3 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
4 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
5 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
7 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
11 @chapter Notation manual
14 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
20 * Easier music entry::
35 * Contemporary notation::
41 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
47 Notes constitute the most basic elements of LilyPond input, but they do
48 not form valid input on their own without a @code{\score} block. However,
49 for the sake of brevity and simplicity we will generally omit
50 @code{\score} blocks and @code{\paper} declarations in this manual.
56 * Chromatic alterations::
61 * Automatic note splitting ::
63 * Easy Notation note heads ::
71 A note is printed by specifying its pitch and then its duration.
72 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
81 @cindex Note specification
83 @cindex entering notes
85 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
92 where @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object.
94 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The
95 default names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by
96 the letters @code{a} through @code{g}, while the octave is formed with
97 notes ranging from @code{c} to @code{b}. The pitch @code{c} is an
98 octave below middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
100 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
102 a,4 b, c d e f g a b c' d' e' \clef treble f' g' a' b' c''
105 @cindex note names, Dutch
107 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
108 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and
109 double flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}.
110 @code{aes} is contracted to @code{as} in Dutch, but both forms are
111 accepted. Similarly, both @code{es} and @code{ees} are accepted.
113 There are predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
114 To use them, include the language specific init file. For
115 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files
116 and the note names they define are:
121 Note Names sharp flat
122 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
123 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
124 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
125 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
126 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
127 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
128 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
129 espanol.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -s -b
138 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
139 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
140 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
141 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
143 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
144 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
150 @internalsref{NoteEvent}, @internalsref{NoteHead}
152 @node Chromatic alterations
153 @subsection Chromatic alterations
155 Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also
156 print them manually. A reminder accidental
157 @cindex reminder accidental
159 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!}
160 after the pitch. A cautionary accidental
161 @cindex cautionary accidental
162 @cindex parenthesized accidental
163 (an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the
164 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
166 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
167 cis' cis' cis'! cis'?
171 The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many
172 ways. For more information, refer to @ref{Accidentals}.
182 Rests are entered like notes, with the note name @code{r}.
184 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
188 Whole bar rests, centered in middle of the bar, are specified using
189 @code{R} (capital R); see @ref{Multi measure rests}. See also
192 For some music, you may wish to explicitly specify the rest's vertical
193 position. This can be achieved by entering a note with the @code{\rest}
194 keyword appended. Rest collision testing will leave these rests alone.
196 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
202 @internalsref{RestEvent}, @internalsref{Rest}
209 @cindex Invisible rest
212 An invisible rest (also called a `skip') can be entered like a note
213 with note name `@code{s}' or with @code{\skip @var{duration}}:
215 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
219 The @code{s} syntax is only available in Note mode and Chord
220 mode. In other situations, you should use the @code{\skip} command,
221 which will work outside of those two modes:
223 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
226 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
227 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
232 The skip command is merely an empty musical placeholder. It does not
233 produce any output, not even transparent output.
237 @internalsref{SkipEvent}
242 @subsection Durations
246 @cindex @code{\duration}
249 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations are designated by numbers
250 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For example,
251 a quarter note is entered using a @code{4} (since it is a 1/4 note), while
252 a half note is entered using a @code{2} (since it is a 1/2 note). For notes
253 longer than a whole you must use variables.
255 @c FIXME: what is an identifier? I do not think it's been introduced yet.
256 @c and if it has, I obviously skipped that part. - Graham
260 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
262 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
267 \notes \relative c'' {
269 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
271 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
276 \remove "Clef_engraver"
277 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
278 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
279 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
286 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previously entered
287 duration. Default for the first note is a quarter note. The duration
288 can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') in order to obtain dotted note
292 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
293 a' b' c''8 b' a'4 a'4. b'4.. c'8.
298 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M}
299 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
300 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
302 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
303 a'2*2 b'4*2 a'8*4 a'4*3/2 gis'4*3/2 a'4*3/2 a'4
306 Durations can also be produced through GUILE extension mechanism.
307 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
308 c'\duration #(ly:make-duration 2 1)
314 Dot placement for chords is not perfect. In some cases, dots overlap:
327 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in
328 effect extends the length of a note. Ties should not be confused with
329 slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate
330 musical phrasing. A tie is entered using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'.
332 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
333 e' ~ e' <<c' e' g'>> ~ <<c' e' g'>>
336 When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads (whose pitches match) are
337 connected. If you try to tie together chords that have no common pitches,
338 no ties will be created.
340 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
341 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
342 exactly the same concept.
344 @lilypond[fragment, singleline,quote]
345 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
347 If you need to tie notes over bars, it may be easier to use automatic
348 note splitting (See @ref{Automatic note splitting}).
353 @internalsref{TieEvent}, @internalsref{NewTieEvent},
354 @internalsref{Tie}, @ref{Automatic note splitting}.
357 ties created for a chord, see @inputfileref{input/test,tie-sparse.ly}.
361 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a pair of chords is not
362 supported in a simple way. It can be achieved by moving the
363 tie-engraver into the @internalsref{Thread} context and turning on and
364 off ties per @internalsref{Thread}.
366 Switching staves when a tie is active, will produce a horizontal tie
370 Formatting of ties is a difficult subject. LilyPond often does not
371 give optimal results.
375 @node Automatic note splitting
376 @subsection Automatic note splitting
377 @c FIXME: This subsection does not belong in @ref{Note entry}.
379 LilyPond can automatically converting long notes to tied notes. This
380 is done by replacing the @internalsref{Note_heads_engraver} by the
381 @internalsref{Completion_heads_engraver}.
383 @lilypond[verbatim,noindent]
385 \notes\relative c'{ \time 2/4
386 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
390 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
391 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
395 This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts
396 ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are
397 not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how much each measure
402 Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be
403 represented exactly; the engraver will not insert tuplets.
410 @cindex @code{\times}
412 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all durations
415 @cindex @code{\times}
417 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
420 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
421 In the sheet music, the fraction's denominator will be printed over
422 the notes, optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the
423 triplet in which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3
424 of their written length:
426 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
427 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
430 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
431 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
432 @code{\times} only once, saving you lots of typing.
434 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
435 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
436 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
439 The format of the number is determined by the property
440 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
441 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
442 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
446 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
447 @cindex tuplet formatting
449 See also @seeinternals{TupletBracket}.
453 Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically. In this case, outer
454 tuplet brackets should be moved manually.
456 @node Easy Notation note heads
457 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
459 @cindex easy notation
462 The "easyplay" note head includes a note name inside the head. It is
463 used in music aimed at beginners.
465 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,26pt]
467 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
468 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
472 The @code{EasyNotation} variable overrides a @internalsref{Score}
473 context. You probably will want to print it with magnification or a
474 large font size to make it more readable. To print with
475 magnification, you must create a DVI file (with @file{ly2dvi}) and
476 then enlarge it with something like @file{dvips -x 2000 file.dvi}.
477 See @file{man dvips} for details. To print with a larger font, see
484 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through
485 the letters. Printing the PostScript file obtained with ly2dvi does
486 produce the correct result.
489 @node Easier music entry
490 @section Easier music entry
495 * Skipping corrected music::
498 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce
499 errors. This section deals with tricks and features that help you
500 enter music, and find and correct mistakes. It is also possible to
501 use external programs to enter or edit music. Refer to the website for
506 @node Relative octaves
507 @subsection Relative octaves
509 @cindex relative octave specification
511 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
512 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
513 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
514 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
516 @cindex @code{\relative}
518 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
521 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
522 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
523 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
524 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
525 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
528 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
529 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
530 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
531 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
533 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
534 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
540 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
541 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
546 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
547 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
548 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
551 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
558 @cindex @code{\notes}
560 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
561 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
562 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
565 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
566 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
567 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
568 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
572 @subsection Bar check
576 @cindex @code{barCheckSynchronize}
580 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
581 message is issued if it does not fall at a measure boundary. This can
582 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
583 @code{barCheckSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
584 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
586 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, `@code{|}'.
588 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
593 @cindex skipTypesetting
595 Failed bar checks are caused by entering incorrect
596 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
597 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the
598 score by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To
599 speed up this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting}, described
602 @node Skipping corrected music
603 @subsection Skipping corrected music
605 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
606 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
607 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
608 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
611 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
613 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
615 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
623 @section Staff notation
625 This section deals with music notation that occurs on staff level,
626 such as keys, clefs and time signatures.
628 @cindex Staff notation
640 @subsection Staff symbol
642 @cindex adjusting staff symbol
643 @cindex StaffSymbol, using \property
644 @cindex staff lines, setting number of
646 Staff is a the general name for Notes, dynamic signs, etc. are grouped
647 with a set of horizontal lines, into a staff (plural `staves'). In our
648 system, these lines are drawn using a separate graphical object called
651 This object is created whenever a @internalsref{Staff} context is
652 created. You cannot change the appearance of the staff symbol by
653 using @code{\override} or @code{\set}. At the moment that
654 @code{\property Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and
655 the @internalsref{StaffSymbol} is created before any @code{\override} is
656 effective. You can deal with this either overriding properties in a
657 @code{\translator} definition, or by using @code{\outputproperty}.
661 If you end a staff halfway a piece, the staff symbol may not end
662 exactly on the barline.
666 @subsection Key signature
671 The key signature indicates the scale in which a piece is played. It
672 is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of
677 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
680 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
683 @cindex @code{\minor}
684 @cindex @code{\major}
685 @cindex @code{\minor}
686 @cindex @code{\ionian}
687 @cindex @code{\locrian}
688 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
689 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
690 @cindex @code{\lydian}
691 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
692 @cindex @code{\dorian}
694 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
695 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
696 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
697 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
698 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
700 This command sets the context property
701 @internalsref{Staff}.@code{keySignature}. Non-standard key signatures
702 can be specified by setting this property directly.
707 @internalsref{KeyChangeEvent}, @internalsref{KeySignature},
709 @cindex @code{keySignature}
716 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
721 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command:
722 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
723 \key f\major c''2 \clef alto g'2
726 Supported clef-names include
727 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
729 @item treble, violin, G, G2
738 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
753 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
754 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. You have to
755 enclose @var{clefname} in quotes if you use underscores or digits in the
761 This command is equivalent to setting @code{clefGlyph},
762 @code{clefPosition} (which controls the Y position of the clef),
763 @code{centralCPosition} and @code{clefOctavation}. A clef is printed
764 when any of these properties are changed.
768 The object for this symbol is @internalsref{Clef}.
774 @subsection Time signature
775 @cindex Time signature
779 Time signature indicates the metrum of a piece: a regular pattern of
780 strong and weak beats. It is denoted by a fraction at the start of the
785 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
787 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
788 \time 2/4 c'2 \time 3/4 c'2.
791 The actual symbol that is printed can be customized with the
792 @code{style} property. Setting it to @code{#'()} uses fraction style
793 for 4/4 and 2/2 time. There are many more options for its layout.
794 See @inputfileref{input/test,time.ly} for more examples.
797 This command sets the property @code{timeSignatureFraction},
798 @code{beatLength} and @code{measureLength} in the @code{Timing}
799 context, which is normally aliased to @internalsref{Score}. The property
800 @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines should be
801 inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated. Changing the
802 value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a time signature
803 symbol to be printed.
805 More options are available through the Scheme function
806 @code{set-time-signature}. In combination with the
807 @internalsref{Measure_grouping_engraver}, it will create
808 @internalsref{MeasureGrouping} signs. Such signs ease reading
809 rhythmically complex modern music. In the following example, the 9/8
810 measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to
811 @code{set-time-signature} as the third argument @code{(2 2 2 3)}.
814 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
815 #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3))
816 g8-[ g-] d-[ d-] g-[ g-] a8-[-( bes g-]-) |
817 #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2))
822 \translator { \StaffContext
823 \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
829 @internalsref{TimeSignature}, @internalsref{Timing_engraver}.
834 Automatic beaming does not use measure grouping specified with
835 @code{set-time-signature}.
842 @cindex partial measure
843 @cindex measure, partial
844 @cindex shorten measures
845 @cindex @code{\partial}
847 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
848 @code{\partial} command:
849 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
850 \partial 16*5 c'16 c4 f16 a'2. ~ a'8. a'16 | g'1
853 The syntax for this command is
855 \partial @var{duration}
857 This is internally translated into
859 \property Timing.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
862 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
863 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
865 @node Unmetered music
866 @subsection Unmetered music
868 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
869 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. By setting
870 @code{Score.timing} to false, this automatic timing can be switched
874 @subsection Bar lines
878 @cindex measure lines
882 Bar lines delimit measures, but are also used to indicate
883 repeats. Line breaks may only happen on barlines.
887 Bar lines are inserted automatically, but if you need a special type
888 of barline, you can force one using the @code{\bar} command:
889 @lilypond[relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
893 The following bar types are available
894 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
906 In scores with many staves, the barlines are automatically placed at
907 top level, and they are connected between different staves of a
908 @internalsref{StaffGroup}:
909 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
910 < \context StaffGroup <
911 \context Staff = up { e'4 d'
914 \context Staff = down { \clef bass c4 g e g } >
915 \context Staff = pedal { \clef bass c2 c2 } >
919 The command @code{\bar @var{bartype}} is a short cut for
920 doing @code{\property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}}
921 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
922 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
923 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
924 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
926 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
927 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
928 @code{whichBar} settings.
931 @cindex repeatCommands
932 @cindex defaultBarType
934 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
944 The bar line objects that are created at @internalsref{Staff} level
945 are called @internalsref{BarLine}, the bar lines that span staffs are
946 @internalsref{SpanBar}s.
953 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff
954 is to split chords using the separator @code{\\}. You can use it for
955 small, short-lived voices (make a chord of voices) or for single
958 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
959 \context Voice = VA \relative c'' {
960 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ b, \\ f' \\ d' >
964 The separator causes @internalsref{Voice} contexts to be instantiated,
965 bearing the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc. In each of these
966 contexts, vertical direction of slurs, stems, etc. are set
969 This can also be done by instantiating @internalsref{Voice} contexts
970 by hand, and using @code{\voiceOne}, up to @code{\voiceFour} to assign
971 a stem directions and horizontal shift for each part.
974 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
976 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
977 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
978 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
981 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
982 if you set the object property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
983 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
984 \relative c' \context Voice < {
986 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override
987 #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
989 } \\ { [g8. f16] [g8. f16] }
993 Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting
994 @code{merge-differently-headed}:
995 @lilypond[fragment, relative=2,verbatim]
998 \property Staff.NoteCollision
999 \override #'merge-differently-headed = ##t
1000 c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >
1003 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
1005 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1006 \context Voice < c''4 \\ r4 >
1011 The objects responsible for resolving collisions are
1012 @internalsref{NoteCollision} and @internalsref{RestCollision}. See
1013 also example files @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-dots.ly},
1014 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-head-chords.ly},
1015 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-heads.ly},
1016 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-mesh.ly}, and
1017 @inputfileref{input/regression,collisions.ly}.
1022 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
1023 handles a few situations. When it cannot cope, you are advised to use
1024 @code{force-hshift} of the @internalsref{NoteColumn} object and pitched
1025 rests to override typesetting decisions.
1030 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
1031 the metrum. They are inserted automatically in most cases.
1033 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1034 \time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
1037 If you are not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can enter the
1038 beams explicitly. If you have beaming patterns that differ from the
1039 defaults, you can also set your own.
1041 See also @internalsref{Beam}.
1044 @cindex Automatic beams
1045 @subsection Manual beams
1046 @cindex beams, manual
1050 In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming
1051 algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over rests or
1052 bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point manually
1053 using @code{[} and @code{]}.
1055 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1057 r4 r8-[ g' a r8-] r8 g-[ | a-] r8
1061 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1063 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1064 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1065 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount} can
1066 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
1067 property, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1069 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1072 f8-[ r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a-]
1075 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1078 The property @code{subdivideBeams} can be set in order to subdivide
1079 all 16th or shorter beams at beat positions. This accomplishes the
1080 same effect as twiddling with @code{stemLeftBeamCount} and
1081 @code{stemRightBeamCount}, but it take less typing.
1084 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,noindent]
1085 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1086 \property Voice.subdivideBeams = ##t
1087 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1088 c32-[ c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c-]
1089 \property Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
1090 c32-[ c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c-]
1092 @cindex subdivideBeams
1094 Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap is detected
1095 between the note heads. This behavior can be tuned through the object
1096 property @code{auto-knee-gap}.
1098 @cindex beams, kneed
1100 @cindex auto-knee-gap
1108 Automatically kneed beams cannot be used together with Hara Kiri
1113 * Setting automatic beam behavior ::
1117 @no de Beam typography
1118 @sub section Beam typography
1120 One of the strong points of LilyPond is how beams are formatted. Beams
1121 are quantized, meaning that the left and right endpoints beams start
1122 exactly on staff lines. Without quantization, small wedges of white
1123 space appear between the beam and staff line, and this looks untidy.
1125 Beams are also slope-damped: melodies that go up or down should also
1126 have beams that go up or down, but the slope of the beams should be
1127 less than the slope of the notes themselves.
1129 Some beams should be horizontal. These are so-called concave beams.
1131 [TODO: some pictures.]
1135 @node Setting automatic beam behavior
1136 @subsection Setting automatic beam behavior
1138 @cindex @code{autoBeamSettings}
1139 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
1140 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
1141 @cindex automatic beams, tuning
1142 @cindex tuning automatic beaming
1144 [TODO: use \applycontext]
1146 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
1147 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
1148 or at durations specified by the properties in
1149 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
1150 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
1152 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
1153 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
1155 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
1156 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
1158 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
1159 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
1160 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
1161 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
1162 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
1165 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
1166 you can use the following:
1168 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1169 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
1171 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1172 entered as @code{(ly:make-moment 1 4)}.
1174 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1175 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
1177 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1178 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1180 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1181 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1182 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1184 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
1185 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1186 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1187 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1189 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1190 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1193 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
1194 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
1195 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
1196 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
1199 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1200 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1202 @cindex automatic beam generation
1204 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeaming}
1207 For melodies that have lyrics, you may want to switch off
1208 automatic beaming. This is done by setting @code{Voice.autoBeaming} to
1214 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1215 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1216 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
1218 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,relative,noverbatim,quote]
1219 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1220 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1221 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c-[ c c c-] c8 c c4
1223 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1224 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1225 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1228 @section Accidentals
1231 This section describes how to change the way that LilyPond automatically
1232 inserts accidentals before the running notes.
1236 * Using the predefined accidental variables::
1237 * Defining your own accidental typesettings::
1240 @node Using the predefined accidental variables
1241 @subsection Using the predefined accidental variables
1243 The constructs for describing the accidental typesetting rules are
1244 quite hairy, so non-experts should stick to the variables defined in
1245 @file{ly/property-init.ly}.
1246 @cindex @file{property-init.ly}
1248 The variables set properties in the ``Current'' context (see @ref{Context
1249 properties}). This means that the variables shuold normally be added
1250 right after the creation of the context in which the accidental
1251 typesetting described by the variable is to take effect. I.e. if you
1252 want to use piano-accidentals in a pianostaff then you issue
1253 @code{\pianoAccidentals} first thing after the creation of the piano
1257 \notes \relative c'' <
1258 \context Staff = sa @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1259 \context GrandStaff <
1261 \context Staff = sb @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1262 \context Staff = sc @{ es2 c @}
1264 \context Staff = sd @{ es2 c @}
1268 @lilypond[singleline]
1270 \notes \relative c'' <
1271 \context Staff = sa { cis4 d e2 }
1272 \context GrandStaff <
1274 \context Staff = sb { cis4 d e2 }
1275 \context Staff = sc { es2 c }
1277 \context Staff = sd { es2 c }
1282 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 4.0)
1290 @item \defaultAccidentals
1291 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1292 This is the default typesetting behaviour. It should correspond
1293 to 18th century common practice: Accidentals are
1294 remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and
1295 only on their own octave.
1297 @item \voiceAccidentals
1298 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1300 The normal behaviour is to
1301 remember the accidentals on Staff-level. This variable, however,
1302 typesets accidentals individually for each voice. Apart from that the
1303 rule is similar to @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1305 This leads to some weird and often unwanted results
1306 because accidentals from one voice do not get cancelled in other
1308 @lilypond[singleline,relative,fragment,verbatim,quote]
1316 Hence you should only use @code{\voiceAccidentals} if the voices
1317 are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff is to be
1318 used by one musician (e.g., a conductor) then you use
1319 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals} or @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1322 @item \modernAccidentals
1323 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1324 This rule corresponds to the common practice in the 20th
1326 The rule is more complex than @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1327 You get all the same accidentals, but temporary
1328 accidentals also get cancelled in other octaves. Further more,
1329 in the same octave, they also get cancelled in the following measure:
1330 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1332 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1335 @item \modernCautionaries
1336 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1337 This rule is similar to @code{\modernAccidentals}, but the
1338 ``extra'' accidentals (the ones not typeset by
1339 @code{\defaultAccidentals}) are typeset as cautionary accidentals
1340 (i.e. in reduced size):
1341 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1343 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1346 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1347 @item \modernVoiceAccidentals
1348 is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians
1349 playing one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are
1350 typeset for each voice, but they @emph{are} cancelled across voices in
1351 the same @internalsref{Staff}.
1353 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1354 @item \modernVoiceCautionaries
1355 is the same as @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}, but with the extra
1356 accidentals (the ones not typeset by @code{\voiceAccidentals}) typeset
1357 as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset by
1358 @code{\defaultAccidentals} @emph{are} typeset by this variable then
1359 some of them are typeset as cautionaries.
1361 @item \pianoAccidentals
1362 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1363 20th century practice for piano notation. Very similar to
1364 @code{\modernAccidentals} but accidentals also get cancelled
1365 across the staves in the same @internalsref{GrandStaff} or
1366 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.
1368 @item \pianoCautionaries
1369 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1370 As @code{\pianoAccidentals} but with the extra accidentals
1371 typeset as cautionaries.
1374 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1375 Same as @code{\defaultAccidentals} but with accidentals lasting
1376 ``forever'' and not only until the next measure:
1377 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1382 @item \forgetAccidentals
1383 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1384 This is sort of the opposite of @code{\noResetKey}: Accidentals
1385 are not remembered at all - and hence all accidentals are
1386 typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what was
1387 before in the music:
1388 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1390 \key d\major c4 c cis cis d d dis dis
1394 @node Defining your own accidental typesettings
1395 @subsection Defining your own accidental typesettings
1397 This section must be considered gurus-only, and hence it must be
1398 sufficient with a short description of the system and a reference to
1399 the internal documentation.
1401 The algorithm tries several different rules, and uses the rule
1402 that gives the highest number of accidentals. Each rule consists of
1405 In which context is the rule applied. For example, if
1406 @var{context} is @internalsref{Score} then all staves share
1407 accidentals, and if @var{context} is @internalsref{Staff} then all
1408 voices in the same staff share accidentals, but staves do not.
1410 Whether the accidental changes all octaves or only the current
1413 Over how many barlines the accidental lasts.
1414 If @var{lazyness} is @code{-1} then the accidental is forget
1415 immediately, and if @var{lazyness} is @code{#t} then the accidental
1418 [TODO: should use +infinity for this case?]
1424 @internalsref{Accidental_engraver}, @internalsref{Accidental},
1425 @internalsref{AccidentalPlacement}.
1430 Currently the simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in
1431 sequential mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are
1432 typeset as if the notes in the chord happened one at a time - in the
1433 order in which they appear in the input file.
1435 This is only a problem when there are simultaneous notes whose
1436 accidentals depend on each other. The problem only occurs when using
1437 non-default accidentals. In the default scheme, accidentals only
1438 depend on other accidentals with the same pitch on the same staff, so
1439 no conflicts possible.
1441 This example shows two examples of the same music giving different
1442 accidentals depending on the order in which the notes occur in the
1445 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1446 \property Staff.autoAccidentals = #'( Staff (any-octave . 0) )
1447 cis'4 <<c'' c'>> r2 | cis'4 <<c' c''>> r2
1448 | <<cis' c''>> r | <<c'' cis'>> r |
1451 This problem can be solved by manually inserting @code{!} and @code{?}
1452 for the problematic notes.
1454 @node Expressive marks
1455 @section Expressive marks
1464 * Analysis brackets::
1471 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1475 They are entered using parentheses:
1476 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1477 f'-( g'-)-( a'-) [a'8 b'-(-] a'4 g'2 f'4-)
1478 <<c' e'>>2-( <<b d'>>2-)
1482 @c TODO: should explain that ^( and _( set directions
1483 @c should set attachments with ^ and _ ?
1485 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1486 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1487 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1488 object property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1489 @internalsref{Voice} context. Its value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1490 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1492 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1494 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1496 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1500 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1501 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1502 stems might look better:
1504 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1507 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1513 @seeinternals{Slur}, @internalsref{SlurEvent}.
1518 Producing nice slurs is a difficult problem, and LilyPond currently
1519 uses a simple, empiric method to produce slurs. In some cases, the
1520 results of this method are ugly.
1523 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1525 @node Phrasing slurs
1526 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1528 @cindex phrasing slurs
1529 @cindex phrasing marks
1531 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1532 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1535 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1536 \time 6/4 c'-\( d-( e-) f-( e-) d-\)
1539 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a
1540 normal slur. Although they behave similar to normal slurs, phrasing
1541 slurs count as different objects. A @code{\slurUp} will have no
1542 effect on a phrasing slur; instead, you should use
1543 @code{\phrasingSlurUp}, @code{\phrasingSlurDown}, and
1544 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}.
1546 The commands @code{\slurUp}, @code{\slurDown}, and @code{\slurBoth}
1547 will only affect normal slurs and not phrasing slurs.
1551 See also @internalsref{PhrasingSlur},
1552 @internalsref{PhrasingSlurEvent}.
1556 Phrasing slurs have the same limitations in their formatting as normal
1560 @subsection Breath marks
1562 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}.
1565 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1569 The glyph of the breath mark can be tweaked by overriding the
1570 @code{text} property of the @code{BreathingSign} grob with the name of
1571 any glyph of @ref{The Feta font}. For example,
1572 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative]
1574 \property Voice.BreathingSign \override #'text = #"scripts-rvarcomma"
1581 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
1582 @inputfileref{input/regression,breathing-sign.ly}.
1588 @cindex beats per minute
1589 @cindex metronome marking
1591 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1593 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1595 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1598 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1603 @internalsref{TempoEvent}
1607 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1608 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1609 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1611 [TODO: make note markup.]
1615 @subsection Text spanners
1616 @cindex Text spanners
1618 Some textual indications, e.g. @i{rallentando} or @i{accelerando}, are
1619 often extended over many measures. This is indicated by following the
1620 text with a dotted line. You can create such texts using text
1621 spanners. The syntax is as follows:
1626 The string to be printed, as well as the style, is set through object
1629 An application is to fake octavation indications.
1631 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1632 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1633 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1634 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1635 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1636 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1637 a-\startTextSpan b c a-\stopTextSpan }
1643 @internalsref{TextSpanEvent},
1644 @internalsref{TextSpanner}, @inputfileref{input/regression,text-spanner.ly}.
1647 @node Analysis brackets
1648 @subsection Analysis brackets
1650 @cindex phrasing brackets
1651 @cindex musicological analysis
1652 @cindex note grouping bracket
1654 Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical
1655 pieces. LilyPond supports a simple form of nested horizontal brackets.
1656 To use this, add the @internalsref{Horizontal_bracket_engraver} to
1657 @internalsref{Staff} context. A bracket is started with
1658 @code{\groupOpen} and closed with @code{\groupClose}.
1660 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
1661 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
1662 c4-\groupOpen-\groupOpen
1665 c4-\groupClose-\groupClose
1667 \paper { \translator {
1668 \StaffContext \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
1674 @internalsref{HorizontalBracket}, @internalsref{NoteGroupingEvent},
1675 @inputfileref{input/regression,note-group-bracket.ly}.
1679 Bracket endings should be angled/slanted. (TODO)
1687 [TODO: ornaments vs. expressive marks]
1699 @subsection Articulations
1700 @cindex Articulations
1702 @cindex articulations
1706 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1707 different characteristics of the performance. They are added to a note
1708 by adding a dash and the the character signifying the
1709 articulation. They are demonstrated here.
1711 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-abbreviations.ly}
1713 The script is automatically placed, but if you need to force
1714 directions, you can use @code{_} to force them down, or @code{^} to
1716 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1721 Other symbols can be added using the syntax
1722 @var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}. Again, they can be forced up or down
1723 using @code{^} and @code{_}.
1727 @cindex staccatissimo
1736 @cindex organ pedal marks
1745 @cindex prallmordent
1749 @cindex thumb marking
1754 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-chart.ly}
1759 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand. For
1760 finger changes, use markup texts:
1762 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1763 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1764 c'^\markup { \fontsize #-3 \number "2-3" }
1767 @cindex finger change
1772 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
1773 << c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >> 4
1774 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #LEFT
1775 << c-1 es-3 g-5 >> 4
1776 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #RIGHT
1777 << c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >> 4-\arpeggio
1778 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #LEFT
1779 << c_1 e-2 g-3 b^5 >> 4
1784 @internalsref{ScriptEvent},
1785 @internalsref{Script}, @internalsref{FingerEvent} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
1789 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1790 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1794 @subsection Text scripts
1795 @cindex Text scripts
1797 It is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup text (see
1798 @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1799 @code{c^"text"}. By default, these indications do not influence the
1800 note spacing, but by using the command @code{\fatText}, the widths
1801 will be taken into account.
1803 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim] \relative c' {
1804 c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1807 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
1808 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
1809 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
1810 commands will not work with direct PostScript output.
1815 @internalsref{TextScriptEvent}, @internalsref{TextScript},
1821 @subsection Grace notes
1825 @cindex @code{\grace}
1829 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out
1831 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,ifragment] c4 \grace c16 c4 \grace {
1835 In normal notation, grace notes take up no logical
1836 time in a measure. Such an idea is practical for normal notation, but
1837 is not strict enough to put it into a program. The model that LilyPond
1838 uses for grace notes internally is that all timing is done in two
1841 Every point in musical time consists of two rational numbers: one
1842 denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing. The above
1843 example is shown here with timing tuples.
1846 \score { \notes \relative c''{
1847 c4^"(0,0)" \grace c16_" "_"(1/4,-1/16)" c4^"(1/4,0)" \grace {
1848 [c16_"(2/4,-1/8)" d16^"(2/4,-1/16)" ] } c4_" "_"(2/4,0)"
1850 \paper { linewidth = 8.\cm }
1855 The placement of these grace notes is synchronized between different
1858 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
1859 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \grace { c16-[ d e f-] } e4 }
1860 \context Staff = SB { c'4 \grace { g8 b } c4 } >
1864 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1865 stem. This can be controlled with object property @code{stroke-style} of
1866 @internalsref{Stem}. The change in formatting is accomplished by
1867 inserting @code{\startGraceMusic} before handling the grace notes, and
1868 @code{\stopGraceMusic} after finishing the grace notes.
1869 You can add to these definitions to globally change grace note
1870 formatting. The standard definitions are in @file{ly/grace-init.ly}.
1872 [TODO discuss Scheme functionality.]
1875 The @code{\override} is carefully matched with a @code{\revert}.
1880 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1881 \relative c'' \context Voice {
1882 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1884 \property Voice.Stem \override #'stroke-style = #'()
1886 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'stroke-style
1893 If you want to end a note with a grace note, then the standard trick
1894 is to put the grace notes before a phantom ``space note'', e.g.
1895 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1898 { s2 \grace { [c16 d] } } >
1903 A @code{\grace} section has some default values, and LilyPond will
1904 use those default values unless you specify otherwise inside the
1905 @code{\grace} section. For example, if you specify \slurUp
1906 @emph{before} your @code{\grace} section, a slur which starts inside
1907 the @code{\grace} will not be forced up, even if the slur ends outside
1908 of the @code{\grace}. Note the difference between the first and
1909 second bars in this example:
1911 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1912 \relative c'' \context Voice {
1931 @internalsref{GraceMusic}.
1935 Grace notes cannot be used in the smallest size (@file{paper11.ly}).
1937 Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation,
1938 such as key signatures, barlines, etc. are also synchronized. Take
1939 care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without.
1941 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
1942 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
1943 \context Staff = SB { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >
1946 Grace sections should only be used within sequential music
1947 expressions. Nesting, juxtaposing, or ending sequential music with a
1948 grace section is not supported, and might produce crashes or other
1953 @subsection Glissando
1956 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1958 A glissando is a smooth change in pitch. It is denoted by a line or a
1959 wavy line between two notes.
1963 A glissando line can be requested by attaching a @code{\glissando} to
1966 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1972 @internalsref{Glissando}, @internalsref{GlissandoEvent}.
1977 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1982 @subsection Dynamics
1995 @cindex @code{\ffff}
2005 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an variable after a
2006 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
2007 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
2008 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
2009 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
2011 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
2012 c'-\ppp c-\pp c -\p c-\mp c-\mf c-\f c-\ff c-\fff
2018 @cindex @code{\decr}
2019 @cindex @code{\rced}
2026 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
2027 @code{\endcr}, and decrescendi similarly with @code{\decr} and
2028 @code{\enddecr}. There are also shorthands for these marks. A
2029 crescendo can be started with @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be
2030 started with @code{\>}. Either one can be terminated with @code{\!}.
2031 Because these marks are bound to notes, if you must use spacer notes
2032 if marks during one note are needed.
2034 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,quote]
2035 c''-\< c''-\! d''-\decr e''-\rced
2036 < f''1 { s4 s4-\< s4-\! \> s4-\! } >
2038 This may give rise to very short hairpins. Use @code{minimum-length}
2039 in @internalsref{Voice}.@internalsref{HairPin} to lengthen these, e.g.
2042 \property Staff.Hairpin \override #'minimum-length = #5
2045 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
2046 is an example how to do it:
2048 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
2049 c4 \cresc c4 \endcresc c4
2056 You can also supply your own texts:
2057 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2059 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc. poco"
2060 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
2069 @internalsref{CrescendoEvent}, @internalsref{DecrescendoEvent},
2070 @internalsref{AbsoluteDynamicEvent}.
2072 Dynamics are objects of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
2073 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is
2074 handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2076 If you want to adjust padding or vertical direction of the dynamics,
2077 you must set properties for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner}
2078 object. Predefined variables to set the vertical direction are
2079 @code{\dynamicUp} and @code{\dynamicDown}.
2081 @cindex direction, of dynamics
2082 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
2083 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
2091 @cindex @code{\repeat}
2093 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
2094 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
2095 different variants of repeats.
2099 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
2100 output, and entering repetitive music.
2103 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
2104 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
2108 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
2109 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
2110 @inputfileref{input,star-spangled-banner.ly}.
2117 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
2123 * Repeats and MIDI::
2124 * Manual repeat commands::
2126 * Tremolo subdivisions::
2131 @subsection Repeat syntax
2134 Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist
2139 LilyPond has one syntactic construct for specifying different types of
2140 repeats. The syntax is
2143 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
2146 If you have alternative endings, you may add
2147 @cindex @code{\alternative}
2149 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
2151 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
2153 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression. If you do not
2154 give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then the first
2155 alternative is assumed to be played more than once.
2157 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
2158 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2160 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
2161 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
2164 With alternative endings:
2165 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2167 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
2168 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
2172 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2176 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
2177 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
2184 If you do a nested repeat like
2193 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the @code{\alternative}
2194 belongs. This ambiguity is resolved by always having the
2195 @code{\alternative} belong to the inner @code{\repeat}. This
2196 ambiguity may also be resolved by using braces.
2199 @node Repeats and MIDI
2200 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
2202 @cindex expanding repeats
2204 For instructions on how to unfold repeats for MIDI output, see the
2205 example file @inputfileref{input/test,unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
2210 Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative,
2211 so you have to reset timing information after a repeat, e.g. using a
2212 bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting @code{Score.measurePosition}
2213 or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties are also not repeated.
2216 @node Manual repeat commands
2217 @subsection Manual repeat commands
2219 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
2221 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
2222 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
2230 @item (volta . @var{text})
2231 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}. The text can be specified as
2232 a text string or as a markup text, see @ref{Text markup}. Do not
2233 forget to change the font, as the default number font does not contain
2234 alphabetic characters.
2236 Stop a running volta bracket
2239 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2241 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
2243 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
2250 @internalsref{VoltaBracket}, @internalsref{RepeatedMusic},
2251 @internalsref{VoltaRepeatedMusic},
2252 @internalsref{UnfoldedRepeatedMusic}
2253 @internalsref{FoldedRepeatedMusic}.
2255 @node Tremolo repeats
2256 @subsection Tremolo repeats
2257 @cindex tremolo beams
2259 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
2261 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2263 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
2264 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
2265 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
2266 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
2267 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
2274 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} objects. Single stem tremolos are
2275 @internalsref{StemTremolo}. @internalsref{TremoloEvent}.
2280 The single stem tremolo @emph{must} be entered without @code{@{} and
2283 @node Tremolo subdivisions
2284 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
2285 @cindex tremolo marks
2286 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
2288 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
2289 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
2290 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
2291 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
2292 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
2294 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
2295 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
2298 [TODO : stok is te kort bij 32en]
2302 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
2305 @node Measure repeats
2306 @subsection Measure repeats
2308 @cindex percent repeats
2309 @cindex measure repeats
2311 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
2312 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
2313 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
2314 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
2316 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2317 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
2318 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
2324 @internalsref{RepeatSlash}, @internalsref{PercentRepeat},
2325 @internalsref{PercentRepeatedMusic}, and
2326 @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
2331 You cannot nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
2332 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
2334 @node Rhythmic music
2335 @section Rhythmic music
2337 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
2338 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
2339 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
2341 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2342 \context RhythmicStaff {
2344 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
2349 * Percussion staves::
2350 * Percussion midi output::
2353 @node Percussion staves
2354 @subsection Percussion staves
2358 To typeset more than one piece of percussion to be played by the same
2359 musician one typically uses a multiline staff where each staff
2360 position refers to a specific piece of percussion.
2364 LilyPond is has a set of Scheme functions that can be used to typeset
2365 percussion staves. The system is based on the general MIDI
2366 drum-pitches. Include @file{ly/drumpitch-init.ly} to use drum
2367 pitches. This file defines the pitches from the Scheme variable
2368 @code{drum-pitch-names}, the definition of which can be read in
2369 @file{scm/drums.scm}. Each piece of percussion has a full name and an
2370 abbreviated name, and both the full name or the abbreviation may be
2371 used in input files.
2373 To typeset the music on a staff apply the function @code{drums->paper}
2374 to the percussion music. This function takes a list of percussion
2375 instrument names, notehead scripts and staff positions (that is:
2376 pitches relative to the C-clef) and transforms the input
2377 music by moving the pitch, changing the notehead and (optionally)
2380 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,quote]
2381 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2382 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2383 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2385 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2387 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2388 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2393 In the above example the music was transformed using the list @code{'drums}.
2394 Currently the following lists are defined in @file{scm/drums.scm}:
2397 To typeset a typical drum kit on a five-line staff.
2400 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2401 nam = \lyrics { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2402 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
2403 mus = \notes { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2404 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
2407 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2411 \context Lyrics \nam
2414 linewidth = 100.0\mm
2417 \remove Bar_engraver
2418 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2419 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
2423 \remove Stem_engraver
2429 Scheme supports six different toms. When there fewer toms, simply
2430 select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e., to get toms on
2431 the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml} and
2434 Because general MIDI does not contain rimshots the sidestick is used
2435 for this purpose instead.
2437 To typeset timbales on a two line staff.
2438 @lilypond[singleline]
2439 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2440 nam = \lyrics { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
2441 mus = \notes { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
2444 \apply #(drums->paper 'timbales) \context Staff <
2448 \context Lyrics \nam
2453 \remove Bar_engraver
2454 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2455 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2456 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2457 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2461 \remove Stem_engraver
2468 To typeset congas on a two line staff.
2469 @lilypond[singleline]
2470 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2471 nam = \lyrics { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
2472 mus = \notes { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
2475 \apply #(drums->paper 'congas) \context Staff <
2479 \context Lyrics \nam
2484 \remove Bar_engraver
2485 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2486 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2487 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2488 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2492 \remove Stem_engraver
2498 To typeset bongos on a two line staff.
2499 @lilypond[singleline]
2500 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2501 nam = \lyrics { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
2502 mus = \notes { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
2505 \apply #(drums->paper 'bongos) \context Staff <
2509 \context Lyrics \nam
2514 \remove Bar_engraver
2515 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2516 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2517 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2518 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2522 \remove Stem_engraver
2528 To typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves.
2529 @lilypond[singleline]
2530 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2531 nam = \lyrics { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
2532 mus = \notes { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
2535 \apply #(drums->paper 'percussion) \context Staff <
2539 \context Lyrics \nam
2544 \remove Bar_engraver
2545 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2546 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #1
2547 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-2.0 . 3.0)
2551 \remove Stem_engraver
2558 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
2559 list at the top of your file:
2561 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
2563 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2564 (snare default #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 1 0))
2565 (hihat cross #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2566 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2567 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2569 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2570 up = \notes { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
2571 down = \notes { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
2573 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2575 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2576 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2581 To use a modified existing list, one can prepend modifications to the
2585 #(define mydrums (append `(
2586 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2587 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2591 The file @file{drumpitch-init.ly} replaces the normal pitch names, so
2592 you have to reinclude @file{nederlands.ly} after the
2593 drum-pattern-definitions to enter normal notes.
2595 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2596 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2597 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2598 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2599 \include "nederlands.ly"
2600 bass = \notes \transpose c c,, { a4. e8 r e g e }
2603 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff = drums <
2605 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2606 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2608 \context Staff = bass { \clef "F_8" \bass }
2613 @node Percussion midi output
2614 @subsection Percussion midi output
2616 In order to produce correct midi output you need to produce two score
2617 blocks---one for the paper and one for the midi output. To use the
2618 percussion channel you set the property @code{instrument} to
2619 @code{'drums}. Because the drum-pitches themself are similar to the
2620 general midi pitches all you have to do is to insert the voices with
2621 none of the scheme functions to get the correct midi output:
2625 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2634 \property Staff.instrument = #'drums
2643 This scheme is to be considered a temporary implementation.
2647 @section Piano music
2649 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
2650 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
2651 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
2652 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
2653 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
2654 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
2658 * Automatic staff changes::
2659 * Manual staff switches::
2662 * Voice follower lines::
2667 There is no support for putting chords across staves. You can get
2668 this result by increasing the length of the stem in the lower stave so
2669 it reaches the stem in the upper stave, or vice versa. An example is
2670 included with the distribution as @inputfileref{input/test,stem-cross-staff.ly}.
2672 Dynamics are not centered, but kludges do exist. See
2673 @inputfileref{input/templates,piano-dynamics.ly}.
2675 @cindex cross staff stem
2676 @cindex stem, cross staff
2679 @c fixme: should have hyperlinks as well.
2685 @node Automatic staff changes
2686 @subsection Automatic staff changes
2687 @cindex Automatic staff changes
2689 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
2690 staff. The syntax for this is
2692 \autochange Staff \context Voice @{ @dots{}@var{music}@dots{} @}
2694 The autochanger switches on basis of pitch (central C is the turning
2695 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch rests in
2696 advance. Here is a practical example:
2698 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,quote]
2699 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
2700 \context Staff = "up" {
2701 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
2702 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
2703 \context Staff = "down" {
2708 Spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
2709 terminating too soon.
2714 The staff switches often do not end up in optimal places. For high
2715 quality output staff switches should be specified manually.
2719 @node Manual staff switches
2720 @subsection Manual staff switches
2722 @cindex manual staff switches
2723 @cindex staff switch, manual
2725 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
2727 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
2729 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
2730 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
2731 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
2739 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound are produced. Generally, a
2740 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
2744 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
2745 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
2746 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
2749 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
2750 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal types:
2751 Sustain, Sostenuto or UnaCorda. Refer to the generated documentation
2752 of @internalsref{SustainPedal} for more information.
2754 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
2755 @code{pedal-type} property of @internalsref{SustainPedal} objects:
2757 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2758 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'bracket
2759 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
2760 a'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
2761 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
2764 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
2765 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
2767 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2768 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'mixed
2769 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
2770 c'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
2771 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
2774 The default '*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
2775 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
2776 for a sostenuto pedal:
2778 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2779 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
2782 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
2783 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
2784 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (see the detailed documentation of
2785 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket}) can be modified. For example, the bracket
2786 may be extended to the end of the note head.
2788 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2789 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override
2790 #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
2791 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4
2792 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
2796 @subsection Arpeggio
2799 @cindex broken arpeggio
2800 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
2802 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
2803 @code{\arpeggio} to a chord.
2806 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2807 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
2810 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
2811 to the chords in both staves, and set
2812 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@code{connectArpeggios}.
2814 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2815 \context PianoStaff <
2816 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2817 \context Voice = one { <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio }
2818 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <<c,, e g>>-\arpeggio }
2822 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} objects. Cross staff
2823 arpeggios are @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@internalsref{Arpeggio}.
2825 The direction of the arpeggio is sometimes denoted by adding an
2826 arrowhead to the wiggly line. This can be typeset by setting
2827 @code{arpeggio-direction}.
2829 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2831 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #1
2832 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
2833 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
2834 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
2838 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
2839 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
2840 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
2841 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} objects to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
2842 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before.
2844 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2845 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override
2846 #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
2847 <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio
2853 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected
2854 arpeggios in one @internalsref{PianoStaff} at the same time.
2856 @node Voice follower lines
2857 @subsection Voice follower lines
2860 [TODO: invent better name]
2862 @cindex follow voice
2863 @cindex staff switching
2866 @cindex @code{followVoice}
2868 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
2869 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
2870 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
2872 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2873 \context PianoStaff <
2874 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2875 \context Staff \context Voice {
2877 \translator Staff=two
2880 \context Staff=two { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2884 The associated object is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2888 @section Vocal music
2890 For a discussion of how to put lyrics into a score, see section
2891 @code{Printing lyrics} in the tutorial.
2894 This will create an extender, which is a line
2895 that extends over the entire duration of the lyric. This line will
2896 run all the way to the start of the next lyric, so you may want to
2897 shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
2900 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
2902 To get them printed, you must do two
2903 things: indicate that lyrics are entered with @code{\lyrics}, and
2904 indicate that this type of music must be interpreted as texts (and not
2905 notes). This is done with @code{\context Lyrics}.
2907 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
2908 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword
2909 @code{\lyrics}. In this mode you can enter lyrics, with punctuation
2910 and accents without any hassle. Syllables are entered like notes, but
2911 with pitches replaced by text. For example,
2919 You can use ordinary hyphens at the end of a syllable, i.e.
2923 but then the hyphen will be attached to the end of the first syllable.
2925 If you want them centered between syllables you can use the special
2926 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. The
2927 hyphen will have variable length depending on the space between
2928 the syllables and it will be centered between the syllables.
2933 Normally the notes that you enter are transformed into note heads.
2934 Note heads alone make no sense. They need surrounding information: a
2935 key signature, a clef, staff lines, etc. They need @emph{context}.
2936 In LilyPond, these symbols are created by objects called
2937 `interpretation contexts'. Interpretation contexts exist for
2938 generating notation (`notation context') and for generating sound
2939 (`performance context'). These objects only exist while LilyPond is
2940 executing. For lyrics, the command
2944 must be used to interpret a set of syllables as lyrics.
2949 @cindex interpretation context
2950 @cindex notation context
2954 The melody and the lyrics can be combined with the @code{\addlyrics}:
2957 \notes \relative c' @dots{}
2958 \context Lyrics \lyrics @dots{}
2961 [TODO: Move lyrics section from tutorial to here?]
2963 See also the sections on @ref{Slurs} and @ref{Breath marks}.
2965 [TODO: Move slurs / breath marks section to here?]
2967 [TODO: Write subsection upon usage of ChoirStaff.]
2969 For entering quotes in Lyrics mode, use the following
2971 "\"God\"" is "`King'"
2974 You can use empty syllables, e.g. @code{_4} or @code{" "4} to enter
2975 lyrics. This can confuse the LilyPond -- for example, this might put
2976 (empty) lyrics under rests. To remedy this, use @code{\skip}.
2983 Input for lyrics introduces a syntactical ambiguity:
2990 is interpreted as assigning a string identifier @code{\foo} such that
2991 it contains @code{"bar"}. However, it could also be interpreted as
2992 making or a music identifier @code{\foo} containing the syllable
2993 `bar'. The force the latter interpretation, use
3007 The term @emph{ambitus} denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in
3008 a part of music. It also may denote the pitch range that a musical
3009 instrument is capable of playing. Most musical instruments have their
3010 ambitus standardized (or at least there is agreement upon the minimal
3011 ambitus of a particular type of instrument), such that a composer or
3012 arranger of a piece of music can easily meet the ambitus constraints of
3013 the targeted instrument. However, the ambitus of the human voice
3014 depends on individual physiological state, including education and
3015 training of the voice. Therefore, a singer potentially has to check for
3016 each piece of music if the ambitus of that piece meets his individual
3017 capabilities. This is why the ambitus of a piece may be of particular
3018 value to vocal performers.
3020 The ambitus is typically notated on a per-voice basis at the very
3021 beginning of a piece, e.g. nearby the initial clef or time signature of
3022 each staff. The range is graphically specified by two noteheads, that
3023 represent the minimum and maximum pitch. Some publishers use a textual
3024 notation: they put the range in words in front of the corresponding
3025 staff. Lilypond currently only supports the graphical ambitus notation.
3027 To apply, add the @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the
3028 @internalsref{Voice} context, i.e.
3031 \paper @{ \translator @{
3033 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3039 @lilypond[singleline]
3040 upper = \notes \relative c {
3043 as'' c e2 bes f cis d4 e f2 g
3045 lower = \notes \relative c {
3048 e'4 b g a c es fis a cis b a g f e d2
3051 \context ChoirStaff {
3053 \context Staff = one { \upper }
3054 \context Staff = three { \lower }
3060 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3069 @internalsref{Ambitus}, @inputfileref{input/regression,ambitus.ly}.
3074 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
3075 instruments. It notates pitches not by using note heads, but by
3076 indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
3077 offers limited support for tablature.
3080 * Tablatures basic::
3081 * Non-guitar tablatures::
3084 @node Tablatures basic
3085 @subsection Tablatures basic
3086 @cindex Tablatures basic
3088 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
3089 followed by a number, e.g. @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
3090 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
3091 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
3092 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
3093 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts.
3095 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3096 \notes \context TabStaff {
3102 If you do not specify a string number then one is selected
3103 automatically: the first string that does not give a fret number less
3104 than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default value for
3105 @code{minimumFret} is 0.
3109 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3110 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3111 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3116 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3117 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3118 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3121 \context StaffGroup <
3122 \context Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
3123 \context TabStaff { \frag }
3130 @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}, and
3131 @internalsref{StringNumberEvent}.
3135 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
3136 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
3140 @node Non-guitar tablatures
3141 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
3142 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
3144 You can change the number of strings, by setting the number of lines
3145 in the @internalsref{TabStaff} (the @code{line-count} property of
3146 @internalsref{TabStaff} can only be changed using
3147 @code{\outputproperty}, for more information, see @ref{Tuning objects}.
3149 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
3150 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
3151 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to central C) of an
3152 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
3153 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
3154 by default middle C, in string order: thus the notes are e, a, d, and
3157 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3160 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface)
3162 \property TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
3165 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
3170 Finally, it is possible to change the Scheme function to format the
3171 tablature note text. The default is
3172 @var{fret-number-tablature-format}, which uses the fret number. For
3173 some instruments that do not use this notation, you can create a
3174 special tablature formatting function. This function takes three
3175 argument: the string number, the string tuning and the note pitch.
3179 As tablature is a recent feature, most of the guitar special effects
3180 such as bend are not yet supported.
3187 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords.
3188 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3189 twoWays = \notes \transpose c c' {
3199 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
3200 \context Voice \twoWays > }
3203 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
3204 be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not interpret
3205 this as an inversion.
3207 Chords are represented as a set of pitches. They are internally
3208 stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can enter
3209 chords by name and print them as notes, enter them as notes and print
3210 them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by name, and
3215 * Printing chord names::
3220 @subsection Chords mode
3223 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
3224 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}.
3225 In chords mode, a chord is entered by the root, which is entered
3226 like a common pitch, for example,
3227 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote, relative=1]
3228 \chords { es4. d8 c2 }
3233 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon, and introducing a
3234 modifier, and optionally, a number, for example
3236 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote]
3237 \chords { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
3239 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
3240 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
3241 number, for example.
3242 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3243 \chords { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
3246 @cindex root of chord
3247 @cindex additions, in chords
3248 @cindex removals, in chords
3250 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
3251 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
3252 the colon, and are separated by dots. For example
3254 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3255 \chords { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
3257 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
3258 to the number, for example:
3259 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3260 \chords { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
3262 Removals are specified similarly, and are introduced by a caret. They
3263 must come after the additions.
3264 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3265 \chords { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
3268 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
3272 is the minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
3274 is the diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
3277 is the augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
3279 is the major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
3281 is the suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
3282 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
3285 Modifiers can be mixed with additions.
3286 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3287 \chords { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
3290 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
3297 Since the unaltered 11 does sound well when combined with the
3298 unaltered 3, the 11 is removed in this case, unless it is added
3299 explicitly). For example,
3300 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3301 \chords { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
3306 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
3307 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
3308 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord.
3309 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3310 \chords { c1 c/g c/f }
3313 If you do not want to remove the bass note from the chord, but rather
3314 add the note, then you can use @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
3316 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3317 \chords { c1 c/+g c/+f }
3320 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyrics}, @code{\notes} etc. Most
3321 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
3322 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and
3323 @code{\property} may be used to change various settings.
3329 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
3330 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
3333 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3334 \chords { c:5.5-.5+ }
3337 In chord mode, dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions
3338 and subtractions, so articulation scripts cannot be entered.
3341 @node Printing chord names
3342 @subsection Printing chord names
3344 @cindex printing chord names
3348 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
3349 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
3350 directly using simultaneous music.
3352 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3354 \chords {a1 b c} <<d f g>> <<e g b>>
3358 \context ChordNames \scheme
3359 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
3364 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
3365 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
3366 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
3367 the start of a new line.
3371 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
3375 \context ChordNames {
3376 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
3378 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
3380 \paper{linewidth= 9.\cm}
3384 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
3385 Klaus Ignatzek (See @ref{Literature}).
3387 [TODO: add description for banter other jazz.]
3389 The Ignatzek chord name formatting can be tuned in a number of ways
3390 through the following properties:
3392 @item chordNameExceptions
3393 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
3395 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly}.
3397 @item majorSevenSymbol
3398 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
3399 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup},
3400 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
3401 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly} for an example.
3403 @item chordNameSeparator
3404 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
3405 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
3407 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3408 \context ChordNames \chords {
3410 \property ChordNames.chordNameSeparator
3415 @item chordRootNamer
3416 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
3417 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
3418 function. An application of setting this function, is providing chord
3419 names with german notation for the root.
3421 @item chordNoteNamer
3422 The default is to print single notes (as for instance the bass note)
3423 using the chordRootNamer. However, by setting this function to a non-null
3424 value you can specify a different function. I.e. you could use letters
3425 in lower case for the base note.
3431 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly},
3432 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly},
3433 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-german.ly},
3434 @file{scm/chords-ignatzek.scm}, @file{scm/chord-entry.scm}
3439 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
3440 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
3441 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
3442 @code{<< .. >>} syntax.
3448 @section Writing parts
3450 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
3451 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
3452 problems in orchestral music.
3459 * Instrument names::
3461 * Multi measure rests::
3462 * Automatic part combining::
3463 * Hara kiri staves::
3464 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
3468 @node Rehearsal marks
3469 @subsection Rehearsal marks
3470 @cindex Rehearsal marks
3472 @cindex @code{\mark}
3474 To print a rehearsal mark, use the @code{\mark} command.
3475 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3485 The mark is incremented automatically if you use @code{\mark
3486 \default}. The value to use is stored in the property
3487 @code{rehearsalMark} is used and automatically incremented.
3489 The @code{\mark} command can also be used to put signs like coda,
3490 segno and fermatas on a barline. Use @code{\markup} to
3491 to access the appropriate symbol.
3493 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
3494 c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts-ufermata" }
3498 In this case, during line breaks,
3499 marks must also be printed at the end of the line, and not at the
3500 beginning. Use the following to force that behavior
3502 \property Score.RehearsalMark \override
3503 #'break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible
3506 See @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}. for putting boxes
3512 @cindex barlines, putting symbols on
3516 @internalsref{MarkEvent}, @internalsref{RehearsalMark},
3517 @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}.
3521 @subsection Bar numbers
3525 @cindex measure numbers
3526 @cindex currentBarNumber
3528 Bar numbers are printed by default at the start of the line. The
3529 number itself is stored in the
3530 @code{currentBarNumber} property,
3531 which is normally updated automatically for every measure.
3533 Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of at the
3534 beginning of each line. This is illustrated in the following example,
3535 whose source is available as
3536 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
3538 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
3540 The start of that numbering can also be reset, as demonstrated in
3541 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-5-reset.ly}.
3543 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-every-5-reset.ly}
3548 @internalsref{BarNumber}.
3549 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-5-reset.ly}.
3550 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
3554 Bar numbers can collide with the @internalsref{StaffGroup} bracket, if
3555 there is one at the top. To solve this, You have to twiddle with the
3556 @internalsref{padding} property of @internalsref{BarNumber} if your
3557 score starts with a @internalsref{StaffGroup}.
3559 @node Instrument names
3560 @subsection Instrument names
3562 In an orchestral score, instrument names are printed left of the
3565 This can be achieved by setting @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instrument}
3566 and @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instr}. This will print a string before
3567 the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
3568 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
3570 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3571 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
3574 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
3577 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3578 \notes \context Staff = treble {
3579 \property Staff.instrument = \markup {
3580 \column << "Clarinetti"
3582 \smaller \musicglyph #"accidentals--1"
3593 @internalsref{InstrumentName}
3597 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
3598 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
3599 the name to avoid a collision.
3602 @subsection Transpose
3604 @cindex transposition of pitches
3605 @cindex @code{\transpose}
3607 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
3610 \transpose @var{from} @var{to} @var{musicexpr}
3613 This means that @var{musicexpr} is transposed by the interval
3614 between @var{from} and @var{to}.
3616 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
3617 @code{\transpose c cis} or @code{\transpose c des} will transpose up
3618 half a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second
3619 version will print flats.
3621 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
3622 mus =\notes { \key d \major cis d fis g }
3623 \score { \notes \context Staff {
3626 \transpose c g' \mus
3627 \transpose c f' \mus
3633 @internalsref{TransposedMusic}, @internalsref{UntransposableMusic}.
3637 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
3638 you must put @code{\transpose} outside of @code{\relative}, since
3639 @code{\relative} will have no effect music that appears inside a
3643 @node Multi measure rests
3644 @subsection Multi measure rests
3645 @cindex Multi measure rests
3649 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
3650 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
3651 fill a score with rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure
3652 rest. This expansion is controlled by the property
3653 @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true, Lily will not expand
3654 empty measures, and the appropriate number is added automatically.
3656 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3657 \time 4/4 r1 | R1 | R1*2
3658 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R1*17 R1*4
3661 The @code{1} in @code{R1} is similar to the duration notation used for
3662 notes. Hence, for time signatures other than 4/4, you must enter other
3663 durations. This can be done with augmentation dots or fractions:
3665 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3666 \property Score.skipBars = ##t
3674 A @code{R} spanning a single measure is printed as a whole rest
3675 centered in the measure (or a breve when the measure lasts longer than
3676 two whole notes), regardless of the time signature.
3680 @cindex text on multi-measure rest
3681 @cindex script on multi-measure rest
3682 @cindex fermata on multi-measure rest
3684 Texts can be added to multi-measure rests by using the
3685 @var{note}-@code{markup} syntax. In this case, the number is
3686 replaced. If you need both texts and the number, you must add the
3687 number by hand. A variable (@code{\fermataMarkup}) is provided for
3691 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3693 R2._\markup { "Ad lib" }
3698 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
3702 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestEvent},
3703 @internalsref{MultiMeasureTextEvent},
3704 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestMusicGroup},
3705 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
3707 The graphical object @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestNumber} is for the
3708 default number, and @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestText} for user
3713 It is not possible to use fingerings (e.g. @code{R1-4}) to put numbers
3714 over multi-measure rests.
3716 @cindex condensing rests
3718 There is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into a single
3719 multimeasure rest. Multi measure rests do not take part in rest
3722 Be careful when entering multimeasure rests followed by whole notes,
3726 will enter two notes lasting four measures each. The result will look
3727 ok, but the bar numbering will be off.
3729 @node Automatic part combining
3730 @subsection Automatic part combining
3731 @cindex automatic part combining
3732 @cindex part combiner
3735 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
3736 staff. It is aimed at typesetting orchestral scores. When the two
3737 parts are identical for a period of time, only one is shown. In
3738 places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate
3739 voices, and stem directions are set automatically. Also, solo and
3740 @emph{a due} parts are identified and can be marked.
3744 The syntax for part combining is
3747 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
3749 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
3750 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
3751 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
3754 The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part
3755 combiner: putting parts on one staff, and setting stem directions and
3758 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
3760 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3761 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3764 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3770 The first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
3771 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
3772 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
3773 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
3774 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
3777 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
3778 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
3780 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
3782 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
3783 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3784 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3787 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3795 @internalsref{PartCombineMusic},
3796 @internalsref{Thread_devnull_engraver},
3797 @internalsref{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @internalsref{A2_engraver}.
3801 The syntax for naming contexts in inconsistent with the syntax for
3804 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
3805 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
3808 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
3810 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3811 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3814 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3820 The part combiner is slated to be rewritten [TODO: explain why] .
3822 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
3823 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
3824 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
3826 @node Hara kiri staves
3827 @subsection Hara kiri staves
3829 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
3830 This saves some space. This style is called `French Score'.
3834 This is supported through the hara kiri@footnote{Hara kiri is the
3835 vulgar name for Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of the Japanese
3836 Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when it finds
3837 itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will not
3838 disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
3841 For @internalsref{Lyrics}, @internalsref{LyricsVoice},
3842 @internalsref{ChordNames} and @internalsref{FiguredBass}, hara-kiri is
3843 switched on by default. For normal staffs, hara kiri is available as a
3844 specialized @internalsref{Staff} context, with the name variable
3845 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
3846 example disappears in the second line.
3850 \notes \relative c' <
3851 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
3852 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
3856 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
3862 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
3863 @subsection Sound output for transposing instruments
3865 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed
3866 and untransposed instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch
3867 offset (in semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done
3868 using the @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed
3871 @cindex @code{transposing}
3874 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
3875 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
3879 @node Ancient notation
3880 @section Ancient notation
3882 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
3883 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
3888 [TODO: write introduction on ancient notation]
3891 * Ancient note heads::
3900 @node Ancient note heads
3901 @subsection Ancient note heads
3903 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
3904 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
3905 NoteHead object to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
3906 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
3907 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
3909 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
3910 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
3915 @subsection Ancient clefs
3917 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
3919 For modern clefs, see section @ref{Clef}. For the percussion clef, see
3920 section @ref{Percussion staves}. For the @code{TAB} clef, see section
3923 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
3924 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but
3925 differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such
3926 cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs.
3927 Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an
3928 arbitrary line, as described in section @ref{Clef}. The note printed
3929 to the right side of each clef in the example column denotes the
3930 @code{c'} with respect to that clef.
3932 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
3933 @c @item modern style G clef (glyph: @code{clefs-G})
3936 @c @code{treble}, @code{violin}, @code{G}, @code{G2}, @code{french}
3938 @c @lilypond[26pt]{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "G" c'}
3940 @c @item modern style F clef (glyph: @code{clefs-F})
3943 @c @code{varbaritone}, @code{bass}, @code{F}, @code{subbass}
3945 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "F" c'}
3947 @c @item modern style C clef (glyph: @code{clefs-C})
3950 @c @code{soprano}, @code{mezzosoprano}, @code{alto}, @code{C},
3951 @c @code{tenor}, @code{baritone}
3953 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "C" c'}
3955 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .3 .1
3959 @b{Description} @tab
3960 @b{Supported Clefs} @tab
3964 @code{clefs-neo_mensural_c} @tab
3965 modern style mensural C clef @tab
3966 @code{neo_mensural_c1}, @code{neo_mensural_c2},
3967 @code{neo_mensural_c3}, @code{neo_mensural_c4} @tab
3968 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
3969 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
3970 \clef "neo_mensural_c2" c
3974 @code{clefs-petrucci_c1} @tab
3975 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 1st staffline) @tab
3976 @code{petrucci_c1} @tab
3977 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
3978 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
3979 \clef "petrucci_c1" c
3983 @code{clefs-petrucci_c2} @tab
3984 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 2nd staffline) @tab
3985 @code{petrucci_c2} @tab
3986 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
3987 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
3988 \clef "petrucci_c2" c
3992 @code{clefs-petrucci_c3} @tab
3993 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 3rd staffline) @tab
3994 @code{petrucci_c3} @tab
3995 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
3996 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
3997 \clef "petrucci_c3" c
4001 @code{clefs-petrucci_c4} @tab
4002 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 4th staffline) @tab
4003 @code{petrucci_c4} @tab
4004 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4005 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4006 \clef "petrucci_c4" c
4010 @code{clefs-petrucci_c5} @tab
4011 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 5th staffline) @tab
4012 @code{petrucci_c5} @tab
4013 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4014 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4015 \clef "petrucci_c5" c
4019 @code{clefs-petrucci_f} @tab
4020 petrucci style mensural F clef @tab
4021 @code{petrucci_f} @tab
4022 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4023 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4024 \clef "petrucci_f" c
4028 @code{clefs-petrucci_g} @tab
4029 petrucci style mensural G clef @tab
4030 @code{petrucci_g} @tab
4031 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4032 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4033 \clef "petrucci_g" c
4037 @code{clefs-mensural_c'} @tab
4038 historic style mensural C clef @tab
4039 @code{mensural_c1}, @code{mensural_c2}, @code{mensural_c3},
4040 @code{mensural_c4} @tab
4041 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4042 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4043 \clef "mensural_c2" c
4047 @code{clefs-mensural_f} @tab
4048 historic style mensural F clef @tab
4049 @code{mensural_f} @tab
4050 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4051 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4052 \clef "mensural_f" c
4056 @code{clefs-mensural_g} @tab
4057 historic style mensural G clef @tab
4058 @code{mensural_g} @tab
4059 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4060 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4061 \clef "mensural_g" c
4065 @code{clefs-vaticana_do} @tab
4066 Editio Vaticana style do clef @tab
4067 @code{vaticana_do1}, @code{vaticana_do2}, @code{vaticana_do3} @tab
4068 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4070 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4071 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4072 \clef "vaticana_do2" c
4076 @code{clefs-vaticana_fa} @tab
4077 Editio Vaticana style fa clef @tab
4078 @code{vaticana_fa1}, @code{vaticana_fa2} @tab
4079 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4081 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4082 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4083 \clef "vaticana_fa2" c
4087 @code{clefs-medicaea_do} @tab
4088 Editio Medicaea style do clef @tab
4089 @code{medicaea_do1}, @code{medicaea_do2}, @code{medicaea_do3} @tab
4090 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4092 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4093 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4094 \clef "medicaea_do2" c
4098 @code{clefs-medicaea_fa} @tab
4099 Editio Medicaea style fa clef @tab
4100 @code{medicaea_fa1}, @code{medicaea_fa2} @tab
4101 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4103 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4104 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4105 \clef "medicaea_fa2" c
4109 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do} @tab
4110 historic style hufnagel do clef @tab
4111 @code{hufnagel_do1}, @code{hufnagel_do2}, @code{hufnagel_do3} @tab
4112 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4114 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4115 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4116 \clef "hufnagel_do2" c
4120 @code{clefs-hufnagel_fa} @tab
4121 historic style hufnagel fa clef @tab
4122 @code{hufnagel_fa1}, @code{hufnagel_fa2} @tab
4123 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4125 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4126 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4127 \clef "hufnagel_fa2" c
4131 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4132 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef @tab
4133 @code{hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4134 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4135 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4136 \clef "hufnagel_do_fa" c
4141 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
4142 @c @item modern style percussion clef (glyph: @code{clefs-percussion})
4145 @c @code{percussion}
4147 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "percussion" c'}
4149 @c @item modern style tab clef (glyph: @code{clefs-tab})
4154 @c @lilypond{\context Staff \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #6 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "tab" c'}
4156 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
4157 transcribed mensural music''.
4159 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
4160 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
4162 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
4163 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
4165 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
4167 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
4168 beams, depending on which staffline it is printed.
4172 @subsection Custodes
4177 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
4178 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
4179 of the first note(s) of the following line and thus helps the player
4180 or singer to manage line breaks during performance, thus enhancing
4181 readability of a score.
4183 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th
4184 century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms
4185 of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant
4186 like the @emph{editio vaticana}. There are different custos glyphs
4187 used in different flavours of notational style.
4189 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
4190 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block,
4191 as shown in the following example.
4197 \consists Custos_engraver
4198 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
4203 The result looks like this:
4209 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
4216 \consists Custos_engraver
4223 The custos glyph is selected by the @code{style} property. The styles
4224 supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
4225 @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the following fragment:
4235 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-vaticana-u0" }
4239 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-medicaea-u0" }
4243 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-hufnagel-u0" }
4247 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-mensural-u0" }
4256 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4260 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4261 \remove "Key_engraver"
4262 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4263 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4264 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4270 If the boolean property @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} is set to
4271 @code{#t} (which it is by default), lily typesets slightly different
4272 variants of the custos glyph, depending on whether the custos, is
4273 typeset on or between stafflines. The idea is that the glyph will
4274 optically fit well into the staff, with the appendage on the right of
4275 the custos always ending at the same vertical position between two
4276 stafflines regardless of the pitch. If you set
4277 @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} to @code{#f}, then lily takes regardless
4278 of the pitch always a glyph that is a compromise of the former two
4281 Just like stems can be attached to noteheads in two directions
4282 @emph{up} and @emph{down}, each custos glyph is available with its
4283 appendage pointing either up or down. If the pitch of a custos is
4284 above a selectable position, the appendage will point downwards; if
4285 the pitch is below this position, the appendage will point upwards.
4286 Use property @code{neutral-position} to select this position. By
4287 default, it is set to @code{0}, such that the neutral position is the
4288 center of the staff. Use property @code{neutral-direction} to control
4289 what happens if a custos is typeset on the neutral position itself.
4290 By default, this property is set to @code{-1}, such that the appendage
4291 will point downwards. If set to @code{1}, the appendage will point
4292 upwards. Other values such as @code{0} are reserved for future
4293 extensions and should not be used.
4298 @internalsref{Custos}, @inputfileref{input/test,custos-style.ly} and
4299 @inputfileref{input/regression,custos.ly}.
4303 @subsection Divisiones
4309 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; latin word for
4310 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
4311 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
4312 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior} and @emph{divisio maxima}
4313 can be characterized as short, medium and long pause, somewhat like
4314 @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not only marks the end of
4315 a chant, but is also frequently used within a single
4316 antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
4320 To use divisiones, include the file @code{gregorian-init.ly}. It
4321 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
4322 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
4323 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
4324 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
4325 Therefore, @code{gregorian-init.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
4329 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{divisiones.ly}
4333 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
4334 @inputfileref{input/test,divisiones.ly}, @ref{Breath marks}.
4337 @subsection Ligatures
4341 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
4342 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
4344 In musical terminology, a ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that
4345 represents at least two different notes. Ligatures originally appeared
4346 in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th
4347 century as an allusion to the accent symbols of greek lyric poetry to
4348 denote ascending or descending sequences of notes. Both, the shape and
4349 the exact meaning of ligatures changed tremendously during the following
4350 centuries: In early notation, ligatures where used for monophonic tunes
4351 (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way of performance in
4352 the sense of articulation. With upcoming multiphony, the need for a
4353 metric system arised, since multiple voices of a piece have to be
4354 synchronized some way. New notation systems were invented that used
4355 the manifold shapes of ligatures to now denote rhythmical patterns
4356 (e.g. black mensural notation, mannered notation, ars nova). With the
4357 invention of the metric system of the white mensural notation, the need
4358 for ligatures to denote such patterns disappeared. Nevertheless,
4359 ligatures were still in use in the mensural system for a couple of
4360 decades until they finally disappeared during the late 16th / early 17th
4361 century. Still, ligatures have survived in contemporary editions of
4362 Gregorian chant such as the Editio Vaticana from 1905/08.
4366 Syntactically, ligatures are simply enclosed by @code{\[} and
4367 @code{\]}. Some ligature styles (such as Editio Vaticana) may need
4368 additional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature.
4369 By default, the @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a
4370 square bracket above the ligature.
4372 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
4374 \notes \transpose c c' {
4382 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver has
4383 to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in the
4384 following subsections. Currently, Lilypond only supports white mensural
4385 ligatures with certain limitations. Support for Editio Vaticana will be
4386 added in the future.
4389 * White mensural ligatures::
4392 @node White mensural ligatures
4393 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
4395 @cindex Mensural ligatures
4396 @cindex White mensural ligatures
4398 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures. The
4399 implementation is still experimental; it currently may output strange
4400 warnings or even crash in some cases or produce weird results on more
4401 complex ligatures. To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the paper
4402 block the @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} has to be put into
4403 the @internalsref{Voice} context (and you probably want to remove the
4404 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}). There is no additional
4405 input language to describe the shape of a white mensural ligature.
4406 The shape is rather determined solely from the pitch and duration of
4407 the enclosed notes. While this approach may take a new user a while
4408 to get accustomed, it has the great advantage that the full musical
4409 information of the ligature is known internally. This is not only
4410 required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for automatic
4411 transcription of the ligatures.
4415 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
4417 \notes \transpose c c' {
4418 \property Score.timing = ##f
4419 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4420 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4421 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4423 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4425 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4430 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4431 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
4437 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
4438 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
4441 @lilypond[singleline]
4443 \notes \transpose c c' {
4444 \property Score.timing = ##f
4445 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4446 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4447 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4449 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4451 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4457 @subsection Figured bass
4459 @cindex Basso continuo
4461 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
4465 LilyPond has limited support for figured bass:
4467 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
4469 \context Voice \notes { \clef bass dis4 c d ais}
4470 \context FiguredBass
4472 < 6 >4 < 7 >8 < 6+ [_!] >
4478 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
4479 mode, introduced by @code{\figures}, where you can enter bass figures
4480 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass}
4481 that takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
4483 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
4484 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>}.
4489 \context FiguredBass
4493 Accidentals are added to the numbers if you alterate them by
4494 appending @code{-}, @code{!} and @code{+}.
4500 \context FiguredBass
4501 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> }
4504 Spaces or dashes may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
4505 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}.
4511 \context FiguredBass
4512 \figures { < [4 6] 8 [_ 12]> }
4515 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
4516 support, it works much simpler. The @code{\figures} mode simply
4517 stores the numbers , and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints
4518 them as entered. There is no conversion to pitches, and no
4519 realizations of the bass are played in the MIDI file.
4521 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
4522 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
4523 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
4527 @internalsref{BassFigureEvent} music, @internalsref{BassFigure} grob,
4528 @internalsref{FiguredBass} context
4532 Slash notation for alterations is not supported.
4535 @node Contemporary notation
4536 @section Contemporary notation
4538 In the 20th century, composers have greatly expanded the musical
4539 vocabulary. With this expansion, many innovations in musical notation
4540 have been tried. For a comprehensive overview, refer to @cite{Stone
4541 1980} (see @ref{Literature}). In general, the use of new, innovative
4542 notation makes a piece harder to understand and perform and its use
4543 should be avoided if possible. For this reason, support for
4544 contemporary notation in LilyPond is limited.
4553 @subsection Clusters
4557 In musical terminology, a @emph{cluster} denotes a range of
4558 simultaneously sounding pitches that may change over time. The set of
4559 available pitches to apply usually depends on the accoustic source.
4560 Thus, in piano music, a cluster typically consists of a continous range
4561 of the semitones as provided by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic
4562 scale. In choral music, each singer of the choir typically may sing an
4563 arbitrary pitch within the cluster's range that is not bound to any
4564 diatonic, chromatic or other scale. In electronic music, a cluster
4565 (theoretically) may even cover a continuous range of pitches, thus
4566 resulting in coloured noise, such as pink noise.
4568 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
4569 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
4570 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
4571 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by the
4572 shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical extent of
4573 the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster geometrically
4574 describes the development of a range of pitches (vertical extent) over
4575 time (horizontal extent). Still, the geometrical shape of a cluster
4576 covers the area in wich any single pitch contained in the cluster would
4577 be notated as an ordinary note. From this point of view, it is
4578 reasonable to specify a cluster as the envelope of a set of notes.
4582 A cluster is engraved as the envelope of a set of notes. The starting
4583 note is marked with @code{\startCluster}, and the ending note with
4584 @code{\stopCluster}, e.g.,
4592 The following example (from
4593 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly}) shows what the result
4596 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{cluster.ly}
4598 By default, @internalsref{Cluster_engraver} is in the
4599 @internalsref{Voice} context. This allows putting ordinary notes and
4600 clusters together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In such a
4601 case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between
4602 ordinary notes and clusters.
4606 @internalsref{Cluster}, @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly},
4607 @internalsref{Cluster_engraver}, @internalsref{ClusterEvent}.
4611 When a cluster is active, note heads must be switched off manually using
4614 Music expressions like @code{< @{ g8 e8 @} a4 >} are not printed
4615 accurately. Use @code{<<g a>>8 <<e a>>8} instead.
4620 @subsection Fermatas
4626 Contemporary music notation frequently uses special fermata symbols to
4627 indicate fermatas of differing lengths.
4631 The following are supported
4633 @lilypond[singleline]
4656 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
4657 "shortfermata" "fermata" "longfermata" "verylongfermata"
4662 See @ref{Articulations} for general instructions how to apply scripts
4663 such as fermatas to a @code{\notes@{@}} block.
4666 @section Tuning output
4668 As much formatting as possible is performed
4669 automatically. Nevertheless, there are situations where LilyPond needs
4670 some help, or where you want to override its decisions. In this
4671 section we discuss ways to do just that.
4673 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called objects (graphic
4674 objects). Each object carries with it a set of properties (object
4675 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem object has
4676 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
4678 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
4679 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
4680 temporarily change the definition of one type of object, thus
4681 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
4682 object, and set a object property in that object.
4692 @node Tuning objects
4693 @subsection Tuning objects
4695 @cindex object description
4697 The definition of an object is actually a list of default object
4698 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem object (available
4699 in @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), includes the following definitions for
4704 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
4705 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
4710 By adding variables on top of these existing definitions, the system
4711 defaults is overriden, and the appearance of a graphical objects is
4717 Changing a variable for only one object is commonly achieved with
4721 \once \property @var{context}.@var{grobname}
4722 \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4724 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
4725 and @var{grobname} is a string and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
4726 This command applies a setting only during one moment in the score.
4728 In the following example, only one @internalsref{Stem} object is
4729 changed from its original setting:
4731 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment, relative=1]
4733 \once \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4
4737 @cindex @code{\once}
4739 For changing more objects, the same command, without @code{\once} can
4742 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4744 This command adds @code{@var{symbol} = @var{value}} to the definition
4745 of @var{grobname} in the context @var{context}, and this definition
4746 stays in place until it is removed.
4748 An existing definition may be removed by the following command
4751 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
4754 All @code{\override} and @code{\revert} commands should be balanced.
4755 The @code{\set} shorthand, performs a revert followed by an override,
4756 and is often more convenient to use
4759 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4763 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
4764 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
4766 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
4770 The following example gives exactly the same result as the previous
4771 one (assuming the system default for stem thickness is 0.8).
4773 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
4774 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
4776 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
4780 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
4781 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
4782 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
4783 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and
4784 @code{\revert}, must be carefully balanced.
4786 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
4789 A clumsy but correct form:
4791 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
4794 Shorter version of the same:
4796 \override \set \set \revert
4799 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
4802 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
4805 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the object property is unset),
4808 \set \set \set \revert
4811 For the digirati, the object description is an Scheme association
4812 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as
4813 a stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are push and pop
4814 operations. The association list is stored in a normal context
4817 \property Voice.NoteHead = #'()
4819 will effectively erase @internalsref{NoteHead}s from the current
4820 @internalsref{Voice}. However, this mechanism is not guaranteed to
4821 work, and may cause crashes or other anomalous behavior.
4825 @internalsref{OverrideProperty}, @internalsref{RevertProperty},
4826 @internalsref{PropertySet}, @internalsref{backend properties},
4827 @internalsref{All Graphical Objects}.
4832 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
4833 The backend is not very strict in type-checking object properties. If you
4834 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
4839 @subsection Applyoutput
4841 The most versatile way of tuning object is @code{\applyoutput}. Its
4844 \applyoutput @var{proc}
4846 where @var{proc} is a Scheme function, taking four arguments.
4848 When interpreted, the function @var{proc} is called for every grob found
4849 in the context, with the following arguments:
4851 @item the grob itself
4852 @item the context where the grob was created
4853 @item the context where @code{\applyoutput} is processed.
4856 In addition, the cause of the grob, i.e. the music expression or object
4857 that was responsible for creating the object, is in the object property
4858 @code{cause}. For example, for a note head, this is a
4859 @internalsref{NoteHead} event, and for a @internalsref{Stem} object,
4860 this is a @internalsref{NoteHead} object.
4863 @node Outputproperty
4864 @subsection Outputproperty
4866 @cindex \outputproperty
4868 Another way of tuning objects is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
4869 feature. The syntax is as follows:
4871 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4873 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking an object argument, and
4874 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
4875 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
4876 objects that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
4877 true, the object property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
4879 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
4880 the appropriate context to apply this to.
4881 @inputfileref{input/regression,output-property.ly} shows an example of
4882 the use of @code{\outputproperty}.
4886 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
4887 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
4890 @node Font selection
4891 @subsection Font selection
4893 The most common thing to change about the appearance of fonts is
4894 their size. The font size of any context can be easily
4895 changed by setting the @code{fontSize} property for that context:
4897 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,verbatim,quote]
4898 c4 c4 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
4901 This command will set @code{font-relative-size} (see below),
4902 and does not change the size of variable symbols, such as
4903 beams or slurs. You can use this command to get smaller symbol for
4904 cue notes, but that involves some more subtleties. An elaborate
4905 example of those is in @inputfileref{input/test,cue-notes.ly}.
4907 @cindex magnification
4909 The size of the font may be scaled with the object property
4910 @code{font-magnification}. For example, @code{2.0} blows up all
4911 letters by a factor 2 in both directions.
4920 The font used for printing a object can be selected by setting
4921 @code{font-name}, e.g.
4923 \property Staff.TimeSignature
4924 \set #'font-name = #"cmr17"
4926 You may use any font which is available to @TeX{}, such as foreign
4927 fonts or fonts that do not belong to the Computer Modern font family.
4929 Font selection for the standard fonts, @TeX{}'s Computer Modern fonts,
4930 can also be adjusted with a more fine-grained mechanism. By setting
4931 the object properties described below, you can select a different font.
4932 All three mechanisms work for every object that supports
4933 @code{font-interface}.
4937 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
4938 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff
4939 braces), @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{ancient} (the
4940 ancient notation font) @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic signs) and
4944 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
4945 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
4946 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
4949 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
4950 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
4953 @item font-relative-size
4954 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
4955 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
4956 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
4958 There are small differences in design between fonts designed for
4959 different sizes, hence font-relative-size is the preferred way to
4963 @item font-design-size
4964 A number indicating the design size of the font.
4966 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
4967 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
4968 which enhances readability.
4971 For any of these properties, the value @code{*} (i.e. the symbol
4972 @code{*}, entered as @code{#'*}), acts as a wildcard. This can be used
4973 to override default setting, which are always present. For example:
4975 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
4976 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-family = #'typewriter
4977 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
4980 @cindex @code{font-style}
4986 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
4988 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
4989 family, and the style sheet cannot be modified easily.
4991 @cindex font selection
4992 @cindex font magnification
4993 @cindex @code{font-interface}
4997 @subsection Text markup
5002 @cindex typeset text
5004 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can access it
5005 with the keyword @code{\markup}. Within markup mode, you can enter texts
5006 similar to lyrics: simply enter them, surrounded by spaces.
5009 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
5010 c1^\markup { hello }
5011 c1_\markup { hi there }
5012 c1^\markup { hi \bold there, is \italic anyone home? }
5015 @cindex font switching
5017 The line of the example demonstrates font switching commands. The
5018 command only apply to the first following word; enclose a set of texts
5019 with braces to apply a command to more words.
5021 \markup @{ \bold @{ hi there @} @}
5023 For clarity, you can also do this for single arguments, e.g.
5025 \markup @{ is \italic @{ anyone @} home @}
5028 @cindex font size, texts
5030 The following size commands set abolute sizes
5046 You can also make letter larger or smaller relative to their neighbors,
5047 with the commands @code{\larger} and @code{\smaller}.
5051 @cindex font style, for texts
5057 The following font change commands are defined:
5060 This changes to the font used for dynamic signs. This font does not
5061 contain all characters of the alphabet, so when producing ``piu f'',
5062 the ``piu'' should be done in a different font.
5066 This changes to the font used for time signatures. It only contains
5067 numbers and a few punctuation marks.
5069 Changes @code{font-shape} to @code{italic}
5071 Changes @code{font-series} to @code{bold}
5074 @cindex raising text
5075 @cindex lowering text
5077 @cindex translating text
5082 Raising and lowering texts can be done with @code{\super} and
5085 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
5086 c1^\markup { E "=" mc \super "2" }
5091 If you want to give an explicit amount for lowering or raising, use
5092 @code{\raise}. This command takes a Scheme valued first argument, and
5093 a markup object as second argument
5095 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1,quote]
5096 c1^\markup { C \small \raise #1.0 \bold { "9/7+" }}
5098 The argument to @code{\raise} is the vertical displacement amount,
5099 measured in (global) staff spaces.
5101 Other commands taking single arguments include
5104 @item \bracket, \hbracket
5105 Bracket the argument markup with normal and horizontal brackets
5110 This is converted to a musical symbol, e.g. @code{\musicglyph
5111 #"accidentals-0"} will select the natural sign from the music font.
5112 See @ref{The Feta font} for a complete listing of the possible glyphs.
5114 This produces a single character, e.g. @code{\char #65} produces the
5117 @item \hspace #@var{amount}
5119 This produces a invisible object taking horizontal space.
5121 \markup @{ A \hspace #2.0 B @}
5123 will put extra space between A and B, on top of the space that is
5124 normally inserted before elements on a line.
5126 @item \fontsize #@var{size}
5128 This sets the relative font size, eg.
5130 A \fontsize #2 @{ B C @} D
5134 This will enlarge the B and the C by two steps.
5135 @item \translate #(cons @var{x} @var{y})
5137 This translates an object. Its first argument is a cons of numbers
5139 A \translate #(cons 2 -3) @{ B C @} D
5141 This moves `B C' 2 spaces to the right, and 3 down.
5143 @item \magnify #@var{mag}
5145 This sets the font magnification for the its argument. In the following
5146 example, the middle A will be 10% larger.
5148 A \magnify #1.1 @{ A @} A
5152 @item \override #(@var{key} . @var{value})
5154 This overrides a formatting property for its argument. The argument
5155 should be a key/value pair, e.g.
5157 m \override #'(font-family . math) m m
5161 In markup mode you can compose expressions, similar to mathematical
5162 expressions, XML documents and music expressions. The braces group
5163 notes into horizontal lines. Other types of lists also exist: you can
5164 stack expressions grouped with @code{<<}, and @code{>>} vertically with
5165 the command @code{\column}. Similarly, @code{\center} aligns texts by
5168 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
5169 c1^\markup { \column << a bbbb c >> }
5170 c1^\markup { \center << a bbbb c >> }
5171 c1^\markup { \line << a b c >> }
5174 The markup mechanism is very flexible and extensible. Refer to
5175 @file{scm/new-markup.scm} for more information on extending the markup
5178 @cindex metronome mark
5180 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
5184 eighthStem = \markup \combine
5185 \musicglyph #"flags-stem"
5186 \translate #'(0.0 . 3.5) \musicglyph #"flags-u3"
5187 eighthNote = \markup
5188 \override #'(word-space . 0.0)
5189 { \musicglyph #"noteheads-2"
5190 \translate #'(-0.05 . 0.1) \eighthStem }
5193 \notes\relative c'' {
5194 a1^\markup { \magnify #0.9 \eighthNote " = 64" }
5201 @internalsref{Markup functions}, @file{scm/new-markup.scm}
5208 Text layout is ultimately done by @TeX{}, which does kerning of
5209 letters. LilyPond does not account for kerning, so texts will be
5210 spaced slightly too wide.
5212 Syntax errors for markup mode are confusing.
5216 @section Global layout
5218 The global layout determined by three factors: the page layout, the
5219 line breaks and the spacing. These all influence each other. The
5220 choice of spacing determines how densely each system of music is set,
5221 which influences where line breaks breaks are chosen, and thus
5222 ultimately how many pages a piece of music takes. In this section we
5223 will explain how the lilypond spacing engine works, and how you can
5226 Globally spoken, this procedure happens in three steps: first,
5227 flexible distances (``springs'') are chosen, based on durations. All
5228 possible line breaking combination are tried, and the one with the
5229 best results---a layout that has uniform density and requires as
5230 little stretching or cramping as possible---is chosen. When the score
5231 is processed by @TeX{}, page are filled with systems, and page breaks
5232 are chosen whenever the page gets full.
5237 * Vertical spacing::
5238 * Horizontal spacing::
5245 @node Vertical spacing
5246 @subsection Vertical spacing
5248 @cindex vertical spacing
5249 @cindex distance between staves
5250 @cindex staff distance
5251 @cindex between staves, distance
5252 @cindex staffs per page
5255 The height of each system is determined automatically by lilypond, to
5256 keep systems from bumping into each other, some minimum distances are
5257 set. By changing these, you can put staves closer together, and thus
5258 put more systems onto one page.
5260 Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make
5261 staves maintain a distance, their vertical size is padded. This is
5262 done with the property @code{minimumVerticalExtent}. It takes a pair
5263 of numbers, so if you want to make it smaller from its, then you could
5266 \property Staff.minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4 . 4)
5268 This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 4 staff-space on
5269 either side of the center staff line. The argument of
5270 @code{minimumVerticalExtent} is interpreted as an interval, where the
5271 center line is the 0, so the first number is generally negative. The
5272 staff can be made larger at the bottom by setting it to @code{(-6
5275 The piano staves are handled a little differently: to make cross-staff
5276 beaming work correctly, it necessary that the distance between staves
5277 is fixed. This is also done with a @internalsref{VerticalAlignment}
5278 object, created in @internalsref{PianoStaff}. In this object the
5279 distance between the staves is fixed by setting
5280 @code{forced-distance}. If you want to override this, use a
5281 @code{\translator} block as follows:
5285 VerticalAlignment \override #'forced-distance = #9
5288 This would bring the staves together at a distance of 9 staff spaces,
5289 measured from the center line of each staff.
5293 Vertical aligment of staves is handled by the
5294 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object.
5298 @node Horizontal spacing
5299 @subsection Horizontal Spacing
5301 The spacing engine translates differences in durations into
5302 stretchable distances (``springs'') of differing lengths. Longer
5303 durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest
5304 durations get a fixed amount of space (which is controlled by
5305 @code{shortest-duration-space} in the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}
5306 object). The longer the duration, the more space it gets: doubling a
5307 duration adds a fixed amount (this amount is controlled by
5308 @code{spacing-increment}) of space to the note.
5310 For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter and
5311 8th notes, the eighth note is followed by 1 note head width (NHW). The
5312 The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by 3 NHW, etc.
5313 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=1] c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8
5317 Normally, @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to 1.2, which is the
5318 width of a note head, and @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to
5319 2.0, meaning that the shortest note gets 2 NHW (2 times
5320 @code{shortest-duration-space}) of space. For normal notes, this space
5321 is always counted from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest
5322 notes are generally followed by one NHW of space.
5324 If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single
5325 32th note to a score that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the
5326 entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a 16th, but a 32nd,
5327 thus adding 2 noteheads of space to every note. To prevent this, the
5328 shortest duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score,
5329 but the most commonly found shortest note. Notes that are even
5330 shorter this are followed by a space that is proportonial to their
5331 duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add
5332 only a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by
5335 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=2]
5336 c2 c4. c8 c4. [c16 c] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
5339 The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every
5340 measure, the shortest duration is determined. The most common short
5341 duration, is taken as the basis for the spacing, with the stipulation
5342 that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than
5343 1/8th note. The shortest duration is printed when you run lilypond
5344 with @code{--verbose}. These durations may also be customized. If you
5345 set the @code{common-shortest-duration} in
5346 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, then this sets the base duration for
5347 spacing. The maximum duration for this base (normally 1/8th), is set
5348 through @code{base-shortest-duration}.
5350 @cindex @code{common-shortest-duration}
5351 @cindex @code{base-shortest-duration}
5352 @cindex @code{stem-spacing-correction}
5353 @cindex @code{spacing}
5355 In the introduction it was explained that stem directions influence
5356 spacing. This is controlled with @code{stem-spacing-correction}
5357 property in @internalsref{NoteSpacing}, which are generated for every
5358 @internalsref{Voice} context. The @code{StaffSpacing} object
5359 (generated at @internalsref{Staff} context) contains the same property
5360 for controlling the stem/barline spacing. In the following example
5361 shows these corrections, once with default settings, and once with
5362 exaggerated corrections.
5368 \property Staff.NoteSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
5370 \property Staff.StaffSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
5375 \paper { raggedright = ##t } }
5378 @cindex SpacingSpanner, overriding properties
5380 Properties of the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} must be overriden
5381 from the @code{\paper} block, since the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}
5382 is created before any @code{\property} statements are interpreted.
5384 \paper @{ \translator @{
5386 SpacingSpanner \override #'spacing-increment = #3.0
5393 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, @internalsref{NoteSpacing},
5394 @internalsref{StaffSpacing}, @internalsref{SeparationItem},
5395 @internalsref{SeparatingGroupSpanner}.
5399 Spacing is determined on a score wide basis. If you have a score that
5400 changes its character (measured in durations) halfway during the
5401 score, the part containing the longer durations will be spaced too
5404 There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing.
5409 @subsection Font size
5410 @cindex font size, setting
5411 @cindex staff size, setting
5412 @cindex @code{paper} file
5414 The Feta font provides musical symbols at seven different sizes.
5415 These fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 19 pt, 20 point, 23
5416 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the height of the
5417 five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
5419 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
5420 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 19, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any
5421 of these files, the variables @code{paperEleven},
5422 @code{paperThirteen}, @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperNineteen},
5423 @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and @code{paperTwentysix}
5424 are defined respectively. The default @code{\paper} block is also
5425 set. These files should be imported at toplevel, i.e.
5427 \include "paper26.ly"
5431 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
5432 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
5437 @subsection Line breaking
5440 @cindex breaking lines
5442 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
5443 that lines look neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines
5444 have similar density.
5446 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can
5447 do this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at
5448 this point. Line breaks can only occur at places where there are bar
5449 lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line,
5450 you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
5451 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a
5455 @cindex regular line breaks
5456 @cindex four bar music.
5458 If you want linebreaks at regular intervals, you can use the following:
5460 < \repeat unfold 7 @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
5461 @emph{the real music}
5464 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
5469 @internalsref{BreakEvent}
5473 @subsection Page layout
5476 @cindex breaking pages
5478 @cindex @code{indent}
5479 @cindex @code{linewidth}
5481 The most basic settings influencing the spacing are @code{indent} and
5482 @code{linewidth}. They are set in the @code{\paper} block. They
5483 control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of
5486 If @code{raggedright} is set to true in the @code{\paper}
5487 block, then the lines are justified at their natural length. This
5488 useful for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural
5492 @cindex vertical spacing
5494 The page layout process happens outside lilypond: variables
5495 controlling page layout are passed to the output, and are further
5496 interpreted by @code{ly2dvi}. @code{ly2dvi} responds to the following
5497 variables in the @code{\paper} block. The variable @code{textheight}
5498 sets the total height of the music on each page. The spacing between
5499 systems is controlled with @code{interscoreline}, its default is 16pt.
5500 The distance between the score lines will stretch in order to fill the
5501 full page @code{interscorelinefill} is set to a positive number. In
5502 that case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
5504 @cindex @code{textheight}
5505 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
5506 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
5508 If the variable @code{lastpagefill} is defined,
5509 @c fixme: this should only be done if lastpagefill == #t
5510 systems are evenly distributed vertically on the last page. This
5511 might produce ugly results in case there are not enough systems on the
5512 last page. The @command{lilypond-book} command ignores
5513 @code{lastpagefill}. See @ref{lilypond-book manual} for more
5516 @cindex @code{lastpagefill}
5518 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
5519 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into
5520 the @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages. This
5521 is done by setting the @code{between-systems-strings} on the
5522 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn} where the system is broken.
5523 An example is shown in @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}.
5527 @cindex @code{papersize}
5529 To change the paper size, you must first set the
5530 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
5531 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
5532 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
5533 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
5536 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
5537 \include "paper16.ly"
5540 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
5541 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
5542 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
5547 @ref{Invoking ly2dvi},
5548 @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly},
5549 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn}.
5553 There is no concept of page breaking, which makes it difficult to
5554 choose sensible page breaks in multi-page pieces.
5563 Entered music can also be converted to MIDI output. The performance
5564 is good enough for proof-hearing the music for errors.
5567 Ties, dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted. Dynamic marks,
5568 crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume levels. Dynamic
5569 marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI volume
5570 range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary linearly
5571 between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
5572 @code{dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction} in @internalsref{Voice} context.
5574 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
5575 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
5576 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. The equalizer
5577 can be controlled by setting @code{instrumentEqualizer}.
5579 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
5583 Many musically interesting effects, such as swing, articulation,
5584 slurring, etc., are translated to MIDI.
5589 * MIDI instrument names::
5594 @subsection MIDI block
5598 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
5599 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
5603 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
5604 @item context definitions
5607 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
5611 @cindex context definition
5613 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
5614 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
5615 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer-init.ly}.
5618 @node MIDI instrument names
5619 @subsection MIDI instrument names
5621 @cindex instrument names
5622 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
5623 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
5625 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
5626 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
5627 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
5628 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
5632 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
5633 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by