4 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
5 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
6 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
8 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
17 @macro internalsref{NAME}
18 @uref{../lilypond-internals/\NAME\.html,\NAME\}
21 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
22 See @internalsref{\NAME\}
28 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
30 @macro internalsref{NAME}
37 @c .{Reference Manual}
39 @node Reference Manual
40 @chapter Reference Manual
43 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
46 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
47 revision of this document was made for LilyPond 1.4.1. It supposes a
48 passing familiarity with how LilyPond input works. New users are
49 encouraged to study the tutorial first.
51 The reference manual is ordered according to different tasks.
52 More details on the property setting mechanisms and context handling is
53 provided in @ref{Tuning output} and @ref{Interpretation context}. The
54 syntactical details are described at the end of the manual.
76 * Skipping corrected music::
77 * Interpretation context::
87 The purpose of LilyPond is explained informally by the term `music
88 typesetter'. This is not a fully correct name: not only does the
89 program print musical symbols, it also makes aesthetic decisions.
90 Symbols and their placements are @emph{generated} from a high-level
91 musical description. In other words, LilyPond would be best described
92 by `music compiler' or `music to notation compiler'.
94 LilyPond is linked to GUILE, GNU's Scheme library for extension
95 programming. The Scheme library provides the glue that holds together
96 the low-level routines and separate modules which are written in C++.
98 When lilypond is run to typeset sheet music, the following happens:
100 @item GUILE Initialization: various scheme files are read
101 @item parsing: first standard @code{ly} initialization files are read, and
102 then the user @file{ly} file is read.
103 @item interpretation: the music in the file is processed ``in playing
104 order'', i.e. the order that you use to read sheet music, or the
105 order in which notes are played. The result of this step is a typesetting
109 The typesetting specification is solved: positions and formatting is
112 @item the visible results ("virtual ink") are written to the output file.
115 During these stages different types of data play the the main role:
116 during parsing, @strong{Music} objects are created. During the
117 interpretation, @strong{contexts} are constructed, and with these contexts
118 a network of @strong{graphical objects} (``grobs'') is created. These
119 grobs contain unknown variables, and the network forms a set of
120 equations. After solving the equations and filling in these variables,
121 the printed output (in the form of @strong{molecules}) is written to an
124 These threemanship of tasks (parsing, translating, typesetting) and
125 data-structures (music, context, graphical objects) permeates the entire
126 design of the program.
128 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
134 The most basic forms of music are notes. We discuss how you enter them
135 here. Notes on their own don't form valid input, but for the sake of
136 brevity we omit obligatory lint such as @code{\score} blocks and
137 @code{\paper} declarations.
148 * Defining pitch names::
149 * Easy Notation note heads ::
156 A note specification has the form
159 @var{pitch}[!][?][@var{duration}]
162 The alteration refers to what note is heard, not to whether an
163 accidental is printed. This is done depending on the key and context.
164 A reminder accidental
165 @cindex reminder accidental
167 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
168 cautionary accidental,
169 @cindex cautionary accidental
170 @cindex parenthesized accidental
171 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
172 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
174 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
175 cis' d' e' cis' c'? d' e' c'!
178 The grob for a note head is called @internalsref{NoteHead}.
186 @cindex Note specification
188 @cindex entering notes
190 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
192 @cindex @code{\pitch}
194 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
197 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object, see @ref{Pitch data type}.
199 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
200 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
201 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
202 from @code{c} to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
203 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
205 @cindex note names, Dutch
207 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
208 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
209 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
210 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
211 both forms are accepted.
213 LilyPond has predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
214 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
215 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
216 the names they define are:
219 Note Names sharp flat
220 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
221 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
222 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
223 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
224 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
225 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
226 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
234 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
235 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
236 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
237 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
239 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
240 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
248 A rest is entered like a note, with note name `@code{r}':
250 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
254 The grob is @internalsref{Rest}. Whole bar rests centered in the bar are
255 specified using @code{R}, see @ref{Multi measure rests}.
263 @cindex Invisible rest
266 An invisible rest, or skip, can be entered like a note with note name
269 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
273 Actually, this is a shorthand for the @code{\skip} command, and it is
274 only available in Note mode and Chord mode.
276 @c FIXME: in lyrics mode, we have " " and _
278 In Lyrics mode, you can use `@code{" "}' and `@code{_}':
279 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
281 \context Lyrics \lyrics { lah2 di4 " " dah2 _4 di }
282 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a4 a a2 a4 a }
286 The unabbreviated `@code{\skip} @var{duration}' also works outside of
289 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
292 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
293 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
298 Note that the skip does not produce any output, not even transparent output.
303 @subsection Durations
307 @cindex @code{\duration}
309 The syntax for a verbose duration specification is
311 \duration @var{scmduration}
313 Here, @var{scmduration} is a Scheme object of type @code{Duration}. See
314 @ref{Duration} for more information.
317 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
318 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
319 longer than a whole you must use identifiers.
323 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
325 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
331 \notes \relative c'' {
333 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
335 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
340 \remove "Clef_engraver"
341 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
342 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
343 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
349 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
350 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
351 NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
352 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
353 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
355 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
356 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
360 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
361 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
362 duration can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
366 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
372 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M} by
373 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
374 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
386 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. When used
387 with chords, it connects all the note heads whose pitches match.
388 Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'. If you try to tie
389 together chords which have no common pitches then no ties will be
392 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
393 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
396 If you dislike the amount of ties created for a chord, you set
397 @code{Voice.sparseTies} to true, resulting in a smaller number of
399 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
400 \property Voice.sparseTies = ##t
401 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
404 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
405 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
406 exactly the same concept.
408 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
409 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
412 The name of the tie grob is @internalsref{Tie}, and it is created in the
413 @internalsref{Voice} context.
417 At present, the tie is implemented as a separate thing, temporally
418 located in between the notes. There is also no way to convert
419 between tied notes, dotted notes and plain notes.
421 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a chord is not supported in a
422 simple way. It can be achieved by moving the tie-engraver into the Thread
423 context and turning on and off ties per Thread.
431 @cindex @code{\times}
433 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all duration
436 @cindex @code{\times}
438 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
441 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
442 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
443 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
444 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
445 their written length:
447 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
448 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
451 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
452 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
453 @code{\times} only once, thus saving typing work.
455 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
456 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
457 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
460 The format of the number is determined by the property
461 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
462 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
463 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
466 The typesetting of brackets and numbers is controlled by the properties
467 @code{tuplet-bracket-visibility} and @code{tuplet-number-visibility}.
469 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
470 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##t
471 \times 2/3{c'8 d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
472 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = #'if-no-beam
473 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
474 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##f
475 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
476 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = ##f
477 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
478 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = #'if-no-beam
479 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
482 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
483 @cindex tuplet formatting
485 Tuplet brackets are printed as @internalsref{TupletBracket} grobs, most
486 often in the @internalsref{Voice} context.
488 @c . {Defining pitch names}
489 @node Defining pitch names
490 @subsection Defining pitch names
492 @cindex defining pitch names
493 @cindex pitch names, defining
495 Note names and chord modifiers can be customized for nationalities. The
496 syntax is as follows.
498 @cindex @code{\pitchnames}
499 @cindex @code{\chordmodifiers}
501 \pitchnames @var{scheme-alist}
502 \chordmodifiers @var{scheme-alist}
505 See @file{ly/nederlands.ly} and @file{ly/chord-modifiers.ly} for
506 specific examples on how to do this.
509 @node Easy Notation note heads
510 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
512 @cindex easy notation
515 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
516 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
517 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
519 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
520 \include "paper23.ly"
522 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
523 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
527 Note that @internalsref{EasyNotation} overrides a @internalsref{Score} context. You
528 probably will want to print it with magnification to make it more
529 readable, see @ref{Output scaling}.
535 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through the
536 letters. Printing the postscript file obtained either by using dvips or
537 the @code{-f ps} option of lilypond produces the correct result.
542 @section Staff notation
544 @cindex Staff notation
556 @subsection Key signature
561 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
564 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
567 @cindex @code{\minor}
568 @cindex @code{\major}
569 @cindex @code{\minor}
570 @cindex @code{\ionian}
571 @cindex @code{\locrian}
572 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
573 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
574 @cindex @code{\lydian}
575 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
576 @cindex @code{\dorian}
578 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
579 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
580 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
581 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
582 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
584 This command sets the context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
585 Non-standard key signatures can be specified by setting this property
588 The printed signature is a @internalsref{KeySignature} grob, typically
589 created in @internalsref{Staff} context.
591 @cindex @code{keySignature}
598 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command.
606 \property Staff.clefGlyph = @var{glyph associated with clefname}
607 \property Staff.clefPosition = @var{clef Y-position for clefname}
608 \property Staff.centralCPosition = @var{position for central C}
609 \property Staff.clefOctavation = @var{extra transposition of clefname}
613 Any change in these properties creates a clef (A @internalsref{Clef} grob).
615 Supported clef-names include
617 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
619 @item treble, violin, G, G2
628 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
643 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
644 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. Note that you have to
645 enclose @var{clefname} in quotes if you use underscores or digits in the
651 Supported associated glyphs (for @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) are:
660 @item clefs-vaticana_do
661 Editio Vaticana style do clef
662 @item clefs-vaticana_fa
663 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
664 @item clefs-medicaea_do
665 Editio Medicaea style do clef
666 @item clefs-medicaea_fa
667 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
668 @item clefs-mensural1_c
669 modern style mensural C clef
670 @item clefs-mensural2_c
671 historic style small mensural C clef
672 @item clefs-mensural3_c
673 historic style big mensural C clef
674 @item clefs-mensural1_f
675 historic style traditional mensural F clef
676 @item clefs-mensural2_f
677 historic style new mensural F clef
678 @item clefs-mensural_g
679 historic style mensural G clef
680 @item clefs-hufnagel_do
681 historic style hufnagel do clef
682 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa
683 historic style hufnagel fa clef
684 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa
685 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
686 @item clefs-percussion
687 modern style percussion clef
690 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
691 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
692 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
695 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
696 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
697 @cindex hufnagel clefs
700 @c . {Time signature}
702 @subsection Time signature
703 @cindex Time signature
707 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
710 \time @var{n}@code{/}@var{d}
712 Internally, this is a shortcut for doing
714 \property Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(@var{n} . @var{d})
715 \property Score.beatLength = #(make-moment 1 @var{d})
716 \property Score.measureLength = #(make-moment @var{n} @var{d})
719 These properties @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines
720 should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be
723 Changing the value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a
724 fraction to be printed. This grob is @internalsref{TimeSignature}.
726 The actual symbol that's printed can be customized with the style
728 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, singleline]
730 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
732 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'()
734 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
738 There are many more options for the layout of this grob. They are
739 selected through the @code{style} grob property.
741 @c FIXME: this isn't documented except in example?
743 @file{input/test/time.ly} for examples.
750 @cindex partial measure
751 @cindex measure, partial
752 @cindex shorten measures
753 @cindex @code{\partial}
755 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
756 @code{\partial} command:
758 \partial @var{duration}
761 Internally, this is a shortcut for
764 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
768 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
769 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
772 @node Unmetered music
773 @subsection Unmetered music
775 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
776 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. The property
777 @code{Score.timing} can be used to switch off this automatic timing
779 @lilypond[fragment,relative,singleline,verbatim]
781 \property Score.timing = ##f
783 \property Score.timing = ##t
787 The identifiers @code{\cadenzaOn} and @code{\cadenzaOff} can be used as
794 @subsection Bar lines
798 @cindex measure lines
805 This is a shortcut for doing
807 \property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}
809 The following bar types are available
811 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
824 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
828 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
830 @cindex repeatCommands
831 @cindex defaultBarType
833 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
834 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
835 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
836 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
838 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
839 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
840 @code{whichBar} settings.
842 @internalsref{BarLine} grobs are created by the @code{Bar_engraver}.
849 Polyphonic parts, i.e. parts with more than one voice on a staff can be
850 typeset with LilyPond. To use this, instantiate a separate Voice
851 context for each part, and assign a stem direction to each part.
852 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
854 < \context Voice = VA { \stemUp b'4 a' g' f' e' }
855 \context Voice = VB { \stemDown g'4 g' g' g' g' } >
858 When there are more than two voices on a staff, you must also indicate
859 which voice should moved horizontally in case of a collision. This can
860 be done with the identifiers @code{\shiftOff}, @code{\shiftOn},
861 @code{\shiftOnn}, etc. (which sets the grob property @code{horizontal-shift}
862 in @internalsref{NoteColumn}).
864 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
865 \context Staff \notes\relative c''<
872 \context Voice=three {
873 \shiftOnn \stemUp ais
875 \context Voice=four {
876 \shiftOnnn \stemUp fis
881 The most convenient way is to use the identifiers @code{\voiceOne}
882 through @code{\voiceFour}, which also set slur and tie directions in the
885 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
887 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
888 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
889 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
892 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
893 if you set the grob property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
895 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
897 \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne
899 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
902 \context Voice = VB { \voiceTwo [g'8. f16] [g'8. f'16] }
906 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
908 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
910 \context Voice { \stemUp c''4 }
911 \context Voice =VB { r4 }
915 Note head collisions (horizontal shifting of note heads) are handled by
916 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} grob. @internalsref{RestCollision} handles vertical
923 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
924 handles a few situations. When it can not cope, you are advised to use
925 @code{force-hshift} of the NoteColumn grob and @code{staff-position} of
926 the Rest grob to override typesetting decisions.
931 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
932 the metrum. LilyPond guesses where beams should be inserted. If you're
933 not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can specify which patterns
934 to beam automatically. In specific cases, you can also enter the beams
938 @c . {Automatic beams}
939 @subsection Automatic beams
941 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}
942 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
943 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
946 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
947 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
948 or at durations specified by the properties in
949 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
950 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
952 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
953 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
955 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
956 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
958 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
959 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
960 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
961 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
962 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
965 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
966 you can use the following:
968 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
969 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
971 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
972 entered as @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
974 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
975 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
977 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
978 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
980 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
981 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
982 3/8 has passed within the measure).
984 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
985 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
986 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
987 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
989 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
990 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
993 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
994 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
995 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
996 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
1000 @c Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
1002 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1003 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1005 @cindex automatic beam generation
1007 @cindex @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming}
1009 Automatic beaming is on by default, but can be switched off by setting
1010 @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming} to true. You you may find this necessary for
1011 a melody that goes with lyrics.
1015 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1016 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1017 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
1018 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,relative]
1019 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1020 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1021 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
1024 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1025 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1026 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1029 @cindex Automatic beams
1030 @subsection Manual beams
1031 @cindex beams, manual
1035 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
1036 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
1037 rests or bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point
1038 manually using a @code{[} before the first beamed note and a @code{]}
1039 after the last note:
1041 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1043 r4 [r8 g' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
1046 Whenever an manual beam is busy, the automatic beamer will not produce
1049 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1051 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1052 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1053 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount}. can
1054 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
1055 property, it's value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1057 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1060 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
1063 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1065 The beam symbol (grob @internalsref{Beam} in @internalsref{Voice}
1066 context), both for automatic and manual beams) can be tweaked through
1067 grob-properties @code{height} and @code{staff-position}. These specify
1068 vertical location and vertical span. Both are measured in half
1069 staff-spaces, @code{staff-position=0} corresponds to the middle staff
1072 Set @code{height} to zero, to get horizontal beams:
1074 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1075 \property Voice.Beam \set #'direction = #1
1076 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #0
1080 Here's how you'd specify a weird looking beam that instead of being
1081 horizontal, falls two staff spaces:
1083 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1084 \property Voice.Beam \set #'staff-position = #4
1085 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #-4
1089 @c TODO -> why this ref? Document?
1090 @cindex @code{neutral-direction}
1092 @node Expressive marks
1093 @section Expressive marks
1108 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1109 They are entered using parentheses:
1111 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1112 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
1116 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1117 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1118 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1119 grob-property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1120 @internalsref{Voice} context It's value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1121 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1123 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1124 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1125 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1127 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1131 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1132 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1133 stems might look better:
1135 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1136 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
1137 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1139 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1144 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
1145 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
1146 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this decision
1147 is in @internalsref{Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}. It is loosely
1148 related to the enclosed area between the slur and the notes. Usually,
1149 the default setting works well, but in some cases you may prefer a
1150 curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved one. You can
1151 indicate this preference by increasing the @code{beautiful} value:
1153 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
1154 \property Voice.Beam \override #'direction = #-1
1155 \property Voice.Slur \override #'direction = #1
1156 c16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
1157 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1158 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
1159 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1164 @code{beautiful} is an arbitrary parameter in the slur formatter.
1165 Useful values can only be determined by trial and error.
1167 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1169 @node Phrasing slurs
1170 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1172 @cindex phrasing slurs
1173 @cindex phrasing marks
1175 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1176 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1179 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1180 \time 6/4 c' \( ( d ) e f ( e ) \) d
1183 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
1184 slur. The grob associated with it is @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, in
1185 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1188 @subsection Breath marks
1190 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}. The result is a
1191 @internalsref{BreathingSign} grob in @internalsref{Voice} context.
1193 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1202 The current layout of the default comma style breath marks
1203 could be improved and more optional symbols should be added to the
1212 @cindex beats per minute
1213 @cindex metronome marking
1215 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1217 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1219 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1222 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1227 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1228 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1229 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1234 @subsection Text spanners
1235 @cindex Text spanners
1237 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando or accelerando, often extend
1238 over many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1239 dotted line. You can create such texts using text spanners. The syntax
1242 \spanrequest \start "text"
1243 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1245 LilyPond will respond by creating a @internalsref{TextSpanner} grob (typically
1246 in @internalsref{Voice} context). The string to be printed, as well as the
1247 style is set through grob properties.
1249 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1250 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1251 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1252 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1253 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1254 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1255 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1256 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1274 @subsection Articulations
1275 @cindex Articulations
1277 @cindex articulations
1281 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1282 different characteristics of the performance. These symbols can be
1283 added to a note with `@var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}'. Numerous symbols
1284 are defined in @file{script.ly}. Symbols can be forced to appear above
1285 or below the note by writing `@var{note}@code{^\}@var{name}' and
1286 `@var{note}@code{_\}@var{name}' respectively. Here is a chart showing
1287 symbols on notes, with the name of the corresponding symbol appearing
1293 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-family =#'typewriter
1294 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1295 \context Staff \notes {
1296 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''^\fermata
1297 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\upbow
1298 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1299 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1300 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1301 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1302 c''-\upmordent c''-\downmordent c''-\pralldown c''-\prallup
1303 c''-\lineprall c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1305 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1306 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1307 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ upbow
1308 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1309 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1310 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1311 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1312 upmordent__ downmordent__ pralldown__ prallup__
1313 lineprall__ thumb__ segno__ coda
1317 linewidth = 5.875\in
1323 To save typing work, some shorthands are available:
1324 @lilypond[singleline]
1326 \notes \context Voice {
1327 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1328 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1334 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1341 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand.
1342 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1343 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1347 @cindex @code{\script}
1352 You can add scripts by editing @file{scm/script.scm}. This file contains
1353 a table, listing script definitions and aliases. The following syntax
1354 accesses a script definition from the table:
1360 Usually the @code{\script} keyword is not used directly. Various
1361 helpful identifier definitions appear in @file{script.ly}.
1363 Grobs for these objects are @internalsref{Script} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
1367 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1368 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1370 Unfortunately, there is no support for adding fingering instructions or
1371 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1372 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1377 @subsection Text scripts
1378 @cindex Text scripts
1380 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1381 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1384 By default, these indications do not influence the note spacing, but
1385 if @code{Voice.textNonEmpty} is set to true the widths will be taken
1386 into account. The identifier @code{\fatText} is defined in the standard
1388 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
1389 \relative c' { c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1392 Text scripts are created in form of @internalsref{TextScript} grobs, in
1393 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1395 @ref{Text markup} describes how to change the font or access
1396 special symbols in text scripts.
1400 @subsection Grace notes
1409 @cindex @code{\grace}
1412 @cindex @code{graceAlignPosition}
1414 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out, but do not take up any
1415 logical time in a measure. LilyPond has limited support for grace notes.
1416 The syntax is as follows.
1418 \grace @var{musicexpr}
1421 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1424 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1426 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1428 \property Voice.Stem \override #'flag-style = #'()
1430 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'flag-style
1435 A grace note expression has duration 0; the next real note is assumed to
1436 be the main note. If you want the note to appear after the main note,
1437 set @code{Voice.graceAlignPosition} to @code{1}.
1441 Nesting @code{\grace} notes is not supported. The following may cause
1442 run-time errors: @example
1443 @code{\grace @{ \grace c32 c16 @} c4}
1445 Since the meaning of such a construct is unclear, we don't consider this
1446 a loss. Similarly, juxtaposing two @code{\grace} sections is
1447 syntactically valid, but makes no sense and may cause runtime errors.
1448 Ending a staff or score with grace notes may also generate a run-time
1449 error, since there will be no main note to attach the grace notes to.
1460 @subsection Glissando
1463 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1465 A glissando line (grob @internalsref{Glissando}) can be requested by
1466 attaching a @code{\glissando} to a notte:
1468 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1474 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1481 @subsection Dynamics
1494 @cindex @code{\ffff}
1504 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an identifier after a
1505 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
1506 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
1507 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
1508 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
1510 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
1511 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
1517 @cindex @code{\decr}
1518 @cindex @code{\rced}
1524 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
1525 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
1526 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
1527 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
1528 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
1529 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
1530 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
1531 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
1532 want several marks during one note, you have to use spacer notes.
1534 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1535 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
1536 < f''1 { s4 s4 \< \! s4 \> \! s4 } >
1539 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
1540 is an example how to do it:
1545 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1547 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc."
1548 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
1553 For everyday use, we recommend the identifiers @code{\cresc},
1554 @code{endcresc}, @code{\dim} and @code{\enddim}.
1558 Dynamics are grobs of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
1559 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is handled
1560 by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. If you want to adjust
1561 padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you must set properties
1562 for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. Predefined identifiers
1563 to set the vertical direction are \dynamicUp and \dynamicDown.
1565 @cindex direction, of dynamics
1566 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
1567 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
1575 @cindex @code{\repeat}
1577 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
1578 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
1579 different variants of repeats.
1583 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
1584 output, and entering repetitive music.
1587 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
1588 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
1591 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
1592 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
1593 @file{input/star-spangled-banner.ly}.
1599 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
1605 * Manual repeat commands::
1607 * Tremolo subdivisions::
1612 @subsection Repeat syntax
1614 The syntax for repeats is
1617 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
1620 If you have alternative endings, you may add
1621 @cindex @code{\alternative}
1623 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
1625 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
1627 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
1629 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
1630 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1632 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
1633 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
1636 With alternative endings:
1637 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1639 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1640 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1643 Folded repeats look like this:
1646 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1648 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1649 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1653 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
1654 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
1655 the specified number of repeats.
1657 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1661 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
1662 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
1667 @subsection Unfolding repeats for MIDI output.
1669 @cindex expanding repeats
1671 See @file{input/test/unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
1676 Notice that timing information is not remembered at the start of an
1677 alternative, so you have to reset timing information after a repeat,
1678 e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting
1679 @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties
1680 are also not repeated.
1682 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}s, although this probably is only
1683 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
1685 Folded repeats offer little more over simultaneous music. However, it
1686 is to be expected that more functionality -- especially for the MIDI
1687 backend -- will be implemented at some point in the future.
1689 Volta repeats are printed over all staves in a score. You must turn them
1690 off explicitly, for example by doing
1692 \property Staff.VoltaBracket = \turnOff
1694 in all but the top staff.
1696 @node Manual repeat commands
1697 @subsection Manual repeat commands
1699 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
1701 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
1702 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
1710 @item (volta . @var{text})
1711 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
1713 Stop a running volta bracket
1716 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
1718 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
1720 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
1725 Repeats brackets are @internalsref{VoltaBracket} grobs.
1727 @node Tremolo repeats
1728 @subsection Tremolo repeats
1729 @cindex tremolo beams
1731 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
1733 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
1735 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
1736 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
1737 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
1738 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
1739 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
1744 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} grobs. Single stem tremolos are
1745 @internalsref{StemTremolo}.
1750 At present, the spacing between tremolo beams is not regular, since the
1751 spacing engine does not notice that not all notes are printed.
1753 @node Tremolo subdivisions
1754 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
1755 @cindex tremolo marks
1756 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
1758 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
1759 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
1760 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
1761 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
1762 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
1764 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
1765 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
1771 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
1774 @node Measure repeats
1775 @subsection Measure repeats
1777 @cindex percent repeats
1778 @cindex measure repeats
1780 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
1781 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
1782 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
1783 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
1785 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1786 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
1787 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
1791 The signs are represented by these grobs: @internalsref{RepeatSlash} and
1792 @internalsref{PercentRepeat} and @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
1796 You can not nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
1797 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
1799 @node Rhythmic music
1800 @section Rhythmic music
1807 @node Rhythmic staves
1808 @subsection Rhythmic staves
1810 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
1811 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
1812 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
1814 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1815 \context RhythmicStaff {
1817 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1824 @section Piano music
1826 Piano music is an odd type of notation. Piano staves are two normal
1827 staves coupled with a brace. The staves are largely independent, but
1828 sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. The
1829 @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
1830 behavior. In this section we discuss the @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some
1831 other pianistic peculiarities.
1834 * Automatic staff changes::
1835 * Manual staff switches::
1838 * Voice follower lines::
1842 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
1843 @node Automatic staff changes
1844 @subsection Automatic staff changes
1845 @cindex Automatic staff changes
1847 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
1848 staff. The syntax for this is
1850 \autochange @var{contexttype} @var{musicexp}
1852 This will switch the interpretation context of @var{musicexp} between a
1853 @var{contexttype} named @code{up} and @code{down}. Typically, you use
1854 @internalsref{Staff} for @var{contexttype}. The autochanger switches on basis
1855 of pitch (central C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping
1856 over rests to switch rests in advance.
1858 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1859 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
1860 \context Staff = "up" {
1861 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
1862 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
1863 \context Staff = "down" {
1869 Note how spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
1870 terminating too soon.
1873 @node Manual staff switches
1874 @subsection Manual staff switches
1876 @cindex manual staff switches
1877 @cindex staff switch, manual
1879 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
1881 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
1883 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
1884 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
1885 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
1888 The formal definition of this construct is obtuse, but for the sake of
1889 completeness we give it here.
1890 @cindex @code{\translator}
1892 \translator @var{contexttype} = @var{name}
1894 Formally, this construct is a music expression indicating
1895 that the context which is a direct child of the context of type
1896 @var{contexttype} should be shifted to a context of type
1897 @var{contexttype} and the specified name.
1905 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
1906 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
1907 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
1909 These identifiers are shorthands for spanner commands of the types
1910 @internalsref{Sustain}, @internalsref{UnaCorda} and @internalsref{Sostenuto}:
1912 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1913 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4
1914 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
1917 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
1918 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal
1919 types. Refer to the generated documentation of @rgrob{PianoPedal} for
1925 Currently, brackets are not supported, only text markings (i.e. `*Ped'
1931 @subsection Arpeggio
1934 @cindex broken arpeggio
1935 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
1937 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
1938 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
1941 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1942 \context Voice <c\arpeggio e g c>
1945 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
1946 to the chords in both staves, and set
1947 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
1949 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1950 \context PianoStaff <
1951 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
1952 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
1953 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
1957 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} grobs. Cross staff arpeggios
1958 are @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio}. @internalsref{Arpeggio}
1960 To add an arrow head to explicitly specify the direction of the
1961 arpeggio, you should set the arpeggio grob property
1962 @code{arpeggio-type}.
1964 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1966 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #1
1968 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
1974 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
1975 arpeggiate the chord.
1977 @lil ypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1978 \context PianoStaff <
1979 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
1980 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #'bracket
1981 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
1982 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
1990 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios
1995 @node Voice follower lines
1996 @subsection Voice follower lines
1998 @cindex follow voice
1999 @cindex staff switching
2002 @cindex @code{followVoice}
2004 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
2005 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
2006 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
2008 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2009 \context PianoStaff <
2010 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2011 \context Staff \context Voice {
2013 \translator Staff=two
2016 \context Staff=two {\clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2020 The associated grob is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2030 * Automatic syllable durations::
2036 @subsection Lyrics mode
2039 To print lyrics, you must first make a music expression from the lyric
2040 text. That music expression can be printed by selecting an appropriate
2044 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
2046 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
2047 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
2048 The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
2049 punctuation and accents without any hassle.
2051 Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text. For
2052 example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that
2053 the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
2056 Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes:
2057 @code{"He could"4 not4} or by using an underscore without quotes:
2058 @code{He_could4 not4}. All unquoted underscores are converted to
2061 The precise definition of this mode can be found in @ref{Lyrics mode
2064 @c . {Printing lyrics}
2065 @node Printing lyrics
2066 @subsection Printing lyrics
2069 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the @internalsref{Lyrics} context.
2071 @c Maybe more pedagogical to avoid \addlyrics in this first example? /MB
2072 @c Add tied and beamed melismata too.
2073 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2075 \notes \relative c' {
2077 \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t
2078 d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
2079 b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 }
2080 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2082 share the soft -- ware; }
2086 Notes and syllable durations are matched automatically. This is
2087 accomplished using @code{\addlyrics}, which is documented in
2088 @ref{Automatic syllable durations}. Setting @code{automaticMelismata} in
2089 the melody staff will cause tied, slurred or beamed notes to be
2090 interpreted as melismata.
2092 The Lyric syllables are @code{LyricsVoice.LyricSyllable} grobs.
2095 @cindex lyric extender
2098 As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will
2099 create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of the
2100 lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric,
2101 so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
2102 The grob for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricExtender}.
2107 If you want to have hyphens centered between syllables (rather than
2108 attached to the end of the first syllable) you can use the special
2109 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. This
2110 will result in a hyphen whose length varies depending on the space
2111 between syllables. It will be centered between the syllables. The grob
2112 for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricHyphen}.
2114 @cindex Lyric hyphen
2116 @node Automatic syllable durations
2117 @subsection Automatic syllable durations
2118 @cindex Automatic syllable durations
2120 @cindex automatic lyric durations
2121 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
2123 If you have lyrics that are set to a melody, you can copy the rhythm
2124 of that melody into the lyrics using @code{\addlyrics}. The syntax for
2127 \addlyrics @var{musicexpr1 musicexpr2}
2130 Both @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} are interpreted, but every
2131 music event (``every syllable'') in @var{musicexpr2} is interpreted only
2132 when there are events in @var{musicexpr1}.
2134 @cindex @code{automaticMelismata}
2136 If the property @code{automaticMelismata} is set in the
2137 context of @var{musicexpr1}, no lyrics will be put on slurred or tied
2140 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2143 \property Voice.automaticMelismata = ##t
2144 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2146 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2150 If you want the lyric lines to be above the melody staff, or in some
2151 other, more complex configuration, then build that configuration first
2152 using simultaneous music, and use @code{\addlyrics} after that.
2154 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
2156 \context Lyrics = LA { s1 }
2157 \context Staff = SA { s1 }
2159 \context Staff = SA \relative c' { c4 e g g }
2160 \context Lyrics = LA \lyrics { geen ge -- don -- der } >
2163 For @code{\addlyrics} you should use a single rhythm melody, and single
2164 rhythm lyrics (a constant duration is the obvious choice). If you do
2165 not, you can get undesired effects when using multiple stanzas:
2167 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2170 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2172 \context Lyrics \lyrics
2177 It is valid (but probably not very useful) to use notes instead of
2178 lyrics for @var{musicexpr2}.
2181 @subsection More stanzas
2185 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
2186 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
2187 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
2189 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice
2190 to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
2191 In the following example, the Voice
2192 identity is @code{duet}, and the identities of the LyricsVoices are
2193 @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
2196 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2199 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
2201 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
2202 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
2203 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
2204 Hi, my name is bert. }
2205 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
2206 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
2207 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
2212 You can add stanza numbers by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the
2213 first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following
2214 systems. Notice how you must surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics}
2220 @cindex stanza numbering
2228 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords. Chords are
2229 characterized by a set of pitches. They are
2230 internally stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can
2231 enter chords by name and print them as note head, enter them as notes
2232 and print them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by
2233 name, and print them as name.
2236 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2237 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
2247 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
2248 \context Voice \twoWays > }
2251 Note that this example also shows that the chord printing routines do
2252 not attempt to be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not
2253 interpret this as an inversion.
2257 * Printing named chords::
2262 @subsection Chords mode
2265 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
2266 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
2267 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
2268 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc).
2270 Dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions and subtractions,
2271 so articulation scripts can not be entered in Chord mode.
2273 The syntax for named chords is as follows:
2275 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
2278 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration} is
2279 the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
2280 modifiers. One type is formed by @emph{chord additions}. Additions are
2281 obtained by listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written
2282 by its number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising
2283 or lowering by half a step. Chord additions have two effects: they adds
2284 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
2285 chord, and they may lower or raise the specified interval.
2287 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
2288 using @code{\transpose}.
2290 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2294 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5-
2304 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
2305 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
2306 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
2307 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
2308 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
2309 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
2310 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
2312 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2315 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
2321 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
2322 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
2325 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2334 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
2335 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
2336 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the note
2337 is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
2339 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2349 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
2350 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
2351 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
2352 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
2354 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2365 Implementation details are quite gory. For example @code{c:4} not only
2366 adds a fourth, but also removes the third.
2369 @c . {Printing named chords}
2370 @node Printing named chords
2371 @subsection Printing named chords
2373 @cindex printing chord names
2377 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
2378 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
2379 directly using simultaneous music.
2381 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2383 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
2387 \context ChordNames \scheme
2388 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2393 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
2394 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
2395 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of a
2400 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
2404 \context ChordNames {
2405 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
2407 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2411 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
2412 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
2413 an added bass note, which may result in strange chord names when chords
2414 are entered as a list of pitches:
2416 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2425 \context ChordNames \scheme
2426 \context Staff \scheme
2432 By default, a chord name system proposed by Harald Banter (See
2433 @ref{Literature}) is used. The system is very regular and predictable.
2434 Typical American style chord names may be selected by setting the
2435 @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName} grob to
2436 @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz chordnames.
2438 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
2439 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
2440 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}. Here's an example showing the differences in
2444 @c maybe just junk verbatim option?
2445 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2455 \context ChordNames = banter \scheme
2456 \context ChordNames = american {
2457 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2458 #'style = #'american \scheme }
2459 \context ChordNames = jazz {
2460 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2461 #'style = #'jazz \scheme }
2462 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2469 @section Writing parts
2471 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
2472 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
2473 problems in orchestral music.
2480 * Instrument names::
2482 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
2483 * Multi measure rests::
2484 * Automatic part combining::
2485 * Hara kiri staves::
2488 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
2489 @node Rehearsal marks
2490 @subsection Rehearsal marks
2491 @cindex Rehearsal marks
2493 @cindex @code{\mark}
2497 \mark @var{unsigned}
2502 This command prints a rehearsal mark above the system. You can provide
2503 a number, a string or a markup text as argument. If you use
2504 @code{\default}, the value of property @code{rehearsalMark} is used and
2505 automatically incremented.
2507 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2513 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-segno")
2518 The grob is @internalsref{RehearsalMark} in @internalsref{Score} context. See
2519 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} if you need boxes around the marks.
2522 @subsection Bar numbers
2526 @cindex measure numbers
2527 @cindex currentBarNumber
2529 Bar numbers are @internalsref{BarNumber} grobs. They are printed at the
2530 start of the line. The number itself is a property that can be set by
2531 modifying the @code{currentBarNumber} property, i.e.
2533 \property Score.currentBarNumber = #217
2536 If you want boxed bar numbers, see the example file
2537 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly}.
2541 It is not possible to have bar numbers printed at regular intervals
2544 @node Instrument names
2545 @subsection Instrument names
2547 You can specify an instrument name for a staff by setting
2548 @code{Staff.instrument} and @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string
2549 before the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
2550 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
2552 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2553 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
2556 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
2560 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2562 '((font-relative-size . -2 ) (music "accidentals--1")))
2565 \property Staff.instrument = #`((kern . 0.5) (lines
2566 "2 Clarinetti" (columns " (B" ,text-flat ")")))
2574 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
2575 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
2576 the name to avoid a collision.
2579 @subsection Transpose
2581 @cindex transposition of pitches
2582 @cindex @code{\transpose}
2584 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
2587 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
2590 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
2593 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
2594 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
2595 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
2598 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2601 { \key e \major c d e f }
2603 \transpose des'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2604 \transpose cis'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2608 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
2609 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
2610 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
2612 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
2613 @subsection Sound output transposing instruments
2615 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed and
2617 instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch offset (in
2618 semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done using the
2619 @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed output.
2621 @cindex @code{transposing}
2624 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
2625 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
2628 @c . {Multi measure rests}
2629 @node Multi measure rests
2630 @subsection Multi measure rests
2631 @cindex Multi measure rests
2635 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
2636 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
2638 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
2639 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
2640 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
2643 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2644 \time 3/4 r2. | R2. | R2.*2 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
2647 Notice that the @code{R2.} is printed as a whole rest, centered in the
2650 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
2652 The grob for this object is @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
2656 Currently, there is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into
2657 a single multimeasure rest.
2659 @cindex condensing rests
2661 @node Automatic part combining
2662 @subsection Automatic part combining
2663 @cindex automatic part combining
2664 @cindex part combiner
2667 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
2668 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting
2669 orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
2670 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are
2671 typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically.
2672 Also, solo and @emph{a due} parts can be identified and marked.
2674 The syntax for part combining is
2677 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
2679 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
2680 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
2681 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
2684 The most useful function of the part combiner is to combine parts into
2685 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
2687 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2689 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2690 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2693 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2699 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
2700 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
2701 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
2702 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
2703 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
2706 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
2707 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
2709 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2711 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
2712 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2713 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2716 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2722 There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak the
2723 behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
2724 documentation of @reng{Thread_devnull_engraver} and
2725 @reng{Voice_devnull_engraver}. Look at the documentation of the
2726 responsible engravers, @code{Thread_devnull_engraver},
2727 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
2731 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
2732 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
2735 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
2737 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2738 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2741 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2747 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2748 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
2749 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
2751 @node Hara kiri staves
2752 @subsection Hara kiri staves
2754 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
2755 This saves some space. LilyPond also supports this through the hara
2756 kiri@footnote{Hara kiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
2757 the Japanese Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when
2758 it finds itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will
2759 not disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
2762 The hara kiri staff is specialized version of the @internalsref{Staff}
2763 context. It is available as the context identifier
2764 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
2765 example disappears in the second line.
2769 \notes \relative c' <
2770 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
2771 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
2775 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
2788 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
2789 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
2790 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
2791 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2792 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2797 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
2802 \consists Custos_engraver
2808 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century.
2809 There were different appearances for different notation styles.
2810 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
2811 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
2814 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
2815 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
2816 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
2817 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
2818 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
2825 \consists Custos_engraver
2826 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2831 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
2836 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
2837 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
2841 @c . {Tuning output}
2843 @section Tuning output
2845 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
2846 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
2847 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
2848 ways to do just that.
2850 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called grobs (graphic
2851 objects). Each grob carries with it a set of properties (grob
2852 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem grob has
2853 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
2855 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
2856 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
2857 temporarily change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus
2858 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
2859 object, and set a grob property in that object.
2862 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
2863 * Tuning per grob ::
2871 @node Tuning groups of grobs
2872 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
2874 @cindex grob description
2878 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a
2879 context property. By assigning to that property (using plain
2880 @code{\property}), you can change the resulting grobs.
2882 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2883 c'4 \property Voice.Stem = #'((meta . ((interfaces . ())))) c'4
2886 The @code{\property} assignment effectively empties the definition of
2887 the Stem object. One of the effects is that the recipe of how it should be
2888 printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible. The above
2889 assignment is available as a standard identifier, for the case that you
2893 \property Voice.Stem = \turnOff
2900 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
2901 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
2904 The definition of a grob is actually a list of default grob
2905 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem grob (available in
2906 @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), defines the following values for
2911 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
2912 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
2916 You can add a property on top of the existing definition, or remove a
2917 property, thus overriding the system defaults:
2919 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
2920 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
2923 You should balance @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. If that's too
2924 much work, you can use the @code{\set} shorthand. It performs a revert
2925 followed by an override. The following example gives exactly the same
2926 result as the previous one.
2928 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
2929 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
2932 If you use @code{\set}, you must explicitly restore the default.
2935 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
2937 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2938 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2939 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
2941 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
2942 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
2945 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
2946 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
2947 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
2948 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and @code{\revert},
2949 must be carefully balanced.
2951 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
2954 A clumsy but correct form:
2956 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
2959 Shorter version of the same:
2961 \override \set \set \revert
2964 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
2967 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
2970 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the grob property is unset),
2973 \set \set \set \revert
2976 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
2977 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a
2978 stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
2979 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding
2980 automatic beaming settings.
2984 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
2985 The backend is not very strict in type-checking grob properties. If you
2986 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
2989 Some grobs are created at the moment that their context is created. An
2990 example of such a grob is the staff itself (i.e. the horizontal lines).
2991 You can not change the appearance of the staff symbol by manipulating
2992 @code{\property Staff.StaffSymbol}. At the moment that @code{\property
2993 Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and the StaffSymbol is
2994 created before any @code{\override} is effective. You can deal with this
2995 either overriding properties in a @code{\translator} definition, or by
2996 using @code{\outputproperty}.
3001 @node Tuning per grob
3002 @subsection Tuning per grob
3004 @cindex \outputproperty
3006 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
3007 feature. The syntax is as follows:
3009 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3011 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
3012 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
3013 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
3014 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
3015 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
3017 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
3018 the appropriate context to apply this to.
3020 Here are some random examples.
3023 In the following example, all note heads occurring at current staff
3024 level, are shifted up and right by setting their @code{extra-offset}
3027 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3029 \context Staff \outputproperty
3030 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
3031 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
3035 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
3037 In this example, the predicate checks the @code{text} grob property, to
3038 shift only the `m.d.' text, but not the fingering instruction "2".
3039 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3040 #(define (make-text-checker text)
3041 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
3044 \notes\relative c''' {
3045 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
3046 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
3047 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
3055 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
3056 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
3062 @subsection What to tune?
3064 This all tells you how to tune grobs, but you don't know what variables
3065 to set? The question is not answered in this part of the manual
3066 (although you may encounter some examples.).
3068 Grob properties are tied directly to the implementation of LilyPond, and
3069 they are thus a moving target. Documentation of such variables is in the
3070 automatically generated documentation. Description of properties are
3071 generated from the source code for each version. This documentation is
3072 therefore more up to date. It should be available from the same place
3073 where you got this manual.
3075 To decide how to tune a grob, you need to find the following information
3078 which grob to modify
3080 which property to modify
3082 which context the grob comes from.
3085 Included with the automatically generated documentation is a master list
3086 of grobs. Selecting a grob will take you to an overview of the
3087 properties available for that grob.
3089 There is also a master list of contexts. Selecting one takes you to an
3090 overview of that context which lists which grob types are created there.
3093 @node Font selection
3094 @subsection Font selection
3096 Most graphics in LilyPond are composed of characters of fonts. You can
3097 alter the characteristics of the font by setting certain grob
3098 properties. The mechanism that is used for this resembles La@TeX{}'s New
3099 Font Selection Scheme. Within this scheme, a font is entirely
3100 characterized by its font name.
3102 For each grob that uses fonts (in other words, each grob that supports
3103 @code{font-interface}) a font-name must be selected before it can be
3104 printed. The font name is selected by looking at a number of grob
3109 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
3110 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff braces),
3111 @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic
3112 signs) and @code{typewriter}
3115 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
3116 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
3117 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
3120 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
3121 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
3124 @item font-relative-size
3125 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
3126 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
3127 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
3129 @item font-design-size
3130 A number indicating the design size of the font.
3132 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
3133 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
3134 which enhances readability. Scalable type faces such TrueType and Adobe
3135 Type1 usually come as ``one design fits all sizes''.
3138 The name of the font, without the design size, e.g. @code{cmr},
3139 @code{cmti}, etc. Setting this overrides font-family, font-shape and
3146 The font is selected by taking the first font that satisfies all
3147 qualifiers specified. You can override any of these fields through
3148 @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The special value @code{*} matches
3149 any value for that qualifier.
3152 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
3153 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
3156 @cindex @code{font-style}
3158 There are also pre-cooked font selection qualifiers. These are selected
3159 through the grob property @code{font-style}. For example, the style
3160 @code{finger} selects family @code{number} and relative size @code{-3}.
3161 Styles available include @code{volta}, @code{finger}, @code{tuplet},
3162 @code{timesig}, @code{mmrest}, @code{script}, @code{large}, @code{Large}
3165 The style sheets and tables for selecting fonts are located in
3166 @file{scm/font.scm}. Refer to this file for more information.
3169 Setting @code{font-name} overrides all other qualifiers. The value for
3170 this property should be a string, the file name of the font. You may use
3171 this to use special fonts, which are not a part of the style sheet, or
3172 which have special encodings.
3174 The size of the font may be set with the grob property
3175 @code{font-magnification}. It is the size of font, relative to its
3176 standard size. For example, @code{1.0} is normal size.
3180 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
3182 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
3185 @cindex font selection
3186 @cindex font magnification
3187 @cindex @code{font-interface}
3191 @subsection Text markup
3195 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
3196 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
3197 in the following way.
3199 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3204 c^#'(italic "italic")
3205 d_#'((bold italic) "ff")
3207 f_#'(lines "one" (bold "two"))
3208 g^#'(music "noteheads-2" ((raise . 2.4) "flags-u3"))
3212 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
3213 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
3216 text: string | (head? text+)
3217 head: markup | (markup+)
3218 markup-item: property | abbrev
3219 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
3220 abbrev: @code{columns lines roman music bold italic named super sub}
3221 @code{overstrike text finger volta timesig mmrest mark script}
3222 @code{large Large dynamic}
3225 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
3226 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
3227 pair is a grob property. A list of properties available is included in
3228 the generated documentation for @rint{Text_interface}.
3230 The following abbreviations are currently defined:
3233 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
3235 vertical mode: set every text on a new line
3239 selects the Feta font (the standard font for music notation glyphs),
3240 and uses named lookup
3247 lookup by character name
3249 plain text lookup (by character value)
3255 the next text or character overstrikes this one
3257 select fingering number fontstyle
3259 select volta number fontstyle
3261 select time signature number fontstyle
3263 select multi measure rest number fontstyle
3265 select mark number fontstyle
3267 select scriptsize roman fontstyle
3269 select large roman fontstyle
3271 select Large roman fontstyle
3273 select dynamics fontstyle
3277 @cindex metronome mark
3279 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
3283 #(define note '(columns
3284 (music "noteheads-2" ((kern . -0.1) "flags-stem"))))
3285 #(define eight-note `(columns ,note ((kern . -0.1)
3286 (music ((raise . 3.5) "flags-u3")))))
3287 #(define dotted-eight-note
3288 `(columns ,eight-note (music "dots-dot")))
3291 \notes\relative c'' {
3292 a1^#`((columns (font-relative-size . -1)) ,dotted-eight-note " = 64")
3298 TextScript \override #'font-shape = #'upright
3304 @node Invisible grobs
3305 @subsection Invisible grobs
3306 @cindex invisible grobs
3310 ben nog steeds niet kapot van de informatiedichtheid hier.
3316 You can imagine a number of situations where you would want to make
3317 certain grobs not show up in the output. There may be aesthetic
3318 reasons, to make the output resemble an (old) manuscript as close as
3319 possible, or to make lessons or exercises for students.
3321 Grobs can be made invisible in a number of ways:
3323 Here's an example with blanked-out notes and stems:
3324 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3326 \property Voice.NoteHead \override
3328 \property Voice.Stem \override
3329 #'transparent = ##t }
3332 \property Voice.NoteHead \revert #'transparent
3333 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'transparent }
3336 \notes\relative c'' {
3338 a b c b \blanknotes c \unblanknotes d
3342 This method makes the grobs invisible but they still take the normal space.
3343 To remove all traces of the grob, you can redefine the function
3347 \notes\relative c'' {
3350 as bes c bes c d \break
3351 \property Staff.KeySignature \override #'molecule-callback = #'()
3354 \paper{linewidth=5.0\cm indent=0}
3358 A very rigorous way of removing grobs from the whole score is to remove
3359 the engraver that creates them. For example,
3361 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3362 \score {\notes { c'4 d'8 e'8 g2 }
3363 \paper { \translator {
3365 \remove Stem_engraver
3371 @subsection Dirty tricks
3372 @cindex embedded tex
3374 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
3375 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
3376 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
3377 commands won't work with direct PostScript output (see @ref{PostScript
3380 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3381 a'^"3 $\\times$ \\`a deux"
3384 You can also use raw PostScript commands embedded in text scripts. This
3385 offers ultimate flexibility, but requires you to learn PostScript.
3386 Currently, embedded PostScript will @strong{not} work with direct
3387 PostScript output. Note that all dimensions that you use are in staff
3392 \notes \relative c'' {
3393 a-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 5 3 rlineto stroke}"
3394 -#"\\embeddedps{ [ 0 1 ] 0 setdash 3 5 moveto 5 -3 rlineto stroke}"
3395 b-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 0 0 1 2 8 4 20 3.5 rcurveto stroke}"
3399 \paper { linewidth = 70*\staffspace }
3406 @section Page layout
3409 The page layout is the combined product of LilyPond formatting notation,
3410 and (La)@TeX{} putting the notation on a page, including page breaks.
3411 The part of LilyPond is documented here.
3425 @subsection Paper block
3428 The most important output definition is the @code{\paper} block, for
3429 music notation. The syntax is
3432 @code{\paper @{} [@var{paperidentifier}] @var{items} @code{@}}
3435 where each of the items is one of
3438 @item An assignment.
3440 @item A context definition. See @ref{Interpretation context} for
3441 more information on context definitions.
3443 @item \stylesheet declaration. Its syntax is
3445 \stylesheet @var{alist}
3448 See @file{scm/font.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
3449 @item an @code{\elementdescriptions} declaration.
3451 \elementdescriptions @var{alist}
3453 See @file{scm/grob-description.scm} for details of
3454 @var{alist}. This command is not user-serviceable.
3458 @c . {Paper variables}
3459 @node Paper variables
3460 @subsection Paper variables
3461 @cindex Paper variables
3463 The paper block has some variables you may want to use or change:
3466 @cindex @code{indent}
3468 The indentation of the first line of music.
3469 @cindex @code{staffspace}
3471 @item @code{staffspace}
3472 The distance between two staff lines, calculated from the center
3475 @cindex @code{linewidth}
3476 @item @code{linewidth}
3477 Sets the width of the lines.
3479 If set to a negative value, a single unjustified line is produced.
3480 @c rename to singleLinePaper ?
3481 The shorthand @code{\singleLine} defines a default paper block that
3482 produces a single line.
3484 @cindex @code{textheight}
3486 @item @code{textheight}
3487 Sets the total height of the music on each page. Only used by
3490 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
3492 @item @code{interscoreline}
3493 Sets the spacing between systems. The default is 16pt.
3495 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
3497 @item @code{interscorelinefill}
3498 If set to a positive number, the distance between the score
3499 lines will stretch in order to fill the full page. In that
3500 case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
3505 @cindex @code{stafflinethickness}
3507 @item @code{stafflinethickness}
3508 Determines the thickness of staff lines, and also acts as a scaling
3509 parameter for other line thicknesses.
3512 You may enter these dimension using units (@code{cm}, @code{in},
3513 @code{mm}, @code{pt}), or relative to another dimension
3515 linewidth = 20.0 * \staffspace
3522 @subsection Font size
3525 The Feta font provides musical symbols at six different sizes. These
3526 fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point,
3527 23 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the
3528 height of the five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
3530 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
3531 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any of
3532 these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven}, @code{paperThirteen},
3533 @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and
3534 @code{paperTwentysix} are defined respectively. The default
3535 @code{\paper} block is also set.
3537 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
3538 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
3544 @subsection Paper size
3549 @cindex @code{papersize}
3551 To change the paper size, you must first set the
3552 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
3553 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
3554 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
3555 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
3558 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
3559 \include "paper16.ly"
3562 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
3563 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
3564 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
3568 @subsection Line break
3571 @cindex breaking lines
3573 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
3574 that the resulting spacing has low variation, and looks neither cramped
3577 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do
3578 this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at this
3579 point. Do remember that line breaks can only occur at places where there
3580 are bar lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no
3581 bar line, you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
3582 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain point.
3584 @cindex @code{\penalty}
3586 The @code{\break} and @code{\noBreak} commands are defined in terms of
3587 the penalty command:
3592 This encourages or discourages LilyPond to make a line break at this
3597 The scaling of the @code{\penalty} argument is not well-defined. The
3598 command is rather kludgey, and slated for rewriting.
3602 @subsection Page break
3605 @cindex breaking pages
3607 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
3608 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into the
3609 @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages, by inserting
3610 the command @code{\newpage}
3611 @cindex @code{\newpage}
3617 @c why do so difficult?
3618 @c maybe should explain contents of between-system.ly,
3619 @c but not now, we're talking about page breaks here.
3621 @c details, see the example file @file{input/test/between-systems.ly}
3624 @c . {Output scaling}
3625 @node Output scaling
3626 @subsection Output scaling
3641 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3642 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts.
3646 @c . {Output formats}
3647 @node Output formats
3648 @section Output formats
3650 LilyPond can output processed music in different output formats.
3654 * PostScript output::
3656 * ASCIIScript output::
3660 @subsection TeX output
3663 LilyPond will use @TeX{} by default. Even if you want to produce
3664 PostScript output for viewing or printing, you should normally have
3665 LilyPond produce @TeX{} first. The .tex output must be processed by
3666 @TeX{} (@strong{not} La@TeX{}) to generate a .dvi. Then, @file{Dvips}
3667 is used to generate PostScript. Alternatively, @file{ly2dvi} can be
3668 used to generate the .dvi for you.
3672 Titling is not generated unless you use @file{ly2dvi}.
3675 @node PostScript output
3676 @subsection PostScript output
3677 @cindex PostScript output
3678 @cindex direct PostScript output
3680 LilyPond can produce PostScript directly, without going through @TeX{}.
3681 Currently, this is mainly useful if you cannot use TeX, because direct
3682 PostScript output has some problems; see Bugs below.
3685 $ lilypond -fps foo.ly
3686 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3687 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3689 Interpreting music...[3]
3690 Preprocessing elements...
3691 Calculating column positions...
3692 paper output to foo.ps...
3694 $ cat /usr/share/lilypond/pfa/feta20.pfa foo.ps | lpr
3700 Text font selection is broken.
3702 The .ps file does not contain the .pfa font files. To print a .ps
3703 created through direct postscript output, you should prepend the
3704 necessary .pfa files to LilyPond's .ps output, or upload them to the
3705 printer before printing.
3707 The line height calculation is broken, you must set @var{lineheight} in
3708 the paperblock if you have more than one staff in your score, e.g.
3713 % Set line height to 40 staff spaces
3719 @subsection Scheme output
3720 @cindex Scheme output
3722 In the typesetting stage, LilyPond builds a page description, which is
3723 then written to disk in postscript, @TeX{} or ASCII art. Before it is
3724 written, the page description is represented as Scheme expressions. You
3725 can also dump these Scheme expressions to a file, which may be
3726 convenient for debugging output routines. This is done with the Scheme
3730 $ lilypond -fscm foo.ly
3731 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3732 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3734 Interpreting music...[3]
3735 Preprocessing elements...
3736 Calculating column positions...
3737 paper output to foo.scm...
3740 ;;; Usage: guile -s x.scm > x.tex
3741 (primitive-load-path 'standalone.scm)
3745 $ guile -s foo.scm > foo.tex
3749 @node ASCIIScript output
3750 @subsection ASCIIScript output
3751 @cindex ASCIIScript output
3752 @cindex ascii script
3755 LilyPond can output ASCII Art. This is a two step process, LilyPond
3756 produces an ASCII description file, dubbed ASCIIScript (extension
3757 @file{.as}). ASCIIScript has a small and simple command set that
3758 includes font selection, character and string printing and line drawing
3759 commands. The program @file{as2text} is used to translate an .as file
3762 To produce ASCII Art, you must include an ASCII Art paper definition
3763 file in your .ly, one of:
3765 \include "paper-as5.ly"
3766 \include "paper-as9.ly"
3769 Here's an example use for ASCII Art output (the example file
3770 @file{as-email.ly} is included in the LilyPond distribution), the staff
3771 symbol has been made invisible:
3774 $ lilypond -fas as-email.ly
3775 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3776 Now processing: `as-email.ly'
3778 Interpreting music...[3]
3779 Preprocessing elements...
3780 Calculating column positions... [2]
3781 paper output to as-email.as...
3783 $ as2text as-email.as 2>/dev/null
3785 |/ |##|##| | | | | |
3786 /| | | | | |\ |\ |\ |\ |\ |
3787 / |_ 3 | | | | 5 | )| )| )| )| )|
3788 | /| \ 8 * * * | 8 * * * * * |
3798 The ASCII Art fonts are far from complete and not very well designed.
3799 It's easy to change the glyphs, though; if you think you can do better,
3800 have a look at @file{mf/*.af}.
3802 Lots of resizable symbols such as slurs, ties and tuplets are missing.
3804 The poor looks of most ASCII Art output and its limited general
3805 usefulness gives ASCII Art output a low priority; it may be
3806 dropped in future versions.
3813 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
3814 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, etc., but it
3815 is good enough for proof-hearing the music you have entered. Ties,
3816 dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
3818 Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume
3819 levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available
3820 MIDI volume range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary
3821 linearly between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
3822 overriding the @code{absolute-volume-alist} defined in
3823 @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3825 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
3826 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
3827 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. You can add
3828 instruments and ranges or change the default settings by overriding the
3829 @code{instrument-equalizer-alist} defined in @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3831 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
3836 It is currently not possible to use the percussion channel (generally
3837 channel 10 of a MIDI file).
3841 * MIDI instrument names::
3846 @subsection MIDI block
3850 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
3851 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
3855 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
3856 @item context definitions
3859 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
3863 @cindex context definition
3865 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
3866 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
3867 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer.ly}.
3870 @node MIDI instrument names
3871 @subsection MIDI instrument names
3873 @cindex instrument names
3874 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3875 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
3877 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3878 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
3879 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
3880 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
3884 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
3885 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by
3895 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
3898 @section Music entry
3906 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce errors. This
3907 section deals with tricks and features that help you enter music, and
3908 find and correct mistakes.
3912 @subsection Relative
3914 @cindex relative octave specification
3916 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
3917 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
3918 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
3919 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
3921 @cindex @code{\relative}
3923 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
3926 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
3927 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
3928 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
3929 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
3930 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
3933 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
3934 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
3935 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
3936 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
3938 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
3939 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
3945 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
3946 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3948 c g c f, c' a, e'' }
3951 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
3952 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
3953 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
3956 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3963 @cindex @code{\notes}
3965 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
3966 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
3967 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
3970 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
3971 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
3972 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
3973 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
3978 @subsection Bar check
3982 @cindex @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}
3986 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
3987 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
3988 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
3989 @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
3990 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
3992 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}:
3994 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
3999 @cindex skipTypesetting
4001 Failed bar checks are most often caused by entering incorrect
4002 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
4003 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the score
4004 by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To speed up
4005 this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting} (See @ref{Skipping
4006 corrected music})). Bar
4009 @c . {Point and click}
4010 @node Point and click
4011 @subsection Point and click
4013 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
4014 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
4015 error in the sheet music.
4017 To use it, you need the following software
4019 @unnumberedsubsec Installation
4023 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,plain
4024 Xdvi} version 22.36 or newer.
4026 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is a
4027 different and less well maintained program. To find out which xdvi you
4028 are running, try @code{xdvi --version} or @code{xdvi.bin --version}.
4032 Xdvi must be configured to find the TeX fonts and music
4033 fonts. Refer to the Xdvi documentation for more information.
4036 @unnumberedsubsec Using it
4038 Add one of these lines to the top of your .ly file. The first one is for
4039 line location only. The second one is more convenient, but requires
4040 patching @code{emacsclient} and @code{server.el}.
4043 #(set! point-and-click line-location)
4046 In the emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}), add the following
4051 Make sure that the environment variable @code{XEDITOR} is set
4054 emacsclient --no-wait +%l %f
4056 The second one, that also specifies the column, only works if you have
4057 patched your emacsclient and server, and have compiled your @code{.ly}
4058 file using the @code{line-column-location} setting.
4060 When viewing, control-mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
4061 spot in the @file{.ly} file. Control-mousebutton 2 will show all
4065 @unnumberedsubsec Column location
4067 If you want emacs to jump to the exact spot (and not just the line) on a
4068 click, you must enable column positioning. To do so, you need to patch
4069 emacsclient. Apply @file{emacsclient.patch} (included with the source
4070 package) to @file{emacsclient.c} and @file{server.el} from the emacs
4071 source code. Recompile and stick the recompiled emacsclient into a bin
4072 directory, and put @file{server.el} into a elisp directory
4073 (e.g. @file{~/usr/share/emacs/}). Add the following to your @file{.emacs}
4074 init file, before invoking server-start.
4077 (setq load-path (cons "~/usr/share/emacs" load-path))
4080 Set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{emacsclient --no-wait +%l:%c %f}
4082 At the top of the @code{ly} file, replace the @code{set!} line with the
4085 #(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
4088 One final hint: if you correct large files with point-and-click, then
4089 start correcting at the end of the file. When you start at the top, and
4090 insert one line, all subsequent locations will be off by a line.
4095 When you convert the @TeX{} file to PostScript using @code{dvips}, it
4096 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. Those complaints
4097 are harmless, and can be ignored.
4099 @node Skipping corrected music
4100 @section Skipping corrected music
4102 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
4103 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
4104 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
4105 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
4108 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4109 \relative c'' { c8 d
4110 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
4112 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
4117 @node Interpretation context
4118 @section Interpretation context
4121 * Creating contexts::
4122 * Default contexts::
4123 * Context properties::
4124 * Engravers and performers::
4125 * Changing context definitions::
4126 * Defining new contexts::
4130 Interpretation contexts are objects that only exist during a run of
4131 LilyPond. During the interpretation phase of LilyPond (when it prints
4132 "interpreting music"), the music expression in a @code{\score} block is
4133 interpreted in time order. This is the same order that humans hear and
4136 During this interpretation, the interpretation context holds the
4137 state for the current point within the music. It contains information
4141 @item What notes are playing at this point?
4142 @item What symbols will be printed at this point?
4143 @item What is the current key signature, time signature, point within
4147 Contexts are grouped hierarchically: A @internalsref{Voice} context is
4148 contained in a @internalsref{Staff} context (because a staff can contain
4149 multiple voices at any point), a @internalsref{Staff} context is contained in
4150 @internalsref{Score}, @internalsref{StaffGroup}, or @internalsref{ChoirStaff} context.
4152 Contexts associated with sheet music output are called @emph{notation
4153 contexts}, those for sound output are called @emph{performance
4154 contexts}. The default definitions of the standard notation and
4155 performance contexts can be found in @file{ly/engraver.ly} and
4156 @file{ly/performer.ly}, respectively.
4159 @node Creating contexts
4160 @subsection Creating contexts
4162 @cindex @code{\context}
4163 @cindex context selection
4165 Contexts for a music expression can be selected manually, using the
4166 following music expression.
4169 \context @var{contexttype} [= @var{contextname}] @var{musicexpr}
4172 This instructs lilypond to interpret @var{musicexpr} within the context
4173 of type @var{contexttype} and with name @var{contextname}. If this
4174 context does not exist, it will be created.
4176 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4178 \notes \relative c'' {
4179 c4 <d4 \context Staff = "another" e4> f
4185 In this example, the @code{c} and @code{d} are printed on the
4186 default staff. For the @code{e}, a context Staff called
4187 @code{another} is specified; since that does not exist, a new
4188 context is created. Within @code{another}, a (default) Voice context
4189 is created for the @code{e4}. When all music referring to a
4190 context is finished, the context is ended as well. So after the
4191 third quarter, @code{another} is removed.
4195 @node Default contexts
4196 @subsection Default contexts
4198 Most music expressions don't need an explicit @code{\context}
4199 declaration: they inherit the
4200 notation context from their parent. Each note is a music expression, and
4201 as you can see in the following example, only the sequential music
4202 enclosing the three notes has an explicit context.
4204 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4205 \score { \notes \context Voice = goUp { c'4 d' e' } }
4208 There are some quirks that you must keep in mind when dealing with
4211 First, every top level music is interpreted by the Score context, in other
4212 words, you may think of @code{\score} working like
4215 \context Score @var{music}
4219 Second, contexts are created automatically to be able to interpret the
4220 music expressions. Consider the following example.
4222 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4223 \score { \context Score \notes { c'4 ( d' )e' } }
4226 The sequential music is interpreted by the Score context initially
4227 (notice that the @code{\context} specification is redundant), but when a
4228 note is encountered, contexts are setup to accept that note. In this
4229 case, a Thread, Voice and Staff are created. The rest of the sequential
4230 music is also interpreted with the same Thread, Voice and Staff context,
4231 putting the notes on the same staff, in the same voice.
4233 This is a convenient mechanism, but do not expect opening chords to work
4234 without @code{\context}. For every note, a separate staff is
4237 @cindex explicit context
4238 @cindex starting with chords
4239 @cindex chords, starting with
4241 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4242 \score { \notes <c'4 es'> }
4245 Of course, if the chord is preceded by a normal note in sequential
4246 music, the chord will be interpreted by the Thread of the preceding
4248 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4249 \score { \notes { c'4 <c'4 es'> } }
4254 @node Context properties
4255 @subsection Context properties
4257 Notation contexts have properties. These properties are from
4258 the @file{.ly} file using the following expression:
4259 @cindex @code{\property}
4261 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} = @var{value}
4264 Sets the @var{propname} property of the context @var{contextname} to the
4265 specified Scheme expression @var{value}. All @var{propname} and
4266 @var{contextname} are strings, which are typically unquoted.
4268 Properties that are set in one context are inherited by all of the
4269 contained contexts. This means that a property valid for the
4270 @internalsref{Voice} context can be set in the @internalsref{Score} context (for
4271 example) and thus take effect in all @internalsref{Voice} contexts.
4273 Properties can be unset using the following expression:
4275 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} \unset
4278 @cindex properties, unsetting
4279 @cindex @code{\unset}
4281 This removes the definition of @var{propname} in @var{contextname}. If
4282 @var{propname} was not defined in @var{contextname} (but was inherited
4283 from a higher context), then this has no effect.
4288 The syntax of @code{\unset} is asymmetric: @code{\property \unset} is not
4289 the inverse of @code{\property \set}.
4291 @node Engravers and performers
4292 @subsection Engravers and performers
4296 Basic building blocks of translation are called engravers; they are
4297 special C++ classes.
4301 @c . {Context definitions}
4302 @node Changing context definitions
4303 @subsection Changing context definitions
4305 @cindex context definition
4306 @cindex translator definition
4308 The most common way to define a context is by extending an existing
4309 context. You can change an existing context from the paper block, by
4310 first initializing a translator with an existing context identifier:
4314 @var{context-identifier}
4317 Then you can add and remove engravers using the following syntax:
4319 \remove @var{engravername}
4320 \consists @var{engravername}
4324 Here @var{engravername} is a string, the name of an engraver in the
4328 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4332 \translator { \StaffContext
4333 \remove Clef_engraver
4339 You can also set properties in a translator definition. The syntax is as
4342 @var{propname} = @var{value}
4343 @var{propname} \set @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4344 @var{propname} \override @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4345 @var{propname} \revert @var{grob-propname}
4347 @var{propname} is a string, @var{grob-propname} a symbol, @var{value}
4348 and @code{pvalue} are Scheme expressions. These type of property
4349 assignments happen before interpretation starts, so a @code{\property}
4350 command will override any predefined settings.
4353 To simplify editing translators, all standard contexts have standard
4354 identifiers called @var{name}@code{Context}, e.g. @code{StaffContext},
4355 @code{VoiceContext}, see @file{ly/engraver.ly}.
4357 @node Defining new contexts
4358 @subsection Defining new contexts
4360 If you want to build a context from scratch, you must also supply the
4361 following extra information:
4363 @item A name, specified by @code{\name @var{contextname}}.
4365 @item A cooperation module. This is specified by @code{\type
4372 \type "Engraver_group_engraver"
4375 \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4376 \consists "Note_head_engraver"
4377 \consistsend "Axis_group_engraver"
4381 The argument of @code{\type} is the name for a special engraver that
4382 handles cooperation between simple engravers such as
4383 @code{Note_head_engraver} and @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. Alternatives
4384 for this engraver are the following:
4386 @cindex @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4387 @item @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4388 The standard cooperation engraver.
4390 @cindex @code{Score_engraver}
4392 @item @code{Score_engraver}
4393 This is cooperation module that should be in the top level context,
4394 and only the top level context.
4396 @cindex @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4398 @item @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4399 This is a special cooperation module (resembling
4400 @code{Score_engraver}) that is used to create an embedded
4407 @item @code{\alias} @var{alternate-name}
4408 This specifies a different name. In the above example,
4409 @code{\property Staff.X = Y} will also work on @code{SimpleStaff}s
4411 @item @code{\consistsend} @var{engravername}
4412 Analogous to @code{\consists}, but makes sure that
4413 @var{engravername} is always added to the end of the list of
4416 Some engraver types need to be at the end of the list; this
4417 insures they stay there even if a user adds or removes engravers.
4418 End-users generally don't need this command.
4420 @item @code{\accepts} @var{contextname}
4421 Add @var{contextname} to the list of contexts this context can
4422 contain in the context hierarchy. The first listed context is the
4423 context to create by default.
4425 @item @code{\denies}. The opposite of @code{\accepts}. Added for
4426 completeness, but is never used in practice.
4429 @item @code{\name} @var{contextname}
4430 This sets the type name of the context, e.g. @internalsref{Staff},
4431 @internalsref{Voice}. If the name is not specified, the translator won't do
4435 In the @code{\paper} block, it is also possible to define translator
4436 identifiers. Like other block identifiers, the identifier can only
4437 be used as the very first item of a translator. In order to define
4438 such an identifier outside of @code{\score}, you must do
4443 foo = \translator @{ @dots{} @}
4450 \translator @{ \foo @dots{} @}
4458 @cindex paper types, engravers, and pre-defined translators
4465 @c . {Syntactic details}
4466 @node Syntactic details
4467 @section Syntactic details
4468 @cindex Syntactic details
4470 This section describes details that were too boring to be put elsewhere.
4475 * Music expressions::
4476 * Manipulating music expressions::
4484 @subsection Top level
4487 This section describes what you may enter at top level.
4491 @subsubsection Score
4494 @cindex score definition
4496 The output is generated combining a music expression with an output
4497 definition. A score block has the following syntax:
4500 \score @{ @var{musicexpr} @var{outputdefs} @}
4503 @var{outputdefs} are zero or more output definitions. If none is
4504 supplied, the default @code{\paper} block will be added.
4508 @c . {Default output}
4509 @subsubsection Default output
4511 Default values for the @code{\paper} and @code{\midi} block are set by
4512 entering such a block at the top level.
4515 @subsubsection Header
4517 @cindex @code{\header}
4520 A header describes bibliographic information of the file's contents. It
4521 can also appear in a @code{\score} block. Tools like @code{ly2dvi} can
4522 use this information for generating titles. Key values that are used by
4523 @code{ly2dvi} are: title, subtitle, composer, opus, poet, instrument,
4524 meter, arranger, piece and tagline.
4526 @cindex @code{ly2dvi}
4530 \header @{ @var{key1} = @var{val1}
4531 @var{key2} = @var{val2} @dots{} @}
4534 It is customary to put the @code{\header} at the top of the file.
4536 @subsubsection Default output
4538 A @code{\midi} or @code{\paper} block at top level sets the default
4539 paper block for all scores that lack an explicit paper block.
4543 @subsection Identifiers
4547 What has this section got to do with identifiers?
4548 It seems more appropriate in the introduction to Chapter 4,
4554 All of the information in a LilyPond input file, is internally
4555 represented as a Scheme value. In addition to normal Scheme data types
4556 (such as pair, number, boolean, etc.), LilyPond has a number of
4557 specialized data types,
4564 @item Translator_def
4568 @item Music_output_def
4569 @item Moment (rational number)
4572 LilyPond also includes some transient object types. Objects of these
4573 types are built during a LilyPond run, and do not `exist' per se within
4574 your input file. These objects are created as a result of your input
4575 file, so you can include commands in the input to manipulate them,
4576 during a lilypond run.
4579 @item Grob: short for Graphical object. See @ref{Grobs}.
4580 @item Molecule: device-independent page output object,
4581 including dimensions. Produced by some Grob functions
4583 @item Translator: object that produces audio objects or Grobs. This is
4584 not yet user accessible.
4585 @item Font_metric: object representing a font. (See @ref{Font metrics})
4590 @node Music expressions
4591 @subsection Music expressions
4593 @cindex music expressions
4595 Music in LilyPond is entered as a music expression. Notes, rests, lyric
4596 syllables are music expressions, and you can combine music expressions
4597 to form new ones, for example by enclosing a list of expressions in
4598 @code{\sequential @{ @}} or @code{< >}. In the following example, a
4599 compound expression is formed out of the quarter note @code{c} and a
4600 quarter note @code{d}:
4603 \sequential @{ c4 d4 @}
4606 @cindex Sequential music
4607 @cindex @code{\sequential}
4608 @cindex sequential music
4611 @cindex Simultaneous music
4612 @cindex @code{\simultaneous}
4614 The two basic compound music expressions are simultaneous and
4618 \sequential @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4619 \simultaneous @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4621 For both, there is a shorthand:
4623 @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4627 @code{<} @var{musicexprlist} @code{>}
4629 for simultaneous music.
4630 In principle, the way in which you nest sequential and simultaneous to
4631 produce music is not relevant. In the following example, three chords
4632 are expressed in two different ways:
4634 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4635 \notes \context Voice {
4636 <a c'> <b d' > <c' e'>
4637 < { a b c' } { c' d' e' } >
4642 Other compound music expressions include
4645 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{expr}
4646 \apply @var{func} @var{expr}
4647 \context @var{type} = @var{id} @var{expr}
4648 \times @var{fraction} @var{expr}
4652 @c . {Manipulating music expressions}
4653 @node Manipulating music expressions
4654 @subsection Manipulating music expressions
4656 The @code{\apply} mechanism gives you access to the internal
4657 representation of music. You can write Scheme-functions that operate
4658 directly on it. The syntax is
4660 \apply #@var{func} @var{music}
4662 This means that @var{func} is applied to @var{music}. The function
4663 @var{func} should return a music expression.
4665 This example replaces the text string of a script. It also shows a dump
4666 of the music it processes, which is useful if you want to know more
4667 about how music is stored.
4669 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4670 #(define (testfunc x)
4671 (if (equal? (ly-get-mus-property x 'text) "foo")
4672 (ly-set-mus-property x 'text "bar"))
4674 (ly-set-mus-property x 'elements
4675 (map testfunc (ly-get-mus-property x 'elements)))
4680 \apply #testfunc { c'4_"foo" }
4684 For more information on what is possible, see the automatically
4685 generated documentation.
4688 Directly accessing internal representations is dangerous: the
4689 implementation is subject to changes, so you should avoid this feature
4692 A final example is a function that reverses a piece of music in time:
4694 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4695 #(define (reverse-music music)
4696 (let* ((elements (ly-get-mus-property music 'elements))
4697 (reversed (reverse elements))
4698 (span-dir (ly-get-mus-property music 'span-direction)))
4699 (ly-set-mus-property music 'elements reversed)
4701 (ly-set-mus-property music 'span-direction (- span-dir)))
4702 (map reverse-music reversed)
4705 music = \notes { c'4 d'4( e'4 f'4 }
4707 \score { \context Voice {
4709 \apply #reverse-music \music
4714 More examples are given in the distributed example files in
4717 @c . {Span requests}
4723 @subsubsection Span requests
4724 @cindex Span requests
4726 Notational constructs that start and end on different notes can be
4727 entered using span requests. The syntax is as follows:
4731 \spanrequest @var{startstop} @var{type}
4735 @cindex @code{\start}
4736 @cindex @code{\stop}
4738 This defines a spanning request. The @var{startstop} parameter is either
4739 -1 (@code{\start}) or 1 (@code{\stop}) and @var{type} is a string that
4740 describes what should be started. Much of the syntactic sugar is a
4741 shorthand for @code{\spanrequest}, for example,
4743 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4744 c'4-\spanrequest \start "slur"
4745 c'4-\spanrequest \stop "slur"
4748 Among the supported types are @code{crescendo}, @code{decrescendo},
4749 @code{beam}, @code{slur}. This is an internal command. Users are
4750 encouraged to use the shorthands which are defined in the initialization
4751 file @file{spanners.ly}.
4756 @subsection Assignments
4759 Identifiers allow objects to be assigned to names during the parse
4760 stage. To assign an identifier, you use @var{name}@code{=}@var{value}
4761 and to refer to an identifier, you precede its name with a backslash:
4762 `@code{\}@var{name}'. @var{value} is any valid Scheme value or any of
4763 the input-types listed above. Identifier assignments can appear at top
4764 level in the LilyPond file, but also in @code{\paper} blocks.
4766 An identifier can be created with any string for its name, but you will
4767 only be able to refer to identifiers whose names begin with a letter,
4768 being entirely alphabetical. It is impossible to refer to an identifier
4769 whose name is the same as the name of a keyword.
4771 The right hand side of an identifier assignment is parsed completely
4772 before the assignment is done, so it is allowed to redefine an
4773 identifier in terms of its old value, e.g.
4779 When an identifier is referenced, the information it points to is
4780 copied. For this reason, an identifier reference must always be the
4781 first item in a block.
4785 \paperIdent % wrong and invalid
4789 \paperIdent % correct
4794 @c . {Lexical modes}
4796 @subsection Lexical modes
4797 @cindex Lexical modes
4800 @cindex @code{\notes}
4801 @cindex @code{\chords}
4802 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
4804 To simplify entering notes, lyrics, and chords, LilyPond has three
4805 special input modes in addition to the default mode: note, lyrics and
4806 chords mode. These input modes change the way that normal, unquoted
4807 words are interpreted: for example, the word @code{cis} may be
4808 interpreted as a C-sharp, as a lyric syllable `cis' or as a C-sharp
4809 major triad respectively.
4811 A mode switch is entered as a compound music expression
4813 @code{\notes} @var{musicexpr}
4814 @code{\chords} @var{musicexpr}
4815 @code{\lyrics} @var{musicexpr}.
4818 In each of these cases, these expressions do not add anything to the
4819 meaning of their arguments. They just instruct the parser in what mode
4820 to parse their arguments. The modes are treated in more detail in
4821 @ref{Lyrics} and @ref{Chords}.
4823 Different input modes may be nested.
4827 @subsection Ambiguities
4832 The grammar contains a number of ambiguities. We hope to resolve them at
4836 @item The assignment
4841 is interpreted as the string identifier assignment. However,
4842 it can also be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
4843 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo}
4844 containing the syllable `bar'.
4846 @item If you do a nested repeat like
4858 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the
4859 @code{\alternative} belongs. This is the classic if-then-else
4860 dilemma. It may be solved by using braces.
4862 @item The parser is not sophisticated enough to distinguish at the
4864 @code{c4*2 / 3 } and @code{c4*2 / g} (in chord mode).
4871 @c . {Lexical details}
4872 @node Lexical details
4873 @section Lexical details
4875 Even more boring details, now on lexical side of the input parser.
4886 * Version information::
4891 @subsection Comments
4894 @cindex block comment
4895 @cindex line comment
4899 A one line comment is introduced by a @code{%} character.
4900 Block comments are started by @code{%@{} and ended by @code{%@}}.
4901 They cannot be nested.
4904 @subsection Direct Scheme
4908 @cindex Scheme, in-line code
4911 LilyPond contains a Scheme interpreter (the GUILE library) for
4912 internal use. In some places, Scheme expressions also form valid syntax:
4913 wherever it is allowed,
4917 evaluates the specified Scheme code. Example:
4919 \property Staff.TestObject \override #'foobar = #(+ 1 2)
4921 @code{\override} expects two Scheme expressions, so there are two Scheme
4922 expressions. The first one is a symbol (@code{foobar}), the second one
4923 an integer (namely, 3).
4925 In-line scheme may be used at the top level. In this case the result is
4928 Scheme is a full-blown programming language, and a full discussion is
4929 outside the scope of this document. Interested readers are referred to
4930 the website @uref{http://www.schemers.org/} for more information on
4935 @subsection Keywords
4939 Keywords start with a backslash, followed by a number of lower case
4940 alphabetic characters. These are all the keywords.
4943 apply arpeggio autochange spanrequest commandspanrequest
4944 simultaneous sequential accepts alternative bar breathe
4945 char chordmodifiers chords clef cm consists consistsend
4946 context denies duration dynamicscript elementdescriptions
4947 font grace header in lyrics key mark pitch
4948 time times midi mm name pitchnames notes outputproperty
4949 override set revert partial paper penalty property pt
4950 relative remove repeat addlyrics partcombine score
4951 script stylesheet skip textscript tempo translator
4956 @subsection Integers
4964 Formed from an optional minus sign followed by digits. Arithmetic
4965 operations cannot be done with integers, and integers cannot be mixed
4970 @cindex real numbers
4976 Formed from an optional minus sign and a sequence of digits followed
4977 by a @emph{required} decimal point and an optional exponent such as
4978 @code{-1.2e3}. Reals can be built up using the usual operations:
4979 `@code{+}', `@code{-}', `@code{*}', and
4980 `@code{/}', with parentheses for grouping.
4988 A real constant can be followed by one of the dimension keywords:
4989 @code{\mm} @code{\pt}, @code{\in}, or @code{\cm}, for millimeters,
4990 points, inches and centimeters, respectively. This converts the number
4991 a number that is the internal representation of that dimension.
4999 Begins and ends with the @code{"} character. To include a @code{"}
5000 character in a string write @code{\"}. Various other backslash
5001 sequences have special interpretations as in the C language. A string
5002 that contains no spaces can be written without the quotes. Strings can
5003 be concatenated with the @code{+} operator.
5007 @subsection Main input
5010 @cindex @code{\maininput}
5012 The @code{\maininput} command is used in init files to signal that the
5013 user file must be read. This command cannot be used in a user file.
5015 @node File inclusion
5016 @subsection File inclusion
5017 @cindex @code{\include}
5019 \include @var{filename}
5022 Include @var{filename}. The argument @var{filename} may be a quoted string (an
5023 unquoted string will not work here!) or a string identifier. The full
5024 filename including the @file{.ly} extension must be given,
5027 @node Version information
5028 @subsection Version information
5029 @cindex @code{\version}
5031 \version @var{string}
5034 Specify the version of LilyPond that a file was written for. The
5035 argument is a version string in quotes, for example @code{"1.2.0"}.
5036 This is used to detect invalid input, and to aid
5037 @code{convert-ly} a tool that automatically upgrades input files. See
5038 See @ref{convert-ly} for more information on @code{convert-ly}.
5047 @c .{Local emacs vars}
5050 @c minor-mode: font-lock
5051 @c minor-mode: outline
5052 @c outline-layout: (-1 : 0)
5053 @c outline-use-mode-specific-leader: "@c \."
5054 @c outline-primary-bullet: "{"
5055 @c outline-stylish-prefixes: nil
5056 @c outline-override-protect: t