voice.Fingering
7831 The context name @code{Voice} in the example above can be determined
7832 as follows. In the documentation for @internalsref{Fingering}, it says
7834 Fingering grobs are created by: @internalsref{Fingering_engraver}
7837 Clicking @code{Fingering_engraver} shows the documentation of
7838 the module responsible for interpreting the fingering instructions and
7839 translating them to a @code{Fingering} object. Such a module is called
7840 an @emph{engraver}. The documentation of the @code{Fingering_engraver}
7843 Fingering_engraver is part of contexts: Voice
7845 so tuning the settings for Fingering should be done with
7847 \property Voice.Fingering \set @dots{}
7850 Of course, the tweak may also done in a larger context than
7851 @code{Voice}, for example, @internalsref{Staff} or
7852 @internalsref{Score}.
7856 Internals: the program reference also contains alphabetical lists of
7857 @internalsref{Contexts}, @internalsref{All-layout-objects} and
7858 @internalsref{Music-expressions}, so you can also find which objects
7859 to tweak by browsing the internals document.
7863 @subsection Applyoutput
7865 The most versatile way of tuning an object is @code{\applyoutput}. Its
7868 \applyoutput @var{proc}
7872 where @var{proc} is a Scheme function, taking three arguments.
7874 When interpreted, the function @var{proc} is called for every layout
7875 object found in the context, with the following arguments:
7877 @item the layout object itself,
7878 @item the context where the layout object was created, and
7879 @item the context where @code{\applyoutput} is processed.
7883 In addition, the cause of the layout object, i.e. the music
7884 expression or object that was responsible for creating it, is in the
7885 object property @code{cause}. For example, for a note head, this is a
7886 @internalsref{NoteHead} event, and for a @internalsref{Stem} object,
7887 this is a @internalsref{NoteHead} object.
7889 Here is a simple example of @code{\applyoutput}; it blanks note-heads on the
7892 (define (blanker grob grob-origin context)
7893 (if (and (memq (ly:get-grob-property grob 'interfaces)
7894 note-head-interface)
7895 (eq? (ly:get-grob-property grob 'staff-position) 0))
7897 (ly:set-grob-property! grob 'transparent #t)))
7902 @node Font selection
7903 @subsection Font selection
7905 The most common thing to change about the appearance of fonts is their
7906 size. The font size of any context can be easily changed by setting
7907 the @code{fontSize} property for that context. Its value is a number:
7908 negative numbers make the font smaller, positive numbers larger. An
7909 example is given below:
7911 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,verbatim,quote]
7912 c4 c4 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
7915 This command will set @code{font-size} (see below), and does
7916 not change the size of variable symbols, such as beams or slurs.
7918 One of the uses of @code{fontSize} is to get smaller symbols for cue
7919 notes. An elaborate example of those is in
7920 @inputfileref{input/test,cue-notes.ly}.
7922 @cindex magnification
7925 The font used for printing a object can be selected by setting
7926 @code{font-name}, e.g.
7928 \property Staff.TimeSignature
7929 \set #'font-name = #"cmr17"
7933 Any font can be used, as long as it is available to @TeX{}. Possible
7934 fonts include foreign fonts or fonts that do not belong to the
7935 Computer Modern font family. The size of fonts selected in this way
7936 can be changed with the @code{font-magnification} property. For
7937 example, @code{2.0} blows up all letters by a factor 2 in both
7941 @cindex font magnification
7943 Font selection for the standard fonts, @TeX{}'s Computer Modern fonts,
7944 can also be adjusted with a more fine-grained mechanism. By setting
7945 the object properties described below, you can select a different font;
7946 all three mechanisms work for every object that supports
7947 @code{font-interface}:
7952 is a symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
7953 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff
7954 braces), @code{music} (the standard music font, including ancient
7955 glyphs), @code{dynamic} (for dynamic signs) and @code{typewriter}.
7958 is a symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
7959 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
7960 @code{caps} and @code{upright}.
7963 is a symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
7964 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
7969 For any of these properties, the value @code{*} (i.e. the symbol
7970 @code{*}, entered as @code{#'*}), acts as a wildcard. This can be used
7971 to override default setting, which are always present. For example:
7973 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
7974 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-family = #'typewriter
7975 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
7978 @cindex @code{font-style}
7980 The font size is set by modifying the @code{font-size} property. Its
7981 value is a number indicating the size relative to the standard size.
7982 Each step up is an increase of approximately 12% of the font size. Six
7983 steps is exactly a factor two. The Scheme function @code{magstep}
7984 converts a @code{font-size} number to a scaling factor.
7986 LilyPond has fonts in different design sizes: the music fonts for
7987 smaller sizes are chubbier, while the text fonts are relatively wider.
7988 Font size changes are achieved by scaling the design size that is
7989 closest to the desired size.
7991 The @code{font-size} mechanism does not work for fonts selected
7992 through @code{font-name}. These may be scaled with
7993 @code{font-magnification}.
7997 The following commands set @code{fontSize} for the current voice.
7999 @cindex @code{\tiny}
8001 @cindex @code{\small}
8003 @cindex @code{\normalsize}
8008 Init files: @file{ly/declarations-init.ly} contains hints how new
8009 fonts may be added to LilyPond.
8013 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
8014 Computer Modern family.
8016 @cindex font selection
8017 @cindex font magnification
8018 @cindex @code{font-interface}
8022 @subsection Text markup
8027 @cindex typeset text
8029 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can access it
8030 with the keyword @code{\markup}. Within markup mode, you can enter texts
8031 similar to lyrics: simply enter them, surrounded by spaces:
8034 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
8035 c1^\markup { hello }
8036 c1_\markup { hi there }
8037 c1^\markup { hi \bold there, is \italic anyone home? }
8040 @cindex font switching
8042 The markup in the example demonstrates font switching commands. The
8043 command @code{\bold} and @code{\italic} only apply to the first
8044 following word; enclose a set of texts with braces to apply a command
8047 \markup @{ \bold @{ hi there @} @}
8051 For clarity, you can also do this for single arguments, e.g.
8053 \markup @{ is \italic @{ anyone @} home @}
8056 @cindex font size, texts
8058 The following size commands set absolute sizes:
8060 @cindex @code{\teeny}
8061 @cindex @code{\tiny}
8062 @cindex @code{\small}
8063 @cindex @code{\large}
8064 @cindex @code{\huge}
8074 You can also make letter larger or smaller relative to their neighbors,
8075 with the commands @code{\larger} and @code{\smaller}.
8079 @cindex font style, for texts
8080 @cindex @code{\bold}
8081 @cindex @code{\dynamic}
8082 @cindex @code{\number}
8083 @cindex @code{\italic}
8085 The following font change commands are defined:
8088 changes to the font used in dynamic signs. This font does not
8089 contain all characters of the alphabet, so when producing ``piu f'',
8090 the ``piu'' should be done in a different font.
8094 changes to the font used in time signatures. It only contains
8095 numbers and a few punctuation marks.
8097 changes @code{font-shape} to @code{italic}.
8099 changes @code{font-series} to @code{bold}.
8102 @cindex raising text
8103 @cindex lowering text
8105 @cindex translating text
8108 @cindex @code{\super}
8110 Raising and lowering texts can be done with @code{\super} and
8113 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
8114 c1^\markup { E "=" mc \super "2" }
8117 @cindex @code{\raise}
8119 If you want to give an explicit amount for lowering or raising, use
8120 @code{\raise}. This command takes a Scheme valued first argument, and
8121 a markup object as second argument:
8123 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1,quote]
8124 c1^\markup { C \small \raise #1.0 \bold { "9/7+" }}
8126 The argument to @code{\raise} is the vertical displacement amount,
8127 measured in (global) staff spaces. @code{\raise} and @code{\super}
8128 raise objects in relation to their surrounding markups. They cannot be
8129 used to move a single text up or down, when it is above or below a
8130 note, since the mechanism that positions it next to the note cancels
8131 any vertical shift. For vertical positioning, use the @code{padding}
8132 and/or @code{extra-offset} properties.
8134 Other commands taking single arguments include
8137 @item \bracket, \hbracket
8138 Bracket the argument markup with normal and horizontal brackets
8142 @cindex @code{\musicglyph}
8143 This is converted to a musical symbol, e.g. @code{\musicglyph
8144 #"accidentals-0"} will select the natural sign from the music font.
8145 See @ref{The Feta font} for a complete listing of the possible glyphs.
8148 This produces a single character, e.g. @code{\char #65} produces the
8151 @item \note @var{duration} @var{dir}
8152 @cindex @code{\note}
8154 This produces a note with a stem pointing in @var{dir} direction, with
8155 the @var{duration} for the note head type and augmentation dots. For
8156 example, @code{\note #"4." #-0.75} creates a dotted quarter note, with
8157 a shortened down stem.
8159 @item \hspace #@var{amount}
8160 @cindex @code{\hspace}
8161 This produces a invisible object taking horizontal space.
8163 \markup @{ A \hspace #2.0 B @}
8165 will put extra space between A and B, on top of the space that is
8166 normally inserted before elements on a line.
8168 @item \fontsize #@var{size}
8169 @cindex @code{\fontsize}
8170 This sets the relative font size, eg.
8172 A \fontsize #2 @{ B C @} D
8176 This will enlarge the B and the C by two steps.
8177 @item \translate #(cons @var{x} @var{y})
8179 This translates an object. Its first argument is a cons of numbers
8181 A \translate #(cons 2 -3) @{ B C @} D
8183 This moves `B C' 2 spaces to the right, and 3 down, relative to its
8184 surroundings. This command cannot be used to move isolated scripts
8185 vertically, for the same reason that @code{\raise} cannot be used for
8188 @item \magnify #@var{mag}
8189 @cindex @code{\magnify}
8190 This sets the font magnification for the its argument. In the following
8191 example, the middle A will be 10% larger:
8193 A \magnify #1.1 @{ A @} A
8197 @item \override #(@var{key} . @var{value})
8198 @cindex @code{\override}
8199 This overrides a formatting property for its argument. The argument
8200 should be a key/value pair, e.g.
8202 m \override #'(font-family . math) m m
8206 In markup mode you can compose expressions, similar to mathematical
8207 expressions, XML documents and music expressions. The braces group
8208 notes into horizontal lines. Other types of lists also exist: you can
8209 stack expressions grouped with @code{<}, and @code{>} vertically with
8210 the command @code{\column}. Similarly, @code{\center} aligns texts by
8213 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
8214 c1^\markup { \column < a bbbb c > }
8215 c1^\markup { \center < a bbbb c > }
8216 c1^\markup { \line < a b c > }
8220 Markups can be stored in variables, and these variables
8221 may be attached to notes, like
8223 allegro = \markup { \bold \large { Allegro } }
8224 \notes { a^\allegro b c d }
8227 The markup mechanism is extensible. Refer to
8228 @file{scm/new-markup.scm} for more information.
8231 Some objects have alignment procedures of their own, which cancel out
8232 any effects of alignments applied to their markup arguments as a
8233 whole. For example, the @internalsref{RehearsalMark} is horizontally
8234 centered, so using @code{\mark \markup @{ \left-align .. @}} has no
8235 effect. Similarly, whole texts over notes cannot be moved vertically
8236 with @code{\raise}. For moving and aligning complete objects, grob
8237 properties should be used.
8241 Internals: @internalsref{Markup-functions} contains a complete list of
8242 all markup commands.
8244 Init files: @file{scm/new-markup.scm}.
8251 Text layout is ultimately done by @TeX{}, which does kerning of
8252 letters. LilyPond does not account for kerning, so texts will be
8253 spaced slightly too wide.
8255 Syntax errors for markup mode are confusing.
8257 Markup texts cannot be used in the titling of the @code{\header}
8258 field. Titles are made by La@TeX{}, so La@TeX{} commands should be used
8267 @section Global layout
8269 The global layout determined by three factors: the page layout, the
8270 line breaks and the spacing. These all influence each other. The
8271 choice of spacing determines how densely each system of music is set,
8272 which influences where line breaks breaks are chosen, and thus
8273 ultimately how many pages a piece of music takes. This section
8274 explains how to tune the algorithm for spacing.
8276 Globally spoken, this procedure happens in three steps: first,
8277 flexible distances (``springs'') are chosen, based on durations. All
8278 possible line breaking combination are tried, and the one with the
8279 best results---a layout that has uniform density and requires as
8280 little stretching or cramping as possible---is chosen. When the score
8281 is processed by @TeX{}, each page is filled with systems, and page breaks
8282 are chosen whenever the page gets full.
8287 * Vertical spacing::
8288 * Horizontal spacing::
8295 @node Vertical spacing
8296 @subsection Vertical spacing
8298 @cindex vertical spacing
8299 @cindex distance between staves
8300 @cindex staff distance
8301 @cindex between staves, distance
8302 @cindex staffs per page
8303 @cindex space between staves
8305 The height of each system is determined automatically by LilyPond, to
8306 keep systems from bumping into each other, some minimum distances are
8307 set. By changing these, you can put staves closer together, and thus
8308 put more systems onto one page.
8310 Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make
8311 staves maintain a distance, their vertical size is padded. This is
8312 done with the property @code{minimumVerticalExtent}. It takes a pair
8313 of numbers, so if you want to make it smaller from its, then you could
8316 \property Staff.minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4 . 4)
8318 This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 4 staff spaces on
8319 either side of the center staff line. The argument of
8320 @code{minimumVerticalExtent} is interpreted as an interval, where the
8321 center line is the 0, so the first number is generally negative. The
8322 staff can be made larger at the bottom by setting it to @code{(-6
8325 The piano staves are handled a little differently: to make cross-staff
8326 beaming work correctly, it is necessary that the distance between staves
8327 is fixed beforehand. This is also done with a
8328 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object, created in
8329 @internalsref{PianoStaff}. In this object the distance between the
8330 staves is fixed by setting @code{forced-distance}. If you want to
8331 override this, use a @code{\translator} block as follows:
8335 VerticalAlignment \override #'forced-distance = #9
8338 This would bring the staves together at a distance of 9 staff spaces,
8339 measured from the center line of each staff.
8343 Internals: Vertical alignment of staves is handled by the
8344 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object.
8348 @node Horizontal spacing
8349 @subsection Horizontal Spacing
8351 The spacing engine translates differences in durations into
8352 stretchable distances (``springs'') of differing lengths. Longer
8353 durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest
8354 durations get a fixed amount of space (which is controlled by
8355 @code{shortest-duration-space} in the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} object).
8356 The longer the duration, the more space it gets: doubling a
8357 duration adds a fixed amount (this amount is controlled by
8358 @code{spacing-increment}) of space to the note.
8360 For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter and
8361 8th notes, the eighth note is followed by 1 note head width (NHW).
8362 The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by 3 NHW, etc.
8363 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1] c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8
8367 Normally, @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to 1.2, which is the
8368 width of a note head, and @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to
8369 2.0, meaning that the shortest note gets 2 NHW (i.e. 2 times
8370 @code{shortest-duration-space}) of space. For normal notes, this space
8371 is always counted from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest
8372 notes are generally followed by one NHW of space.
8374 If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single
8375 32th note to a score that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the
8376 entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a 16th, but a 32nd,
8377 thus adding 1 NHW to every note. To prevent this, the
8378 shortest duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score,
8379 but the most commonly found shortest note. Notes that are even
8380 shorter this are followed by a space that is proportional to their
8381 duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add
8382 only a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by
8385 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
8386 c2 c4. c8 c4. c16[ c] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
8389 The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every
8390 measure, the shortest duration is determined. The most common short
8391 duration, is taken as the basis for the spacing, with the stipulation
8392 that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than
8393 1/8th note. The shortest duration is printed when you run lilypond
8394 with @code{--verbose}. These durations may also be customized. If you
8395 set the @code{common-shortest-duration} in
8396 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, then this sets the base duration for
8397 spacing. The maximum duration for this base (normally 1/8th), is set
8398 through @code{base-shortest-duration}.
8400 @cindex @code{common-shortest-duration}
8401 @cindex @code{base-shortest-duration}
8402 @cindex @code{stem-spacing-correction}
8403 @cindex @code{spacing}
8405 In the introduction it was explained that stem directions influence
8406 spacing. This is controlled with @code{stem-spacing-correction}
8407 property in @internalsref{NoteSpacing}, which are generated for every
8408 @internalsref{Voice} context. The @code{StaffSpacing} object
8409 (generated at @internalsref{Staff} context) contains the same property
8410 for controlling the stem/barline spacing. The following example
8411 shows these corrections, once with default settings, and once with
8412 exaggerated corrections:
8418 \property Staff.NoteSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
8420 \property Staff.StaffSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
8425 \paper { raggedright = ##t } }
8428 @cindex SpacingSpanner, overriding properties
8430 Properties of the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} must be overridden
8431 from the @code{\paper} block, since the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} is
8432 created before any @code{\property} statements are interpreted.
8434 \paper @{ \translator @{
8436 SpacingSpanner \override #'spacing-increment = #3.0
8443 Internals: @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, @internalsref{NoteSpacing},
8444 @internalsref{StaffSpacing}, @internalsref{SeparationItem}, and
8445 @internalsref{SeparatingGroupSpanner}.
8449 Spacing is determined on a score wide basis. If you have a score that
8450 changes its character (measured in durations) halfway during the
8451 score, the part containing the longer durations will be spaced too
8454 There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing.
8459 @subsection Font size
8460 @cindex font size, setting
8461 @cindex staff size, setting
8462 @cindex @code{paper} file
8464 The Feta font provides musical symbols at eight seven different
8465 sizes. Each font is tuned for a different staff size: at smaller sizes
8466 the font gets heavier, to match the relatively heavier staff lines.
8467 The recommended font sizes are listed in the following table:
8469 @multitable @columnfractions .25 .25 .25 .25
8472 @tab @b{staff height (pt)}
8473 @tab @b{staff height (mm)}
8515 @c modern rental material ?
8519 These fonts are available in any sizes. The context property
8520 @code{fontSize} and the layout property @code{staff-space} (in
8521 @internalsref{StaffSymbol}) can be used to tune size for individual
8522 staffs. The size of individual staffs are relative to the global size,
8523 which can be set in the following manner:
8526 #(set-global-staff-size 14)
8529 This sets the global default size to 14pt staff height, and scales all
8535 @subsection Line breaking
8538 @cindex breaking lines
8540 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
8541 that lines look neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines
8542 have similar density.
8544 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can
8545 do this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at
8546 this point. Line breaks can only occur at places where there are bar
8547 lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line,
8548 you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
8549 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a
8553 @cindex regular line breaks
8554 @cindex four bar music.
8556 For linebreaks at regular intervals use @code{\break} separated by
8557 skips and repeated with @code{\repeat}:
8559 << \repeat unfold 7 @{
8560 s1 \noBreak s1 \noBreak
8561 s1 \noBreak s1 \break @}
8562 @emph{the real music}
8567 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
8568 4 measures, and only there.
8572 @code{\break}, @code{\noBreak}
8573 @cindex @code{\break}
8574 @cindex @code{\noBreak}
8578 Internals: @internalsref{BreakEvent}.
8582 @subsection Page layout
8585 @cindex breaking pages
8587 @cindex @code{indent}
8588 @cindex @code{linewidth}
8590 The most basic settings influencing the spacing are @code{indent} and
8591 @code{linewidth}. They are set in the @code{\paper} block. They
8592 control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of
8595 If @code{raggedright} is set to true in the @code{\paper}
8596 block, then the lines are justified at their natural length. This
8597 useful for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural
8601 @cindex vertical spacing
8603 The page layout process happens outside the LilyPond formatting
8604 engine: variables controlling page layout are passed to the output,
8605 and are further interpreted by @code{lilypond} wrapper program. It
8606 responds to the following variables in the @code{\paper} block. The
8607 variable @code{textheight} sets the total height of the music on each
8608 page. The spacing between systems is controlled with
8609 @code{interscoreline}, its default is 16pt. The distance between the
8610 score lines will stretch in order to fill the full page
8611 @code{interscorelinefill} is set to a positive number. In that case
8612 @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
8614 @cindex @code{textheight}
8615 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
8616 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
8618 If the variable @code{lastpagefill} is defined,
8619 @c fixme: this should only be done if lastpagefill= #t
8620 systems are evenly distributed vertically on the last page. This
8621 might produce ugly results in case there are not enough systems on the
8622 last page. The @command{lilypond-book} command ignores
8623 @code{lastpagefill}. See @ref{lilypond-book manual} for more
8626 @cindex @code{lastpagefill}
8628 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
8629 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into
8630 the @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages. This
8631 is done by setting the @code{between-systems-strings} on the
8632 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn} where the system is broken.
8633 An example is shown in @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}.
8634 The predefined command @code{\newpage} also does this.
8638 @cindex @code{papersize}
8640 To change the paper size, use the following Scheme code:
8643 #(set-paper-size "a4")
8650 @cindex @code{\newpage}
8656 In this manual @ref{Invoking lilypond}
8658 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}
8660 Internals: @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn}.
8664 LilyPond has no concept of page layout, which makes it difficult to
8665 reliably choose page breaks in longer pieces.
8674 Entered music can also be converted to MIDI output. The performance
8675 is good enough for proof-hearing the music for errors.
8677 Ties, dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted. Dynamic marks,
8678 crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume levels. Dynamic
8679 marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI volume
8680 range, crescendi and decrescendi make the volume vary linearly between
8681 their two extremities. The fractions can be adjusted by
8682 @code{dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction} in @internalsref{Voice} context.
8683 For each type of MIDI instrument, a volume range can be defined. This
8684 gives a basic equalizer control, which can enhance the quality of
8685 the MIDI output remarkably. The equalizer can be controlled by
8686 setting @code{instrumentEqualizer}.
8690 Many musically interesting effects, such as swing, articulation,
8691 slurring, etc., are not translated to MIDI.
8693 Since slurs are not interpreted, @code{\lyricsto} and
8694 @code{\addlyrics} sections will be interpreted wrongly.
8699 * MIDI instrument names::
8704 @subsection MIDI block
8708 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
8709 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
8713 @item a @code{\tempo} definition, and
8714 @item context definitions.
8717 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
8719 A number followed by a period is interpreted as a real number, so
8720 for setting the tempo for dotted notes, an extra space should be
8721 inserted, for example:
8724 \midi @{ \tempo 4 . = 120 @}
8728 @cindex context definition
8730 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
8731 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
8732 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer-init.ly}.
8735 @node MIDI instrument names
8736 @subsection MIDI instrument names
8738 @cindex instrument names
8739 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
8741 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
8742 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
8743 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
8747 If the selected string does not exactly match, then the default is
8748 used, which is the Grand Piano.