5 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
6 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
7 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
9 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
18 @macro internalsref{NAME}
19 @uref{../lilypond-internals/\NAME\.html,\NAME\}
22 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
23 See @internalsref{\NAME\}
29 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
31 @macro internalsref{NAME}
38 @c .{Reference Manual}
40 @node Reference Manual
41 @chapter Reference Manual
44 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
47 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
48 revision of this document was made for LilyPond 1.4.1. It supposes a
49 passing familiarity with how LilyPond input works. New users are
50 encouraged to study the tutorial first.
52 The reference manual is ordered according to different tasks.
53 More details on the property setting mechanisms and context handling is
54 provided in @ref{Tuning output} and @ref{Interpretation context}. The
55 syntactical details are described at the end of the manual.
78 * Skipping corrected music::
79 * Interpretation context::
89 The purpose of LilyPond is explained informally by the term `music
90 typesetter'. This is not a fully correct name: not only does the
91 program print musical symbols, it also makes aesthetic decisions.
92 Symbols and their placements are @emph{generated} from a high-level
93 musical description. In other words, LilyPond would be best described
94 by `music compiler' or `music to notation compiler'.
96 LilyPond is linked to GUILE, GNU's Scheme library for extension
97 programming. The Scheme library provides the glue that holds together
98 the low-level routines and separate modules which are written in C++.
100 When lilypond is run to typeset sheet music, the following happens:
102 @item GUILE Initialization: various scheme files are read
103 @item parsing: first standard @code{ly} initialization files are read, and
104 then the user @file{ly} file is read.
105 @item interpretation: the music in the file is processed ``in playing
106 order'', i.e. the order that you use to read sheet music, or the
107 order in which notes are played. The result of this step is a typesetting
111 The typesetting specification is solved: positions and formatting is
114 @item the visible results ("virtual ink") are written to the output file.
117 During these stages different types of data play the the main role:
118 during parsing, @strong{Music} objects are created. During the
119 interpretation, @strong{contexts} are constructed, and with these contexts
120 a network of @strong{graphical objects} (``grobs'') is created. These
121 grobs contain unknown variables, and the network forms a set of
122 equations. After solving the equations and filling in these variables,
123 the printed output (in the form of @strong{molecules}) is written to an
126 These threemanship of tasks (parsing, translating, typesetting) and
127 data-structures (music, context, graphical objects) permeates the entire
128 design of the program.
130 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
136 The most basic forms of music are notes. We discuss how you enter them
137 here. Notes on their own don't form valid input, but for the sake of
138 brevity we omit obligatory lint such as @code{\score} blocks and
139 @code{\paper} declarations.
150 * Defining pitch names::
151 * Easy Notation note heads ::
158 A note specification has the form
161 @var{pitch}[!][?][@var{duration}]
164 The alteration refers to what note is heard, not to whether an
165 accidental is printed. This is done depending on the key and context.
166 A reminder accidental
167 @cindex reminder accidental
169 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
170 cautionary accidental,
171 @cindex cautionary accidental
172 @cindex parenthesized accidental
173 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
174 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
176 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
177 cis' d' e' cis' c'? d' e' c'!
180 The grob for a note head is called @internalsref{NoteHead}.
188 @cindex Note specification
190 @cindex entering notes
192 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
194 @cindex @code{\pitch}
196 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
199 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object, see @ref{Pitch data type}.
201 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
202 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
203 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
204 from @code{c} to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
205 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
207 @cindex note names, Dutch
209 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
210 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
211 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
212 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
213 both forms are accepted.
215 LilyPond has predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
216 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
217 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
218 the names they define are:
221 Note Names sharp flat
222 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
223 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
224 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
225 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
226 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
227 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
228 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
236 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
237 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
238 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
239 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
241 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
242 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
250 A rest is entered like a note, with note name `@code{r}':
252 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
256 The grob is @internalsref{Rest}. Whole bar rests centered in the bar are
257 specified using @code{R}, see @ref{Multi measure rests}.
259 For polyphonic music, it can be convenient to specify the rest position
260 directly. You can do that by entering a note, with the keyword
261 @code{\rest} appended, e.g. Rest collisions will leave these rests alone.
263 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
273 @cindex Invisible rest
276 An invisible rest, or skip, can be entered like a note with note name
279 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
283 Actually, this is a shorthand for the @code{\skip} command, and it is
284 only available in Note mode and Chord mode.
286 @c FIXME: in lyrics mode, we have " " and _
288 In Lyrics mode, you can use `@code{" "}' and `@code{_}':
289 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
291 \context Lyrics \lyrics { lah2 di4 " " dah2 _4 di }
292 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a4 a a2 a4 a }
296 The unabbreviated `@code{\skip} @var{duration}' also works outside of
299 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
302 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
303 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
308 Note that the skip does not produce any output, not even transparent output.
313 @subsection Durations
317 @cindex @code{\duration}
319 The syntax for a verbose duration specification is
321 \duration @var{scmduration}
323 Here, @var{scmduration} is a Scheme object of type @code{Duration}. See
324 @ref{Duration} for more information.
327 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
328 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
329 longer than a whole you must use identifiers.
333 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
335 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
341 \notes \relative c'' {
343 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
345 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
350 \remove "Clef_engraver"
351 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
352 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
353 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
359 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
360 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
361 NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
362 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
363 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
365 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
366 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
370 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
371 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
372 duration can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
376 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
382 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M} by
383 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
384 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
396 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. When used
397 with chords, it connects all the note heads whose pitches match.
398 Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'. If you try to tie
399 together chords which have no common pitches then no ties will be
402 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
403 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
406 If you dislike the amount of ties created for a chord, you set
407 @code{Voice.sparseTies} to true, resulting in a smaller number of
409 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
410 \property Voice.sparseTies = ##t
411 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
414 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
415 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
416 exactly the same concept.
418 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
419 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
422 The name of the tie grob is @internalsref{Tie}, and it is created in the
423 @internalsref{Voice} context.
427 At present, the tie is implemented as a separate thing, temporally
428 located in between the notes. There is also no way to convert
429 between tied notes, dotted notes and plain notes.
431 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a chord is not supported in a
432 simple way. It can be achieved by moving the tie-engraver into the Thread
433 context and turning on and off ties per Thread.
441 @cindex @code{\times}
443 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all duration
446 @cindex @code{\times}
448 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
451 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
452 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
453 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
454 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
455 their written length:
457 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
458 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
461 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
462 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
463 @code{\times} only once, thus saving typing work.
465 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
466 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
467 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
470 The format of the number is determined by the property
471 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
472 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
473 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
476 The typesetting of brackets and numbers is controlled by the properties
477 @code{tuplet-bracket-visibility} and @code{tuplet-number-visibility}.
479 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
480 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##t
481 \times 2/3{c'8 d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
482 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = #'if-no-beam
483 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
484 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##f
485 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
486 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = ##f
487 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
488 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = #'if-no-beam
489 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
492 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
493 @cindex tuplet formatting
495 Tuplet brackets are printed as @internalsref{TupletBracket} grobs, most
496 often in the @internalsref{Voice} context.
498 @c . {Defining pitch names}
499 @node Defining pitch names
500 @subsection Defining pitch names
502 @cindex defining pitch names
503 @cindex pitch names, defining
505 Note names and chord modifiers can be customized for nationalities. The
506 syntax is as follows.
508 @cindex @code{\pitchnames}
509 @cindex @code{\chordmodifiers}
511 \pitchnames @var{scheme-alist}
512 \chordmodifiers @var{scheme-alist}
515 See @file{ly/nederlands.ly} and @file{ly/chord-modifiers.ly} for
516 specific examples on how to do this.
519 @node Easy Notation note heads
520 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
522 @cindex easy notation
525 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
526 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
527 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
529 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
530 \include "paper23.ly"
532 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
533 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
537 Note that @internalsref{EasyNotation} overrides a @internalsref{Score} context. You
538 probably will want to print it with magnification to make it more
539 readable, see @ref{Output scaling}.
545 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through the
546 letters. Printing the postscript file obtained either by using dvips or
547 the @code{-f ps} option of lilypond produces the correct result.
552 @section Staff notation
554 @cindex Staff notation
566 @subsection Key signature
571 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
574 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
577 @cindex @code{\minor}
578 @cindex @code{\major}
579 @cindex @code{\minor}
580 @cindex @code{\ionian}
581 @cindex @code{\locrian}
582 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
583 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
584 @cindex @code{\lydian}
585 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
586 @cindex @code{\dorian}
588 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
589 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
590 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
591 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
592 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
594 This command sets the context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
595 Non-standard key signatures can be specified by setting this property
598 The printed signature is a @internalsref{KeySignature} grob, typically
599 created in @internalsref{Staff} context.
601 @cindex @code{keySignature}
608 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command.
616 \property Staff.clefGlyph = @var{glyph associated with clefname}
617 \property Staff.clefPosition = @var{clef Y-position for clefname}
618 \property Staff.centralCPosition = @var{position for central C}
619 \property Staff.clefOctavation = @var{extra transposition of clefname}
623 Any change in these properties creates a clef (A @internalsref{Clef} grob).
625 Supported clef-names include
627 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
629 @item treble, violin, G, G2
638 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
653 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
654 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. Note that you have to
655 enclose @var{clefname} in quotes if you use underscores or digits in the
661 Supported associated glyphs (for @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) are:
670 @item clefs-vaticana_do
671 Editio Vaticana style do clef
672 @item clefs-vaticana_fa
673 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
674 @item clefs-medicaea_do
675 Editio Medicaea style do clef
676 @item clefs-medicaea_fa
677 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
678 @item clefs-mensural1_c
679 modern style mensural C clef
680 @item clefs-mensural2_c
681 historic style small mensural C clef
682 @item clefs-mensural3_c
683 historic style big mensural C clef
684 @item clefs-mensural1_f
685 historic style traditional mensural F clef
686 @item clefs-mensural2_f
687 historic style new mensural F clef
688 @item clefs-mensural_g
689 historic style mensural G clef
690 @item clefs-hufnagel_do
691 historic style hufnagel do clef
692 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa
693 historic style hufnagel fa clef
694 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa
695 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
696 @item clefs-percussion
697 modern style percussion clef
700 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
701 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
702 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
705 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
706 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
707 @cindex hufnagel clefs
710 @c . {Time signature}
712 @subsection Time signature
713 @cindex Time signature
717 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
720 \time @var{n}@code{/}@var{d}
722 Internally, this is a shortcut for doing
724 \property Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(@var{n} . @var{d})
725 \property Score.beatLength = #(make-moment 1 @var{d})
726 \property Score.measureLength = #(make-moment @var{n} @var{d})
729 These properties @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines
730 should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be
733 Changing the value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a
734 fraction to be printed. This grob is @internalsref{TimeSignature}.
736 The actual symbol that's printed can be customized with the style
738 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, singleline]
740 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
742 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'()
744 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
748 There are many more options for the layout of this grob. They are
749 selected through the @code{style} grob property.
751 @c FIXME: this isn't documented except in example?
753 @file{input/test/time.ly} for examples.
760 @cindex partial measure
761 @cindex measure, partial
762 @cindex shorten measures
763 @cindex @code{\partial}
765 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
766 @code{\partial} command:
768 \partial @var{duration}
771 Internally, this is a shortcut for
774 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
778 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
779 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
782 @node Unmetered music
783 @subsection Unmetered music
785 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
786 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. The property
787 @code{Score.timing} can be used to switch off this automatic timing
789 @lilypond[fragment,relative,singleline,verbatim]
791 \property Score.timing = ##f
793 \property Score.timing = ##t
797 The identifiers @code{\cadenzaOn} and @code{\cadenzaOff} can be used as
804 @subsection Bar lines
808 @cindex measure lines
815 This is a shortcut for doing
817 \property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}
819 The following bar types are available
821 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
834 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
838 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
840 @cindex repeatCommands
841 @cindex defaultBarType
843 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
844 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
845 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
846 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
848 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
849 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
850 @code{whichBar} settings.
852 @internalsref{BarLine} grobs are created by the @code{Bar_engraver}.
859 Polyphonic parts, i.e. parts with more than one voice on a staff can be
860 typeset with LilyPond.
862 The easiest way to enter such fragments, is the Scheme function
863 @code{voicify-music}. It will split chords using the separator
864 @code{\\}, to make multiple voices. You can use it for small,
865 short-lived voices (make a chord of voices) or for single chords:
867 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
868 \context Voice = VA \apply #voicify-music \relative c'' {
869 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ c, \\ f \\ d >
873 The function @code{voicify-music} instantiates @internalsref{Voice}
874 contexts, bearing the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.
876 To explicity typeset polyphonic music, instantiate a separate Voice
877 context for each part, and assign a stem direction to each part.
879 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
881 < \context Voice = VA { \stemUp b'4 a' g' f' e' }
882 \context Voice = VB { \stemDown g'4 g' g' g' g' } >
885 When there are more than two voices on a staff, you must also indicate
886 which voice should moved horizontally in case of a collision. This can
887 be done with the identifiers @code{\shiftOff}, @code{\shiftOn},
888 @code{\shiftOnn}, etc. (which sets the grob property @code{horizontal-shift}
889 in @internalsref{NoteColumn}).
891 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
892 \context Staff \notes\relative c''<
899 \context Voice=three {
900 \shiftOnn \stemUp ais
902 \context Voice=four {
903 \shiftOnnn \stemUp fis
908 The most convenient way is to use the identifiers @code{\voiceOne}
909 through @code{\voiceFour}, which also set slur and tie directions in the
912 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
914 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
915 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
916 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
919 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
920 if you set the grob property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
922 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
924 \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne
926 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
929 \context Voice = VB { \voiceTwo [g'8. f16] [g'8. f'16] }
933 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
935 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
937 \context Voice { \stemUp c''4 }
938 \context Voice =VB { r4 }
942 Note head collisions (horizontal shifting of note heads) are handled by
943 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} grob. @internalsref{RestCollision}
944 handles vertical shifting of rests.
952 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
953 handles a few situations. When it can not cope, you are advised to use
954 @code{force-hshift} of the NoteColumn grob and @code{staff-position} of
955 the Rest grob to override typesetting decisions.
960 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
961 the metrum. LilyPond guesses where beams should be inserted. If you're
962 not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can specify which patterns
963 to beam automatically. In specific cases, you can also enter the beams
967 @c . {Automatic beams}
968 @subsection Automatic beams
970 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}
971 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
972 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
975 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
976 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
977 or at durations specified by the properties in
978 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
979 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
981 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
982 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
984 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
985 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
987 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
988 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
989 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
990 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
991 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
994 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
995 you can use the following:
997 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
998 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
1000 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1001 entered as @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
1003 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1004 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
1006 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1007 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1009 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1010 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1011 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1013 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
1014 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1015 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1016 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1018 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1019 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1022 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
1023 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
1024 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
1025 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
1029 @c Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
1031 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1032 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1034 @cindex automatic beam generation
1036 @cindex @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming}
1038 Automatic beaming is on by default, but can be switched off by setting
1039 @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming} to true. You you may find this necessary for
1040 a melody that goes with lyrics.
1044 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1045 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1046 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
1047 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,relative]
1048 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1049 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1050 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
1053 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1054 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1055 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1058 @cindex Automatic beams
1059 @subsection Manual beams
1060 @cindex beams, manual
1064 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
1065 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
1066 rests or bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point
1067 manually using a @code{[} before the first beamed note and a @code{]}
1068 after the last note:
1070 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1072 r4 [r8 g' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
1075 Whenever an manual beam is busy, the automatic beamer will not produce
1078 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1080 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1081 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1082 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount}. can
1083 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
1084 property, it's value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1086 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1089 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
1092 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1094 The beam symbol (grob @internalsref{Beam} in @internalsref{Voice}
1095 context), both for automatic and manual beams) can be tweaked through
1096 grob-properties @code{height} and @code{staff-position}. These specify
1097 vertical location and vertical span. Both are measured in half
1098 staff-spaces, @code{staff-position=0} corresponds to the middle staff
1101 Set @code{height} to zero, to get horizontal beams:
1103 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1104 \property Voice.Beam \set #'direction = #1
1105 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #0
1109 Here's how you'd specify a weird looking beam that instead of being
1110 horizontal, falls two staff spaces:
1116 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1117 \property Voice.Beam \set #'staff-position = #4
1118 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #-4
1122 [TODO: doc autokneeing ? ]
1124 @c TODO -> why this ref? Document?
1125 @cindex @code{neutral-direction}
1127 @node Expressive marks
1128 @section Expressive marks
1143 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1144 They are entered using parentheses:
1146 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1147 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
1151 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1152 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1153 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1154 grob-property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1155 @internalsref{Voice} context It's value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1156 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1158 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1159 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1160 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1162 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1166 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1167 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1168 stems might look better:
1170 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1171 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
1172 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1174 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1179 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
1180 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
1181 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this decision
1182 is in @internalsref{Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}. It is loosely
1183 related to the enclosed area between the slur and the notes. Usually,
1184 the default setting works well, but in some cases you may prefer a
1185 curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved one. You can
1186 indicate this preference by increasing the @code{beautiful} value:
1188 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
1189 \property Voice.Beam \override #'direction = #-1
1190 \property Voice.Slur \override #'direction = #1
1191 c16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
1192 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1193 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
1194 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1199 @code{beautiful} is an arbitrary parameter in the slur formatter.
1200 Useful values can only be determined by trial and error.
1202 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1204 @node Phrasing slurs
1205 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1207 @cindex phrasing slurs
1208 @cindex phrasing marks
1210 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1211 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1214 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1215 \time 6/4 c' \( ( d ) e f ( e ) \) d
1218 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
1219 slur. The grob associated with it is @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, in
1220 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1223 @subsection Breath marks
1225 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}. The result is a
1226 @internalsref{BreathingSign} grob in @internalsref{Voice} context.
1228 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1237 The current layout of the default comma style breath marks
1238 could be improved and more optional symbols should be added to the
1247 @cindex beats per minute
1248 @cindex metronome marking
1250 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1252 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1254 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1257 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1262 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1263 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1264 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1269 @subsection Text spanners
1270 @cindex Text spanners
1272 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando or accelerando, often extend
1273 over many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1274 dotted line. You can create such texts using text spanners. The syntax
1277 \spanrequest \start "text"
1278 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1280 LilyPond will respond by creating a @internalsref{TextSpanner} grob (typically
1281 in @internalsref{Voice} context). The string to be printed, as well as the
1282 style is set through grob properties.
1284 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1285 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1286 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1287 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1288 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1289 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1290 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1291 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1309 @subsection Articulations
1310 @cindex Articulations
1312 @cindex articulations
1316 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1317 different characteristics of the performance. These symbols can be
1318 added to a note with `@var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}'. Numerous symbols
1319 are defined in @file{script.ly}. Symbols can be forced to appear above
1320 or below the note by writing `@var{note}@code{^\}@var{name}' and
1321 `@var{note}@code{_\}@var{name}' respectively. Here is a chart showing
1322 symbols on notes, with the name of the corresponding symbol appearing
1328 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-family =#'typewriter
1329 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1330 \context Staff \notes {
1331 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''^\fermata
1332 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\upbow
1333 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1334 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1335 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1336 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1337 c''-\upmordent c''-\downmordent c''-\pralldown c''-\prallup
1338 c''-\lineprall c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1340 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1341 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1342 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ upbow
1343 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1344 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1345 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1346 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1347 upmordent__ downmordent__ pralldown__ prallup__
1348 lineprall__ thumb__ segno__ coda
1352 linewidth = 5.875\in
1358 To save typing work, some shorthands are available:
1359 @lilypond[singleline]
1361 \notes \context Voice {
1362 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1363 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1369 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1376 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand. For
1377 changes, some markup texts would be needed:
1378 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1379 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1384 @cindex @code{\script}
1389 You can add scripts by editing @file{scm/script.scm}. This file contains
1390 a table, listing script definitions and aliases. The following syntax
1391 accesses a script definition from the table:
1397 Usually the @code{\script} keyword is not used directly. Various
1398 helpful identifier definitions appear in @file{script.ly}.
1400 Grobs for these objects are @internalsref{Script} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
1404 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1405 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1407 Unfortunately, there is no support for adding fingering instructions or
1408 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1409 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1414 @subsection Text scripts
1415 @cindex Text scripts
1417 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1418 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1421 By default, these indications do not influence the note spacing, but
1422 if @code{Voice.textNonEmpty} is set to true the widths will be taken
1423 into account. The identifier @code{\fatText} is defined in the standard
1425 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
1426 \relative c' { c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1429 Text scripts are created in form of @internalsref{TextScript} grobs, in
1430 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1432 @ref{Text markup} describes how to change the font or access
1433 special symbols in text scripts.
1437 @subsection Grace notes
1446 @cindex @code{\grace}
1449 @cindex @code{graceAlignPosition}
1451 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out, but do not take up any
1452 logical time in a measure. LilyPond has limited support for grace notes.
1453 The syntax is as follows.
1455 \grace @var{musicexpr}
1458 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1461 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1463 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1465 \property Voice.Stem \override #'flag-style = #'()
1467 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'flag-style
1472 A grace note expression has duration 0; the next real note is assumed to
1473 be the main note. If you want the note to appear after the main note,
1474 set @code{Voice.graceAlignPosition} to @code{1}.
1478 Nesting @code{\grace} notes is not supported. The following may cause
1479 run-time errors: @example
1480 @code{\grace @{ \grace c32 c16 @} c4}
1482 Since the meaning of such a construct is unclear, we don't consider this
1483 a loss. Similarly, juxtaposing two @code{\grace} sections is
1484 syntactically valid, but makes no sense and may cause runtime errors.
1485 Ending a staff or score with grace notes may also generate a run-time
1486 error, since there will be no main note to attach the grace notes to.
1497 @subsection Glissando
1500 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1502 A glissando line (grob @internalsref{Glissando}) can be requested by
1503 attaching a @code{\glissando} to a notte:
1505 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1511 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1518 @subsection Dynamics
1531 @cindex @code{\ffff}
1541 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an identifier after a
1542 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
1543 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
1544 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
1545 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
1547 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
1548 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
1554 @cindex @code{\decr}
1555 @cindex @code{\rced}
1561 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
1562 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
1563 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
1564 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
1565 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
1566 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
1567 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
1568 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
1569 want several marks during one note, you have to use spacer notes.
1571 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1572 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
1573 < f''1 { s4 s4 \< \! s4 \> \! s4 } >
1576 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
1577 is an example how to do it:
1582 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1584 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc."
1585 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
1590 For everyday use, we recommend the identifiers @code{\cresc},
1591 @code{endcresc}, @code{\dim} and @code{\enddim}.
1595 Dynamics are grobs of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
1596 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is handled
1597 by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. If you want to adjust
1598 padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you must set properties
1599 for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. Predefined identifiers
1600 to set the vertical direction are \dynamicUp and \dynamicDown.
1602 @cindex direction, of dynamics
1603 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
1604 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
1612 @cindex @code{\repeat}
1614 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
1615 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
1616 different variants of repeats.
1620 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
1621 output, and entering repetitive music.
1624 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
1625 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
1628 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
1629 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
1630 @file{input/star-spangled-banner.ly}.
1636 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
1642 * Manual repeat commands::
1644 * Tremolo subdivisions::
1649 @subsection Repeat syntax
1651 The syntax for repeats is
1654 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
1657 If you have alternative endings, you may add
1658 @cindex @code{\alternative}
1660 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
1662 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
1664 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
1666 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
1667 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1669 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
1670 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
1673 With alternative endings:
1674 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1676 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1677 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1680 Folded repeats look like this:
1683 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1685 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1686 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1690 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
1691 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
1692 the specified number of repeats.
1694 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1698 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
1699 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
1704 @subsection Unfolding repeats for MIDI output.
1706 @cindex expanding repeats
1708 See @file{input/test/unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
1713 Notice that timing information is not remembered at the start of an
1714 alternative, so you have to reset timing information after a repeat,
1715 e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting
1716 @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties
1717 are also not repeated.
1719 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}s, although this probably is only
1720 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
1722 Folded repeats offer little more over simultaneous music. However, it
1723 is to be expected that more functionality -- especially for the MIDI
1724 backend -- will be implemented at some point in the future.
1726 Volta repeats are printed over all staves in a score. You must turn them
1727 off explicitly, for example by doing
1729 \property Staff.VoltaBracket = \turnOff
1731 in all but the top staff.
1733 @node Manual repeat commands
1734 @subsection Manual repeat commands
1736 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
1738 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
1739 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
1747 @item (volta . @var{text})
1748 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
1750 Stop a running volta bracket
1753 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
1755 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
1757 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
1762 Repeats brackets are @internalsref{VoltaBracket} grobs.
1764 @node Tremolo repeats
1765 @subsection Tremolo repeats
1766 @cindex tremolo beams
1768 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
1770 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
1772 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
1773 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
1774 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
1775 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
1776 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
1781 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} grobs. Single stem tremolos are
1782 @internalsref{StemTremolo}.
1787 At present, the spacing between tremolo beams is not regular, since the
1788 spacing engine does not notice that not all notes are printed.
1790 @node Tremolo subdivisions
1791 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
1792 @cindex tremolo marks
1793 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
1795 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
1796 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
1797 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
1798 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
1799 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
1801 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
1802 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
1808 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
1811 @node Measure repeats
1812 @subsection Measure repeats
1814 @cindex percent repeats
1815 @cindex measure repeats
1817 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
1818 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
1819 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
1820 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
1822 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1823 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
1824 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
1828 The signs are represented by these grobs: @internalsref{RepeatSlash} and
1829 @internalsref{PercentRepeat} and @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
1833 You can not nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
1834 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
1836 @node Rhythmic music
1837 @section Rhythmic music
1844 @node Rhythmic staves
1845 @subsection Rhythmic staves
1847 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
1848 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
1849 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
1851 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1852 \context RhythmicStaff {
1854 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1861 @section Piano music
1863 Piano music is an odd type of notation. Piano staves are two normal
1864 staves coupled with a brace. The staves are largely independent, but
1865 sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. The
1866 @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
1867 behavior. In this section we discuss the @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some
1868 other pianistic peculiarities.
1871 * Automatic staff changes::
1872 * Manual staff switches::
1875 * Voice follower lines::
1879 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
1880 @node Automatic staff changes
1881 @subsection Automatic staff changes
1882 @cindex Automatic staff changes
1884 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
1885 staff. The syntax for this is
1887 \autochange @var{contexttype} @var{musicexp}
1889 This will switch the interpretation context of @var{musicexp} between a
1890 @var{contexttype} named @code{up} and @code{down}. Typically, you use
1891 @internalsref{Staff} for @var{contexttype}. The autochanger switches on basis
1892 of pitch (central C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping
1893 over rests to switch rests in advance.
1895 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1896 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
1897 \context Staff = "up" {
1898 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
1899 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
1900 \context Staff = "down" {
1906 Note how spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
1907 terminating too soon.
1910 @node Manual staff switches
1911 @subsection Manual staff switches
1913 @cindex manual staff switches
1914 @cindex staff switch, manual
1916 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
1918 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
1920 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
1921 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
1922 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
1925 The formal definition of this construct is obtuse, but for the sake of
1926 completeness we give it here.
1927 @cindex @code{\translator}
1929 \translator @var{contexttype} = @var{name}
1931 Formally, this construct is a music expression indicating
1932 that the context which is a direct child of the context of type
1933 @var{contexttype} should be shifted to a context of type
1934 @var{contexttype} and the specified name.
1942 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
1943 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
1944 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
1946 These identifiers are shorthands for spanner commands of the types
1947 @internalsref{Sustain}, @internalsref{UnaCorda} and @internalsref{Sostenuto}:
1949 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1950 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4
1951 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
1954 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
1955 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal types:
1956 Sustain, Sostenuto or UnaCorda. Refer to the generated documentation of
1957 @rgrob{SustainPedal}, for example, for more information.
1959 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
1960 @code{pedal-type} property of SustainPedal grobs:
1962 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1963 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'bracket
1964 c''4 \sustainDown d''4 e''4 a'4 \sustainUp \sustainDown f'4 g'4 a'4 \sustainUp
1967 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
1968 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
1970 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1971 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'mixed
1972 c''4 \sustainDown d''4 e''4 c'4 \sustainUp \sustainDown f'4 g'4 a'4 \sustainUp
1975 The default '*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
1976 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
1977 for a sostenuto pedal:
1979 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1980 c''4 \sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4 \sostenutoUp
1983 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
1984 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
1985 @code{PianoPedalBracket} grobs (see the detailed documentation of
1986 @rgrob{PianoPedalBracket}) can be modified. For example, the bracket
1987 may be extended to the end of the note head.
1989 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1990 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
1991 c''4 \sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4 \sostenutoUp
1998 @subsection Arpeggio
2001 @cindex broken arpeggio
2002 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
2004 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
2005 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
2008 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2009 \context Voice <c\arpeggio e g c>
2012 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
2013 to the chords in both staves, and set
2014 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
2016 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2017 \context PianoStaff <
2018 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2019 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2020 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2024 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} grobs. Cross staff arpeggios
2025 are @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio}.
2027 To add an arrow head to explicitly specify the direction of the
2028 arpeggio, you should set the arpeggio grob property
2029 @code{arpeggio-type}.
2031 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2033 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #1
2035 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
2040 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
2041 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
2042 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
2043 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} grobs to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
2044 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before.
2046 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2047 \context PianoStaff <
2048 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2049 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
2050 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2051 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2058 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios
2063 @node Voice follower lines
2064 @subsection Voice follower lines
2066 @cindex follow voice
2067 @cindex staff switching
2070 @cindex @code{followVoice}
2072 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
2073 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
2074 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
2076 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2077 \context PianoStaff <
2078 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2079 \context Staff \context Voice {
2081 \translator Staff=two
2084 \context Staff=two {\clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2088 The associated grob is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2098 * Automatic syllable durations::
2104 @subsection Lyrics mode
2107 To print lyrics, you must first make a music expression from the lyric
2108 text. That music expression can be printed by selecting an appropriate
2112 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
2114 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
2115 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
2116 The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
2117 punctuation and accents without any hassle.
2119 Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text. For
2120 example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that
2121 the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
2124 Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes:
2125 @code{"He could"4 not4} or by using an underscore without quotes:
2126 @code{He_could4 not4}. All unquoted underscores are converted to
2129 The precise definition of this mode can be found in @ref{Lyrics mode
2132 @c . {Printing lyrics}
2133 @node Printing lyrics
2134 @subsection Printing lyrics
2137 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the @internalsref{Lyrics} context.
2139 @c Maybe more pedagogical to avoid \addlyrics in this first example? /MB
2140 @c Add tied and beamed melismata too.
2141 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2143 \notes \relative c' {
2145 \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t
2146 d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
2147 b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 }
2148 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2150 share the soft -- ware; }
2154 Notes and syllable durations are matched automatically. This is
2155 accomplished using @code{\addlyrics}, which is documented in
2156 @ref{Automatic syllable durations}. Setting @code{automaticMelismata} in
2157 the melody staff will cause tied, slurred or beamed notes to be
2158 interpreted as melismata.
2160 The Lyric syllables are @code{LyricsVoice.LyricSyllable} grobs.
2163 @cindex lyric extender
2166 As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will
2167 create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of the
2168 lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric,
2169 so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
2170 The grob for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricExtender}.
2175 If you want to have hyphens centered between syllables (rather than
2176 attached to the end of the first syllable) you can use the special
2177 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. This
2178 will result in a hyphen whose length varies depending on the space
2179 between syllables. It will be centered between the syllables. The grob
2180 for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricHyphen}.
2182 @cindex Lyric hyphen
2184 @node Automatic syllable durations
2185 @subsection Automatic syllable durations
2186 @cindex Automatic syllable durations
2188 @cindex automatic lyric durations
2189 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
2191 If you have lyrics that are set to a melody, you can copy the rhythm
2192 of that melody into the lyrics using @code{\addlyrics}. The syntax for
2195 \addlyrics @var{musicexpr1 musicexpr2}
2198 Both @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} are interpreted, but every
2199 music event (``every syllable'') in @var{musicexpr2} is interpreted only
2200 when there are events in @var{musicexpr1}.
2202 @cindex @code{automaticMelismata}
2204 If the property @code{automaticMelismata} is set in the
2205 context of @var{musicexpr1}, no lyrics will be put on slurred or tied
2208 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2211 \property Voice.automaticMelismata = ##t
2212 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2214 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2218 If you want the lyric lines to be above the melody staff, or in some
2219 other, more complex configuration, then build that configuration first
2220 using simultaneous music, and use @code{\addlyrics} after that.
2222 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
2224 \context Lyrics = LA { s1 }
2225 \context Staff = SA { s1 }
2227 \context Staff = SA \relative c' { c4 e g g }
2228 \context Lyrics = LA \lyrics { geen ge -- don -- der } >
2231 For @code{\addlyrics} you should use a single rhythm melody, and single
2232 rhythm lyrics (a constant duration is the obvious choice). If you do
2233 not, you can get undesired effects when using multiple stanzas:
2235 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2238 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2240 \context Lyrics \lyrics
2245 It is valid (but probably not very useful) to use notes instead of
2246 lyrics for @var{musicexpr2}.
2249 @subsection More stanzas
2253 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
2254 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
2255 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
2257 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice
2258 to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
2259 In the following example, the Voice
2260 identity is @code{duet}, and the identities of the LyricsVoices are
2261 @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
2264 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2267 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
2269 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
2270 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
2271 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
2272 Hi, my name is bert. }
2273 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
2274 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
2275 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
2280 You can add stanza numbers by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the
2281 first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following
2282 systems. Notice how you must surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics}
2288 @cindex stanza numbering
2296 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords. Chords are
2297 characterized by a set of pitches. They are
2298 internally stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can
2299 enter chords by name and print them as note head, enter them as notes
2300 and print them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by
2301 name, and print them as name.
2304 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2305 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
2315 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
2316 \context Voice \twoWays > }
2319 Note that this example also shows that the chord printing routines do
2320 not attempt to be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not
2321 interpret this as an inversion.
2325 * Printing named chords::
2330 @subsection Chords mode
2333 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
2334 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
2335 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
2336 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc).
2338 Dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions and subtractions,
2339 so articulation scripts can not be entered in Chord mode.
2341 The syntax for named chords is as follows:
2343 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
2346 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration} is
2347 the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
2348 modifiers. One type is formed by @emph{chord additions}. Additions are
2349 obtained by listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written
2350 by its number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising
2351 or lowering by half a step. Chord additions have two effects: they adds
2352 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
2353 chord, and they may lower or raise the specified interval.
2355 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
2356 using @code{\transpose}.
2358 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2362 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5-
2372 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
2373 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
2374 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
2375 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
2376 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
2377 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
2378 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
2380 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2383 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
2389 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
2390 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
2393 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2402 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
2403 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
2404 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the note
2405 is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
2407 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2417 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
2418 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
2419 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
2420 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
2422 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2433 Implementation details are quite gory. For example @code{c:4} not only
2434 adds a fourth, but also removes the third.
2437 @c . {Printing named chords}
2438 @node Printing named chords
2439 @subsection Printing named chords
2441 @cindex printing chord names
2445 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
2446 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
2447 directly using simultaneous music.
2449 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2451 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
2455 \context ChordNames \scheme
2456 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2461 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
2462 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
2463 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of a
2468 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
2472 \context ChordNames {
2473 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
2475 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2479 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
2480 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
2481 an added bass note, which may result in strange chord names when chords
2482 are entered as a list of pitches:
2484 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2493 \context ChordNames \scheme
2494 \context Staff \scheme
2500 By default, a chord name system proposed by Harald Banter (See
2501 @ref{Literature}) is used. The system is very regular and predictable.
2502 Typical American style chord names may be selected by setting the
2503 @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName} grob to
2504 @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz chordnames.
2506 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
2507 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
2508 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}. Here's an example showing the differences in
2512 @c maybe just junk verbatim option?
2513 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2523 \context ChordNames = banter \scheme
2524 \context ChordNames = american {
2525 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2526 #'style = #'american \scheme }
2527 \context ChordNames = jazz {
2528 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2529 #'style = #'jazz \scheme }
2530 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2537 @section Writing parts
2539 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
2540 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
2541 problems in orchestral music.
2548 * Instrument names::
2550 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
2551 * Multi measure rests::
2552 * Automatic part combining::
2553 * Hara kiri staves::
2556 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
2557 @node Rehearsal marks
2558 @subsection Rehearsal marks
2559 @cindex Rehearsal marks
2561 @cindex @code{\mark}
2565 \mark @var{unsigned}
2570 This command prints a rehearsal mark above the system. You can provide
2571 a number, a string or a markup text as argument. If you use
2572 @code{\default}, the value of property @code{rehearsalMark} is used and
2573 automatically incremented.
2575 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2581 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-segno")
2586 The grob is @internalsref{RehearsalMark} in @internalsref{Score} context. See
2587 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} if you need boxes around the marks.
2590 @subsection Bar numbers
2594 @cindex measure numbers
2595 @cindex currentBarNumber
2597 Bar numbers are @internalsref{BarNumber} grobs. They are printed at the
2598 start of the line. The number itself is a property that can be set by
2599 modifying the @code{currentBarNumber} property, i.e.
2601 \property Score.currentBarNumber = #217
2604 If you want boxed bar numbers, see the example file
2605 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly}.
2609 It is not possible to have bar numbers printed at regular intervals
2612 @node Instrument names
2613 @subsection Instrument names
2615 You can specify an instrument name for a staff by setting
2616 @code{Staff.instrument} and @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string
2617 before the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
2618 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
2620 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2621 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
2624 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
2628 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2630 '((font-relative-size . -2 ) (music "accidentals--1")))
2633 \property Staff.instrument = #`((kern . 0.5) (lines
2634 "2 Clarinetti" (columns " (B" ,text-flat ")")))
2642 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
2643 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
2644 the name to avoid a collision.
2647 @subsection Transpose
2649 @cindex transposition of pitches
2650 @cindex @code{\transpose}
2652 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
2655 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
2658 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
2661 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
2662 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
2663 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
2666 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2669 { \key e \major c d e f }
2671 \transpose des'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2672 \transpose cis'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2676 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
2677 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
2678 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
2680 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
2681 @subsection Sound output transposing instruments
2683 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed and
2685 instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch offset (in
2686 semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done using the
2687 @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed output.
2689 @cindex @code{transposing}
2692 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
2693 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
2696 @c . {Multi measure rests}
2697 @node Multi measure rests
2698 @subsection Multi measure rests
2699 @cindex Multi measure rests
2703 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
2704 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
2706 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
2707 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
2708 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
2711 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2712 \time 3/4 r2. | R2. | R2.*2 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
2715 Notice that the @code{R2.} is printed as a whole rest, centered in the
2718 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
2720 The grob for this object is @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
2724 Currently, there is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into
2725 a single multimeasure rest.
2727 @cindex condensing rests
2729 @node Automatic part combining
2730 @subsection Automatic part combining
2731 @cindex automatic part combining
2732 @cindex part combiner
2735 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
2736 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting
2737 orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
2738 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are
2739 typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically.
2740 Also, solo and @emph{a due} parts can be identified and marked.
2742 The syntax for part combining is
2745 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
2747 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
2748 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
2749 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
2752 The most useful function of the part combiner is to combine parts into
2753 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
2755 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2757 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2758 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2761 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2767 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
2768 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
2769 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
2770 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
2771 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
2774 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
2775 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
2777 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2779 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
2780 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2781 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2784 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2790 There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak the
2791 behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
2792 documentation of @reng{Thread_devnull_engraver} and
2793 @reng{Voice_devnull_engraver}. Look at the documentation of the
2794 responsible engravers, @code{Thread_devnull_engraver},
2795 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
2799 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
2800 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
2803 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
2805 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2806 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2809 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2815 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2816 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
2817 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
2819 @node Hara kiri staves
2820 @subsection Hara kiri staves
2822 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
2823 This saves some space. LilyPond also supports this through the hara
2824 kiri@footnote{Hara kiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
2825 the Japanese Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when
2826 it finds itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will
2827 not disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
2830 The hara kiri staff is specialized version of the @internalsref{Staff}
2831 context. It is available as the context identifier
2832 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
2833 example disappears in the second line.
2837 \notes \relative c' <
2838 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
2839 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
2843 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
2856 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
2857 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
2858 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
2859 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2860 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2865 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
2870 \consists Custos_engraver
2876 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century.
2877 There were different appearances for different notation styles.
2878 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
2879 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
2882 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
2883 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
2884 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
2885 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
2886 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
2893 \consists Custos_engraver
2894 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2899 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
2904 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
2905 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
2912 @section Figured bass
2914 @cindex Basso continuo
2916 TODO. see figured-bass.ly
2918 @c . {Tuning output}
2920 @section Tuning output
2922 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
2923 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
2924 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
2925 ways to do just that.
2927 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called grobs (graphic
2928 objects). Each grob carries with it a set of properties (grob
2929 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem grob has
2930 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
2932 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
2933 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
2934 temporarily change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus
2935 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
2936 object, and set a grob property in that object.
2939 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
2940 * Tuning per grob ::
2948 @node Tuning groups of grobs
2949 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
2951 @cindex grob description
2955 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a
2956 context property. By assigning to that property (using plain
2957 @code{\property}), you can change the resulting grobs.
2959 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2960 c'4 \property Voice.Stem = #'((meta . ((interfaces . ())))) c'4
2963 The @code{\property} assignment effectively empties the definition of
2964 the Stem object. One of the effects is that the recipe of how it should be
2965 printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible. The above
2966 assignment is available as a standard identifier, for the case that you
2970 \property Voice.Stem = \turnOff
2977 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
2978 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
2981 The definition of a grob is actually a list of default grob
2982 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem grob (available in
2983 @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), defines the following values for
2988 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
2989 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
2993 You can add a property on top of the existing definition, or remove a
2994 property, thus overriding the system defaults:
2996 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
2997 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
3000 You should balance @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. If that's too
3001 much work, you can use the @code{\set} shorthand. It performs a revert
3002 followed by an override. The following example gives exactly the same
3003 result as the previous one.
3005 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
3006 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
3009 If you use @code{\set}, you must explicitly restore the default.
3012 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
3014 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3015 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3016 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
3018 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
3019 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
3022 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
3023 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
3024 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
3025 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and @code{\revert},
3026 must be carefully balanced.
3028 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
3031 A clumsy but correct form:
3033 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
3036 Shorter version of the same:
3038 \override \set \set \revert
3041 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
3044 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
3047 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the grob property is unset),
3050 \set \set \set \revert
3053 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
3054 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a
3055 stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
3056 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding
3057 automatic beaming settings.
3061 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
3062 The backend is not very strict in type-checking grob properties. If you
3063 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
3066 Some grobs are created at the moment that their context is created. An
3067 example of such a grob is the staff itself (i.e. the horizontal lines).
3068 You can not change the appearance of the staff symbol by manipulating
3069 @code{\property Staff.StaffSymbol}. At the moment that @code{\property
3070 Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and the StaffSymbol is
3071 created before any @code{\override} is effective. You can deal with this
3072 either overriding properties in a @code{\translator} definition, or by
3073 using @code{\outputproperty}.
3078 @node Tuning per grob
3079 @subsection Tuning per grob
3081 @cindex \outputproperty
3083 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
3084 feature. The syntax is as follows:
3086 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3088 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
3089 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
3090 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
3091 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
3092 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
3094 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
3095 the appropriate context to apply this to.
3097 Here are some random examples.
3100 In the following example, all note heads occurring at current staff
3101 level, are shifted up and right by setting their @code{extra-offset}
3104 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3106 \context Staff \outputproperty
3107 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
3108 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
3112 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
3114 In this example, the predicate checks the @code{text} grob property, to
3115 shift only the `m.d.' text, but not the fingering instruction "2".
3116 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3117 #(define (make-text-checker text)
3118 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
3121 \notes\relative c''' {
3122 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
3123 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
3124 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
3132 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
3133 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
3139 @subsection What to tune?
3141 This all tells you how to tune grobs, but you don't know what variables
3142 to set? The question is not answered in this part of the manual
3143 (although you may encounter some examples.).
3145 Grob properties are tied directly to the implementation of LilyPond, and
3146 they are thus a moving target. Documentation of such variables is in the
3147 automatically generated documentation. Description of properties are
3148 generated from the source code for each version. This documentation is
3149 therefore more up to date. It should be available from the same place
3150 where you got this manual.
3152 To decide how to tune a grob, you need to find the following information
3155 which grob to modify
3157 which property to modify
3159 which context the grob comes from.
3162 Included with the automatically generated documentation is a master list
3163 of grobs. Selecting a grob will take you to an overview of the
3164 properties available for that grob.
3166 There is also a master list of contexts. Selecting one takes you to an
3167 overview of that context which lists which grob types are created there.
3170 @node Font selection
3171 @subsection Font selection
3173 Most graphics in LilyPond are composed of characters of fonts. You can
3174 alter the characteristics of the font by setting certain grob
3175 properties. The mechanism that is used for this resembles La@TeX{}'s New
3176 Font Selection Scheme. Within this scheme, a font is entirely
3177 characterized by its font name.
3179 For each grob that uses fonts (in other words, each grob that supports
3180 @code{font-interface}) a font-name must be selected before it can be
3181 printed. The font name is selected by looking at a number of grob
3186 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
3187 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff braces),
3188 @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic
3189 signs) and @code{typewriter}
3192 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
3193 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
3194 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
3197 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
3198 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
3201 @item font-relative-size
3202 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
3203 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
3204 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
3206 @item font-design-size
3207 A number indicating the design size of the font.
3209 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
3210 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
3211 which enhances readability. Scalable type faces such TrueType and Adobe
3212 Type1 usually come as ``one design fits all sizes''.
3215 The name of the font, without the design size, e.g. @code{cmr},
3216 @code{cmti}, etc. Setting this overrides font-family, font-shape and
3223 The font is selected by taking the first font that satisfies all
3224 qualifiers specified. You can override any of these fields through
3225 @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The special value @code{*} matches
3226 any value for that qualifier.
3229 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
3230 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
3233 @cindex @code{font-style}
3235 There are also pre-cooked font selection qualifiers. These are selected
3236 through the grob property @code{font-style}. For example, the style
3237 @code{finger} selects family @code{number} and relative size @code{-3}.
3238 Styles available include @code{volta}, @code{finger}, @code{tuplet},
3239 @code{timesig}, @code{mmrest}, @code{script}, @code{large}, @code{Large}
3242 The style sheets and tables for selecting fonts are located in
3243 @file{scm/font.scm}. Refer to this file for more information.
3246 Setting @code{font-name} overrides all other qualifiers. The value for
3247 this property should be a string, the file name of the font. You may use
3248 this to use special fonts, which are not a part of the style sheet, or
3249 which have special encodings.
3251 The size of the font may be set with the grob property
3252 @code{font-magnification}. It is the size of font, relative to its
3253 standard size. For example, @code{1.0} is normal size.
3257 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
3259 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
3262 @cindex font selection
3263 @cindex font magnification
3264 @cindex @code{font-interface}
3268 @subsection Text markup
3272 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
3273 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
3274 in the following way.
3276 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3281 c^#'(italic "italic")
3282 d_#'((bold italic) "ff")
3284 f_#'(lines "one" (bold "two"))
3285 g^#'(music "noteheads-2" ((raise . 2.4) "flags-u3"))
3289 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
3290 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
3293 text: string | (head? text+)
3294 head: markup | (markup+)
3295 markup-item: property | abbrev
3296 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
3297 abbrev: @code{columns lines roman music bold italic named super sub}
3298 @code{overstrike text finger volta timesig mmrest mark script}
3299 @code{large Large dynamic}
3302 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
3303 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
3304 pair is a grob property. A list of properties available is included in
3305 the generated documentation for @rint{Text_interface}.
3307 The following abbreviations are currently defined:
3310 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
3312 vertical mode: set every text on a new line
3316 selects the Feta font (the standard font for music notation glyphs),
3317 and uses named lookup
3324 lookup by character name
3326 plain text lookup (by character value)
3332 the next text or character overstrikes this one
3334 select fingering number fontstyle
3336 select volta number fontstyle
3338 select time signature number fontstyle
3340 select multi measure rest number fontstyle
3342 select mark number fontstyle
3344 select scriptsize roman fontstyle
3346 select large roman fontstyle
3348 select Large roman fontstyle
3350 select dynamics fontstyle
3354 @cindex metronome mark
3356 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
3360 #(define note '(columns
3361 (music "noteheads-2" ((kern . -0.1) "flags-stem"))))
3362 #(define eight-note `(columns ,note ((kern . -0.1)
3363 (music ((raise . 3.5) "flags-u3")))))
3364 #(define dotted-eight-note
3365 `(columns ,eight-note (music "dots-dot")))
3368 \notes\relative c'' {
3369 a1^#`((columns (font-relative-size . -1)) ,dotted-eight-note " = 64")
3375 TextScript \override #'font-shape = #'upright
3381 @node Invisible grobs
3382 @subsection Invisible grobs
3383 @cindex invisible grobs
3387 ben nog steeds niet kapot van de informatiedichtheid hier.
3393 You can imagine a number of situations where you would want to make
3394 certain grobs not show up in the output. There may be aesthetic
3395 reasons, to make the output resemble an (old) manuscript as close as
3396 possible, or to make lessons or exercises for students.
3398 Grobs can be made invisible in a number of ways:
3400 Here's an example with blanked-out notes and stems:
3401 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3403 \property Voice.NoteHead \override
3405 \property Voice.Stem \override
3406 #'transparent = ##t }
3409 \property Voice.NoteHead \revert #'transparent
3410 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'transparent }
3413 \notes\relative c'' {
3415 a b c b \blanknotes c \unblanknotes d
3419 This method makes the grobs invisible but they still take the normal space.
3420 To remove all traces of the grob, you can redefine the function
3424 \notes\relative c'' {
3427 as bes c bes c d \break
3428 \property Staff.KeySignature \override #'molecule-callback = #'()
3431 \paper{linewidth=5.0\cm indent=0}
3435 A very rigorous way of removing grobs from the whole score is to remove
3436 the engraver that creates them. For example,
3438 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3439 \score {\notes { c'4 d'8 e'8 g2 }
3440 \paper { \translator {
3442 \remove Stem_engraver
3448 @subsection Dirty tricks
3449 @cindex embedded tex
3451 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
3452 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
3453 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
3454 commands won't work with direct PostScript output (see @ref{PostScript
3457 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3458 a'^"3 $\\times$ \\`a deux"
3461 You can also use raw PostScript commands embedded in text scripts. This
3462 offers ultimate flexibility, but requires you to learn PostScript.
3463 Currently, embedded PostScript will @strong{not} work with direct
3464 PostScript output. Note that all dimensions that you use are in staff
3469 \notes \relative c'' {
3470 a-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 5 3 rlineto stroke}"
3471 -#"\\embeddedps{ [ 0 1 ] 0 setdash 3 5 moveto 5 -3 rlineto stroke}"
3472 b-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 0 0 1 2 8 4 20 3.5 rcurveto stroke}"
3476 \paper { linewidth = 70*\staffspace }
3483 @section Page layout
3486 The page layout is the combined product of LilyPond formatting notation,
3487 and (La)@TeX{} putting the notation on a page, including page breaks.
3488 The part of LilyPond is documented here.
3502 @subsection Paper block
3505 The most important output definition is the @code{\paper} block, for
3506 music notation. The syntax is
3509 @code{\paper @{} [@var{paperidentifier}] @var{items} @code{@}}
3512 where each of the items is one of
3515 @item An assignment.
3517 @item A context definition. See @ref{Interpretation context} for
3518 more information on context definitions.
3520 @item \stylesheet declaration. Its syntax is
3522 \stylesheet @var{alist}
3525 See @file{scm/font.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
3526 @item an @code{\elementdescriptions} declaration.
3528 \elementdescriptions @var{alist}
3530 See @file{scm/grob-description.scm} for details of
3531 @var{alist}. This command is not user-serviceable.
3535 @c . {Paper variables}
3536 @node Paper variables
3537 @subsection Paper variables
3538 @cindex Paper variables
3540 The paper block has some variables you may want to use or change:
3543 @cindex @code{indent}
3545 The indentation of the first line of music.
3546 @cindex @code{staffspace}
3548 @item @code{staffspace}
3549 The distance between two staff lines, calculated from the center
3552 @cindex @code{linewidth}
3553 @item @code{linewidth}
3554 Sets the width of the lines.
3556 If set to a negative value, a single unjustified line is produced.
3557 @c rename to singleLinePaper ?
3558 The shorthand @code{\singleLine} defines a default paper block that
3559 produces a single line.
3561 @cindex @code{textheight}
3563 @item @code{textheight}
3564 Sets the total height of the music on each page. Only used by
3567 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
3569 @item @code{interscoreline}
3570 Sets the spacing between systems. The default is 16pt.
3572 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
3574 @item @code{interscorelinefill}
3575 If set to a positive number, the distance between the score
3576 lines will stretch in order to fill the full page. In that
3577 case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
3582 @cindex @code{stafflinethickness}
3584 @item @code{stafflinethickness}
3585 Determines the thickness of staff lines, and also acts as a scaling
3586 parameter for other line thicknesses.
3589 You may enter these dimension using units (@code{cm}, @code{in},
3590 @code{mm}, @code{pt}), or relative to another dimension
3592 linewidth = 20.0 * \staffspace
3599 @subsection Font size
3600 @cindex font size, setting
3601 @cindex staff size, setting
3602 @cindex @code{paper} file
3604 The Feta font provides musical symbols at six different sizes. These
3605 fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point, 23 point, and 26
3606 point. The point size of a font is the height of the five lines in a
3607 staff when displayed in the font.
3609 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
3610 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any of
3611 these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven}, @code{paperThirteen},
3612 @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and
3613 @code{paperTwentysix} are defined respectively. The default
3614 @code{\paper} block is also set. These files should be imported at toplevel, i.e.
3616 \include "paper26.ly"
3620 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
3621 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
3627 @subsection Paper size
3632 @cindex @code{papersize}
3634 To change the paper size, you must first set the
3635 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
3636 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
3637 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
3638 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
3641 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
3642 \include "paper16.ly"
3645 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
3646 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
3647 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
3651 @subsection Line break
3654 @cindex breaking lines
3656 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
3657 that it looks neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines have
3660 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do
3661 this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at this
3662 point. Do remember that line breaks can only occur at places where there
3663 are bar lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no
3664 bar line, you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
3665 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain point.
3667 If you want linebreaks at regular intervals, you can use the following:
3670 < \repeat 7 unfold @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
3674 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
3678 @cindex @code{\penalty}
3680 The @code{\break} and @code{\noBreak} commands are defined in terms of
3681 the penalty command:
3686 This encourages or discourages LilyPond to make a line break at this
3691 The scaling of the @code{\penalty} argument is not well-defined. The
3692 command is rather kludgey, and slated for rewriting.
3696 @subsection Page break
3699 @cindex breaking pages
3701 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
3702 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into the
3703 @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages, by inserting
3704 the command @code{\newpage}
3705 @cindex @code{\newpage}
3711 @c why do so difficult?
3712 @c maybe should explain contents of between-system.ly,
3713 @c but not now, we're talking about page breaks here.
3715 @c details, see the example file @file{input/test/between-systems.ly}
3718 @c . {Output scaling}
3719 @node Output scaling
3720 @subsection Output scaling
3735 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3736 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts.
3740 @c . {Output formats}
3741 @node Output formats
3742 @section Output formats
3744 LilyPond can output processed music in different output formats.
3748 * PostScript output::
3750 * ASCIIScript output::
3754 @subsection TeX output
3757 LilyPond will use @TeX{} by default. Even if you want to produce
3758 PostScript output for viewing or printing, you should normally have
3759 LilyPond produce @TeX{} first. The .tex output must be processed by
3760 @TeX{} (@strong{not} La@TeX{}) to generate a .dvi. Then, @file{Dvips}
3761 is used to generate PostScript. Alternatively, @file{ly2dvi} can be
3762 used to generate the .dvi for you.
3766 Titling is not generated unless you use @file{ly2dvi}.
3769 @node PostScript output
3770 @subsection PostScript output
3771 @cindex PostScript output
3772 @cindex direct PostScript output
3774 LilyPond can produce PostScript directly, without going through @TeX{}.
3775 Currently, this is mainly useful if you cannot use TeX, because direct
3776 PostScript output has some problems; see Bugs below.
3779 $ lilypond -fps foo.ly
3780 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3781 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3783 Interpreting music...[3]
3784 Preprocessing elements...
3785 Calculating column positions...
3786 paper output to foo.ps...
3788 $ cat /usr/share/lilypond/pfa/feta20.pfa foo.ps | lpr
3794 Text font selection is broken.
3796 The .ps file does not contain the .pfa font files. To print a .ps
3797 created through direct postscript output, you should prepend the
3798 necessary .pfa files to LilyPond's .ps output, or upload them to the
3799 printer before printing.
3801 The line height calculation is broken, you must set @var{lineheight} in
3802 the paperblock if you have more than one staff in your score, e.g.
3807 % Set line height to 40 staff spaces
3813 @subsection Scheme output
3814 @cindex Scheme output
3816 In the typesetting stage, LilyPond builds a page description, which is
3817 then written to disk in postscript, @TeX{} or ASCII art. Before it is
3818 written, the page description is represented as Scheme expressions. You
3819 can also dump these Scheme expressions to a file, which may be
3820 convenient for debugging output routines. This is done with the Scheme
3824 $ lilypond -fscm foo.ly
3825 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3826 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3828 Interpreting music...[3]
3829 Preprocessing elements...
3830 Calculating column positions...
3831 paper output to foo.scm...
3834 ;;; Usage: guile -s x.scm > x.tex
3835 (primitive-load-path 'standalone.scm)
3839 $ guile -s foo.scm > foo.tex
3843 @node ASCIIScript output
3844 @subsection ASCIIScript output
3845 @cindex ASCIIScript output
3846 @cindex ascii script
3849 LilyPond can output ASCII Art. This is a two step process, LilyPond
3850 produces an ASCII description file, dubbed ASCIIScript (extension
3851 @file{.as}). ASCIIScript has a small and simple command set that
3852 includes font selection, character and string printing and line drawing
3853 commands. The program @file{as2text} is used to translate an .as file
3856 To produce ASCII Art, you must include an ASCII Art paper definition
3857 file in your .ly, one of:
3859 \include "paper-as5.ly"
3860 \include "paper-as9.ly"
3863 Here's an example use for ASCII Art output (the example file
3864 @file{as-email.ly} is included in the LilyPond distribution), the staff
3865 symbol has been made invisible:
3868 $ lilypond -fas as-email.ly
3869 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3870 Now processing: `as-email.ly'
3872 Interpreting music...[3]
3873 Preprocessing elements...
3874 Calculating column positions... [2]
3875 paper output to as-email.as...
3877 $ as2text as-email.as 2>/dev/null
3879 |/ |##|##| | | | | |
3880 /| | | | | |\ |\ |\ |\ |\ |
3881 / |_ 3 | | | | 5 | )| )| )| )| )|
3882 | /| \ 8 * * * | 8 * * * * * |
3892 The ASCII Art fonts are far from complete and not very well designed.
3893 It's easy to change the glyphs, though; if you think you can do better,
3894 have a look at @file{mf/*.af}.
3896 Lots of resizable symbols such as slurs, ties and tuplets are missing.
3898 The poor looks of most ASCII Art output and its limited general
3899 usefulness gives ASCII Art output a low priority; it may be
3900 dropped in future versions.
3907 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
3908 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, etc., but it
3909 is good enough for proof-hearing the music you have entered. Ties,
3910 dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
3912 Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume
3913 levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available
3914 MIDI volume range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary
3915 linearly between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
3916 overriding the @code{absolute-volume-alist} defined in
3917 @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3919 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
3920 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
3921 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. You can add
3922 instruments and ranges or change the default settings by overriding the
3923 @code{instrument-equalizer-alist} defined in @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3925 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
3930 It is currently not possible to use the percussion channel (generally
3931 channel 10 of a MIDI file).
3935 * MIDI instrument names::
3940 @subsection MIDI block
3944 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
3945 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
3949 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
3950 @item context definitions
3953 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
3957 @cindex context definition
3959 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
3960 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
3961 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer.ly}.
3964 @node MIDI instrument names
3965 @subsection MIDI instrument names
3967 @cindex instrument names
3968 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3969 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
3971 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3972 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
3973 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
3974 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
3978 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
3979 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by
3989 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
3992 @section Music entry
4000 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce errors. This
4001 section deals with tricks and features that help you enter music, and
4002 find and correct mistakes.
4006 @subsection Relative
4008 @cindex relative octave specification
4010 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
4011 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
4012 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
4013 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
4015 @cindex @code{\relative}
4017 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
4020 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
4021 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
4022 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
4023 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
4024 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
4027 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
4028 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
4029 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
4030 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
4032 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
4033 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
4039 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
4040 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4042 c g c f, c' a, e'' }
4045 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
4046 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
4047 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
4050 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4057 @cindex @code{\notes}
4059 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
4060 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
4061 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
4064 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
4065 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
4066 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
4067 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
4072 @subsection Bar check
4076 @cindex @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}
4080 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
4081 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
4082 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
4083 @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
4084 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
4086 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}:
4088 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
4093 @cindex skipTypesetting
4095 Failed bar checks are most often caused by entering incorrect
4096 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
4097 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the score
4098 by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To speed up
4099 this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting} (See @ref{Skipping
4100 corrected music})). Bar
4103 @c . {Point and click}
4104 @node Point and click
4105 @subsection Point and click
4107 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
4108 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
4109 error in the sheet music.
4111 To use it, you need the following software
4113 @unnumberedsubsec Installation
4117 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,plain
4118 Xdvi} version 22.36 or newer.
4120 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is a
4121 different and less well maintained program. To find out which xdvi you
4122 are running, try @code{xdvi --version} or @code{xdvi.bin --version}.
4126 Xdvi must be configured to find the TeX fonts and music
4127 fonts. Refer to the Xdvi documentation for more information.
4130 @unnumberedsubsec Using it
4132 Add one of these lines to the top of your .ly file. The first one is for
4133 line location only. The second one is more convenient, but requires
4134 patching @code{emacsclient} and @code{server.el}.
4137 #(set! point-and-click line-location)
4140 In the emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}), add the following
4145 Make sure that the environment variable @code{XEDITOR} is set
4148 emacsclient --no-wait +%l %f
4150 The second one, that also specifies the column, only works if you have
4151 patched your emacsclient and server, and have compiled your @code{.ly}
4152 file using the @code{line-column-location} setting.
4154 When viewing, control-mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
4155 spot in the @file{.ly} file. Control-mousebutton 2 will show all
4159 @unnumberedsubsec Column location
4161 If you want emacs to jump to the exact spot (and not just the line) on a
4162 click, you must enable column positioning. To do so, you need to patch
4163 emacsclient. Apply @file{emacsclient.patch} (included with the source
4164 package) to @file{emacsclient.c} and @file{server.el} from the emacs
4165 source code. Recompile and stick the recompiled emacsclient into a bin
4166 directory, and put @file{server.el} into a elisp directory
4167 (e.g. @file{~/usr/share/emacs/}). Add the following to your @file{.emacs}
4168 init file, before invoking server-start.
4171 (setq load-path (cons "~/usr/share/emacs" load-path))
4174 Set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{emacsclient --no-wait +%l:%c %f}
4176 At the top of the @code{ly} file, replace the @code{set!} line with the
4179 #(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
4182 One final hint: if you correct large files with point-and-click, then
4183 start correcting at the end of the file. When you start at the top, and
4184 insert one line, all subsequent locations will be off by a line.
4189 When you convert the @TeX{} file to PostScript using @code{dvips}, it
4190 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. Those complaints
4191 are harmless, and can be ignored.
4193 @node Skipping corrected music
4194 @section Skipping corrected music
4196 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
4197 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
4198 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
4199 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
4202 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4203 \relative c'' { c8 d
4204 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
4206 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
4211 @node Interpretation context
4212 @section Interpretation context
4215 * Creating contexts::
4216 * Default contexts::
4217 * Context properties::
4218 * Engravers and performers::
4219 * Changing context definitions::
4220 * Defining new contexts::
4224 Interpretation contexts are objects that only exist during a run of
4225 LilyPond. During the interpretation phase of LilyPond (when it prints
4226 "interpreting music"), the music expression in a @code{\score} block is
4227 interpreted in time order. This is the same order that humans hear and
4230 During this interpretation, the interpretation context holds the
4231 state for the current point within the music. It contains information
4235 @item What notes are playing at this point?
4236 @item What symbols will be printed at this point?
4237 @item What is the current key signature, time signature, point within
4241 Contexts are grouped hierarchically: A @internalsref{Voice} context is
4242 contained in a @internalsref{Staff} context (because a staff can contain
4243 multiple voices at any point), a @internalsref{Staff} context is contained in
4244 @internalsref{Score}, @internalsref{StaffGroup}, or @internalsref{ChoirStaff} context.
4246 Contexts associated with sheet music output are called @emph{notation
4247 contexts}, those for sound output are called @emph{performance
4248 contexts}. The default definitions of the standard notation and
4249 performance contexts can be found in @file{ly/engraver.ly} and
4250 @file{ly/performer.ly}, respectively.
4253 @node Creating contexts
4254 @subsection Creating contexts
4256 @cindex @code{\context}
4257 @cindex context selection
4259 Contexts for a music expression can be selected manually, using the
4260 following music expression.
4263 \context @var{contexttype} [= @var{contextname}] @var{musicexpr}
4266 This instructs lilypond to interpret @var{musicexpr} within the context
4267 of type @var{contexttype} and with name @var{contextname}. If this
4268 context does not exist, it will be created.
4270 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4272 \notes \relative c'' {
4273 c4 <d4 \context Staff = "another" e4> f
4279 In this example, the @code{c} and @code{d} are printed on the
4280 default staff. For the @code{e}, a context Staff called
4281 @code{another} is specified; since that does not exist, a new
4282 context is created. Within @code{another}, a (default) Voice context
4283 is created for the @code{e4}. When all music referring to a
4284 context is finished, the context is ended as well. So after the
4285 third quarter, @code{another} is removed.
4289 @node Default contexts
4290 @subsection Default contexts
4292 Most music expressions don't need an explicit @code{\context}
4293 declaration: they inherit the
4294 notation context from their parent. Each note is a music expression, and
4295 as you can see in the following example, only the sequential music
4296 enclosing the three notes has an explicit context.
4298 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4299 \score { \notes \context Voice = goUp { c'4 d' e' } }
4302 There are some quirks that you must keep in mind when dealing with
4305 First, every top level music is interpreted by the Score context, in other
4306 words, you may think of @code{\score} working like
4309 \context Score @var{music}
4313 Second, contexts are created automatically to be able to interpret the
4314 music expressions. Consider the following example.
4316 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4317 \score { \context Score \notes { c'4 ( d' )e' } }
4320 The sequential music is interpreted by the Score context initially
4321 (notice that the @code{\context} specification is redundant), but when a
4322 note is encountered, contexts are setup to accept that note. In this
4323 case, a Thread, Voice and Staff are created. The rest of the sequential
4324 music is also interpreted with the same Thread, Voice and Staff context,
4325 putting the notes on the same staff, in the same voice.
4327 This is a convenient mechanism, but do not expect opening chords to work
4328 without @code{\context}. For every note, a separate staff is
4331 @cindex explicit context
4332 @cindex starting with chords
4333 @cindex chords, starting with
4335 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4336 \score { \notes <c'4 es'> }
4339 Of course, if the chord is preceded by a normal note in sequential
4340 music, the chord will be interpreted by the Thread of the preceding
4342 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4343 \score { \notes { c'4 <c'4 es'> } }
4348 @node Context properties
4349 @subsection Context properties
4351 Notation contexts have properties. These properties are from
4352 the @file{.ly} file using the following expression:
4353 @cindex @code{\property}
4355 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} = @var{value}
4358 Sets the @var{propname} property of the context @var{contextname} to the
4359 specified Scheme expression @var{value}. All @var{propname} and
4360 @var{contextname} are strings, which are typically unquoted.
4362 Properties that are set in one context are inherited by all of the
4363 contained contexts. This means that a property valid for the
4364 @internalsref{Voice} context can be set in the @internalsref{Score} context (for
4365 example) and thus take effect in all @internalsref{Voice} contexts.
4367 Properties can be unset using the following expression:
4369 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} \unset
4372 @cindex properties, unsetting
4373 @cindex @code{\unset}
4375 This removes the definition of @var{propname} in @var{contextname}. If
4376 @var{propname} was not defined in @var{contextname} (but was inherited
4377 from a higher context), then this has no effect.
4382 The syntax of @code{\unset} is asymmetric: @code{\property \unset} is not
4383 the inverse of @code{\property \set}.
4385 @node Engravers and performers
4386 @subsection Engravers and performers
4390 Basic building blocks of translation are called engravers; they are
4391 special C++ classes.
4395 @c . {Context definitions}
4396 @node Changing context definitions
4397 @subsection Changing context definitions
4399 @cindex context definition
4400 @cindex translator definition
4402 The most common way to define a context is by extending an existing
4403 context. You can change an existing context from the paper block, by
4404 first initializing a translator with an existing context identifier:
4408 @var{context-identifier}
4411 Then you can add and remove engravers using the following syntax:
4413 \remove @var{engravername}
4414 \consists @var{engravername}
4418 Here @var{engravername} is a string, the name of an engraver in the
4422 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4426 \translator { \StaffContext
4427 \remove Clef_engraver
4433 You can also set properties in a translator definition. The syntax is as
4436 @var{propname} = @var{value}
4437 @var{propname} \set @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4438 @var{propname} \override @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4439 @var{propname} \revert @var{grob-propname}
4441 @var{propname} is a string, @var{grob-propname} a symbol, @var{value}
4442 and @code{pvalue} are Scheme expressions. These type of property
4443 assignments happen before interpretation starts, so a @code{\property}
4444 command will override any predefined settings.
4447 To simplify editing translators, all standard contexts have standard
4448 identifiers called @var{name}@code{Context}, e.g. @code{StaffContext},
4449 @code{VoiceContext}, see @file{ly/engraver.ly}.
4451 @node Defining new contexts
4452 @subsection Defining new contexts
4454 If you want to build a context from scratch, you must also supply the
4455 following extra information:
4457 @item A name, specified by @code{\name @var{contextname}}.
4459 @item A cooperation module. This is specified by @code{\type
4466 \type "Engraver_group_engraver"
4469 \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4470 \consists "Note_head_engraver"
4471 \consistsend "Axis_group_engraver"
4475 The argument of @code{\type} is the name for a special engraver that
4476 handles cooperation between simple engravers such as
4477 @code{Note_head_engraver} and @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. Alternatives
4478 for this engraver are the following:
4480 @cindex @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4481 @item @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4482 The standard cooperation engraver.
4484 @cindex @code{Score_engraver}
4486 @item @code{Score_engraver}
4487 This is cooperation module that should be in the top level context,
4488 and only the top level context.
4490 @cindex @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4492 @item @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4493 This is a special cooperation module (resembling
4494 @code{Score_engraver}) that is used to create an embedded
4501 @item @code{\alias} @var{alternate-name}
4502 This specifies a different name. In the above example,
4503 @code{\property Staff.X = Y} will also work on @code{SimpleStaff}s
4505 @item @code{\consistsend} @var{engravername}
4506 Analogous to @code{\consists}, but makes sure that
4507 @var{engravername} is always added to the end of the list of
4510 Some engraver types need to be at the end of the list; this
4511 insures they stay there even if a user adds or removes engravers.
4512 End-users generally don't need this command.
4514 @item @code{\accepts} @var{contextname}
4515 Add @var{contextname} to the list of contexts this context can
4516 contain in the context hierarchy. The first listed context is the
4517 context to create by default.
4519 @item @code{\denies}. The opposite of @code{\accepts}. Added for
4520 completeness, but is never used in practice.
4523 @item @code{\name} @var{contextname}
4524 This sets the type name of the context, e.g. @internalsref{Staff},
4525 @internalsref{Voice}. If the name is not specified, the translator won't do
4529 In the @code{\paper} block, it is also possible to define translator
4530 identifiers. Like other block identifiers, the identifier can only
4531 be used as the very first item of a translator. In order to define
4532 such an identifier outside of @code{\score}, you must do
4537 foo = \translator @{ @dots{} @}
4544 \translator @{ \foo @dots{} @}
4552 @cindex paper types, engravers, and pre-defined translators
4559 @c . {Syntactic details}
4560 @node Syntactic details
4561 @section Syntactic details
4562 @cindex Syntactic details
4564 This section describes details that were too boring to be put elsewhere.
4569 * Music expressions::
4570 * Manipulating music expressions::
4578 @subsection Top level
4581 This section describes what you may enter at top level.
4585 @subsubsection Score
4588 @cindex score definition
4590 The output is generated combining a music expression with an output
4591 definition. A score block has the following syntax:
4594 \score @{ @var{musicexpr} @var{outputdefs} @}
4597 @var{outputdefs} are zero or more output definitions. If none is
4598 supplied, the default @code{\paper} block will be added.
4602 @c . {Default output}
4603 @subsubsection Default output
4605 Default values for the @code{\paper} and @code{\midi} block are set by
4606 entering such a block at the top level.
4609 @subsubsection Header
4611 @cindex @code{\header}
4614 A header describes bibliographic information of the file's contents. It
4615 can also appear in a @code{\score} block. Tools like @code{ly2dvi} can
4616 use this information for generating titles. Key values that are used by
4617 @code{ly2dvi} are: title, subtitle, composer, opus, poet, instrument,
4618 meter, arranger, piece and tagline.
4620 @cindex @code{ly2dvi}
4624 \header @{ @var{key1} = @var{val1}
4625 @var{key2} = @var{val2} @dots{} @}
4628 It is customary to put the @code{\header} at the top of the file.
4630 @subsubsection Default output
4632 A @code{\midi} or @code{\paper} block at top level sets the default
4633 paper block for all scores that lack an explicit paper block.
4637 @subsection Identifiers
4641 What has this section got to do with identifiers?
4642 It seems more appropriate in the introduction to Chapter 4,
4648 All of the information in a LilyPond input file, is internally
4649 represented as a Scheme value. In addition to normal Scheme data types
4650 (such as pair, number, boolean, etc.), LilyPond has a number of
4651 specialized data types,
4658 @item Translator_def
4662 @item Music_output_def
4663 @item Moment (rational number)
4666 LilyPond also includes some transient object types. Objects of these
4667 types are built during a LilyPond run, and do not `exist' per se within
4668 your input file. These objects are created as a result of your input
4669 file, so you can include commands in the input to manipulate them,
4670 during a lilypond run.
4673 @item Grob: short for Graphical object. See @ref{Grobs}.
4674 @item Molecule: device-independent page output object,
4675 including dimensions. Produced by some Grob functions
4677 @item Translator: object that produces audio objects or Grobs. This is
4678 not yet user accessible.
4679 @item Font_metric: object representing a font. (See @ref{Font metrics})
4684 @node Music expressions
4685 @subsection Music expressions
4687 @cindex music expressions
4689 Music in LilyPond is entered as a music expression. Notes, rests, lyric
4690 syllables are music expressions, and you can combine music expressions
4691 to form new ones, for example by enclosing a list of expressions in
4692 @code{\sequential @{ @}} or @code{< >}. In the following example, a
4693 compound expression is formed out of the quarter note @code{c} and a
4694 quarter note @code{d}:
4697 \sequential @{ c4 d4 @}
4700 @cindex Sequential music
4701 @cindex @code{\sequential}
4702 @cindex sequential music
4705 @cindex Simultaneous music
4706 @cindex @code{\simultaneous}
4708 The two basic compound music expressions are simultaneous and
4712 \sequential @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4713 \simultaneous @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4715 For both, there is a shorthand:
4717 @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4721 @code{<} @var{musicexprlist} @code{>}
4723 for simultaneous music.
4724 In principle, the way in which you nest sequential and simultaneous to
4725 produce music is not relevant. In the following example, three chords
4726 are expressed in two different ways:
4728 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4729 \notes \context Voice {
4730 <a c'> <b d' > <c' e'>
4731 < { a b c' } { c' d' e' } >
4736 Other compound music expressions include
4739 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{expr}
4740 \apply @var{func} @var{expr}
4741 \context @var{type} = @var{id} @var{expr}
4742 \times @var{fraction} @var{expr}
4746 @c . {Manipulating music expressions}
4747 @node Manipulating music expressions
4748 @subsection Manipulating music expressions
4750 The @code{\apply} mechanism gives you access to the internal
4751 representation of music. You can write Scheme-functions that operate
4752 directly on it. The syntax is
4754 \apply #@var{func} @var{music}
4756 This means that @var{func} is applied to @var{music}. The function
4757 @var{func} should return a music expression.
4759 This example replaces the text string of a script. It also shows a dump
4760 of the music it processes, which is useful if you want to know more
4761 about how music is stored.
4763 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4764 #(define (testfunc x)
4765 (if (equal? (ly-get-mus-property x 'text) "foo")
4766 (ly-set-mus-property x 'text "bar"))
4768 (ly-set-mus-property x 'elements
4769 (map testfunc (ly-get-mus-property x 'elements)))
4774 \apply #testfunc { c'4_"foo" }
4778 For more information on what is possible, see the automatically
4779 generated documentation.
4782 Directly accessing internal representations is dangerous: the
4783 implementation is subject to changes, so you should avoid this feature
4786 A final example is a function that reverses a piece of music in time:
4788 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4789 #(define (reverse-music music)
4790 (let* ((elements (ly-get-mus-property music 'elements))
4791 (reversed (reverse elements))
4792 (span-dir (ly-get-mus-property music 'span-direction)))
4793 (ly-set-mus-property music 'elements reversed)
4795 (ly-set-mus-property music 'span-direction (- span-dir)))
4796 (map reverse-music reversed)
4799 music = \notes { c'4 d'4( e'4 f'4 }
4801 \score { \context Voice {
4803 \apply #reverse-music \music
4808 More examples are given in the distributed example files in
4811 @c . {Span requests}
4817 @subsubsection Span requests
4818 @cindex Span requests
4820 Notational constructs that start and end on different notes can be
4821 entered using span requests. The syntax is as follows:
4825 \spanrequest @var{startstop} @var{type}
4829 @cindex @code{\start}
4830 @cindex @code{\stop}
4832 This defines a spanning request. The @var{startstop} parameter is either
4833 -1 (@code{\start}) or 1 (@code{\stop}) and @var{type} is a string that
4834 describes what should be started. Much of the syntactic sugar is a
4835 shorthand for @code{\spanrequest}, for example,
4837 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4838 c'4-\spanrequest \start "slur"
4839 c'4-\spanrequest \stop "slur"
4842 Among the supported types are @code{crescendo}, @code{decrescendo},
4843 @code{beam}, @code{slur}. This is an internal command. Users are
4844 encouraged to use the shorthands which are defined in the initialization
4845 file @file{spanners.ly}.
4850 @subsection Assignments
4853 Identifiers allow objects to be assigned to names during the parse
4854 stage. To assign an identifier, you use @var{name}@code{=}@var{value}
4855 and to refer to an identifier, you precede its name with a backslash:
4856 `@code{\}@var{name}'. @var{value} is any valid Scheme value or any of
4857 the input-types listed above. Identifier assignments can appear at top
4858 level in the LilyPond file, but also in @code{\paper} blocks.
4860 An identifier can be created with any string for its name, but you will
4861 only be able to refer to identifiers whose names begin with a letter,
4862 being entirely alphabetical. It is impossible to refer to an identifier
4863 whose name is the same as the name of a keyword.
4865 The right hand side of an identifier assignment is parsed completely
4866 before the assignment is done, so it is allowed to redefine an
4867 identifier in terms of its old value, e.g.
4873 When an identifier is referenced, the information it points to is
4874 copied. For this reason, an identifier reference must always be the
4875 first item in a block.
4879 \paperIdent % wrong and invalid
4883 \paperIdent % correct
4888 @c . {Lexical modes}
4890 @subsection Lexical modes
4891 @cindex Lexical modes
4894 @cindex @code{\notes}
4895 @cindex @code{\chords}
4896 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
4898 To simplify entering notes, lyrics, and chords, LilyPond has three
4899 special input modes in addition to the default mode: note, lyrics and
4900 chords mode. These input modes change the way that normal, unquoted
4901 words are interpreted: for example, the word @code{cis} may be
4902 interpreted as a C-sharp, as a lyric syllable `cis' or as a C-sharp
4903 major triad respectively.
4905 A mode switch is entered as a compound music expression
4907 @code{\notes} @var{musicexpr}
4908 @code{\chords} @var{musicexpr}
4909 @code{\lyrics} @var{musicexpr}.
4912 In each of these cases, these expressions do not add anything to the
4913 meaning of their arguments. They just instruct the parser in what mode
4914 to parse their arguments. The modes are treated in more detail in
4915 @ref{Lyrics} and @ref{Chords}.
4917 Different input modes may be nested.
4921 @subsection Ambiguities
4926 The grammar contains a number of ambiguities. We hope to resolve them at
4930 @item The assignment
4935 is interpreted as the string identifier assignment. However,
4936 it can also be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
4937 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo}
4938 containing the syllable `bar'.
4940 @item If you do a nested repeat like
4952 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the
4953 @code{\alternative} belongs. This is the classic if-then-else
4954 dilemma. It may be solved by using braces.
4956 @item The parser is not sophisticated enough to distinguish at the
4958 @code{c4*2 / 3 } and @code{c4*2 / g} (in chord mode).
4965 @c . {Lexical details}
4966 @node Lexical details
4967 @section Lexical details
4969 Even more boring details, now on lexical side of the input parser.
4980 * Version information::
4985 @subsection Comments
4988 @cindex block comment
4989 @cindex line comment
4993 A one line comment is introduced by a @code{%} character.
4994 Block comments are started by @code{%@{} and ended by @code{%@}}.
4995 They cannot be nested.
4998 @subsection Direct Scheme
5002 @cindex Scheme, in-line code
5005 LilyPond contains a Scheme interpreter (the GUILE library) for
5006 internal use. In some places, Scheme expressions also form valid syntax:
5007 wherever it is allowed,
5011 evaluates the specified Scheme code. Example:
5013 \property Staff.TestObject \override #'foobar = #(+ 1 2)
5015 @code{\override} expects two Scheme expressions, so there are two Scheme
5016 expressions. The first one is a symbol (@code{foobar}), the second one
5017 an integer (namely, 3).
5019 In-line scheme may be used at the top level. In this case the result is
5022 Scheme is a full-blown programming language, and a full discussion is
5023 outside the scope of this document. Interested readers are referred to
5024 the website @uref{http://www.schemers.org/} for more information on
5029 @subsection Keywords
5033 Keywords start with a backslash, followed by a number of lower case
5034 alphabetic characters. These are all the keywords.
5037 apply arpeggio autochange spanrequest commandspanrequest
5038 simultaneous sequential accepts alternative bar breathe
5039 char chordmodifiers chords clef cm consists consistsend
5040 context denies duration dynamicscript elementdescriptions
5041 font grace header in lyrics key mark pitch
5042 time times midi mm name pitchnames notes outputproperty
5043 override set revert partial paper penalty property pt
5044 relative remove repeat addlyrics partcombine score
5045 script stylesheet skip textscript tempo translator
5050 @subsection Integers
5058 Formed from an optional minus sign followed by digits. Arithmetic
5059 operations cannot be done with integers, and integers cannot be mixed
5064 @cindex real numbers
5070 Formed from an optional minus sign and a sequence of digits followed
5071 by a @emph{required} decimal point and an optional exponent such as
5072 @code{-1.2e3}. Reals can be built up using the usual operations:
5073 `@code{+}', `@code{-}', `@code{*}', and
5074 `@code{/}', with parentheses for grouping.
5082 A real constant can be followed by one of the dimension keywords:
5083 @code{\mm} @code{\pt}, @code{\in}, or @code{\cm}, for millimeters,
5084 points, inches and centimeters, respectively. This converts the number
5085 a number that is the internal representation of that dimension.
5093 Begins and ends with the @code{"} character. To include a @code{"}
5094 character in a string write @code{\"}. Various other backslash
5095 sequences have special interpretations as in the C language. A string
5096 that contains no spaces can be written without the quotes. Strings can
5097 be concatenated with the @code{+} operator.
5101 @subsection Main input
5104 @cindex @code{\maininput}
5106 The @code{\maininput} command is used in init files to signal that the
5107 user file must be read. This command cannot be used in a user file.
5109 @node File inclusion
5110 @subsection File inclusion
5111 @cindex @code{\include}
5113 \include @var{filename}
5116 Include @var{filename}. The argument @var{filename} may be a quoted string (an
5117 unquoted string will not work here!) or a string identifier. The full
5118 filename including the @file{.ly} extension must be given,
5121 @node Version information
5122 @subsection Version information
5123 @cindex @code{\version}
5125 \version @var{string}
5128 Specify the version of LilyPond that a file was written for. The
5129 argument is a version string in quotes, for example @code{"1.2.0"}.
5130 This is used to detect invalid input, and to aid
5131 @code{convert-ly} a tool that automatically upgrades input files. See
5132 See @ref{convert-ly} for more information on @code{convert-ly}.
5140 @c broken with emacs-21
5141 @c {Local emac s vars}
5142 @c Local varia bles:
5144 @c minor-mod e: font-lock
5145 @c minor-mo de: outline
5146 @c outline -layout: (-1 : 0)
5147 @c outlin e-use-mode-specific-leader: "@c \."
5148 @c outli ne-primary-bullet: "{"
5149 @c outli ne-stylish-prefixes: nil
5150 @c outli ne-override-protect: t