3 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
4 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
5 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
7 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
11 @chapter Notation manual
14 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
20 * Easier music entry::
36 * Contemporary notation::
42 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
53 * Chromatic alterations::
59 * Automatic note splitting ::
61 * Easy Notation note heads ::
69 A note is printed by specifying its pitch and then its duration.
70 @footnote{Notes constitute the most basic elements of LilyPond input,
71 but they do not form valid input on their own without a @code{\score}
72 block. However, for the sake of brevity and simplicity we will
73 generally omit @code{\score} blocks and @code{\paper} declarations in
76 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
85 @cindex Note specification
87 @cindex entering notes
89 The most common syntax for pitch entry is used in @code{\chords} and
90 @code{\notes} mode. In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated
91 by names. The notes are specified by the letters @code{a} through
92 @code{g}, while the octave is formed with notes ranging from @code{c}
93 to @code{b}. The pitch @code{c} is an octave below middle C and the
94 letters span the octave above that C.
96 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
98 a,4 b, c d e f g a b c' d' e' \clef treble f' g' a' b' c''
101 @cindex note names, Dutch
103 A sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
104 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and
105 double flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}.
107 These default names are the Dutch note names. In Dutch, @code{aes} is
108 contracted to @code{as} in Dutch, but both forms are
109 accepted. Similarly, both @code{es} and @code{ees} are accepted.
111 There are predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
112 To use them, include the language specific init file. For
113 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files
114 and the note names they define are:
119 Note Names sharp flat
120 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
121 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
122 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
123 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
124 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
125 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
126 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
127 espanol.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -s -b
136 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
137 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
138 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
139 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
141 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
142 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
146 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
148 @cindex @code{\pitch}
150 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
153 where @var{scmpitch} is a Scheme object of the @code{Pitch} type.
158 @internalsref{NoteEvent}, @internalsref{NoteHead}
160 @node Chromatic alterations
161 @subsection Chromatic alterations
163 Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also
164 print them manually. A reminder accidental
165 @cindex reminder accidental
167 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!}
168 after the pitch. A cautionary accidental
169 @cindex cautionary accidental
170 @cindex parenthesized accidental
171 (an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the
172 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
174 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
175 cis' cis' cis'! cis'?
179 The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many
180 ways. For more information, refer to @ref{Accidentals}.
185 A chord is formed by a enclosing a set of pitches in @code{<<} and
188 TODO: accidental overides?
197 Rests are entered like notes, with the note name @code{r}.
199 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
203 Whole bar rests, centered in middle of the bar, are specified using
204 @code{R} (capital R); see @ref{Multi measure rests}. See also
207 For some music, you may wish to explicitly specify the rest's vertical
208 position. This can be achieved by entering a note with the @code{\rest}
209 keyword appended. Rest collision testing will leave these rests alone.
211 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
217 @internalsref{RestEvent}, @internalsref{Rest}
224 @cindex Invisible rest
227 An invisible rest (also called a `skip') can be entered like a note
228 with note name `@code{s}' or with @code{\skip @var{duration}}:
230 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
234 The @code{s} syntax is only available in Note mode and Chord
235 mode. In other situations, you should use the @code{\skip} command,
236 which will work outside of those two modes:
238 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
241 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
242 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
247 The skip command is merely an empty musical placeholder. It does not
248 produce any output, not even transparent output.
252 @internalsref{SkipEvent}
257 @subsection Durations
261 @cindex @code{\duration}
264 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations are designated by numbers
265 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For example,
266 a quarter note is entered using a @code{4} (since it is a 1/4 note), while
267 a half note is entered using a @code{2} (since it is a 1/2 note). For notes
268 longer than a whole you must use variables.
270 @c FIXME: what is an identifier? I do not think it's been introduced yet.
271 @c and if it has, I obviously skipped that part. - Graham
275 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
277 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
282 \notes \relative c'' {
284 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
286 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
291 \remove "Clef_engraver"
292 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
293 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
294 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
301 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previously entered
302 duration. Default for the first note is a quarter note. The duration
303 can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') in order to obtain dotted note
307 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
308 a' b' c''8 b' a'4 a'4. b'4.. c'8.
313 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M}
314 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
315 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
317 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
318 a'2*2 b'4*2 a'8*4 a'4*3/2 gis'4*3/2 a'4*3/2 a'4
321 Durations can also be produced through GUILE extension mechanism.
322 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
323 c'\duration #(ly:make-duration 2 1)
329 Dot placement for chords is not perfect. In some cases, dots overlap:
342 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in
343 effect extends the length of a note. Ties should not be confused with
344 slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate
345 musical phrasing. A tie is entered using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'.
347 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
348 e' ~ e' <<c' e' g'>> ~ <<c' e' g'>>
351 When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads whose pitches match
352 are connected. When no note heads match, no ties will be created.
354 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
355 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
356 exactly the same concept.
358 @lilypond[fragment, singleline,quote]
359 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
361 If you need to tie notes over bars, it may be easier to use automatic
362 note splitting (See @ref{Automatic note splitting}).
367 @internalsref{TieEvent}, @internalsref{NewTieEvent},
368 @internalsref{Tie}, @ref{Automatic note splitting}.
371 ties created for a chord, see @inputfileref{input/test,tie-sparse.ly}.
375 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a pair of chords is not
376 supported in a simple way. It can be achieved by moving the
377 tie-engraver into the @internalsref{Thread} context and turning on and
378 off ties per @internalsref{Thread}.
380 Switching staves when a tie is active, will produce a horizontal tie
383 Formatting of ties is a difficult subject. The results are often not
388 @node Automatic note splitting
389 @subsection Automatic note splitting
390 @c FIXME: This subsection does not belong in @ref{Note entry}.
392 Long notes can be converted automatically to tied notes. This is done
393 by replacing the @internalsref{Note_heads_engraver} by the
394 @internalsref{Completion_heads_engraver}.
397 \paper @{ \translator @{
399 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
400 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
409 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
417 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
419 \paper { \translator {
421 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
422 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
427 This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts
428 ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are
429 not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how much each measure
434 Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be
435 represented exactly; the engraver will not insert tuplets.
442 @cindex @code{\times}
444 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all durations
447 @cindex @code{\times}
449 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
452 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
453 In the sheet music, the fraction's denominator will be printed over
454 the notes, optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the
455 triplet in which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3
456 of their written length:
458 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
459 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
462 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
463 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
464 @code{\times} only once, saving lots of typing.
466 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
467 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
468 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
471 The format of the number is determined by the property
472 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
473 denominator, but if it is set to the Scheme function
474 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, @var{num}:@var{den} will be printed
478 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
479 @cindex tuplet formatting
483 @seeinternals{TupletBracket}, @seeinternals{TimeScaledMusic}.
487 Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically. In this case, outer
488 tuplet brackets should be moved manually.
490 @node Easy Notation note heads
491 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
493 @cindex easy notation
496 The `easyplay' note head includes a note name inside the head. It is
497 used in music aimed at beginners.
499 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,26pt]
501 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
502 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
506 The @code{EasyNotation} variable overrides a @internalsref{Score}
507 context. You probably will want to print it with magnification or a
508 large font size to make it more readable. To print with
509 magnification, you must create a DVI file (with @file{ly2dvi}) and
510 then enlarge it with something like @file{dvips -x 2000 file.dvi}.
511 See @file{man dvips} for details. To print with a larger font, see
518 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through
519 the letters. Printing the PostScript file obtained with ly2dvi does
520 produce the correct result.
523 @node Easier music entry
524 @section Easier music entry
529 * Skipping corrected music::
532 When entering music it is easy to introduce errors. This section deals
533 with tricks and features that help entering music, and find and
534 correct mistakes. It is also possible to use external programs, for
535 example GUI interfaces, or MIDI transcription programs, to enter or
536 edit music. Refer to the website for more information.
540 @node Relative octaves
541 @subsection Relative octaves
543 @cindex relative octave specification
545 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
546 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch
547 in the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. The relative
548 octave mode prevents these errors
550 @cindex @code{\relative}
552 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
555 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
556 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
557 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
558 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
559 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
562 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
563 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
564 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
565 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
567 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
568 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
574 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
575 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
580 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
581 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
582 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
585 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
592 @cindex @code{\notes}
594 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
595 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
596 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
599 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
600 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
601 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
602 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
606 @subsection Bar check
610 @cindex @code{barCheckSynchronize}
614 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
615 message is issued if it does not fall at a measure boundary. This can
616 help find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
617 @code{barCheckSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
618 relocated. A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, `@code{|}'.
621 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
626 @cindex skipTypesetting
628 Failed bar checks are caused by entering incorrect
629 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
630 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the
631 score by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To
632 speed up this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting}, described
635 @node Skipping corrected music
636 @subsection Skipping corrected music
638 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
639 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
640 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
641 This can be used to skip over the parts of a score that have already
642 been checked for errors.
644 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
646 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
648 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
656 @section Staff notation
658 This section describes with music notation that occurs on staff level,
659 such as keys, clefs and time signatures.
661 @cindex Staff notation
673 @subsection Staff symbol
675 @cindex adjusting staff symbol
676 @cindex StaffSymbol, using \property
677 @cindex staff lines, setting number of
679 Notes, dynamic signs, etc. are grouped
680 with a set of horizontal lines, into a staff (plural `staves'). In our
681 system, these lines are drawn using a separate graphical object called
684 This object is created whenever a @internalsref{Staff} context is
685 created. The appearance of the staff symbol cannot be changed by
686 using @code{\override} or @code{\set}. At the moment that
687 @code{\property Staff} is interpreted, a @internalsref{Staff} context
688 is made, and the @internalsref{StaffSymbol} is created before any
689 @code{\override} is effective. Properties can be changed in a
690 @code{\translator} definition, or by using @code{\outputproperty}.
694 If a staff is ended halfway a piece, the staff symbol may not end
695 exactly on the barline.
699 @subsection Key signature
704 The key signature indicates the scale in which a piece is played. It
705 is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of
710 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
713 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
716 @cindex @code{\minor}
717 @cindex @code{\major}
718 @cindex @code{\minor}
719 @cindex @code{\ionian}
720 @cindex @code{\locrian}
721 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
722 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
723 @cindex @code{\lydian}
724 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
725 @cindex @code{\dorian}
727 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
728 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
729 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
730 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
731 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
733 This command sets the context property
734 @internalsref{Staff}.@code{keySignature}. Non-standard key signatures
735 can be specified by setting this property directly.
739 The ordering of a key restoration (alterations that change back to
740 natural) is wrong when combined with a repeat barline.
744 @internalsref{KeyChangeEvent}, @internalsref{KeySignature}.
746 @cindex @code{keySignature}
753 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
758 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command:
759 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
760 \key f\major c''2 \clef alto g'2
763 Supported clef-names include
764 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
766 @item treble, violin, G, G2
775 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
790 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
791 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. @var{clefname} must
792 be enclosed in quotes when it contains underscores or digits. For
798 This command is equivalent to setting @code{clefGlyph},
799 @code{clefPosition} (which controls the Y position of the clef),
800 @code{centralCPosition} and @code{clefOctavation}. A clef is printed
801 when any of these properties are changed.
805 The object for this symbol is @internalsref{Clef}.
811 @subsection Time signature
812 @cindex Time signature
816 Time signature indicates the metrum of a piece: a regular pattern of
817 strong and weak beats. It is denoted by a fraction at the start of the
822 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
824 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
825 \time 2/4 c'2 \time 3/4 c'2.
828 The actual symbol that is printed can be customized with the
829 @code{style} property. Setting it to @code{#'()} uses fraction style
830 for 4/4 and 2/2 time. There are many more options for its layout.
831 See @inputfileref{input/test,time.ly} for more examples.
834 This command sets the property @code{timeSignatureFraction},
835 @code{beatLength} and @code{measureLength} in the @code{Timing}
836 context, which is normally aliased to @internalsref{Score}. The
837 property @code{timeSignatureFraction} determines where bar lines
838 should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated.
839 Changing the value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes the
840 symbol to be printed.
842 More options are available through the Scheme function
843 @code{set-time-signature}. In combination with the
844 @internalsref{Measure_grouping_engraver}, it will create
845 @internalsref{MeasureGrouping} signs. Such signs ease reading
846 rhythmically complex modern music. In the following example, the 9/8
847 measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to
848 @code{set-time-signature} as the third argument @code{(2 2 2 3)}.
851 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
852 #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3))
853 g8-[ g-] d-[ d-] g-[ g-] a8-[-( bes g-]-) |
854 #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2))
859 \translator { \StaffContext
860 \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
866 @internalsref{TimeSignature}, @internalsref{Timing_engraver}.
871 Automatic beaming does not use measure grouping specified with
872 @code{set-time-signature}.
879 @cindex partial measure
880 @cindex measure, partial
881 @cindex shorten measures
882 @cindex @code{\partial}
884 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
885 @code{\partial} command:
886 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
887 \partial 16*5 c'16 c4 f16 a'2. ~ a'8. a'16 | g'1
890 The syntax for this command is
892 \partial @var{duration}
894 This is internally translated into
896 \property Timing.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
899 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
900 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
902 @node Unmetered music
903 @subsection Unmetered music
905 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
906 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. By setting
907 @code{Score.timing} to false, this automatic timing can be switched
911 @subsection Bar lines
915 @cindex measure lines
919 Bar lines delimit measures, but are also used to indicate
920 repeats. Line breaks may only happen on barlines.
924 Bar lines are inserted automatically. Special types
925 of barlines can be forced with the @code{\bar} command:
926 @lilypond[relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
930 The following bar types are available
931 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
943 In scores with many staves, the barlines are automatically placed at
944 top level, and they are connected between different staves of a
945 @internalsref{StaffGroup}:
946 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
947 < \context StaffGroup <
948 \context Staff = up { e'4 d'
951 \context Staff = down { \clef bass c4 g e g } >
952 \context Staff = pedal { \clef bass c2 c2 } >
956 The command @code{\bar @var{bartype}} is a short cut for
957 doing @code{\property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}}
958 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
959 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
960 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
961 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
963 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
964 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
965 @code{whichBar} settings.
968 @cindex repeatCommands
969 @cindex defaultBarType
971 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
981 The bar line objects that are created at @internalsref{Staff} level
982 are called @internalsref{BarLine}, the bar lines that span staffs are
983 @internalsref{SpanBar}s.
990 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff
991 is to split chords using the separator @code{\\}. You can use it for
992 small, short-lived voices or for single chords:
994 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
995 \context Voice = VA \relative c'' {
996 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ b, \\ f' \\ d' >
1000 The separator causes @internalsref{Voice} contexts to be instantiated,
1001 bearing the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc. In each of these
1002 contexts, vertical direction of slurs, stems, etc. are set
1005 This can also be done by instantiating @internalsref{Voice} contexts
1006 by hand, and using @code{\voiceOne}, up to @code{\voiceFour} to assign
1007 a stem directions and horizontal shift for each part.
1010 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
1012 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
1013 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
1014 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
1017 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
1018 when the object property @code{merge-differently-dotted} is set in
1019 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} object, they are:
1020 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
1021 \relative c' \context Voice < {
1023 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override
1024 #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
1026 } \\ { g8.-[ f16-] g8.-[ f16-] }
1030 Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting
1031 @code{merge-differently-headed}:
1032 @lilypond[fragment, relative=2,verbatim]
1035 \property Staff.NoteCollision
1036 \override #'merge-differently-headed = ##t
1037 c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >
1040 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
1042 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1043 \context Voice < c''4 \\ r4 >
1048 The objects responsible for resolving collisions are
1049 @internalsref{NoteCollision} and @internalsref{RestCollision}. See
1050 also example files @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-dots.ly},
1051 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-head-chords.ly},
1052 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-heads.ly},
1053 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-mesh.ly}, and
1054 @inputfileref{input/regression,collisions.ly}.
1059 Resolving collisions is a intricate subject, and only a few situations
1060 are handled. When LilyPond cannot cope, the @code{force-hshift}
1061 property of the @internalsref{NoteColumn} object and pitched rests can
1062 be used to override typesetting decisions.
1067 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
1068 the metrum. They are inserted automatically in most cases.
1070 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1071 \time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
1074 When these automatic decisions are not good enough, beaming can be
1075 entered explicitly. It is also possible to define beaming patterns
1076 that differ from the defaults.
1080 @internalsref{Beam}.
1083 @cindex Automatic beams
1084 @subsection Manual beams
1085 @cindex beams, manual
1089 In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming
1090 algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over rests or
1091 bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point manually
1092 using @code{[} and @code{]}.
1094 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1096 r4 r8-[ g' a r8-] r8 g-[ | a-] r8
1100 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1102 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1103 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1104 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount} can
1105 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If either property
1106 is set, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1108 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1111 f8-[ r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a-]
1114 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1117 The property @code{subdivideBeams} can be set in order to subdivide
1118 all 16th or shorter beams at beat positions. This accomplishes the
1119 same effect as twiddling with @code{stemLeftBeamCount} and
1120 @code{stemRightBeamCount}, but it take less typing.
1123 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,noindent]
1124 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1125 \property Voice.subdivideBeams = ##t
1126 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1127 c32-[ c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c-]
1128 \property Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
1129 c32-[ c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c-]
1131 @cindex subdivideBeams
1133 Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap is detected
1134 between the note heads. This behavior can be tuned through the object
1135 property @code{auto-knee-gap}.
1137 @cindex beams, kneed
1139 @cindex auto-knee-gap
1147 Automatically kneed beams cannot be used together with Hara Kiri
1152 * Setting automatic beam behavior ::
1156 @no de Beam typography
1157 @sub section Beam typography
1159 One of the strong points of LilyPond is how beams are formatted. Beams
1160 are quantized, meaning that the left and right endpoints beams start
1161 exactly on staff lines. Without quantization, small wedges of white
1162 space appear between the beam and staff line, and this looks untidy.
1164 Beams are also slope-damped: melodies that go up or down should also
1165 have beams that go up or down, but the slope of the beams should be
1166 less than the slope of the notes themselves.
1168 Some beams should be horizontal. These are so-called concave beams.
1170 [TODO: some pictures.]
1174 @node Setting automatic beam behavior
1175 @subsection Setting automatic beam behavior
1177 @cindex @code{autoBeamSettings}
1178 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
1179 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
1180 @cindex automatic beams, tuning
1181 @cindex tuning automatic beaming
1183 [TODO: use \applycontext]
1185 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
1186 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
1187 or at durations specified by the properties in
1188 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
1189 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
1191 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
1192 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
1194 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
1195 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
1197 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
1198 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
1199 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
1200 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
1201 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
1204 For example, if automatic beams should end on every quarter note, use
1207 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1208 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
1210 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1211 entered as @code{(ly:make-moment 1 4)}.
1213 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1214 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
1216 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1217 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1219 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1220 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1221 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1223 Rules can also be restricted to specific time signatures. A rule that
1224 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1225 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1226 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1228 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1229 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1232 If a rule should be to applied only to certain types of beams, use the
1233 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the
1234 shortest note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies
1235 to beams with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), use @code{(end 1 32 *
1238 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1239 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1241 @cindex automatic beam generation
1243 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeaming}
1246 For melodies that have lyrics, you may want to switch off
1247 automatic beaming. This is done by setting @code{Voice.autoBeaming} to
1253 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1254 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1255 durations, i.e., you will have to specify manual beams to get:
1257 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,relative,noverbatim,quote]
1258 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1259 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1260 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c-[ c c c-] c8 c c4
1262 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1263 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1264 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1267 @section Accidentals
1270 This section describes how to change the way that LilyPond automatically
1271 inserts accidentals before the running notes.
1275 * Using the predefined accidental variables::
1276 * Customized accidental rules::
1279 @node Using the predefined accidental variables
1280 @subsection Using the predefined accidental variables
1282 The constructs for describing the accidental typesetting rules are
1283 quite hairy, so non-experts should stick to the variables
1284 defined in @file{ly/property-init.ly}.
1285 @cindex @file{property-init.ly}
1287 The variables set properties in the ``Current'' context (see
1288 @ref{Context properties}). This means that the variables should
1289 normally be added right after the creation of the context in which the
1290 accidental typesetting described by the variable is to take
1291 effect. For example, if you want to use piano-accidentals in a piano
1292 staff then issue @code{\pianoAccidentals} first thing after the
1293 creation of the piano staff:
1296 \notes \relative c'' <
1297 \context Staff = sa @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1298 \context GrandStaff <
1300 \context Staff = sb @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1301 \context Staff = sc @{ es2 c @}
1303 \context Staff = sd @{ es2 c @}
1307 @lilypond[singleline]
1309 \notes \relative c'' <
1310 \context Staff = sa { cis4 d e2 }
1311 \context GrandStaff <
1313 \context Staff = sb { cis4 d e2 }
1314 \context Staff = sc { es2 c }
1316 \context Staff = sd { es2 c }
1321 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 4.0)
1329 @item \defaultAccidentals
1330 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1331 This is the default typesetting behaviour. It should correspond
1332 to 18th century common practice: Accidentals are
1333 remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and
1334 only on their own octave.
1336 @item \voiceAccidentals
1337 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1339 The normal behaviour is to
1340 remember the accidentals on Staff-level. This variable, however,
1341 typesets accidentals individually for each voice. Apart from that the
1342 rule is similar to @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1344 This leads to some weird and often unwanted results
1345 because accidentals from one voice do not get cancelled in other
1347 @lilypond[singleline,relative,fragment,verbatim,quote]
1355 Hence you should only use @code{\voiceAccidentals} if the voices
1356 are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff is to be
1357 used by one musician (e.g., a conductor) then you use
1358 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals} or @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1361 @item \modernAccidentals
1362 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1363 This rule corresponds to the common practice in the 20th
1365 The rule is more complex than @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1366 You get all the same accidentals, but temporary
1367 accidentals also get cancelled in other octaves. Further more,
1368 in the same octave, they also get cancelled in the following measure:
1369 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1371 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1374 @item \modernCautionaries
1375 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1376 This rule is similar to @code{\modernAccidentals}, but the
1377 ``extra'' accidentals (the ones not typeset by
1378 @code{\defaultAccidentals}) are typeset as cautionary accidentals
1379 (i.e. in reduced size):
1380 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1382 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1385 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1386 @item \modernVoiceAccidentals
1387 is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians
1388 playing one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are
1389 typeset for each voice, but they @emph{are} cancelled across voices in
1390 the same @internalsref{Staff}.
1392 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1393 @item \modernVoiceCautionaries
1394 is the same as @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}, but with the extra
1395 accidentals (the ones not typeset by @code{\voiceAccidentals}) typeset
1396 as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset by
1397 @code{\defaultAccidentals} @emph{are} typeset by this variable then
1398 some of them are typeset as cautionaries.
1400 @item \pianoAccidentals
1401 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1402 20th century practice for piano notation. Very similar to
1403 @code{\modernAccidentals} but accidentals also get cancelled
1404 across the staves in the same @internalsref{GrandStaff} or
1405 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.
1407 @item \pianoCautionaries
1408 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1409 As @code{\pianoAccidentals} but with the extra accidentals
1410 typeset as cautionaries.
1413 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1414 Same as @code{\defaultAccidentals} but with accidentals lasting
1415 ``forever'' and not only until the next measure:
1416 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1421 @item \forgetAccidentals
1422 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1423 This is sort of the opposite of @code{\noResetKey}: Accidentals
1424 are not remembered at all - and hence all accidentals are
1425 typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what was
1426 before in the music:
1427 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1429 \key d\major c4 c cis cis d d dis dis
1433 @node Customized accidental rules
1434 @subsection Customized accidental rules
1436 This section must be considered gurus-only, and hence it must be
1437 sufficient with a short description of the system and a reference to
1438 the internal documentation.
1440 The algorithm tries several different rules, and uses the rule
1441 that gives the highest number of accidentals. Each rule consists of
1444 In which context is the rule applied. For example, if
1445 @var{context} is @internalsref{Score} then all staves share
1446 accidentals, and if @var{context} is @internalsref{Staff} then all
1447 voices in the same staff share accidentals, but staves do not.
1449 Whether the accidental changes all octaves or only the current
1452 Over how many barlines the accidental lasts.
1453 If @var{lazyness} is @code{-1} then the accidental is forget
1454 immediately, and if @var{lazyness} is @code{#t} then the accidental
1457 [TODO: should use +infinity for this case?]
1463 @internalsref{Accidental_engraver}, @internalsref{Accidental},
1464 @internalsref{AccidentalPlacement}.
1469 Currently the simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in
1470 sequential mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are
1471 typeset as if the notes in the chord happened one at a time - in the
1472 order in which they appear in the input file.
1474 This is only a problem when there are simultaneous notes whose
1475 accidentals depend on each other. The problem only occurs when using
1476 non-default accidentals. In the default scheme, accidentals only
1477 depend on other accidentals with the same pitch on the same staff, so
1478 no conflicts possible.
1480 This example shows two examples of the same music giving different
1481 accidentals depending on the order in which the notes occur in the
1484 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1485 \property Staff.autoAccidentals = #'( Staff (any-octave . 0) )
1486 cis'4 <<c'' c'>> r2 | cis'4 <<c' c''>> r2
1487 | <<cis' c''>> r | <<c'' cis'>> r |
1490 This problem can be solved by manually inserting @code{!} and @code{?}
1491 for the problematic notes.
1493 @node Expressive marks
1494 @section Expressive marks
1503 * Analysis brackets::
1510 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1514 They are entered using parentheses:
1515 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1516 f'-( g'-)-( a'-) a'8-[ b'-(-] a'4 g'2 f'4-)
1517 <<c' e'>>2-( <<b d'>>2-)
1521 @c TODO: should explain that ^( and _( set directions
1522 @c should set attachments with ^ and _ ?
1524 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1525 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1526 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1527 object property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1528 @internalsref{Voice} context. Its value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1529 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1531 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1533 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1535 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1539 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1540 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1541 stems might look better:
1543 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1546 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1552 @seeinternals{Slur}, @internalsref{SlurEvent}.
1557 Producing nice slurs is a difficult problem, and LilyPond currently
1558 uses a simple, empiric method to produce slurs. In some cases, the
1559 results of this method are ugly.
1562 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1564 @node Phrasing slurs
1565 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1567 @cindex phrasing slurs
1568 @cindex phrasing marks
1570 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1571 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1574 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1575 \time 6/4 c'-\( d-( e-) f-( e-) d-\)
1578 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a
1579 normal slur. However, they are treated as different objects. A
1580 @code{\slurUp} will have no effect on a phrasing slur; instead, you
1581 should use @code{\phrasingSlurUp}, @code{\phrasingSlurDown}, and
1582 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}.
1584 The commands @code{\slurUp}, @code{\slurDown}, and @code{\slurBoth}
1585 will only affect normal slurs and not phrasing slurs.
1589 See also @internalsref{PhrasingSlur},
1590 @internalsref{PhrasingSlurEvent}.
1594 Phrasing slurs have the same limitations in their formatting as normal
1598 @subsection Breath marks
1600 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}.
1603 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1607 The glyph of the breath mark can be tweaked by overriding the
1608 @code{text} property of the @code{BreathingSign} grob with the name of
1609 any glyph of @ref{The Feta font}. For example,
1610 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative]
1612 \property Voice.BreathingSign \override #'text = #"scripts-rvarcomma"
1619 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
1620 @inputfileref{input/regression,breathing-sign.ly}.
1623 @node Metronome marks
1624 @subsection Metronome marks
1627 @cindex beats per minute
1628 @cindex metronome marking
1630 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1632 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1634 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1637 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1642 @internalsref{TempoEvent}
1646 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1647 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1648 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1650 [TODO: make note markup.]
1654 @subsection Text spanners
1655 @cindex Text spanners
1657 Some textual indications, e.g. @i{rallentando} or @i{accelerando}, are
1658 often extended over many measures. This is indicated by following the
1659 text with a dotted line. You can create such texts using text
1660 spanners. The syntax is as follows:
1665 The string to be printed, as well as the style, is set through object
1668 An application is to fake octavation indications.
1670 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1671 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1672 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1673 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1674 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1675 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1676 a-\startTextSpan b c a-\stopTextSpan }
1682 @internalsref{TextSpanEvent},
1683 @internalsref{TextSpanner}, @inputfileref{input/regression,text-spanner.ly}.
1686 @node Analysis brackets
1687 @subsection Analysis brackets
1689 @cindex phrasing brackets
1690 @cindex musicological analysis
1691 @cindex note grouping bracket
1693 Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical
1694 pieces. LilyPond supports a simple form of nested horizontal brackets.
1695 To use this, add the @internalsref{Horizontal_bracket_engraver} to
1696 @internalsref{Staff} context. A bracket is started with
1697 @code{\groupOpen} and closed with @code{\groupClose}.
1699 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
1700 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
1701 c4-\groupOpen-\groupOpen
1704 c4-\groupClose-\groupClose
1706 \paper { \translator {
1707 \StaffContext \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
1713 @internalsref{HorizontalBracket}, @internalsref{NoteGroupingEvent},
1714 @inputfileref{input/regression,note-group-bracket.ly}.
1718 Bracket endings should be angled/slanted. (TODO)
1726 [TODO: ornaments vs. expressive marks]
1738 @subsection Articulations
1739 @cindex Articulations
1741 @cindex articulations
1745 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1746 different characteristics of the performance. They are added to a note
1747 by adding a dash and the the character signifying the
1748 articulation. They are demonstrated here.
1750 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-abbreviations.ly}
1752 The script is automatically placed, but if you need to force
1753 directions, you can use @code{_} to force them down, or @code{^} to
1755 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1760 Other symbols can be added using the syntax
1761 @var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}. Again, they can be forced up or down
1762 using @code{^} and @code{_}.
1766 @cindex staccatissimo
1775 @cindex organ pedal marks
1784 @cindex prallmordent
1788 @cindex thumb marking
1793 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-chart.ly}
1798 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand. For
1799 finger changes, use markup texts:
1801 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1802 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1803 c'^\markup { \fontsize #-3 \number "2-3" }
1806 @cindex finger change
1811 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
1812 << c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >> 4
1813 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #LEFT
1814 << c-1 es-3 g-5 >> 4
1815 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #RIGHT
1816 << c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >> 4-\arpeggio
1817 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #LEFT
1818 << c_1 e-2 g-3 b^5 >> 4
1823 @internalsref{ScriptEvent},
1824 @internalsref{Script}, @internalsref{FingerEvent} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
1828 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1829 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1833 @subsection Text scripts
1834 @cindex Text scripts
1836 It is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup text (see
1837 @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1838 @code{c^"text"}. By default, these indications do not influence the
1839 note spacing, but by using the command @code{\fatText}, the widths
1840 will be taken into account.
1842 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim] \relative c' {
1843 c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1846 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
1847 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
1848 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
1849 commands will not work with direct PostScript output.
1854 @internalsref{TextScriptEvent}, @internalsref{TextScript},
1860 @subsection Grace notes
1864 @cindex @code{\grace}
1868 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out
1870 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment] c4 \grace c16 c4 \grace {
1874 In normal notation, grace notes take up no logical
1875 time in a measure. Such an idea is practical for normal notation, but
1876 is not strict enough to put it into a program. The model that LilyPond
1877 uses for grace notes internally is that all timing is done in two
1880 Every point in musical time consists of two rational numbers: one
1881 denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing. The above
1882 example is shown here with timing tuples.
1885 \score { \notes \relative c''{
1886 c4^"(0,0)" \grace c16_" "_"(1/4,-1/16)" c4^"(1/4,0)" \grace {
1887 c16_"(2/4,-1/8)"-[ d16^"(2/4,-1/16)" ] } c4_" "_"(2/4,0)"
1889 \paper { linewidth = 8.\cm }
1894 The placement of these grace notes is synchronized between different
1897 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
1898 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \grace { c16-[ d e f-] } e4 }
1899 \context Staff = SB { c'4 \grace { g8 b } c4 } >
1903 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1904 stem. This can be controlled with object property @code{stroke-style} of
1905 @internalsref{Stem}. The change in formatting is accomplished by
1906 inserting @code{\startGraceMusic} before handling the grace notes, and
1907 @code{\stopGraceMusic} after finishing the grace notes.
1908 You can add to these definitions to globally change grace note
1909 formatting. The standard definitions are in @file{ly/grace-init.ly}.
1911 [TODO discuss Scheme functionality.]
1914 The @code{\override} is carefully matched with a @code{\revert}.
1919 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1920 \relative c'' \context Voice {
1921 \grace c8 c4 \grace { c16-[ c16-] } c4
1923 \property Voice.Stem \override #'stroke-style = #'()
1925 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'stroke-style
1932 If you want to end a note with a grace note, then the standard trick
1933 is to put the grace notes before a phantom ``space note'', e.g.
1934 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1937 { s2 \grace { c16-[ d-] } } >
1942 A @code{\grace} section has some default values, and LilyPond will
1943 use those default values unless you specify otherwise inside the
1944 @code{\grace} section. For example, if you specify \slurUp
1945 @emph{before} your @code{\grace} section, a slur which starts inside
1946 the @code{\grace} will not be forced up, even if the slur ends outside
1947 of the @code{\grace}. Note the difference between the first and
1948 second bars in this example:
1950 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1951 \relative c'' \context Voice {
1969 @internalsref{GraceMusic}.
1973 Grace notes cannot be used in the smallest size (@file{paper11.ly}).
1975 Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation,
1976 such as key signatures, barlines, etc. are also synchronized. Take
1977 care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without.
1979 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
1980 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
1981 \context Staff = SB { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >
1984 Grace sections should only be used within sequential music
1985 expressions. Nesting, juxtaposing, or ending sequential music with a
1986 grace section is not supported, and might produce crashes or other
1991 @subsection Glissando
1994 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1996 A glissando is a smooth change in pitch. It is denoted by a line or a
1997 wavy line between two notes.
2001 A glissando line can be requested by attaching a @code{\glissando} to
2004 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2010 @internalsref{Glissando}, @internalsref{GlissandoEvent}.
2015 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
2020 @subsection Dynamics
2033 @cindex @code{\ffff}
2043 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an variable after a
2044 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
2045 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
2046 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
2047 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
2049 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
2050 c'-\ppp c-\pp c -\p c-\mp c-\mf c-\f c-\ff c-\fff
2056 @cindex @code{\decr}
2057 @cindex @code{\rced}
2064 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
2065 @code{\endcr}, and decrescendi similarly with @code{\decr} and
2066 @code{\enddecr}. There are also shorthands for these marks. A
2067 crescendo can be started with @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be
2068 started with @code{\>}. Either one can be terminated with @code{\!}.
2069 Because these marks are bound to notes, if you must use spacer notes
2070 if marks during one note are needed.
2072 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,quote]
2073 c''-\< c''-\! d''-\decr e''-\rced
2074 < f''1 { s4 s4-\< s4-\! \> s4-\! } >
2076 This may give rise to very short hairpins. Use @code{minimum-length}
2077 in @internalsref{Voice}.@internalsref{HairPin} to lengthen these, e.g.
2080 \property Staff.Hairpin \override #'minimum-length = #5
2083 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
2084 is an example how to do it:
2086 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
2087 c4 \cresc c4 \endcresc c4
2094 You can also supply your own texts:
2095 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2097 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc. poco"
2098 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
2107 @internalsref{CrescendoEvent}, @internalsref{DecrescendoEvent},
2108 @internalsref{AbsoluteDynamicEvent}.
2110 Dynamics are objects of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
2111 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is
2112 handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2114 If you want to adjust padding or vertical direction of the dynamics,
2115 you must set properties for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner}
2116 object. Predefined variables to set the vertical direction are
2117 @code{\dynamicUp} and @code{\dynamicDown}.
2119 @cindex direction, of dynamics
2120 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
2121 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
2129 @cindex @code{\repeat}
2131 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
2132 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
2133 different variants of repeats.
2137 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
2138 output, and entering repetitive music.
2141 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
2142 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
2146 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
2147 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
2148 @inputfileref{input,star-spangled-banner.ly}.
2155 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
2161 * Repeats and MIDI::
2162 * Manual repeat commands::
2164 * Tremolo subdivisions::
2169 @subsection Repeat syntax
2172 Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist
2177 LilyPond has one syntactic construct for specifying different types of
2178 repeats. The syntax is
2181 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
2184 If you have alternative endings, you may add
2185 @cindex @code{\alternative}
2187 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
2189 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
2191 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression. If you do not
2192 give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then the first
2193 alternative is assumed to be played more than once.
2195 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
2196 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2198 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
2199 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
2202 With alternative endings:
2203 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2205 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
2206 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
2210 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2214 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
2215 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
2222 If you do a nested repeat like
2231 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the @code{\alternative}
2232 belongs. This ambiguity is resolved by always having the
2233 @code{\alternative} belong to the inner @code{\repeat}. This
2234 ambiguity may also be resolved by using braces.
2237 @node Repeats and MIDI
2238 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
2240 @cindex expanding repeats
2242 For instructions on how to unfold repeats for MIDI output, see the
2243 example file @inputfileref{input/test,unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
2248 Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative,
2249 so you have to reset timing information after a repeat, e.g. using a
2250 bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting @code{Score.measurePosition}
2251 or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties are also not repeated.
2254 @node Manual repeat commands
2255 @subsection Manual repeat commands
2257 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
2259 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
2260 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
2268 @item (volta . @var{text})
2269 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}. The text can be specified as
2270 a text string or as a markup text, see @ref{Text markup}. Do not
2271 forget to change the font, as the default number font does not contain
2272 alphabetic characters.
2274 Stop a running volta bracket
2277 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2279 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
2281 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
2288 @internalsref{VoltaBracket}, @internalsref{RepeatedMusic},
2289 @internalsref{VoltaRepeatedMusic},
2290 @internalsref{UnfoldedRepeatedMusic}
2291 @internalsref{FoldedRepeatedMusic}.
2293 @node Tremolo repeats
2294 @subsection Tremolo repeats
2295 @cindex tremolo beams
2297 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
2299 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2301 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
2302 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
2303 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
2304 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
2305 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
2312 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} objects. Single stem tremolos are
2313 @internalsref{StemTremolo}. @internalsref{TremoloEvent}.
2318 The single stem tremolo @emph{must} be entered without @code{@{} and
2321 @node Tremolo subdivisions
2322 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
2323 @cindex tremolo marks
2324 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
2326 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
2327 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
2328 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
2329 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
2330 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
2332 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
2333 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
2336 [TODO : stok is te kort bij 32en]
2340 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
2343 @node Measure repeats
2344 @subsection Measure repeats
2346 @cindex percent repeats
2347 @cindex measure repeats
2349 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
2350 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
2351 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
2352 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
2354 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2355 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
2356 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
2362 @internalsref{RepeatSlash}, @internalsref{PercentRepeat},
2363 @internalsref{PercentRepeatedMusic}, and
2364 @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
2369 You cannot nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
2370 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
2372 @node Rhythmic music
2373 @section Rhythmic music
2375 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
2376 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
2377 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
2379 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2380 \context RhythmicStaff {
2382 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
2387 * Percussion staves::
2388 * Percussion midi output::
2391 @node Percussion staves
2392 @subsection Percussion staves
2396 To typeset more than one piece of percussion to be played by the same
2397 musician one typically uses a multiline staff where each staff
2398 position refers to a specific piece of percussion.
2402 LilyPond is has a set of Scheme functions that can be used to typeset
2403 percussion staves. The system is based on the general MIDI
2404 drum-pitches. Include @file{ly/drumpitch-init.ly} to use drum
2405 pitches. This file defines the pitches from the Scheme variable
2406 @code{drum-pitch-names}, the definition of which can be read in
2407 @file{scm/drums.scm}. Each piece of percussion has a full name and an
2408 abbreviated name, and both the full name or the abbreviation may be
2409 used in input files.
2411 To typeset the music on a staff apply the function @code{drums->paper}
2412 to the percussion music. This function takes a list of percussion
2413 instrument names, notehead scripts and staff positions (that is:
2414 pitches relative to the C-clef) and transforms the input
2415 music by moving the pitch, changing the notehead and (optionally)
2418 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,quote]
2419 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2420 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2421 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2423 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2425 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2426 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2431 In the above example the music was transformed using the list @code{'drums}.
2432 Currently the following lists are defined in @file{scm/drums.scm}:
2435 To typeset a typical drum kit on a five-line staff.
2438 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2439 nam = \lyrics { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2440 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
2441 mus = \notes { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2442 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
2445 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2449 \context Lyrics \nam
2452 linewidth = 100.0\mm
2455 \remove Bar_engraver
2456 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2457 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
2461 \remove Stem_engraver
2467 Scheme supports six different toms. When there fewer toms, simply
2468 select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e., to get toms on
2469 the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml} and
2472 Because general MIDI does not contain rimshots the sidestick is used
2473 for this purpose instead.
2475 To typeset timbales on a two line staff.
2476 @lilypond[singleline]
2477 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2478 nam = \lyrics { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
2479 mus = \notes { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
2482 \apply #(drums->paper 'timbales) \context Staff <
2486 \context Lyrics \nam
2491 \remove Bar_engraver
2492 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2493 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2494 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2495 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2499 \remove Stem_engraver
2506 To typeset congas on a two line staff.
2507 @lilypond[singleline]
2508 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2509 nam = \lyrics { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
2510 mus = \notes { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
2513 \apply #(drums->paper 'congas) \context Staff <
2517 \context Lyrics \nam
2522 \remove Bar_engraver
2523 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2524 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2525 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2526 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2530 \remove Stem_engraver
2536 To typeset bongos on a two line staff.
2537 @lilypond[singleline]
2538 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2539 nam = \lyrics { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
2540 mus = \notes { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
2543 \apply #(drums->paper 'bongos) \context Staff <
2547 \context Lyrics \nam
2552 \remove Bar_engraver
2553 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2554 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2555 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2556 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2560 \remove Stem_engraver
2566 To typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves.
2567 @lilypond[singleline]
2568 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2569 nam = \lyrics { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
2570 mus = \notes { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
2573 \apply #(drums->paper 'percussion) \context Staff <
2577 \context Lyrics \nam
2582 \remove Bar_engraver
2583 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2584 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #1
2585 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-2.0 . 3.0)
2589 \remove Stem_engraver
2596 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
2597 list at the top of your file:
2599 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
2601 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2602 (snare default #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 1 0))
2603 (hihat cross #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2604 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2605 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2607 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2608 up = \notes { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
2609 down = \notes { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
2611 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2613 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2614 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2619 To use a modified existing list, one can prepend modifications to the
2623 #(define mydrums (append `(
2624 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2625 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2629 The file @file{drumpitch-init.ly} replaces the normal pitch names, so
2630 you have to reinclude @file{nederlands.ly} after the
2631 drum-pattern-definitions to enter normal notes.
2633 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2634 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2635 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2636 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2637 \include "nederlands.ly"
2638 bass = \notes \transpose c c,, { a4. e8 r e g e }
2641 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff = drums <
2643 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2644 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2646 \context Staff = bass { \clef "F_8" \bass }
2651 @node Percussion midi output
2652 @subsection Percussion midi output
2654 In order to produce correct midi output you need to produce two score
2655 blocks---one for the paper and one for the midi output. To use the
2656 percussion channel you set the property @code{instrument} to
2657 @code{'drums}. Because the drum-pitches themself are similar to the
2658 general midi pitches all you have to do is to insert the voices with
2659 none of the scheme functions to get the correct midi output:
2663 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2672 \property Staff.instrument = #'drums
2681 This scheme is to be considered a temporary implementation.
2685 @section Piano music
2687 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
2688 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
2689 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
2690 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
2691 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
2692 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
2696 * Automatic staff changes::
2697 * Manual staff switches::
2700 * Voice follower lines::
2705 There is no support for putting chords across staves. You can get
2706 this result by increasing the length of the stem in the lower stave so
2707 it reaches the stem in the upper stave, or vice versa. An example is
2708 included with the distribution as @inputfileref{input/test,stem-cross-staff.ly}.
2710 Dynamics are not centered, but kludges do exist. See
2711 @inputfileref{input/templates,piano-dynamics.ly}.
2713 @cindex cross staff stem
2714 @cindex stem, cross staff
2717 @c fixme: should have hyperlinks as well.
2723 @node Automatic staff changes
2724 @subsection Automatic staff changes
2725 @cindex Automatic staff changes
2727 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
2728 staff. The syntax for this is
2730 \autochange Staff \context Voice @{ @dots{}@var{music}@dots{} @}
2732 The autochanger switches on basis of pitch (central C is the turning
2733 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch rests in
2734 advance. Here is a practical example:
2736 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,quote]
2737 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
2738 \context Staff = "up" {
2739 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
2740 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
2741 \context Staff = "down" {
2746 Spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
2747 terminating too soon.
2752 The staff switches often do not end up in optimal places. For high
2753 quality output staff switches should be specified manually.
2757 @node Manual staff switches
2758 @subsection Manual staff switches
2760 @cindex manual staff switches
2761 @cindex staff switch, manual
2763 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
2765 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
2767 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
2768 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
2769 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
2777 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound are produced. Generally, a
2778 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
2782 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
2783 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
2784 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
2787 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
2788 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal types:
2789 Sustain, Sostenuto or UnaCorda. Refer to the generated documentation
2790 of @internalsref{SustainPedal} for more information.
2792 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
2793 @code{pedal-type} property of @internalsref{SustainPedal} objects:
2795 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2796 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'bracket
2797 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
2798 a'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
2799 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
2802 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
2803 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
2805 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2806 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'mixed
2807 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
2808 c'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
2809 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
2812 The default '*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
2813 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
2814 for a sostenuto pedal:
2816 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2817 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
2820 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
2821 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
2822 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (see the detailed documentation of
2823 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket}) can be modified. For example, the bracket
2824 may be extended to the end of the note head.
2826 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2827 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override
2828 #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
2829 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4
2830 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
2834 @subsection Arpeggio
2837 @cindex broken arpeggio
2838 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
2840 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
2841 @code{\arpeggio} to a chord.
2844 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2845 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
2848 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
2849 to the chords in both staves, and set
2850 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@code{connectArpeggios}.
2852 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2853 \context PianoStaff <
2854 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2855 \context Voice = one { <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio }
2856 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <<c,, e g>>-\arpeggio }
2860 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} objects. Cross staff
2861 arpeggios are @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@internalsref{Arpeggio}.
2863 The direction of the arpeggio is sometimes denoted by adding an
2864 arrowhead to the wiggly line. This can be typeset by setting
2865 @code{arpeggio-direction}.
2867 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2869 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #1
2870 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
2871 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
2872 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
2876 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
2877 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
2878 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
2879 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} objects to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
2880 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before.
2882 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2883 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override
2884 #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
2885 <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio
2891 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected
2892 arpeggios in one @internalsref{PianoStaff} at the same time.
2894 @node Voice follower lines
2895 @subsection Voice follower lines
2898 [TODO: invent better name]
2900 @cindex follow voice
2901 @cindex staff switching
2904 @cindex @code{followVoice}
2906 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
2907 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
2908 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
2910 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2911 \context PianoStaff <
2912 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2913 \context Staff \context Voice {
2915 \translator Staff=two
2918 \context Staff=two { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2922 The associated object is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2926 @section Vocal music
2928 For a discussion of how to put lyrics into a score, see section
2929 @code{Printing lyrics} in the tutorial.
2931 @cindex context variables
2932 @cindex setting context variables
2933 An interpretation context has variables that tune its behavior. These
2934 variables are also called @emph{properties}. The @code{autoBeaming}
2935 variable in a @code{Staff} controls whether 8th and shorter notes are
2936 beamed automatically. Setting the variable to @code{##f}, which is the
2937 boolean value @var{false}, turns it off.
2940 This will create an extender, which is a line
2941 that extends over the entire duration of the lyric. This line will
2942 run all the way to the start of the next lyric, so you may want to
2943 shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
2946 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
2948 To get them printed, you must do two
2949 things: indicate that lyrics are entered with @code{\lyrics}, and
2950 indicate that this type of music must be interpreted as texts (and not
2951 notes). This is done with @code{\context Lyrics}.
2953 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
2954 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword
2955 @code{\lyrics}. In this mode you can enter lyrics, with punctuation
2956 and accents without any hassle. Syllables are entered like notes, but
2957 with pitches replaced by text. For example,
2965 You can use ordinary hyphens at the end of a syllable, i.e.
2969 but then the hyphen will be attached to the end of the first syllable.
2971 If you want them centered between syllables you can use the special
2972 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. The
2973 hyphen will have variable length depending on the space between
2974 the syllables and it will be centered between the syllables.
2979 Normally the notes that you enter are transformed into note heads.
2980 Note heads alone make no sense. They need surrounding information: a
2981 key signature, a clef, staff lines, etc. They need @emph{context}.
2982 In LilyPond, these symbols are created by objects called
2983 `interpretation contexts'. Interpretation contexts exist for
2984 generating notation (`notation context') and for generating sound
2985 (`performance context'). These objects only exist while LilyPond is
2986 executing. For lyrics, the command
2990 must be used to interpret a set of syllables as lyrics.
2995 @cindex interpretation context
2996 @cindex notation context
3000 The melody and the lyrics can be combined with the @code{\addlyrics}:
3003 \notes \relative c' @dots{}
3004 \context Lyrics \lyrics @dots{}
3007 [TODO: Move lyrics section from tutorial to here?]
3009 See also the sections on @ref{Slurs} and @ref{Breath marks}.
3011 [TODO: Move slurs / breath marks section to here?]
3013 [TODO: Write subsection upon usage of ChoirStaff.]
3018 @section More stanzas
3023 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
3024 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
3025 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
3026 We show how you can do this by showing how you could print a frivolous
3027 fragment of a fictional Sesame Street duet.
3029 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3032 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
3034 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
3035 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
3036 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3037 Hi, my name is bert. }
3038 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
3039 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3040 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
3045 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the
3046 LyricsVoice to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
3047 In the following example, the Voice identity is @code{duet},
3049 \context Voice = duet @{
3054 identities of the LyricsVoices are @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
3056 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" @{
3057 Hi, my name is bert. @}
3058 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" @{
3059 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. @}
3061 The convention for naming @code{LyricsVoice} and @code{Voice} must
3062 also be used to get melismata on rests correct.
3065 We add the names of the singers. This can be done by setting
3066 @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the first system) and
3067 @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following systems. You must
3068 surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics} mode.
3071 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3073 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3079 For entering quotes in Lyrics mode, use the following
3081 "\"God\"" is "`King'"
3084 You can use empty syllables, e.g. @code{_4} or @code{" "4} to enter
3085 lyrics. This can confuse the LilyPond -- for example, this might put
3086 (empty) lyrics under rests. To remedy this, use @code{\skip}.
3094 Input for lyrics introduces a syntactical ambiguity:
3101 is interpreted as assigning a string identifier @code{\foo} such that
3102 it contains @code{"bar"}. However, it could also be interpreted as
3103 making or a music identifier @code{\foo} containing the syllable
3104 `bar'. The force the latter interpretation, use
3118 The term @emph{ambitus} denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in
3119 a part of music. It also may denote the pitch range that a musical
3120 instrument is capable of playing. Most musical instruments have their
3121 ambitus standardized (or at least there is agreement upon the minimal
3122 ambitus of a particular type of instrument), such that a composer or
3123 arranger of a piece of music can easily meet the ambitus constraints of
3124 the targeted instrument. However, the ambitus of the human voice
3125 depends on individual physiological state, including education and
3126 training of the voice. Therefore, a singer potentially has to check for
3127 each piece of music if the ambitus of that piece meets his individual
3128 capabilities. This is why the ambitus of a piece may be of particular
3129 value to vocal performers.
3131 The ambitus is typically notated on a per-voice basis at the very
3132 beginning of a piece, e.g. nearby the initial clef or time signature of
3133 each staff. The range is graphically specified by two noteheads, that
3134 represent the minimum and maximum pitch. Some publishers use a textual
3135 notation: they put the range in words in front of the corresponding
3136 staff. Lilypond currently only supports the graphical ambitus notation.
3138 To apply, add the @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the
3139 @internalsref{Voice} context, i.e.
3142 \paper @{ \translator @{
3144 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3150 @lilypond[singleline]
3151 upper = \notes \relative c {
3154 as'' c e2 bes f cis d4 e f2 g
3156 lower = \notes \relative c {
3159 e'4 b g a c es fis a cis b a g f e d2
3162 \context ChoirStaff {
3164 \context Staff = one { \upper }
3165 \context Staff = three { \lower }
3171 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3180 @internalsref{Ambitus}, @inputfileref{input/regression,ambitus.ly}.
3185 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
3186 instruments. It notates pitches not by using note heads, but by
3187 indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
3188 offers limited support for tablature.
3191 * Tablatures basic::
3192 * Non-guitar tablatures::
3195 @node Tablatures basic
3196 @subsection Tablatures basic
3197 @cindex Tablatures basic
3199 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
3200 followed by a number, e.g. @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
3201 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
3202 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
3203 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
3204 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts.
3206 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3207 \notes \context TabStaff {
3213 If you do not specify a string number then one is selected
3214 automatically: the first string that does not give a fret number less
3215 than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default value for
3216 @code{minimumFret} is 0.
3220 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3221 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3222 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3227 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3228 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3229 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3232 \context StaffGroup <
3233 \context Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
3234 \context TabStaff { \frag }
3241 @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}, and
3242 @internalsref{StringNumberEvent}.
3246 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
3247 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
3251 @node Non-guitar tablatures
3252 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
3253 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
3255 You can change the number of strings, by setting the number of lines
3256 in the @internalsref{TabStaff} (the @code{line-count} property of
3257 @internalsref{TabStaff} can only be changed using
3258 @code{\outputproperty}, for more information, see @ref{Tuning objects}.
3260 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
3261 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
3262 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to central C) of an
3263 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
3264 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
3265 by default middle C, in string order: thus the notes are e, a, d, and
3268 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3271 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface)
3273 \property TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
3276 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
3281 Finally, it is possible to change the Scheme function to format the
3282 tablature note text. The default is
3283 @var{fret-number-tablature-format}, which uses the fret number. For
3284 some instruments that do not use this notation, you can create a
3285 special tablature formatting function. This function takes three
3286 argument: the string number, the string tuning and the note pitch.
3290 As tablature is a recent feature, most of the guitar special effects
3291 such as bend are not yet supported.
3295 @section Chord namess
3298 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords.
3299 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3300 twoWays = \notes \transpose c c' {
3310 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
3311 \context Voice \twoWays > }
3314 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
3315 be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not interpret
3316 this as an inversion.
3318 Chords are represented as a set of pitches. They are internally
3319 stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can enter
3320 chords by name and print them as notes, enter them as notes and print
3321 them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by name, and
3326 * Printing chord names::
3331 @subsection Chords mode
3334 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
3335 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}.
3336 In chords mode, a chord is entered by the root, which is entered
3337 like a common pitch, for example,
3338 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote, relative=1]
3339 \chords { es4. d8 c2 }
3344 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon, and introducing a
3345 modifier, and optionally, a number, for example
3347 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote]
3348 \chords { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
3350 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
3351 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
3352 number, for example.
3353 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3354 \chords { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
3357 @cindex root of chord
3358 @cindex additions, in chords
3359 @cindex removals, in chords
3361 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
3362 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
3363 the colon, and are separated by dots. For example
3365 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3366 \chords { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
3368 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
3369 to the number, for example:
3370 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3371 \chords { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
3373 Removals are specified similarly, and are introduced by a caret. They
3374 must come after the additions.
3375 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3376 \chords { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
3379 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
3383 is the minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
3385 is the diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
3388 is the augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
3390 is the major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
3392 is the suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
3393 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
3396 Modifiers can be mixed with additions.
3397 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3398 \chords { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
3401 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
3408 Since the unaltered 11 does sound well when combined with the
3409 unaltered 3, the 11 is removed in this case, unless it is added
3410 explicitly). For example,
3411 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3412 \chords { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
3417 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
3418 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
3419 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord.
3420 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3421 \chords { c1 c/g c/f }
3424 If you do not want to remove the bass note from the chord, but rather
3425 add the note, then you can use @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
3427 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3428 \chords { c1 c/+g c/+f }
3431 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyrics}, @code{\notes} etc. Most
3432 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
3433 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and
3434 @code{\property} may be used to change various settings.
3440 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
3441 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
3444 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3445 \chords { c:5.5-.5+ }
3448 In chord mode, dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions
3449 and subtractions, so articulation scripts cannot be entered.
3452 @node Printing chord names
3453 @subsection Printing chord names
3455 @cindex printing chord names
3459 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
3460 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
3461 directly using simultaneous music.
3463 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3465 \chords {a1 b c} <<d f g>> <<e g b>>
3469 \context ChordNames \scheme
3470 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
3475 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
3476 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
3477 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
3478 the start of a new line.
3482 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
3486 \context ChordNames {
3487 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
3489 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
3491 \paper{linewidth= 9.\cm}
3495 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
3496 Klaus Ignatzek (See @ref{Literature}).
3498 [TODO: add description for banter other jazz.]
3500 The Ignatzek chord name formatting can be tuned in a number of ways
3501 through the following properties:
3503 @item chordNameExceptions
3504 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
3506 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly}.
3508 @item majorSevenSymbol
3509 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
3510 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup},
3511 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
3512 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly} for an example.
3514 @item chordNameSeparator
3515 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
3516 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
3518 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3519 \context ChordNames \chords {
3521 \property ChordNames.chordNameSeparator
3526 @item chordRootNamer
3527 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
3528 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
3529 function. An application of setting this function, is providing chord
3530 names with german notation for the root.
3532 @item chordNoteNamer
3533 The default is to print single notes (as for instance the bass note)
3534 using the chordRootNamer. However, by setting this function to a non-null
3535 value you can specify a different function. I.e. you could use letters
3536 in lower case for the base note.
3542 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly},
3543 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly},
3544 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-german.ly},
3545 @file{scm/chords-ignatzek.scm}, @file{scm/chord-entry.scm}
3550 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
3551 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
3552 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
3553 @code{<< .. >>} syntax.
3559 @section Writing parts
3561 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
3562 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
3563 problems in orchestral music.
3570 * Instrument names::
3572 * Multi measure rests::
3573 * Automatic part combining::
3574 * Hara kiri staves::
3575 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
3579 @node Rehearsal marks
3580 @subsection Rehearsal marks
3581 @cindex Rehearsal marks
3583 @cindex @code{\mark}
3585 To print a rehearsal mark, use the @code{\mark} command.
3586 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3596 The mark is incremented automatically if you use @code{\mark
3597 \default}. The value to use is stored in the property
3598 @code{rehearsalMark} is used and automatically incremented.
3600 The @code{\mark} command can also be used to put signs like coda,
3601 segno and fermatas on a barline. Use @code{\markup} to
3602 to access the appropriate symbol.
3604 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
3605 c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts-ufermata" }
3609 In this case, during line breaks,
3610 marks must also be printed at the end of the line, and not at the
3611 beginning. Use the following to force that behavior
3613 \property Score.RehearsalMark \override
3614 #'break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible
3617 See @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}. for putting boxes
3623 @cindex barlines, putting symbols on
3627 @internalsref{MarkEvent}, @internalsref{RehearsalMark},
3628 @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}.
3632 @subsection Bar numbers
3636 @cindex measure numbers
3637 @cindex currentBarNumber
3639 Bar numbers are printed by default at the start of the line. The
3640 number itself is stored in the
3641 @code{currentBarNumber} property,
3642 which is normally updated automatically for every measure.
3644 Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of at the
3645 beginning of each line. This is illustrated in the following example,
3646 whose source is available as
3647 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
3649 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
3651 The start of that numbering can also be reset, as demonstrated in
3652 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-5-reset.ly}.
3654 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-every-5-reset.ly}
3659 @internalsref{BarNumber}.
3660 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-5-reset.ly}.
3661 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
3665 Bar numbers can collide with the @internalsref{StaffGroup} bracket, if
3666 there is one at the top. To solve this, You have to twiddle with the
3667 @internalsref{padding} property of @internalsref{BarNumber} if your
3668 score starts with a @internalsref{StaffGroup}.
3670 @node Instrument names
3671 @subsection Instrument names
3673 In an orchestral score, instrument names are printed left of the
3676 This can be achieved by setting @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instrument}
3677 and @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instr}. This will print a string before
3678 the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
3679 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
3681 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3682 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
3685 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
3688 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3689 \notes \context Staff = treble {
3690 \property Staff.instrument = \markup {
3691 \column << "Clarinetti"
3693 \smaller \musicglyph #"accidentals--1"
3704 @internalsref{InstrumentName}
3708 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
3709 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
3710 the name to avoid a collision.
3713 @subsection Transpose
3715 @cindex transposition of pitches
3716 @cindex @code{\transpose}
3718 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
3721 \transpose @var{from} @var{to} @var{musicexpr}
3724 This means that @var{musicexpr} is transposed by the interval
3725 between @var{from} and @var{to}.
3727 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
3728 @code{\transpose c cis} or @code{\transpose c des} will transpose up
3729 half a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second
3730 version will print flats.
3732 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
3733 mus =\notes { \key d \major cis d fis g }
3734 \score { \notes \context Staff {
3737 \transpose c g' \mus
3738 \transpose c f' \mus
3744 @internalsref{TransposedMusic}, @internalsref{UntransposableMusic}.
3748 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
3749 you must put @code{\transpose} outside of @code{\relative}, since
3750 @code{\relative} will have no effect music that appears inside a
3756 @node Multi measure rests
3757 @subsection Multi measure rests
3758 @cindex Multi measure rests
3762 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
3763 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
3764 fill a score with rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure
3765 rest. This expansion is controlled by the property
3766 @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true, Lily will not expand
3767 empty measures, and the appropriate number is added automatically.
3769 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3770 \time 4/4 r1 | R1 | R1*2
3771 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R1*17 R1*4
3774 The @code{1} in @code{R1} is similar to the duration notation used for
3775 notes. Hence, for time signatures other than 4/4, you must enter other
3776 durations. This can be done with augmentation dots or fractions:
3778 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3779 \property Score.skipBars = ##t
3787 A @code{R} spanning a single measure is printed as a whole rest
3788 centered in the measure (or a breve when the measure lasts longer than
3789 two whole notes), regardless of the time signature.
3793 @cindex text on multi-measure rest
3794 @cindex script on multi-measure rest
3795 @cindex fermata on multi-measure rest
3797 Texts can be added to multi-measure rests by using the
3798 @var{note}-@code{markup} syntax. In this case, the number is
3799 replaced. If you need both texts and the number, you must add the
3800 number by hand. A variable (@code{\fermataMarkup}) is provided for
3804 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3806 R2._\markup { "Ad lib" }
3811 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
3815 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestEvent},
3816 @internalsref{MultiMeasureTextEvent},
3817 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestMusicGroup},
3818 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
3820 The graphical object @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestNumber} is for the
3821 default number, and @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestText} for user
3826 It is not possible to use fingerings (e.g. @code{R1-4}) to put numbers
3827 over multi-measure rests.
3829 @cindex condensing rests
3831 There is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into a single
3832 multimeasure rest. Multi measure rests do not take part in rest
3835 Be careful when entering multimeasure rests followed by whole notes,
3839 will enter two notes lasting four measures each. The result will look
3840 ok, but the bar numbering will be off.
3842 @node Automatic part combining
3843 @subsection Automatic part combining
3844 @cindex automatic part combining
3845 @cindex part combiner
3848 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
3849 staff. It is aimed at typesetting orchestral scores. When the two
3850 parts are identical for a period of time, only one is shown. In
3851 places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate
3852 voices, and stem directions are set automatically. Also, solo and
3853 @emph{a due} parts are identified and can be marked.
3857 The syntax for part combining is
3860 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
3862 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
3863 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
3864 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
3867 The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part
3868 combiner: putting parts on one staff, and setting stem directions and
3871 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
3873 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3874 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3877 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3883 The first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
3884 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
3885 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
3886 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
3887 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
3890 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
3891 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
3893 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
3895 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
3896 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3897 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3900 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3908 @internalsref{PartCombineMusic},
3909 @internalsref{Thread_devnull_engraver},
3910 @internalsref{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @internalsref{A2_engraver}.
3914 The syntax for naming contexts in inconsistent with the syntax for
3917 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
3918 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
3921 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
3923 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3924 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3927 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3933 The part combiner is slated to be rewritten [TODO: explain why] .
3935 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
3936 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
3937 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
3939 @node Hara kiri staves
3940 @subsection Hara kiri staves
3942 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
3943 This saves some space. This style is called `French Score'.
3947 This is supported through the hara kiri@footnote{Hara kiri is the
3948 vulgar name for Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of the Japanese
3949 Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when it finds
3950 itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will not
3951 disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
3954 For @internalsref{Lyrics}, @internalsref{LyricsVoice},
3955 @internalsref{ChordNames} and @internalsref{FiguredBass}, hara-kiri is
3956 switched on by default. For normal staffs, hara kiri is available as a
3957 specialized @internalsref{Staff} context, with the name variable
3958 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
3959 example disappears in the second line.
3963 \notes \relative c' <
3964 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
3965 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
3969 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
3975 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
3976 @subsection Sound output for transposing instruments
3978 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed
3979 and untransposed instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch
3980 offset (in semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done
3981 using the @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed
3984 @cindex @code{transposing}
3987 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
3988 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
3992 @node Ancient notation
3993 @section Ancient notation
3995 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
3996 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
4001 [TODO: write introduction on ancient notation]
4004 * Ancient note heads::
4013 @node Ancient note heads
4014 @subsection Ancient note heads
4016 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
4017 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
4018 NoteHead object to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
4019 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
4020 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
4022 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4023 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
4028 @subsection Ancient clefs
4030 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
4032 For modern clefs, see section @ref{Clef}. For the percussion clef, see
4033 section @ref{Percussion staves}. For the @code{TAB} clef, see section
4036 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
4037 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but
4038 differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such
4039 cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs.
4040 Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an
4041 arbitrary line, as described in section @ref{Clef}. The note printed
4042 to the right side of each clef in the example column denotes the
4043 @code{c'} with respect to that clef.
4045 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
4046 @c @item modern style G clef (glyph: @code{clefs-G})
4049 @c @code{treble}, @code{violin}, @code{G}, @code{G2}, @code{french}
4051 @c @lilypond[26pt]{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "G" c'}
4053 @c @item modern style F clef (glyph: @code{clefs-F})
4056 @c @code{varbaritone}, @code{bass}, @code{F}, @code{subbass}
4058 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "F" c'}
4060 @c @item modern style C clef (glyph: @code{clefs-C})
4063 @c @code{soprano}, @code{mezzosoprano}, @code{alto}, @code{C},
4064 @c @code{tenor}, @code{baritone}
4066 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "C" c'}
4068 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .3 .1
4072 @b{Description} @tab
4073 @b{Supported Clefs} @tab
4077 @code{clefs-neo_mensural_c} @tab
4078 modern style mensural C clef @tab
4079 @code{neo_mensural_c1}, @code{neo_mensural_c2},
4080 @code{neo_mensural_c3}, @code{neo_mensural_c4} @tab
4081 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4082 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4083 \clef "neo_mensural_c2" c
4087 @code{clefs-petrucci_c1} @tab
4088 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 1st staffline) @tab
4089 @code{petrucci_c1} @tab
4090 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4091 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4092 \clef "petrucci_c1" c
4096 @code{clefs-petrucci_c2} @tab
4097 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 2nd staffline) @tab
4098 @code{petrucci_c2} @tab
4099 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4100 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4101 \clef "petrucci_c2" c
4105 @code{clefs-petrucci_c3} @tab
4106 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 3rd staffline) @tab
4107 @code{petrucci_c3} @tab
4108 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4109 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4110 \clef "petrucci_c3" c
4114 @code{clefs-petrucci_c4} @tab
4115 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 4th staffline) @tab
4116 @code{petrucci_c4} @tab
4117 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4118 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4119 \clef "petrucci_c4" c
4123 @code{clefs-petrucci_c5} @tab
4124 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 5th staffline) @tab
4125 @code{petrucci_c5} @tab
4126 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4127 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4128 \clef "petrucci_c5" c
4132 @code{clefs-petrucci_f} @tab
4133 petrucci style mensural F clef @tab
4134 @code{petrucci_f} @tab
4135 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4136 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4137 \clef "petrucci_f" c
4141 @code{clefs-petrucci_g} @tab
4142 petrucci style mensural G clef @tab
4143 @code{petrucci_g} @tab
4144 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4145 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4146 \clef "petrucci_g" c
4150 @code{clefs-mensural_c'} @tab
4151 historic style mensural C clef @tab
4152 @code{mensural_c1}, @code{mensural_c2}, @code{mensural_c3},
4153 @code{mensural_c4} @tab
4154 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4155 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4156 \clef "mensural_c2" c
4160 @code{clefs-mensural_f} @tab
4161 historic style mensural F clef @tab
4162 @code{mensural_f} @tab
4163 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4164 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4165 \clef "mensural_f" c
4169 @code{clefs-mensural_g} @tab
4170 historic style mensural G clef @tab
4171 @code{mensural_g} @tab
4172 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4173 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4174 \clef "mensural_g" c
4178 @code{clefs-vaticana_do} @tab
4179 Editio Vaticana style do clef @tab
4180 @code{vaticana_do1}, @code{vaticana_do2}, @code{vaticana_do3} @tab
4181 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4183 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4184 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4185 \clef "vaticana_do2" c
4189 @code{clefs-vaticana_fa} @tab
4190 Editio Vaticana style fa clef @tab
4191 @code{vaticana_fa1}, @code{vaticana_fa2} @tab
4192 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4194 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4195 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4196 \clef "vaticana_fa2" c
4200 @code{clefs-medicaea_do} @tab
4201 Editio Medicaea style do clef @tab
4202 @code{medicaea_do1}, @code{medicaea_do2}, @code{medicaea_do3} @tab
4203 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4205 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4206 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4207 \clef "medicaea_do2" c
4211 @code{clefs-medicaea_fa} @tab
4212 Editio Medicaea style fa clef @tab
4213 @code{medicaea_fa1}, @code{medicaea_fa2} @tab
4214 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4216 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4217 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4218 \clef "medicaea_fa2" c
4222 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do} @tab
4223 historic style hufnagel do clef @tab
4224 @code{hufnagel_do1}, @code{hufnagel_do2}, @code{hufnagel_do3} @tab
4225 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4227 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4228 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4229 \clef "hufnagel_do2" c
4233 @code{clefs-hufnagel_fa} @tab
4234 historic style hufnagel fa clef @tab
4235 @code{hufnagel_fa1}, @code{hufnagel_fa2} @tab
4236 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4238 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4239 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4240 \clef "hufnagel_fa2" c
4244 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4245 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef @tab
4246 @code{hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4247 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4248 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4249 \clef "hufnagel_do_fa" c
4254 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
4255 @c @item modern style percussion clef (glyph: @code{clefs-percussion})
4258 @c @code{percussion}
4260 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "percussion" c'}
4262 @c @item modern style tab clef (glyph: @code{clefs-tab})
4267 @c @lilypond{\context Staff \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #6 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "tab" c'}
4269 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
4270 transcribed mensural music''.
4272 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
4273 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
4275 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
4276 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
4278 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
4280 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
4281 beams, depending on which staffline it is printed.
4285 @subsection Custodes
4290 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
4291 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
4292 of the first note(s) of the following line and thus helps the player
4293 or singer to manage line breaks during performance, thus enhancing
4294 readability of a score.
4296 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th
4297 century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms
4298 of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant
4299 like the @emph{editio vaticana}. There are different custos glyphs
4300 used in different flavours of notational style.
4302 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
4303 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block,
4304 as shown in the following example.
4310 \consists Custos_engraver
4311 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
4316 The result looks like this:
4322 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
4329 \consists Custos_engraver
4336 The custos glyph is selected by the @code{style} property. The styles
4337 supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
4338 @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the following fragment:
4348 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-vaticana-u0" }
4352 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-medicaea-u0" }
4356 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-hufnagel-u0" }
4360 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-mensural-u0" }
4369 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4373 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4374 \remove "Key_engraver"
4375 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4376 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4377 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4383 If the boolean property @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} is set to
4384 @code{#t} (which it is by default), lily typesets slightly different
4385 variants of the custos glyph, depending on whether the custos, is
4386 typeset on or between stafflines. The idea is that the glyph will
4387 optically fit well into the staff, with the appendage on the right of
4388 the custos always ending at the same vertical position between two
4389 stafflines regardless of the pitch. If you set
4390 @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} to @code{#f}, then lily takes regardless
4391 of the pitch always a glyph that is a compromise of the former two
4394 Just like stems can be attached to noteheads in two directions
4395 @emph{up} and @emph{down}, each custos glyph is available with its
4396 appendage pointing either up or down. If the pitch of a custos is
4397 above a selectable position, the appendage will point downwards; if
4398 the pitch is below this position, the appendage will point upwards.
4399 Use property @code{neutral-position} to select this position. By
4400 default, it is set to @code{0}, such that the neutral position is the
4401 center of the staff. Use property @code{neutral-direction} to control
4402 what happens if a custos is typeset on the neutral position itself.
4403 By default, this property is set to @code{-1}, such that the appendage
4404 will point downwards. If set to @code{1}, the appendage will point
4405 upwards. Other values such as @code{0} are reserved for future
4406 extensions and should not be used.
4411 @internalsref{Custos}, @inputfileref{input/test,custos-style.ly} and
4412 @inputfileref{input/regression,custos.ly}.
4416 @subsection Divisiones
4422 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; latin word for
4423 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
4424 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
4425 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior} and @emph{divisio maxima}
4426 can be characterized as short, medium and long pause, somewhat like
4427 @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not only marks the end of
4428 a chant, but is also frequently used within a single
4429 antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
4433 To use divisiones, include the file @code{gregorian-init.ly}. It
4434 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
4435 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
4436 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
4437 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
4438 Therefore, @code{gregorian-init.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
4442 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{divisiones.ly}
4446 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
4447 @inputfileref{input/test,divisiones.ly}, @ref{Breath marks}.
4450 @subsection Ligatures
4454 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
4455 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
4457 In musical terminology, a ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that
4458 represents at least two different notes. Ligatures originally appeared
4459 in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th
4460 century as an allusion to the accent symbols of greek lyric poetry to
4461 denote ascending or descending sequences of notes. Both, the shape and
4462 the exact meaning of ligatures changed tremendously during the following
4463 centuries: In early notation, ligatures where used for monophonic tunes
4464 (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way of performance in
4465 the sense of articulation. With upcoming multiphony, the need for a
4466 metric system arised, since multiple voices of a piece have to be
4467 synchronized some way. New notation systems were invented that used
4468 the manifold shapes of ligatures to now denote rhythmical patterns
4469 (e.g. black mensural notation, mannered notation, ars nova). With the
4470 invention of the metric system of the white mensural notation, the need
4471 for ligatures to denote such patterns disappeared. Nevertheless,
4472 ligatures were still in use in the mensural system for a couple of
4473 decades until they finally disappeared during the late 16th / early 17th
4474 century. Still, ligatures have survived in contemporary editions of
4475 Gregorian chant such as the Editio Vaticana from 1905/08.
4479 Syntactically, ligatures are simply enclosed by @code{\[} and
4480 @code{\]}. Some ligature styles (such as Editio Vaticana) may need
4481 additional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature.
4482 By default, the @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a
4483 square bracket above the ligature.
4485 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
4487 \notes \transpose c c' {
4495 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver has
4496 to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in the
4497 following subsections. Currently, Lilypond only supports white mensural
4498 ligatures with certain limitations. Support for Editio Vaticana will be
4499 added in the future.
4502 * White mensural ligatures::
4505 @node White mensural ligatures
4506 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
4508 @cindex Mensural ligatures
4509 @cindex White mensural ligatures
4511 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures. The
4512 implementation is still experimental; it currently may output strange
4513 warnings or even crash in some cases or produce weird results on more
4514 complex ligatures. To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the paper
4515 block the @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} has to be put into
4516 the @internalsref{Voice} context (and you probably want to remove the
4517 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}). There is no additional
4518 input language to describe the shape of a white mensural ligature.
4519 The shape is rather determined solely from the pitch and duration of
4520 the enclosed notes. While this approach may take a new user a while
4521 to get accustomed, it has the great advantage that the full musical
4522 information of the ligature is known internally. This is not only
4523 required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for automatic
4524 transcription of the ligatures.
4528 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
4530 \notes \transpose c c' {
4531 \property Score.timing = ##f
4532 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4533 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4534 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4536 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4538 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4543 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4544 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
4550 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
4551 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
4554 @lilypond[singleline]
4556 \notes \transpose c c' {
4557 \property Score.timing = ##f
4558 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4559 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4560 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4562 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4564 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4570 @subsection Figured bass
4572 @cindex Basso continuo
4574 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
4578 LilyPond has limited support for figured bass:
4580 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
4582 \context Voice \notes { \clef bass dis4 c d ais}
4583 \context FiguredBass
4585 < 6 >4 < 7 >8 < 6+ [_!] >
4591 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
4592 mode, introduced by @code{\figures}, where you can enter bass figures
4593 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass}
4594 that takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
4596 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
4597 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>}.
4602 \context FiguredBass
4606 Accidentals are added to the numbers if you alterate them by
4607 appending @code{-}, @code{!} and @code{+}.
4613 \context FiguredBass
4614 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> }
4617 Spaces or dashes may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
4618 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}.
4624 \context FiguredBass
4625 \figures { < [4 6] 8 [_ 12]> }
4628 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
4629 support, it works much simpler. The @code{\figures} mode simply
4630 stores the numbers , and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints
4631 them as entered. There is no conversion to pitches, and no
4632 realizations of the bass are played in the MIDI file.
4634 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
4635 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
4636 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
4640 @internalsref{BassFigureEvent} music, @internalsref{BassFigure} grob,
4641 @internalsref{FiguredBass} context
4645 Slash notation for alterations is not supported.
4648 @node Contemporary notation
4649 @section Contemporary notation
4651 In the 20th century, composers have greatly expanded the musical
4652 vocabulary. With this expansion, many innovations in musical notation
4653 have been tried. For a comprehensive overview, refer to @cite{Stone
4654 1980} (see @ref{Literature}). In general, the use of new, innovative
4655 notation makes a piece harder to understand and perform and its use
4656 should be avoided if possible. For this reason, support for
4657 contemporary notation in LilyPond is limited.
4666 @subsection Clusters
4670 In musical terminology, a @emph{cluster} denotes a range of
4671 simultaneously sounding pitches that may change over time. The set of
4672 available pitches to apply usually depends on the accoustic source.
4673 Thus, in piano music, a cluster typically consists of a continous range
4674 of the semitones as provided by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic
4675 scale. In choral music, each singer of the choir typically may sing an
4676 arbitrary pitch within the cluster's range that is not bound to any
4677 diatonic, chromatic or other scale. In electronic music, a cluster
4678 (theoretically) may even cover a continuous range of pitches, thus
4679 resulting in coloured noise, such as pink noise.
4681 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
4682 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
4683 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
4684 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by the
4685 shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical extent of
4686 the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster geometrically
4687 describes the development of a range of pitches (vertical extent) over
4688 time (horizontal extent). Still, the geometrical shape of a cluster
4689 covers the area in wich any single pitch contained in the cluster would
4690 be notated as an ordinary note. From this point of view, it is
4691 reasonable to specify a cluster as the envelope of a set of notes.
4695 A cluster is engraved as the envelope of a set of notes. The starting
4696 note is marked with @code{\startCluster}, and the ending note with
4697 @code{\stopCluster}, e.g.,
4705 The following example (from
4706 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly}) shows what the result
4709 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{cluster.ly}
4711 By default, @internalsref{Cluster_engraver} is in the
4712 @internalsref{Voice} context. This allows putting ordinary notes and
4713 clusters together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In such a
4714 case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between
4715 ordinary notes and clusters.
4719 @internalsref{Cluster}, @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly},
4720 @internalsref{Cluster_engraver}, @internalsref{ClusterEvent}.
4724 When a cluster is active, note heads must be switched off manually using
4727 Music expressions like @code{< @{ g8 e8 @} a4 >} are not printed
4728 accurately. Use @code{<<g a>>8 <<e a>>8} instead.
4733 @subsection Fermatas
4739 Contemporary music notation frequently uses special fermata symbols to
4740 indicate fermatas of differing lengths.
4744 The following are supported
4746 @lilypond[singleline]
4769 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
4770 "shortfermata" "fermata" "longfermata" "verylongfermata"
4775 See @ref{Articulations} for general instructions how to apply scripts
4776 such as fermatas to a @code{\notes@{@}} block.
4779 @section Tuning output
4781 As much formatting as possible is performed
4782 automatically. Nevertheless, there are situations where LilyPond needs
4783 some help, or where you want to override its decisions. In this
4784 section we discuss ways to do just that.
4786 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called objects (graphic
4787 objects). Each object carries with it a set of properties (object
4788 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem object has
4789 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
4791 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
4792 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
4793 temporarily change the definition of one type of object, thus
4794 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
4795 object, and set a object property in that object.
4805 @node Tuning objects
4806 @subsection Tuning objects
4808 @cindex object description
4810 The definition of an object is actually a list of default object
4811 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem object (available
4812 in @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), includes the following definitions for
4817 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
4818 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
4823 By adding variables on top of these existing definitions, the system
4824 defaults is overriden, and the appearance of a graphical objects is
4830 Changing a variable for only one object is commonly achieved with
4834 \once \property @var{context}.@var{grobname}
4835 \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4837 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
4838 and @var{grobname} is a string and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
4839 This command applies a setting only during one moment in the score.
4841 In the following example, only one @internalsref{Stem} object is
4842 changed from its original setting:
4844 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment, relative=1]
4846 \once \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4
4850 @cindex @code{\once}
4852 For changing more objects, the same command, without @code{\once} can
4855 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4857 This command adds @code{@var{symbol} = @var{value}} to the definition
4858 of @var{grobname} in the context @var{context}, and this definition
4859 stays in place until it is removed.
4861 An existing definition may be removed by the following command
4864 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
4867 All @code{\override} and @code{\revert} commands should be balanced.
4868 The @code{\set} shorthand, performs a revert followed by an override,
4869 and is often more convenient to use
4872 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4876 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
4877 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
4879 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
4883 The following example gives exactly the same result as the previous
4884 one (assuming the system default for stem thickness is 0.8).
4886 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
4887 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
4889 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
4893 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
4894 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
4895 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
4896 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and
4897 @code{\revert}, must be carefully balanced.
4899 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
4902 A clumsy but correct form:
4904 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
4907 Shorter version of the same:
4909 \override \set \set \revert
4912 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
4915 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
4918 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the object property is unset),
4921 \set \set \set \revert
4924 For the digirati, the object description is an Scheme association
4925 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as
4926 a stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are push and pop
4927 operations. The association list is stored in a normal context
4930 \property Voice.NoteHead = #'()
4932 will effectively erase @internalsref{NoteHead}s from the current
4933 @internalsref{Voice}. However, this mechanism is not guaranteed to
4934 work, and may cause crashes or other anomalous behavior.
4938 @internalsref{OverrideProperty}, @internalsref{RevertProperty},
4939 @internalsref{PropertySet}, @internalsref{backend properties},
4940 @internalsref{All Graphical Objects}.
4945 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
4946 The backend is not very strict in type-checking object properties. If you
4947 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
4952 @subsection Applyoutput
4954 The most versatile way of tuning object is @code{\applyoutput}. Its
4957 \applyoutput @var{proc}
4959 where @var{proc} is a Scheme function, taking four arguments.
4961 When interpreted, the function @var{proc} is called for every grob found
4962 in the context, with the following arguments:
4964 @item the grob itself
4965 @item the context where the grob was created
4966 @item the context where @code{\applyoutput} is processed.
4969 In addition, the cause of the grob, i.e. the music expression or object
4970 that was responsible for creating the object, is in the object property
4971 @code{cause}. For example, for a note head, this is a
4972 @internalsref{NoteHead} event, and for a @internalsref{Stem} object,
4973 this is a @internalsref{NoteHead} object.
4976 @node Outputproperty
4977 @subsection Outputproperty
4979 @cindex \outputproperty
4981 Another way of tuning objects is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
4982 feature. The syntax is as follows:
4984 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4986 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking an object argument, and
4987 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
4988 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
4989 objects that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
4990 true, the object property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
4992 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
4993 the appropriate context to apply this to.
4994 @inputfileref{input/regression,output-property.ly} shows an example of
4995 the use of @code{\outputproperty}.
4999 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
5000 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
5003 @node Font selection
5004 @subsection Font selection
5006 The most common thing to change about the appearance of fonts is
5007 their size. The font size of any context can be easily
5008 changed by setting the @code{fontSize} property for that context:
5010 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,verbatim,quote]
5011 c4 c4 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
5014 This command will set @code{font-relative-size} (see below),
5015 and does not change the size of variable symbols, such as
5016 beams or slurs. You can use this command to get smaller symbol for
5017 cue notes, but that involves some more subtleties. An elaborate
5018 example of those is in @inputfileref{input/test,cue-notes.ly}.
5020 @cindex magnification
5022 The size of the font may be scaled with the object property
5023 @code{font-magnification}. For example, @code{2.0} blows up all
5024 letters by a factor 2 in both directions.
5033 The font used for printing a object can be selected by setting
5034 @code{font-name}, e.g.
5036 \property Staff.TimeSignature
5037 \set #'font-name = #"cmr17"
5039 You may use any font which is available to @TeX{}, such as foreign
5040 fonts or fonts that do not belong to the Computer Modern font family.
5042 Font selection for the standard fonts, @TeX{}'s Computer Modern fonts,
5043 can also be adjusted with a more fine-grained mechanism. By setting
5044 the object properties described below, you can select a different font.
5045 All three mechanisms work for every object that supports
5046 @code{font-interface}.
5050 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
5051 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff
5052 braces), @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{ancient} (the
5053 ancient notation font) @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic signs) and
5057 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
5058 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
5059 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
5062 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
5063 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
5066 @item font-relative-size
5067 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
5068 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
5069 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
5071 There are small differences in design between fonts designed for
5072 different sizes, hence font-relative-size is the preferred way to
5076 @item font-design-size
5077 A number indicating the design size of the font.
5079 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
5080 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
5081 which enhances readability.
5084 For any of these properties, the value @code{*} (i.e. the symbol
5085 @code{*}, entered as @code{#'*}), acts as a wildcard. This can be used
5086 to override default setting, which are always present. For example:
5088 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
5089 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-family = #'typewriter
5090 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
5093 @cindex @code{font-style}
5099 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
5101 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
5102 family, and the style sheet cannot be modified easily.
5104 @cindex font selection
5105 @cindex font magnification
5106 @cindex @code{font-interface}
5110 @subsection Text markup
5115 @cindex typeset text
5117 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can access it
5118 with the keyword @code{\markup}. Within markup mode, you can enter texts
5119 similar to lyrics: simply enter them, surrounded by spaces.
5122 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
5123 c1^\markup { hello }
5124 c1_\markup { hi there }
5125 c1^\markup { hi \bold there, is \italic anyone home? }
5128 @cindex font switching
5130 The line of the example demonstrates font switching commands. The
5131 command only apply to the first following word; enclose a set of texts
5132 with braces to apply a command to more words.
5134 \markup @{ \bold @{ hi there @} @}
5136 For clarity, you can also do this for single arguments, e.g.
5138 \markup @{ is \italic @{ anyone @} home @}
5141 @cindex font size, texts
5143 The following size commands set abolute sizes
5159 You can also make letter larger or smaller relative to their neighbors,
5160 with the commands @code{\larger} and @code{\smaller}.
5164 @cindex font style, for texts
5170 The following font change commands are defined:
5173 This changes to the font used for dynamic signs. This font does not
5174 contain all characters of the alphabet, so when producing ``piu f'',
5175 the ``piu'' should be done in a different font.
5179 This changes to the font used for time signatures. It only contains
5180 numbers and a few punctuation marks.
5182 Changes @code{font-shape} to @code{italic}
5184 Changes @code{font-series} to @code{bold}
5187 @cindex raising text
5188 @cindex lowering text
5190 @cindex translating text
5195 Raising and lowering texts can be done with @code{\super} and
5198 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
5199 c1^\markup { E "=" mc \super "2" }
5204 If you want to give an explicit amount for lowering or raising, use
5205 @code{\raise}. This command takes a Scheme valued first argument, and
5206 a markup object as second argument
5208 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1,quote]
5209 c1^\markup { C \small \raise #1.0 \bold { "9/7+" }}
5211 The argument to @code{\raise} is the vertical displacement amount,
5212 measured in (global) staff spaces.
5214 Other commands taking single arguments include
5217 @item \bracket, \hbracket
5218 Bracket the argument markup with normal and horizontal brackets
5223 This is converted to a musical symbol, e.g. @code{\musicglyph
5224 #"accidentals-0"} will select the natural sign from the music font.
5225 See @ref{The Feta font} for a complete listing of the possible glyphs.
5227 This produces a single character, e.g. @code{\char #65} produces the
5230 @item \hspace #@var{amount}
5232 This produces a invisible object taking horizontal space.
5234 \markup @{ A \hspace #2.0 B @}
5236 will put extra space between A and B, on top of the space that is
5237 normally inserted before elements on a line.
5239 @item \fontsize #@var{size}
5241 This sets the relative font size, eg.
5243 A \fontsize #2 @{ B C @} D
5247 This will enlarge the B and the C by two steps.
5248 @item \translate #(cons @var{x} @var{y})
5250 This translates an object. Its first argument is a cons of numbers
5252 A \translate #(cons 2 -3) @{ B C @} D
5254 This moves `B C' 2 spaces to the right, and 3 down.
5256 @item \magnify #@var{mag}
5258 This sets the font magnification for the its argument. In the following
5259 example, the middle A will be 10% larger.
5261 A \magnify #1.1 @{ A @} A
5265 @item \override #(@var{key} . @var{value})
5267 This overrides a formatting property for its argument. The argument
5268 should be a key/value pair, e.g.
5270 m \override #'(font-family . math) m m
5274 In markup mode you can compose expressions, similar to mathematical
5275 expressions, XML documents and music expressions. The braces group
5276 notes into horizontal lines. Other types of lists also exist: you can
5277 stack expressions grouped with @code{<<}, and @code{>>} vertically with
5278 the command @code{\column}. Similarly, @code{\center} aligns texts by
5281 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
5282 c1^\markup { \column << a bbbb c >> }
5283 c1^\markup { \center << a bbbb c >> }
5284 c1^\markup { \line << a b c >> }
5287 The markup mechanism is very flexible and extensible. Refer to
5288 @file{scm/new-markup.scm} for more information on extending the markup
5291 @cindex metronome mark
5293 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
5297 eighthStem = \markup \combine
5298 \musicglyph #"flags-stem"
5299 \translate #'(0.0 . 3.5) \musicglyph #"flags-u3"
5300 eighthNote = \markup
5301 \override #'(word-space . 0.0)
5302 { \musicglyph #"noteheads-2"
5303 \translate #'(-0.05 . 0.1) \eighthStem }
5306 \notes\relative c'' {
5307 a1^\markup { \magnify #0.9 \eighthNote " = 64" }
5314 @internalsref{Markup functions}, @file{scm/new-markup.scm}
5321 Text layout is ultimately done by @TeX{}, which does kerning of
5322 letters. LilyPond does not account for kerning, so texts will be
5323 spaced slightly too wide.
5325 Syntax errors for markup mode are confusing.
5329 @section Global layout
5331 The global layout determined by three factors: the page layout, the
5332 line breaks and the spacing. These all influence each other. The
5333 choice of spacing determines how densely each system of music is set,
5334 which influences where line breaks breaks are chosen, and thus
5335 ultimately how many pages a piece of music takes. In this section we
5336 will explain how the lilypond spacing engine works, and how you can
5339 Globally spoken, this procedure happens in three steps: first,
5340 flexible distances (``springs'') are chosen, based on durations. All
5341 possible line breaking combination are tried, and the one with the
5342 best results---a layout that has uniform density and requires as
5343 little stretching or cramping as possible---is chosen. When the score
5344 is processed by @TeX{}, page are filled with systems, and page breaks
5345 are chosen whenever the page gets full.
5350 * Vertical spacing::
5351 * Horizontal spacing::
5358 @node Vertical spacing
5359 @subsection Vertical spacing
5361 @cindex vertical spacing
5362 @cindex distance between staves
5363 @cindex staff distance
5364 @cindex between staves, distance
5365 @cindex staffs per page
5368 The height of each system is determined automatically by lilypond, to
5369 keep systems from bumping into each other, some minimum distances are
5370 set. By changing these, you can put staves closer together, and thus
5371 put more systems onto one page.
5373 Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make
5374 staves maintain a distance, their vertical size is padded. This is
5375 done with the property @code{minimumVerticalExtent}. It takes a pair
5376 of numbers, so if you want to make it smaller from its, then you could
5379 \property Staff.minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4 . 4)
5381 This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 4 staff-space on
5382 either side of the center staff line. The argument of
5383 @code{minimumVerticalExtent} is interpreted as an interval, where the
5384 center line is the 0, so the first number is generally negative. The
5385 staff can be made larger at the bottom by setting it to @code{(-6
5388 The piano staves are handled a little differently: to make cross-staff
5389 beaming work correctly, it necessary that the distance between staves
5390 is fixed. This is also done with a @internalsref{VerticalAlignment}
5391 object, created in @internalsref{PianoStaff}. In this object the
5392 distance between the staves is fixed by setting
5393 @code{forced-distance}. If you want to override this, use a
5394 @code{\translator} block as follows:
5398 VerticalAlignment \override #'forced-distance = #9
5401 This would bring the staves together at a distance of 9 staff spaces,
5402 measured from the center line of each staff.
5406 Vertical aligment of staves is handled by the
5407 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object.
5411 @node Horizontal spacing
5412 @subsection Horizontal Spacing
5414 The spacing engine translates differences in durations into
5415 stretchable distances (``springs'') of differing lengths. Longer
5416 durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest
5417 durations get a fixed amount of space (which is controlled by
5418 @code{shortest-duration-space} in the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}
5419 object). The longer the duration, the more space it gets: doubling a
5420 duration adds a fixed amount (this amount is controlled by
5421 @code{spacing-increment}) of space to the note.
5423 For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter and
5424 8th notes, the eighth note is followed by 1 note head width (NHW). The
5425 The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by 3 NHW, etc.
5426 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=1] c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8
5430 Normally, @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to 1.2, which is the
5431 width of a note head, and @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to
5432 2.0, meaning that the shortest note gets 2 NHW (2 times
5433 @code{shortest-duration-space}) of space. For normal notes, this space
5434 is always counted from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest
5435 notes are generally followed by one NHW of space.
5437 If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single
5438 32th note to a score that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the
5439 entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a 16th, but a 32nd,
5440 thus adding 2 noteheads of space to every note. To prevent this, the
5441 shortest duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score,
5442 but the most commonly found shortest note. Notes that are even
5443 shorter this are followed by a space that is proportonial to their
5444 duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add
5445 only a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by
5448 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=2]
5449 c2 c4. c8 c4. c16-[ c-] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
5452 The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every
5453 measure, the shortest duration is determined. The most common short
5454 duration, is taken as the basis for the spacing, with the stipulation
5455 that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than
5456 1/8th note. The shortest duration is printed when you run lilypond
5457 with @code{--verbose}. These durations may also be customized. If you
5458 set the @code{common-shortest-duration} in
5459 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, then this sets the base duration for
5460 spacing. The maximum duration for this base (normally 1/8th), is set
5461 through @code{base-shortest-duration}.
5463 @cindex @code{common-shortest-duration}
5464 @cindex @code{base-shortest-duration}
5465 @cindex @code{stem-spacing-correction}
5466 @cindex @code{spacing}
5468 In the introduction it was explained that stem directions influence
5469 spacing. This is controlled with @code{stem-spacing-correction}
5470 property in @internalsref{NoteSpacing}, which are generated for every
5471 @internalsref{Voice} context. The @code{StaffSpacing} object
5472 (generated at @internalsref{Staff} context) contains the same property
5473 for controlling the stem/barline spacing. In the following example
5474 shows these corrections, once with default settings, and once with
5475 exaggerated corrections.
5481 \property Staff.NoteSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
5483 \property Staff.StaffSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
5488 \paper { raggedright = ##t } }
5491 @cindex SpacingSpanner, overriding properties
5493 Properties of the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} must be overriden
5494 from the @code{\paper} block, since the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}
5495 is created before any @code{\property} statements are interpreted.
5497 \paper @{ \translator @{
5499 SpacingSpanner \override #'spacing-increment = #3.0
5506 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, @internalsref{NoteSpacing},
5507 @internalsref{StaffSpacing}, @internalsref{SeparationItem},
5508 @internalsref{SeparatingGroupSpanner}.
5512 Spacing is determined on a score wide basis. If you have a score that
5513 changes its character (measured in durations) halfway during the
5514 score, the part containing the longer durations will be spaced too
5517 There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing.
5522 @subsection Font size
5523 @cindex font size, setting
5524 @cindex staff size, setting
5525 @cindex @code{paper} file
5527 The Feta font provides musical symbols at seven different sizes.
5528 These fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 19 pt, 20 point, 23
5529 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the height of the
5530 five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
5532 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
5533 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 19, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any
5534 of these files, the variables @code{paperEleven},
5535 @code{paperThirteen}, @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperNineteen},
5536 @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and @code{paperTwentysix}
5537 are defined respectively. The default @code{\paper} block is also
5538 set. These files should be imported at toplevel, i.e.
5540 \include "paper26.ly"
5544 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
5545 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
5550 @subsection Line breaking
5553 @cindex breaking lines
5555 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
5556 that lines look neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines
5557 have similar density.
5559 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can
5560 do this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at
5561 this point. Line breaks can only occur at places where there are bar
5562 lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line,
5563 you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
5564 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a
5568 @cindex regular line breaks
5569 @cindex four bar music.
5571 If you want linebreaks at regular intervals, you can use the following:
5573 < \repeat unfold 7 @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
5574 @emph{the real music}
5577 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
5582 @internalsref{BreakEvent}
5586 @subsection Page layout
5589 @cindex breaking pages
5591 @cindex @code{indent}
5592 @cindex @code{linewidth}
5594 The most basic settings influencing the spacing are @code{indent} and
5595 @code{linewidth}. They are set in the @code{\paper} block. They
5596 control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of
5599 If @code{raggedright} is set to true in the @code{\paper}
5600 block, then the lines are justified at their natural length. This
5601 useful for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural
5605 @cindex vertical spacing
5607 The page layout process happens outside lilypond: variables
5608 controlling page layout are passed to the output, and are further
5609 interpreted by @code{ly2dvi}. @code{ly2dvi} responds to the following
5610 variables in the @code{\paper} block. The variable @code{textheight}
5611 sets the total height of the music on each page. The spacing between
5612 systems is controlled with @code{interscoreline}, its default is 16pt.
5613 The distance between the score lines will stretch in order to fill the
5614 full page @code{interscorelinefill} is set to a positive number. In
5615 that case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
5617 @cindex @code{textheight}
5618 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
5619 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
5621 If the variable @code{lastpagefill} is defined,
5622 @c fixme: this should only be done if lastpagefill == #t
5623 systems are evenly distributed vertically on the last page. This
5624 might produce ugly results in case there are not enough systems on the
5625 last page. The @command{lilypond-book} command ignores
5626 @code{lastpagefill}. See @ref{lilypond-book manual} for more
5629 @cindex @code{lastpagefill}
5631 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
5632 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into
5633 the @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages. This
5634 is done by setting the @code{between-systems-strings} on the
5635 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn} where the system is broken.
5636 An example is shown in @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}.
5640 @cindex @code{papersize}
5642 To change the paper size, you must first set the
5643 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
5644 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
5645 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
5646 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
5649 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
5650 \include "paper16.ly"
5653 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
5654 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
5655 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
5660 @ref{Invoking ly2dvi},
5661 @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly},
5662 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn}.
5666 There is no concept of page breaking, which makes it difficult to
5667 choose sensible page breaks in multi-page pieces.
5676 Entered music can also be converted to MIDI output. The performance
5677 is good enough for proof-hearing the music for errors.
5680 Ties, dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted. Dynamic marks,
5681 crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume levels. Dynamic
5682 marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI volume
5683 range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary linearly
5684 between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
5685 @code{dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction} in @internalsref{Voice} context.
5687 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
5688 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
5689 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. The equalizer
5690 can be controlled by setting @code{instrumentEqualizer}.
5692 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
5696 Many musically interesting effects, such as swing, articulation,
5697 slurring, etc., are translated to MIDI.
5702 * MIDI instrument names::
5707 @subsection MIDI block
5711 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
5712 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
5716 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
5717 @item context definitions
5720 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
5724 @cindex context definition
5726 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
5727 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
5728 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer-init.ly}.
5731 @node MIDI instrument names
5732 @subsection MIDI instrument names
5734 @cindex instrument names
5735 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
5736 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
5738 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
5739 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
5740 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
5741 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
5745 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
5746 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by