1 q@c Note: -*-texinfo-*-
3 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
4 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
5 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
7 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
11 @chapter Notation manual
14 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Notation manual --->
20 * Easier music entry::
27 * Fingering instructions::
36 * Contemporary notation::
42 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
48 This chapter describes all the different types of notation supported
49 by LilyPond. It is intended as a reference for users that are already
50 somewhat familiar with using LilyPond.
56 * Chromatic alterations::
64 * Easy Notation note heads ::
72 A note is printed by specifying its pitch and then its duration:
73 @footnote{Notes constitute the most basic elements of LilyPond input,
74 but they do not form valid input on their own without a @code{\score}
75 block. However, for the sake of brevity and simplicity we will
76 generally omit @code{\score} blocks and @code{\paper} declarations in
79 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
88 @cindex Note specification
90 @cindex entering notes
92 The most common syntax for pitch entry is used in @code{\chords} and
93 @code{\notes} mode. In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated
94 by names. The notes are specified by the letters @code{a} through
95 @code{g}, while the octave is formed with notes ranging from @code{c}
96 to @code{b}. The pitch @code{c} is an octave below middle C and the
97 letters span the octave above that C:
99 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
101 a,4 b, c d e f g a b c' d' e' \clef treble f' g' a' b' c''
104 @cindex note names, Dutch
106 A sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch name and
107 a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double flats
108 are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. These
109 names are the Dutch note names. In Dutch, @code{aes} is contracted to
110 @code{as} in Dutch, but both forms are accepted. Similarly, both
111 @code{es} and @code{ees} are accepted.
113 There are predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
114 To use them, include the language specific init file. For
115 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files
116 and the note names they define are:
121 Note Names sharp flat
122 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
123 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
124 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
125 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
126 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
127 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
128 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
129 espanol.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -s -b
138 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
139 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
140 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
141 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave:
143 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
144 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
148 There is also a verbose syntax for pitch specification:
151 @cindex @code{\pitch}
153 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
157 where @var{scmpitch} is a Scheme object of the @code{Pitch} type.
161 Notes can be hidden and unhidden with the following commands:
163 @cindex @code{\hideNotes}
165 @cindex @code{\unHideNotes}
172 @internalsref{NoteEvent}, and @internalsref{NoteHead}.
174 @node Chromatic alterations
175 @subsection Chromatic alterations
177 Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also
178 print them manually. A reminder accidental
179 @cindex reminder accidental
181 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!}
182 after the pitch. A cautionary accidental
183 @cindex cautionary accidental
184 @cindex parenthesized accidental
185 (an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the
186 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch:
188 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
189 cis' cis' cis'! cis'?
193 The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many
194 ways. For more information, refer to @ref{Accidentals}.
199 A chord is formed by a enclosing a set of pitches in @code{<<} and
200 @code{>>}. A chord may be followed by a duration, and a set of
201 articulations, just like simple notes.
211 Rests are entered like notes, with the note name @code{r}:
213 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
217 Whole bar rests, centered in middle of the bar,
218 must be done with multi measure rests. They are discussed in
219 @ref{Multi measure rests}.
222 A rest's vertical position may be explicitly specified by entering a
223 note with the @code{\rest} keyword appended. This makes manual
224 formatting in polyphonic music easier. Rest collision testing will
225 leave these rests alone:
227 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
233 @internalsref{RestEvent}, and @internalsref{Rest}.
240 @cindex Invisible rest
243 An invisible rest (also called a `skip') can be entered like a note
244 with note name `@code{s}' or with @code{\skip @var{duration}}:
246 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
250 The @code{s} syntax is only available in Note mode and Chord mode. In
251 other situations, you should use the @code{\skip} command:
253 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
256 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
257 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
262 The skip command is merely an empty musical placeholder. It does not
263 produce any output, not even transparent output.
267 @internalsref{SkipEvent}.
272 @subsection Durations
276 @cindex @code{\duration}
279 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations are designated by numbers
280 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For example,
281 a quarter note is entered using a @code{4} (since it is a 1/4 note), while
282 a half note is entered using a @code{2} (since it is a 1/2 note). For notes
283 longer than a whole you must use variables:
285 @c FIXME: what is an identifier? I do not think it's been introduced yet.
286 @c and if it has, I obviously skipped that part. - Graham
290 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
292 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
297 \notes \relative c'' {
299 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
301 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
306 \remove "Clef_engraver"
307 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
308 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
309 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
316 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previously entered
317 duration. The default for the first note is a quarter note. The duration
318 can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') in order to obtain dotted note
322 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
323 a' b' c''8 b' a'4 a'4. b'4.. c'8.
328 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M}
329 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
330 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
331 In the following example, the first three notes take up exactly two
333 @lilypond[fragment,relative 2,verbatim]
335 a4*2/3 gis4*2/3 a4*2/3
339 Durations can also be produced using the verbose syntax
340 @code{\duration @var{Scheme object}}:
341 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
342 c'\duration #(ly:make-duration 4 1)
349 Dots are normally moved up to avoid staff lines, except in polyphonic
350 situations. The following commands may be used to force a particular
353 @cindex @code{\dotsUp}
355 @cindex @code{\dotsDown}
357 @cindex @code{\dotsBoth}
362 @internalsref{Dots}, and @internalsref{DotColumn}.
366 In dense chords, dots can overlap.
371 Whenever a note is found, a
372 @internalsref{Stem} object is created automatically. For whole notes
373 and rests, stem objects are also created, but in those cases, the stem
378 @cindex @code{\stemUp}
380 @cindex @code{\stemDown}
382 @cindex @code{\stemBoth}
393 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in
394 effect extends the length of a note. Ties should not be confused with
395 slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate
396 musical phrasing. A tie is entered using the tilde symbol `@code{~}':
398 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
399 e' ~ e' <<c' e' g'>> ~ <<c' e' g'>>
402 When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads whose pitches match
403 are connected. When no note heads match, no ties will be created.
405 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
406 to the augmentation dot; in the following example there are two ways of
407 notating exactly the same concept:
409 @lilypond[fragment, singleline,quote]
410 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
412 If you need to tie a lot of notes over bars, it may be easier to use automatic
413 note splitting (See @ref{Automatic note splitting}).
418 @cindex @code{\tieUp}
420 @cindex @code{\tieDown}
422 @cindex @code{\tieBoth}
424 @cindex @code{\tieDotted}
426 @cindex @code{\tieSolid}
431 @internalsref{TieEvent}, @internalsref{NewTieEvent},
432 @internalsref{Tie}, and @ref{Automatic note splitting}.
435 ties created for a chord, see @inputfileref{input/test,tie-sparse.ly}.
439 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a pair of chords is not
440 supported in a simple way. It can be achieved by moving the
441 tie-engraver into the @internalsref{Thread} context and turning on and
442 off ties per @internalsref{Thread}.
444 Switching staves when a tie is active, will not produce a slanted tie.
446 Formatting of ties is a difficult subject. The results are often not
456 @cindex @code{\times}
458 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all durations
461 @cindex @code{\times}
463 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
466 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
467 In the sheet music, the fraction's denominator will be printed over
468 the notes, optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the
469 triplet in which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3
470 of their written length:
472 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
473 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
476 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each
477 bracket should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while
478 typing @code{\times} only once, saving lots of typing. In the next
479 example, there are two triplets shown, while @code{\times} was only
482 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
483 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
484 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
487 The format of the number is determined by the property
488 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
489 denominator, but if it is set to the Scheme function
490 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, @var{num}:@var{den} will be printed
494 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
495 @cindex tuplet formatting
500 @cindex @code{\tupletUp}
502 @cindex @code{\tupletDown}
504 @cindex @code{\tupletBoth}
509 @internalsref{TupletBracket}, and @internalsref{TimeScaledMusic}.
513 Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically. In this case, outer
514 tuplet brackets should be moved manually.
516 @node Easy Notation note heads
517 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
519 @cindex easy notation
522 The `easyplay' note head includes a note name inside the head. It is
523 used in music aimed at beginners.
525 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,26pt]
527 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
528 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
532 The @code{EasyNotation} variable overrides a @internalsref{Score} context.
533 You probably will want to print it with magnification or a
534 large font size to make it more readable. To print with
535 magnification, you must create a DVI file (with @file{ly2dvi}) and
536 then enlarge it with something like @file{dvips -x 2000 file.dvi}.
537 See the @code{dvips} documentation for more details. To print with a
538 larger font, see @ref{Font Size}.
544 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through
545 the letters. Printing the PostScript file obtained with ly2dvi does
546 produce the correct result.
549 @node Easier music entry
550 @section Easier music entry
553 When entering music it is easy to introduce errors. This section deals
554 with tricks and features of the input language that help when entering
555 music, and find and correct mistakes. Some features of the input
556 language ease entering music, but also have other applications. They
557 are not described in this section.
559 It is also possible to use external programs, for example GUI
560 interfaces, or MIDI transcription programs, to enter or edit
561 music. Refer to the website for more information. Finally, there are
562 tools make debugging easier, by linking the input file and the output
563 shown on screen. See @ref{Point and click} for more information.
569 * Skipping corrected music::
570 * Automatic note splitting ::
576 @node Relative octaves
577 @subsection Relative octaves
579 @cindex relative octave specification
581 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
582 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch
583 in the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. The relative
584 octave mode prevents these errors: a single error puts the rest of the
585 piece off by one octave:
587 @cindex @code{\relative}
589 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
592 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
593 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
594 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
595 (; this distance is determined without regarding alterations: a
596 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
599 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise
600 or lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode,
601 an absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
602 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
604 Here is the relative mode shown in action:
605 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
611 Octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth:
612 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
617 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
618 to determine the first note of the next chord:
620 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
627 @cindex @code{\notes}
629 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
630 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
631 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
634 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
635 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
636 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
637 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
641 @subsection Bar check
645 @cindex @code{barCheckSynchronize}
648 Bar checks help detect errors in the durations. A bar check is
649 entered using the bar symbol, `@code{|}'. Whenever it is encountered
650 during interpretation, it should fall on a measure boundary. If it
651 does not, a warning is printed. Depending on the value of
652 @code{barCheckSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
655 In the next example, the second bar check will signal an error:
657 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2 |
662 @cindex skipTypesetting
664 Failed bar checks are caused by entering incorrect
665 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
666 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the
667 score by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To
668 speed up this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting}, described
671 @node Skipping corrected music
672 @subsection Skipping corrected music
674 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
675 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
676 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
677 This can be used to skip over the parts of a score that have already
678 been checked for errors:
680 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
682 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
684 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
688 @node Automatic note splitting
689 @subsection Automatic note splitting
691 Long notes can be converted automatically to tied notes. This is done
692 by replacing the @internalsref{Note_heads_engraver} by the
693 @internalsref{Completion_heads_engraver}:
696 \paper @{ \translator @{
698 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
699 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
703 which will make long notes tied in the following example:
706 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
713 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
715 \paper { \translator {
717 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
718 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
723 This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts
724 ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are
725 not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how much each measure
730 Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be
731 represented exactly; the engraver will not insert tuplets.
737 @section Staff notation
739 This section describes music notation that occurs on staff level,
740 such as keys, clefs and time signatures.
742 @cindex Staff notation
756 @subsection Staff symbol
758 @cindex adjusting staff symbol
759 @cindex StaffSymbol, using \property
760 @cindex staff lines, setting number of
762 Notes, dynamic signs, etc. are grouped
763 with a set of horizontal lines, into a staff (plural `staves'). In our
764 system, these lines are drawn using a separate layout object called
767 This object is created whenever a @internalsref{Staff} context is
768 created. The appearance of the staff symbol cannot be changed by
769 using @code{\override} or @code{\set}. At the moment that
770 @code{\property Staff} is interpreted, a @internalsref{Staff} context
771 is made, and the @internalsref{StaffSymbol} is created before any
772 @code{\override} is effective. Properties can be changed in a
773 @code{\translator} definition, or by using @code{\outputproperty}.
777 If a staff is ended halfway a piece, the staff symbol may not end
778 exactly on the barline.
782 @subsection Key signature
783 @cindex Key signature
787 The key signature indicates the scale in which a piece is played. It
788 is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of
793 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
796 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
799 @cindex @code{\minor}
800 @cindex @code{\major}
801 @cindex @code{\minor}
802 @cindex @code{\ionian}
803 @cindex @code{\locrian}
804 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
805 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
806 @cindex @code{\lydian}
807 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
808 @cindex @code{\dorian}
810 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
811 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
812 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
813 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
814 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
816 This command sets the context property
817 @internalsref{Staff}.@code{keySignature}. Non-standard key signatures
818 can be specified by setting this property directly.
822 The ordering of a key cancellation is wrong when it is combined with
823 repeat bar lines. The cancellation is also printed after a line break.
827 @internalsref{KeyChangeEvent}, and @internalsref{KeySignature}.
829 @cindex @code{keySignature}
836 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
841 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command:
842 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
843 \key f\major c''2 \clef alto g'2
846 Supported clef-names include:
847 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
849 @item treble, violin, G, G2
858 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
873 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
874 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. Argument @var{clefname}
875 must be enclosed in quotes when it contains underscores or digits. For
881 This command is equivalent to setting @code{clefGlyph},
882 @code{clefPosition} (which controls the Y position of the clef),
883 @code{centralCPosition} and @code{clefOctavation}. A clef is printed
884 when any of these properties are changed.
888 The object for this symbol is @internalsref{Clef}.
892 @node Ottava brackets
893 @subsection Ottava brackets
895 ``Ottava'' brackets introduce an extra transposition of an octave for
896 the staff. They are created by invoking the function
897 @code{set-octavation}:
903 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
912 Internally the @code{set-octavation} function sets the properties
913 @code{ottavation} (eg. to @code{"8va"}) and @code{centralCPosition}.
917 @internalsref{OttavaBracket}.
921 @code{set-octavation} will get confused when clef changes happen
922 during an octavation bracket.
925 @subsection Time signature
926 @cindex Time signature
930 Time signature indicates the metrum of a piece: a regular pattern of
931 strong and weak beats. It is denoted by a fraction at the start of the
936 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
938 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
939 \time 2/4 c'2 \time 3/4 c'2.
942 The symbol that is printed can be customized with the @code{style}
943 property. Setting it to @code{#'()} uses fraction style for 4/4 and
944 2/2 time. There are many more options for its layout. See
945 @inputfileref{input/test,time.ly} for more examples.
948 This command sets the property @code{timeSignatureFraction},
949 @code{beatLength} and @code{measureLength} in the @code{Timing}
950 context, which is normally aliased to @internalsref{Score}. The
951 property @code{measureLength} determines where bar lines should be
952 inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated. Changing the
953 value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes the symbol to be
956 More options are available through the Scheme function
957 @code{set-time-signature}. In combination with the
958 @internalsref{Measure_grouping_engraver}, it will create
959 @internalsref{MeasureGrouping} signs. Such signs ease reading
960 rhythmically complex modern music. In the following example, the 9/8
961 measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to
962 @code{set-time-signature} as the third argument @code{(2 2 2 3)}:
965 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
966 #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3))
967 g8-[ g-] d-[ d-] g-[ g-] a8-[-( bes g-]-) |
968 #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2))
973 \translator { \StaffContext
974 \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
980 @internalsref{TimeSignature}, and @internalsref{Timing_engraver}.
985 Automatic beaming does not use measure grouping specified with
986 @code{set-time-signature}.
988 @node Partial measures
989 @subsection Partial measures
992 @cindex partial measure
993 @cindex measure, partial
994 @cindex shorten measures
995 @cindex @code{\partial}
997 Partial measures, for example in upsteps, are entered using the
998 @code{\partial} command:
999 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1000 \partial 16*5 c'16 c4 | a'2. ~ a'8. a'16 | g'1
1003 The syntax for this command is
1005 \partial @var{duration}
1007 This is internally translated into
1009 \property Timing.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
1012 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
1013 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
1015 @node Unmetered music
1016 @subsection Unmetered music
1018 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
1019 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. By setting
1020 @code{Score.timing} to false, this automatic timing can be switched
1026 @cindex @code{\cadenzaOn}
1028 @cindex @code{\cadenzaOff}
1032 @subsection Bar lines
1036 @cindex measure lines
1040 Bar lines delimit measures, but are also used to indicate repeats.
1041 Normally, they are inserted automatically. Line breaks may only
1047 of barlines can be forced with the @code{\bar} command:
1048 @lilypond[relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
1052 The following bar types are available:
1053 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
1065 In scores with many staves, a @code{\bar} command in one staff is
1066 automatically applied to all staffs. The resulting bar lines are
1067 connected between different staves of a @internalsref{StaffGroup}:
1069 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1070 < \context StaffGroup <
1071 \context Staff = up { e'4 d'
1074 \context Staff = down { \clef bass c4 g e g } >
1075 \context Staff = pedal { \clef bass c2 c2 } >
1079 The command @code{\bar @var{bartype}} is a short cut for doing
1080 @code{\property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}} Whenever
1081 @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
1082 created. At the start of a measure it is set to
1083 @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of @code{repeatCommands} are used
1084 to override default measure bars.
1086 Property @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property}
1087 or @code{\bar}. These settings take precedence over the automatic
1088 @code{whichBar} settings.
1091 @cindex repeatCommands
1092 @cindex defaultBarType
1094 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
1104 The bar line objects that are created at @internalsref{Staff} level
1105 are called @internalsref{BarLine}, the bar lines that span staffs are
1106 @internalsref{SpanBar}s.
1113 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff
1114 is to split chords using the separator @code{\\}. You can use it for
1115 small, short-lived voices or for single chords:
1117 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
1118 \context Voice = VA \relative c'' {
1119 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ b, \\ f' \\ d >
1123 The separator causes @internalsref{Voice} contexts to be
1125 bear the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc. In each of these
1126 contexts, vertical direction of slurs, stems, etc. is set
1129 This can also be done by instantiating @internalsref{Voice} contexts
1130 by hand, and using @code{\voiceOne}, up to @code{\voiceFour} to assign
1131 a stem directions and horizontal shift for each part:
1134 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
1136 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
1137 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
1138 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
1141 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
1142 when the object property @code{merge-differently-dotted} is set in
1143 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} object, they are merged:
1144 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
1145 \relative c'' \context Voice < {
1147 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override
1148 #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
1150 } \\ { g8.-[ f16-] g8.-[ f16-] }
1154 Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting
1155 @code{merge-differently-headed}:
1156 @lilypond[fragment, relative=2,verbatim]
1159 \property Staff.NoteCollision
1160 \override #'merge-differently-headed = ##t
1161 c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >
1164 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem:
1167 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1168 \context Voice < c''4 \\ r4 >
1176 @cindex @code{\oneVoice}
1178 @cindex @code{\voiceOne}
1180 @cindex @code{\voiceTwo}
1182 @cindex @code{\voiceThree}
1184 @cindex @code{\voiceFour}
1187 The following commands specify in what chords of the current voice
1188 should be shifted: the outer voice has @code{\shiftOff}, and the inner
1189 voices have @code{\shiftOn}, @code{\shiftOnn}, etc.
1192 @cindex @code{\shiftOn}
1194 @cindex @code{\shiftOnn}
1196 @cindex @code{\shiftOnnn}
1198 @cindex @code{\shiftOff}
1205 The objects responsible for resolving collisions are
1206 @internalsref{NoteCollision} and @internalsref{RestCollision}. See
1207 also example files @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-dots.ly},
1208 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-head-chords.ly},
1209 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-heads.ly},
1210 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-mesh.ly}, and
1211 @inputfileref{input/regression,collisions.ly}.
1216 Resolving collisions is a intricate subject, and only a few situations
1217 are handled. When LilyPond cannot cope, the @code{force-hshift}
1218 property of the @internalsref{NoteColumn} object and pitched rests can
1219 be used to override typesetting decisions.
1221 When using @code{merge-differently-headed} with an upstem 8th or a shorter
1222 note, and a downstem half note, the 8th note gets the wrong offset.
1227 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
1228 the metrum. They are inserted automatically in most cases:
1230 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1231 \time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
1234 When these automatic decisions are not good enough, beaming can be
1235 entered explicitly. It is also possible to define beaming patterns
1236 that differ from the defaults.
1240 @internalsref{Beam}.
1243 @cindex Automatic beams
1244 @subsection Manual beams
1245 @cindex beams, manual
1249 In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming
1250 algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not put beams over rests
1251 or bar lines. Such beams are specified by manually: the begin and end
1252 point are marked with @code{[} and @code{]}:
1254 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1256 r4 r8-[ g' a r8-] r8 g-[ | a-] r8
1260 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1262 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1263 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1264 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount} can
1265 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If either property
1266 is set, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1268 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1271 f8-[ r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a-]
1274 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1277 The property @code{subdivideBeams} can be set in order to subdivide
1278 all 16th or shorter beams at beat positions, as defined by the
1279 @code{beatLength} property . This accomplishes the same effect as
1280 twiddling with @code{stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{stemRightBeamCount},
1281 but it take less typing:
1284 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,noindent]
1285 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1286 \property Voice.subdivideBeams = ##t
1287 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1288 \property Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
1289 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1291 @cindex subdivideBeams
1293 Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap is detected
1294 between the note heads. This behavior can be tuned through the object
1295 property @code{auto-knee-gap}.
1297 @cindex beams, kneed
1299 @cindex auto-knee-gap
1307 Automatically kneed beams cannot be used together with Hara Kiri
1312 * Setting automatic beam behavior ::
1316 @no de Beam typography
1317 @sub section Beam typography
1319 One of the strong points of LilyPond is how beams are formatted. Beams
1320 are quantized, meaning that the left and right endpoints beams start
1321 exactly on staff lines. Without quantization, small wedges of white
1322 space appear between the beam and staff line, and this looks untidy.
1324 Beams are also slope-damped: melodies that go up or down should also
1325 have beams that go up or down, but the slope of the beams should be
1326 less than the slope of the notes themselves.
1328 Some beams should be horizontal. These are so-called concave beams.
1330 [TODO: some pictures.]
1334 @node Setting automatic beam behavior
1335 @subsection Setting automatic beam behavior
1337 @cindex @code{autoBeamSettings}
1338 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
1339 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
1340 @cindex automatic beams, tuning
1341 @cindex tuning automatic beaming
1343 @c [TODO: use \applycontext]
1345 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
1346 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
1347 or at durations specified by the properties in
1348 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
1349 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
1351 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
1352 @code{\override} and restored with @code{\revert}:
1354 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
1355 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
1357 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
1358 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
1359 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
1360 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
1361 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
1364 For example, if automatic beams should end on every quarter note, use
1367 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1368 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
1370 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1371 entered as @code{(ly:make-moment 1 4)}.
1373 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1374 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note:
1376 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1377 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1379 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1380 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1381 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1383 Rules can also be restricted to specific time signatures. A rule that
1384 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1385 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1386 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1388 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1389 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1392 If a rule should be to applied only to certain types of beams, use the
1393 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the
1394 shortest note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies
1395 to beams with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), use @code{(end 1 32 *
1398 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1399 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1401 @cindex automatic beam generation
1403 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeaming}
1406 For melodies that have lyrics, you may want to switch off
1407 automatic beaming. This is done by setting @code{Voice.autoBeaming} to
1412 @cindex @code{\autoBeamOff}
1413 @code{\autoBeamOff},
1414 @cindex @code{\autoBeamOn}
1420 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1421 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1422 durations, i.e. you will have to specify manual beams to get:
1424 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,relative,noverbatim,quote]
1425 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1426 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1427 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c-[ c c c-] c8 c c4
1429 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1430 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1431 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1434 @section Accidentals
1437 This section describes how to change the way that accidentals are
1438 inserted automatically before the running notes.
1442 * Using the predefined accidental variables::
1443 * Customized accidental rules::
1446 @node Using the predefined accidental variables
1447 @subsection Using the predefined accidental variables
1449 The constructs for describing the accidental typesetting rules are
1450 quite hairy, so non-experts should stick to the variables
1451 defined in @file{ly/property-init.ly}.
1452 @cindex @file{property-init.ly}
1454 The variables set properties in the ``@code{Current}'' context (see
1455 @ref{Context properties}). This means that the variables should
1456 normally be added right after the creation of the context in which the
1457 accidental typesetting described by the variable is to take
1458 effect. For example, if you want to use piano-accidentals in a piano
1459 staff then issue @code{\pianoAccidentals} first thing after the
1460 creation of the piano staff:
1463 \notes \relative c'' <
1464 \context Staff = sa @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1465 \context GrandStaff <
1467 \context Staff = sb @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1468 \context Staff = sc @{ es2 c @}
1470 \context Staff = sd @{ es2 c @}
1474 @lilypond[singleline]
1476 \notes \relative c'' <
1477 \context Staff = sa { cis4 d e2 }
1478 \context GrandStaff <
1480 \context Staff = sb { cis4 d e2 }
1481 \context Staff = sc { es2 c }
1483 \context Staff = sd { es2 c }
1488 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 4.0)
1496 @item \defaultAccidentals
1497 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1498 This is the default typesetting behaviour. It should correspond
1499 to 18th century common practice: Accidentals are
1500 remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and
1501 only on their own octave.
1503 @item \voiceAccidentals
1504 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1506 The normal behaviour is to
1507 remember the accidentals on Staff-level. This variable, however,
1508 typesets accidentals individually for each voice. Apart from that the
1509 rule is similar to @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1511 This leads to some weird and often unwanted results
1512 because accidentals from one voice do not get cancelled in other
1514 @lilypond[singleline,relative,fragment,verbatim,quote]
1522 Hence you should only use @code{\voiceAccidentals} if the voices
1523 are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff is to be
1524 used by one musician (e.g. a conductor) then you use
1525 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals} or @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1528 @item \modernAccidentals
1529 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1530 This rule corresponds to the common practice in the 20th
1532 The rule is more complex than @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1533 You get all the same accidentals, but temporary
1534 accidentals also get cancelled in other octaves. Furthermore,
1535 in the same octave, they also get cancelled in the following measure:
1536 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1538 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1541 @item \modernCautionaries
1542 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1543 This rule is similar to @code{\modernAccidentals}, but the
1544 ``extra'' accidentals (the ones not typeset by
1545 @code{\defaultAccidentals}) are typeset as cautionary accidentals.
1546 They are printed in reduced size or with parentheses:
1547 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1549 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1552 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1553 @item \modernVoiceAccidentals
1554 is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians
1555 playing one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are
1556 typeset for each voice, but they @emph{are} cancelled across voices in
1557 the same @internalsref{Staff}.
1559 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1560 @item \modernVoiceCautionaries
1561 is the same as @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}, but with the extra
1562 accidentals (the ones not typeset by @code{\voiceAccidentals}) typeset
1563 as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset by
1564 @code{\defaultAccidentals} @emph{are} typeset by this variable then
1565 some of them are typeset as cautionaries.
1567 @item \pianoAccidentals
1568 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1569 20th century practice for piano notation. Very similar to
1570 @code{\modernAccidentals} but accidentals also get cancelled
1571 across the staves in the same @internalsref{GrandStaff} or
1572 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.
1574 @item \pianoCautionaries
1575 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1576 As @code{\pianoAccidentals} but with the extra accidentals
1577 typeset as cautionaries.
1580 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1581 Same as @code{\defaultAccidentals} but with accidentals lasting
1582 ``forever'' and not only until the next measure:
1583 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1588 @item \forgetAccidentals
1589 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1590 This is sort of the opposite of @code{\noResetKey}: Accidentals
1591 are not remembered at all---and hence all accidentals are
1592 typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what was
1593 before in the music:
1594 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1596 \key d\major c4 c cis cis d d dis dis
1600 @node Customized accidental rules
1601 @subsection Customized accidental rules
1603 This section must be considered gurus-only, and hence it must be
1604 sufficient with a short description of the system and a reference to
1605 the internal documentation.
1607 The algorithm tries several different rules, and uses the rule
1608 that gives the highest number of accidentals. Each rule consists of
1611 In which context is the rule applied. For example, if
1612 @var{context} is @internalsref{Score} then all staves share
1613 accidentals, and if @var{context} is @internalsref{Staff} then all
1614 voices in the same staff share accidentals, but staves do not.
1616 Whether the accidental changes all octaves or only the current
1619 Over how many barlines the accidental lasts.
1620 If @var{lazyness} is @code{-1} then the accidental is forget
1621 immediately, and if @var{lazyness} is @code{#t} then the accidental
1624 @c [TODO: should use +infinity for this case?]
1630 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1631 @code{\defaultAccidentals},
1632 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1633 @code{\voiceAccidentals},
1634 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1635 @code{\modernAccidentals},
1636 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1637 @code{\modernCautionaries},
1638 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1639 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals},
1640 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1641 @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries},
1642 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1643 @code{\pianoAccidentals},
1644 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1645 @code{\pianoCautionaries},
1646 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1648 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1649 @code{\forgetAccidentals}.
1653 @internalsref{Accidental_engraver}, @internalsref{Accidental}, and
1654 @internalsref{AccidentalPlacement}.
1659 Currently the simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in
1660 sequential mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are
1661 typeset as if the notes in the chord happened once at a time - in the
1662 order in which they appear in the input file.
1664 This is only a problem when there are simultaneous notes whose
1665 accidentals depend on each other. The problem only occurs when using
1666 non-default accidentals. In the default scheme, accidentals only
1667 depend on other accidentals with the same pitch on the same staff, so
1668 no conflicts possible.
1670 This example shows two examples of the same music giving different
1671 accidentals depending on the order in which the notes occur in the
1674 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1675 \property Staff.autoAccidentals = #'( Staff (any-octave . 0) )
1676 cis'4 <<c'' c'>> r2 | cis'4 <<c' c''>> r2
1677 | <<cis' c''>> r | <<c'' cis'>> r |
1680 This problem can be solved by manually inserting @code{!} and @code{?}
1681 for the problematic notes.
1683 @node Expressive marks
1684 @section Expressive marks
1692 * Analysis brackets::
1699 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1703 They are entered using parentheses:
1704 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1705 f'-( g'-)-( a'-) a'8-[ b'-(-] a'4 g'2 f'4-)
1706 <<c' e'>>2-( <<b d'>>2-)
1710 @c TODO: should explain that ^( and _( set directions
1711 @c should set attachments with ^ and _ ?
1713 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1714 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1715 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1716 object property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1717 @internalsref{Voice} context. Its value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1718 the attachment type of the left and right end points:
1720 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1722 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1724 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1728 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1729 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1730 stems might look better:
1732 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1735 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1742 @cindex @code{\slurUp}
1744 @cindex @code{\slurDown}
1746 @cindex @code{\slurBoth}
1748 @cindex @code{\slurDotted}
1750 @cindex @code{\slurSolid}
1755 @seeinternals{Slur}, and @internalsref{SlurEvent}.
1760 Producing nice slurs is a difficult problem, and LilyPond currently
1761 uses a simple, empiric method to produce slurs. In some cases, its
1765 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1767 @node Phrasing slurs
1768 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1770 @cindex phrasing slurs
1771 @cindex phrasing marks
1773 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1774 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1777 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1778 \time 6/4 c'-\( d-( e-) f-( e-) d-\)
1781 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a
1782 normal slur. However, they are treated as different objects. A
1783 @code{\slurUp} will have no effect on a phrasing slur; instead, you
1784 should use @code{\phrasingSlurUp}, @code{\phrasingSlurDown}, and
1785 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}.
1787 The commands @code{\slurUp}, @code{\slurDown}, and @code{\slurBoth}
1788 will only affect normal slurs and not phrasing slurs.
1792 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurUp}
1793 @code{\phrasingSlurUp},
1794 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurDown}
1795 @code{\phrasingSlurDown},
1796 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}
1797 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth},
1801 See also @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, and
1802 @internalsref{PhrasingSlurEvent}.
1806 Phrasing slurs have the same limitations in their formatting as normal
1807 slurs. Putting phrasing slurs over rests leads to spurious warnings.
1810 @subsection Breath marks
1812 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}:
1815 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1819 The glyph of the breath mark can be tweaked by overriding the
1820 @code{text} property of the @code{BreathingSign} layout object with the name of
1821 any glyph of @ref{The Feta font}. For example,
1822 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative]
1824 \property Voice.BreathingSign \override #'text = #"scripts-rvarcomma"
1831 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent}, and
1832 @inputfileref{input/regression,breathing-sign.ly}.
1835 @node Metronome marks
1836 @subsection Metronome marks
1839 @cindex beats per minute
1840 @cindex metronome marking
1842 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1844 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1847 In the MIDI output, they are interpreted as a tempo change, and in the
1848 paper output, a metronome marking is printed:
1849 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1850 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1856 @internalsref{TempoEvent}.
1861 @subsection Text spanners
1862 @cindex Text spanners
1864 Some performance indications, e.g. @i{rallentando} or @i{accelerando},
1865 are written as texts, and extended over many measures with dotted
1866 lines. You can create such texts using text spanners: attach
1867 @code{\startTextSpan} and @code{\stopTextSpan} to the
1868 start and ending note of the spanner.
1870 The string to be printed, as well as the style, is set through object
1873 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1875 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'direction = #-1
1876 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("rall " . "")
1877 c2-\startTextSpan b c-\stopTextSpan a }
1883 @internalsref{TextSpanEvent},
1884 @internalsref{TextSpanner}, and
1885 @inputfileref{input/regression,text-spanner.ly}.
1888 @node Analysis brackets
1889 @subsection Analysis brackets
1891 @cindex phrasing brackets
1892 @cindex musicological analysis
1893 @cindex note grouping bracket
1895 Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical
1896 pieces. LilyPond supports a simple form of nested horizontal brackets.
1897 To use this, add the @internalsref{Horizontal_bracket_engraver} to
1898 @internalsref{Staff} context. A bracket is started with
1899 @code{\startGroup} and closed with @code{\stopGroup}:
1901 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
1902 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
1903 c4-\startGroup-\startGroup
1906 c4-\stopGroup-\stopGroup
1908 \paper { \translator {
1909 \StaffContext \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
1915 @internalsref{HorizontalBracket}, @internalsref{NoteGroupingEvent}, and
1916 @inputfileref{input/regression,note-group-bracket.ly}.
1920 @section Articulations
1921 @cindex Articulations
1923 @cindex articulations
1927 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1928 different characteristics of the performance. They are added to a note
1929 by adding a dash and the character signifying the
1930 articulation. They are demonstrated here:
1932 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-abbreviations.ly}
1934 The script is automatically placed, but if you need to force
1935 directions, you can use @code{_} to force them down, or @code{^} to
1937 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1944 Other symbols can be added using the syntax
1945 @var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}, e.g. @code{c4-\fermata}. Again, they
1946 can be forced up or down using @code{^} and @code{_}:
1950 @cindex staccatissimo
1959 @cindex organ pedal marks
1968 @cindex prallmordent
1972 @cindex thumb marking
1977 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-chart.ly}
1982 @cindex @code{\scriptUp}
1984 @cindex @code{\scriptDown}
1986 @cindex @code{\scriptBoth}
1991 @internalsref{ScriptEvent}, and @internalsref{Script}.
1995 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1996 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1999 @node Fingering instructions
2000 @section Fingering instructions
2004 Fingering instructions can be entered using
2006 @var{note}-@var{digit}
2008 For finger changes, use markup texts:
2010 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
2011 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
2012 c'^\markup { \fontsize #-3 \number "2-3" }
2015 @cindex finger change
2020 You can use the thumb-script to indicate that a note should be
2021 played with your thumb (used in cello music):
2023 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragmnt]
2024 <<a' a''-3>>8-(_\thumb-[ <<b' b''-3>>-)_\thumb
2025 <<c'' c'''-3>>-(_\thumb <<d'' d'''-3>>-)_\thumb-]
2028 Fingerings for chords can also be added to individual notes
2029 of the chord by adding them after the pitches:
2030 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
2031 << c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >> 4
2034 Setting @code{fingerHorizontalDirection} will put the fingerings next
2037 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
2038 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #LEFT
2039 << c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 >> 4
2040 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #RIGHT
2041 << c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 >> 4
2046 @internalsref{FingerEvent}, and @internalsref{Fingering}.
2057 @subsection Text scripts
2058 @cindex Text scripts
2060 It is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup text (see
2061 @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
2062 @code{c^"text"}. By default, these indications do not influence the
2063 note spacing, but by using the command @code{\fatText}, the widths
2064 will be taken into account:
2066 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim] \relative c' {
2067 c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
2070 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should
2071 be avoided because the exact dimensions of the string can then no
2077 @internalsref{TextScriptEvent}, @internalsref{TextScript}, and
2083 @subsection Grace notes
2085 @cindex @code{\grace}
2089 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out:
2091 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment] c4 \grace c16 c4 \grace {
2095 In normal notation, grace notes take up no logical
2096 time in a measure. Such an idea is practical for normal notation, but
2097 is not strict enough to put it into a program. The model that LilyPond
2098 uses for grace notes internally is that all timing is done in two
2101 Every point in musical time consists of two rational numbers: one
2102 denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing. The above
2103 example is shown here with timing tuples:
2106 \score { \notes \relative c''{
2107 c4^"(0,0)" \grace c16_" "_"(1/4,-1/16)" c4^"(1/4,0)" \grace {
2108 c16_"(2/4,-1/8)"-[ d16^"(2/4,-1/16)" ] } c4_" "_"(2/4,0)"
2110 \paper { linewidth = 12.\cm }
2115 The placement of grace notes is synchronized between different staves.
2116 In the following example, there are two sixteenth graces notes for
2117 every eighth grace note:
2119 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2120 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \grace { c16-[ d e f-] } e4 }
2121 \context Staff = SB { c'4 \grace { g8-[ b-] } c4 } >
2125 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
2126 stem. This can be controlled with object property @code{stroke-style} of
2127 @internalsref{Stem}. For proper matching of override and reverts of
2128 such properties, it is necessary to use a Scheme function.
2130 The following fragment overrides the default formatting Grace style stems:
2132 #(add-to-grace-init "Voice" 'Stem 'stroke-style '())
2135 The @code{\override} is carefully matched with a @code{\revert}:
2140 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2141 \relative c'' \context Voice {
2142 \grace c8 c4 \grace { c16-[ c16-] } c4
2144 \property Voice.Stem \override #'stroke-style = #'()
2146 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'stroke-style
2151 If you want to end a note with a grace note, then the standard trick
2152 is to put the grace notes before a phantom ``space note'', e.g.
2153 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
2156 { s2 \grace { c16-[ d-] } } >
2162 By adjusting the duration of the skip note (here it is a half-note),
2163 the space between the main-note and the grace is adjusted.
2165 A @code{\grace} section has some default values, and LilyPond will
2166 use those default values unless you specify otherwise inside the
2167 @code{\grace} section. For example, if you specify \slurUp
2168 @emph{before} your @code{\grace} section, a slur which starts inside
2169 the @code{\grace} will not be forced up, even if the slur ends outside
2170 of the @code{\grace}. Note the difference between the first and
2171 second bars in this example:
2173 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2174 \relative c'' \context Voice {
2192 @internalsref{GraceMusic}.
2196 Grace notes cannot be used in the smallest size (@file{paper11.ly}).
2198 A score that starts with an @code{\grace} section needs an explicit
2199 @code{\context Voice} declaration, otherwise the main note and grace
2200 note end up on different staffs.
2202 Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation,
2203 such as key signatures, barlines, etc. are also synchronized. Take
2204 care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without, for example,
2206 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2207 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
2208 \context Staff = SB { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >
2211 Grace sections should only be used within sequential music
2212 expressions. Nesting or juxtaposing grace sections is not supported,
2213 and might produce crashes or other errors.
2215 Overriding settings for grace music globally cannot be done in a
2216 modular way. A kludge (@code{add-to-grace-init}) is defined in
2217 @file{ly/grace-init.ly}.
2221 @subsection Glissando
2224 @cindex @code{\glissando}
2226 A glissando is a smooth change in pitch. It is denoted by a line or a
2227 wavy line between two notes.
2231 A glissando line can be requested by attaching a @code{\glissando} to
2234 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2240 @internalsref{Glissando}, and @internalsref{GlissandoEvent}.
2245 Additional texts (such as @emph{gliss.}) is not supported.
2249 @subsection Dynamics
2262 @cindex @code{\ffff}
2272 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an variable after a
2273 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are @code{\ppp},
2274 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
2275 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
2276 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}:
2278 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
2279 c'-\ppp c-\pp c -\p c-\mp c-\mf c-\f c-\ff c-\fff
2285 @cindex @code{\decr}
2286 @cindex @code{\rced}
2293 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\<} and terminated with
2294 @code{\!}. A decrescendo is started with @code{\>} and also terminated
2295 with @code{\!}. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you must
2296 use spacer notes if multiple marks during one note are needed:
2298 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,quote]
2299 c''-\< c''-\! d''-\decr e''-\rced
2300 < f''1 { s4 s4-\< s4-\! \> s4-\! } >
2302 This may give rise to very short hairpins. Use @code{minimum-length}
2303 in @internalsref{Voice}.@internalsref{HairPin} to lengthen them, for
2307 \property Staff.Hairpin \override #'minimum-length = #5
2310 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
2311 is an example how to do it:
2313 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
2314 c4 \cresc c4 c c c \endcresc c4
2320 You can also supply your own texts:
2321 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2323 \property Voice.crescendoText = \markup { \italic "cresc. poco" }
2324 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
2334 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
2336 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
2337 @code{\dynamicDown},
2338 @cindex @code{\dynamicBoth}
2339 @code{\dynamicBoth}.
2341 @cindex direction, of dynamics
2345 @internalsref{CrescendoEvent}, @internalsref{DecrescendoEvent}, and
2346 @internalsref{AbsoluteDynamicEvent}.
2348 Dynamics are objects of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
2349 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is
2350 handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2352 If you want to adjust padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you
2353 must set properties for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2361 @cindex @code{\repeat}
2364 Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist
2365 for repetitions. In LilyPond, most of these notations can be captured
2366 in a uniform syntax. One of the advantages is, all these repetitions
2367 can be rendered in MIDI accurately.
2369 The following types of repetition are supported:
2373 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
2374 output, and entering repetitive music.
2377 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
2378 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
2382 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
2383 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
2384 @inputfileref{input,star-spangled-banner.ly}.
2391 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
2397 * Repeats and MIDI::
2398 * Manual repeat commands::
2400 * Tremolo subdivisions::
2405 @subsection Repeat syntax
2409 LilyPond has one syntactic construct for specifying different types of
2410 repeats. The syntax is
2413 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
2416 If you have alternative endings, you may add
2417 @cindex @code{\alternative}
2419 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
2421 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
2423 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression. If you do not
2424 give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then the first
2425 alternative is assumed to be played more than once.
2427 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
2428 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2430 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
2431 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
2434 With alternative endings:
2435 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2437 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
2438 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
2442 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2446 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
2447 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
2454 If you do a nested repeat like
2463 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the @code{\alternative}
2464 belongs. This ambiguity is resolved by always having the
2465 @code{\alternative} belong to the inner @code{\repeat}. For clarity,
2466 it is advisable to use braces in such situations.
2469 @node Repeats and MIDI
2470 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
2472 @cindex expanding repeats
2474 For instructions on how to unfold repeats for MIDI output, see the
2475 example file @inputfileref{input/test,unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
2480 Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative,
2481 so after a repeat timing information must be reset by hand, for
2482 example by setting @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering
2483 @code{\partial}. Similarly, slurs or ties are also not repeated.
2486 @node Manual repeat commands
2487 @subsection Manual repeat commands
2489 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
2491 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
2492 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
2496 @item the symbol @code{start-repeat},
2497 which prints a @code{|:} bar line,
2498 @item the symbol @code{end-repeat},
2499 which prints a @code{:|} bar line,
2500 @item the list @code{(volta @var{text})},
2501 which prints a volta bracket saying @var{text}: The text can be specified as
2502 a text string or as a markup text, see @ref{Text markup}. Do not
2503 forget to change the font, as the default number font does not contain
2504 alphabetic characters. Or,
2505 @item the list @code{(volta #f)}, which
2506 stops a running volta bracket:
2509 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2511 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
2513 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
2520 @internalsref{VoltaBracket}, @internalsref{RepeatedMusic},
2521 @internalsref{VoltaRepeatedMusic},
2522 @internalsref{UnfoldedRepeatedMusic}, and
2523 @internalsref{FoldedRepeatedMusic}.
2525 @node Tremolo repeats
2526 @subsection Tremolo repeats
2527 @cindex tremolo beams
2529 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
2531 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2533 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
2534 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
2535 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
2536 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
2537 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
2544 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} objects. Single stem tremolos
2545 are @internalsref{StemTremolo}s. The music expression is
2546 @internalsref{TremoloEvent}.
2551 The single stem tremolo must be entered without @code{@{} and
2554 @node Tremolo subdivisions
2555 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
2556 @cindex tremolo marks
2557 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
2559 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
2560 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
2561 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
2562 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
2563 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used:
2565 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
2566 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
2569 @c [TODO : stok is te kort bij 32en]
2573 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
2576 @node Measure repeats
2577 @subsection Measure repeats
2579 @cindex percent repeats
2580 @cindex measure repeats
2582 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
2583 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
2584 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
2585 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes:
2587 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2588 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
2589 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
2595 @internalsref{RepeatSlash}, @internalsref{PercentRepeat},
2596 @internalsref{PercentRepeatedMusic}, and
2597 @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
2601 @node Rhythmic music
2602 @section Rhythmic music
2604 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This
2605 can be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a
2606 staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single line:
2608 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2609 \context RhythmicStaff {
2611 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
2616 * Percussion staves::
2617 * Percussion MIDI output::
2620 @node Percussion staves
2621 @subsection Percussion staves
2625 A percussion part for more than one instrument typically uses a
2626 multiline staff where each position in the staff refers to one piece
2631 Percussion staves are typeset with help of a set of Scheme
2632 functions. The system is based on the general MIDI drum-pitches.
2633 Include @file{drumpitch-init.ly} to use drum pitches. This file
2634 defines the pitches from the Scheme variable @code{drum-pitch-names},
2635 the definition of which can be read in @file{scm/drums.scm}. Each
2636 piece of percussion has a full name and an abbreviated name, and both
2637 the full name or the abbreviation may be used in input files.
2639 to typeset the music on a staff apply the function @code{drums->paper}
2640 to the percussion music. This function takes a list of percussion
2641 instrument names, notehead scripts and staff positions (that is:
2642 pitches relative to the C-clef) and transforms the input
2643 music by moving the pitch, changing the notehead and (optionally)
2646 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,quote]
2647 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2648 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2649 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2651 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2653 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2654 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2659 In the above example the music was transformed using the list @code{'drums}.
2660 Currently the following lists are defined in @file{scm/drums.scm}:
2663 to typeset a typical drum kit on a five-line staff:
2666 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2667 nam = \lyrics { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2668 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
2669 mus = \notes { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2670 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
2673 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2677 \context Lyrics \nam
2680 linewidth = 100.0\mm
2683 \remove Bar_engraver
2684 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2685 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
2689 \remove Stem_engraver
2695 The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there fewer toms, simply
2696 select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e. to get toms on
2697 the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml} and
2700 Because general MIDI does not contain rimshots the sidestick is used
2701 for this purpose instead.
2703 to typeset timbales on a two line staff:
2705 @lilypond[singleline]
2706 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2707 nam = \lyrics { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
2708 mus = \notes { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
2711 \apply #(drums->paper 'timbales) \context Staff <
2715 \context Lyrics \nam
2720 \remove Bar_engraver
2721 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2722 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2723 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2724 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2728 \remove Stem_engraver
2735 to typeset congas on a two line staff:
2737 @lilypond[singleline]
2738 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2739 nam = \lyrics { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
2740 mus = \notes { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
2743 \apply #(drums->paper 'congas) \context Staff <
2747 \context Lyrics \nam
2752 \remove Bar_engraver
2753 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2754 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2755 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2756 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2760 \remove Stem_engraver
2766 to typeset bongos on a two line staff:
2768 @lilypond[singleline]
2769 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2770 nam = \lyrics { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
2771 mus = \notes { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
2774 \apply #(drums->paper 'bongos) \context Staff <
2778 \context Lyrics \nam
2783 \remove Bar_engraver
2784 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2785 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2786 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2787 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2791 \remove Stem_engraver
2797 to typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves:
2798 @lilypond[singleline]
2799 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2800 nam = \lyrics { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
2801 mus = \notes { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
2804 \apply #(drums->paper 'percussion) \context Staff <
2808 \context Lyrics \nam
2813 \remove Bar_engraver
2814 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2815 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #1
2816 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-2.0 . 3.0)
2820 \remove Stem_engraver
2827 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
2828 list at the top of your file:
2830 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
2831 #(set-drum-kit 'mydrums `(
2832 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2833 (snare default #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 1 0))
2834 (hihat cross #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2835 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2836 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2838 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2839 up = \notes { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
2840 down = \notes { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
2842 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2844 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2845 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2850 To use a modified existing list, one can prepend modifications to the
2854 #(set-drum-kit mydrums (append `(
2855 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2856 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2857 ) (get-drum-kit 'drums)))
2860 The file @file{drumpitch-init.ly} replaces the normal pitch names, so
2861 you have to reinclude @file{nederlands.ly} after the
2862 drum-pattern-definitions to enter normal notes:
2864 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2865 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2866 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2867 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2868 \include "nederlands.ly"
2869 bass = \notes \transpose c c,, { a4. e8 r e g e }
2872 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff = drums <
2874 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2875 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2877 \context Staff = bass { \clef "F_8" \bass }
2882 @node Percussion MIDI output
2883 @subsection Percussion MIDI output
2885 In order to produce correct MIDI output you need to produce two score
2886 blocks---one for the paper and one for the MIDI output. To use the
2887 percussion channel you set the property @code{instrument} to
2888 @code{'drums}. Because the drum-pitches themselves are similar to the
2889 general MIDI pitches all you have to do is to insert the voices with
2890 none of the scheme functions to get the correct MIDI output:
2894 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2903 \property Staff.instrument = #'drums
2912 This scheme is a temporary implementation.
2916 @section Piano music
2918 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
2919 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
2920 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
2921 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
2922 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
2923 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
2927 * Automatic staff changes::
2928 * Manual staff switches::
2931 * Staff switch lines::
2936 There is no support for putting chords across staves. You can get
2937 this result by increasing the length of the stem in the lower stave so
2938 it reaches the stem in the upper stave, or vice versa. An example is
2939 included with the distribution as @inputfileref{input/test,stem-cross-staff.ly}.
2941 Dynamics are not centered, but kludges do exist. See
2942 @inputfileref{input/templates,piano-dynamics.ly}.
2944 @cindex cross staff stem
2945 @cindex stem, cross staff
2948 @c fixme: should have hyperlinks as well.
2954 @node Automatic staff changes
2955 @subsection Automatic staff changes
2956 @cindex Automatic staff changes
2958 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
2959 staff. The syntax for this is
2961 \autochange Staff \context Voice @{ @dots{}@var{music}@dots{} @}
2963 The autochanger switches on basis of pitch (central C is the turning
2964 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch in
2965 advance. Here is a practical example:
2967 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,quote]
2968 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
2969 \context Staff = "up" {
2970 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
2971 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
2972 \context Staff = "down" {
2979 In this example, spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
2980 terminating too soon.
2985 @internalsref{AutoChangeMusic}.
2989 The staff switches often do not end up in optimal places. For high
2990 quality output staff switches should be specified manually.
2994 @node Manual staff switches
2995 @subsection Manual staff switches
2997 @cindex manual staff switches
2998 @cindex staff switch, manual
3000 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
3002 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
3006 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
3007 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
3008 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
3016 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound are produced. Generally, a
3017 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
3021 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
3022 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
3023 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
3026 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3027 c'4-\sustainDown c'4-\sustainUp
3030 What is printed can be modified by setting @code{pedal@var{X}Strings},
3031 where @var{X} is one of the pedal types: @code{Sustain},
3032 @code{Sostenuto} or @code{UnaCorda}. Refer to the generated
3033 documentation of @internalsref{SustainPedal} for more information.
3035 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
3036 @code{pedalSustainStyle} property to @code{bracket} objects:
3038 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3039 \property Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'bracket
3040 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
3041 a'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
3042 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
3045 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
3046 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
3048 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3049 \property Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'mixed
3050 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
3051 c'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
3052 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
3055 The default `*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
3056 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
3057 for a sostenuto pedal:
3059 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3060 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
3063 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
3064 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
3065 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (, see the detailed documentation of
3066 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket},) can be modified. For example, the bracket
3067 may be extended to the end of the note head:
3069 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3070 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override
3071 #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
3072 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4
3073 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
3077 @subsection Arpeggio
3080 @cindex broken arpeggio
3081 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
3083 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
3084 @code{\arpeggio} to a chord:
3087 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3088 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
3091 When an arpeggio crosses staves, you attach an arpeggio to the chords
3092 in both staves, and set
3093 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@code{connectArpeggios}:
3095 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3096 \context PianoStaff <
3097 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
3098 \context Voice = one { <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio }
3099 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <<c,, e g>>-\arpeggio }
3103 The direction of the arpeggio is sometimes denoted by adding an
3104 arrowhead to the wiggly line. This can be typeset by setting
3105 @code{arpeggio-direction}:
3107 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3109 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #1
3110 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
3111 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
3112 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
3116 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
3117 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
3118 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
3119 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} objects to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
3120 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before:
3122 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3123 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override
3124 #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
3125 <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio
3130 @cindex @code{\arpeggioBracket}
3131 @code{\arpeggioBracket},
3132 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
3137 @internalsref{ArpeggioEvent} expression lead to
3138 @internalsref{Arpeggio} objects. Cross staff arpeggios are
3139 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@internalsref{Arpeggio}.
3143 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected
3144 arpeggios in one @internalsref{PianoStaff} at the same time.
3146 @node Staff switch lines
3147 @subsection Staff switch lines
3150 @cindex follow voice
3151 @cindex staff switching
3154 @cindex @code{followVoice}
3156 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
3157 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
3158 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
3160 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3161 \context PianoStaff <
3162 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
3163 \context Staff \context Voice {
3165 \translator Staff=two
3168 \context Staff=two { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
3172 The associated object is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
3176 @cindex @code{\showStaffSwitch}
3177 @code{\showStaffSwitch},
3178 @cindex @code{\hideStaffSwitch}
3179 @code{\hideStaffSwitch}.
3183 @section Vocal music
3185 This section discusses how to enter and print lyrics.
3189 * The Lyrics context::
3194 @node Entering lyrics
3195 @subsection Entering lyrics
3199 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
3202 Lyrics are entered in a special input mode. This mode is is introduced
3203 by the keyword @code{\lyrics}. In this mode you can enter lyrics, with
3204 punctuation and accents without any hassle. Syllables are entered like
3205 notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example,
3207 \lyrics @{ Twin-4 kle4 twin- kle litt- le star2 @}
3210 A word in Lyrics mode begins with: an alphabetic character, @code{_},
3211 @code{?}, @code{!}, @code{:}, @code{'}, the control characters @code{^A}
3212 through @code{^F}, @code{^Q} through @code{^W}, @code{^Y}, @code{^^},
3213 any 8-bit character with ASCII code over 127, or a two-character
3214 combination of a backslash followed by one of @code{`}, @code{'},
3215 @code{"}, or @code{^}.
3217 Subsequent characters of a word can be any character that is not a digit
3218 and not white space. One important consequence of this is that a word
3219 can end with @code{@}}. The following example is usually a bug. The
3220 syllable includes a @code{@}}, and hence the opening brace is not balanced:
3222 \lyrics @{ twinkle@}
3225 @cindex @code{\property}, in @code{\lyrics}
3226 Similarly, a period following a alphabetic sequence, is included in the
3227 resulting string. As a consequence, spaces must be inserted around
3228 @code{\property} commands:
3230 \property Lyrics . LyricText \set #'font-shape = #'italic
3234 @cindex spaces, in lyrics
3235 @cindex quotes, in lyrics
3237 Any @code{_} character which appears in an unquoted word is converted
3238 to a space. This provides a mechanism for introducing spaces into words
3239 without using quotes. Quoted words can also be used in Lyrics mode to
3240 specify words that cannot be written with the above rules:
3243 \lyrics @{ He said: "\"Let" my peo ple "go\"" @}
3247 Hyphens can be entered as ordinary hyphens at the end of a syllable, i.e.
3252 These will be attached to the end of the first syllable.
3254 Centered hyphens are entered using the special `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric
3255 as a separate word between syllables. The hyphen will have variable
3256 length depending on the space between the syllables and it will be
3257 centered between the syllables.
3262 When a lyric is sung over many notes (this is called a melisma), this is
3263 indicated with a horizontal line centered between a syllable and the
3264 next one. Such a line is called an extender line, and it is entered as
3269 @internalsref{LyricEvent}, @internalsref{HyphenEvent}, and
3270 @internalsref{ExtenderEvent}.
3274 The definition of lyrics mode is too complex.
3276 @node The Lyrics context
3277 @subsection The Lyrics context
3279 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in @internalsref{Lyrics} context:
3281 \context Lyrics \lyrics @dots{}
3284 @cindex automatic syllable durations
3285 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
3286 @cindex lyrics and melodies
3288 This will place the lyrics according to the durations that were
3289 entered. The lyrics can also be aligned under a given melody
3290 automatically. In this case, it is no longer necessary to enter the
3291 correct duration for each syllable. This is achieved by combining the
3292 melody and the lyrics with the @code{\addlyrics} expression:
3296 \context Lyrics @dots{}
3299 @cindex staff order, with @code{\addlyrics}
3301 Normally, this will put the lyrics below the staff. For different or
3302 more complex orderings, the best way is to setup the hierarchy of
3303 staffs and lyrics first, e.g.
3305 \context ChoirStaff \notes <
3306 \context Lyrics = LA @{ s1 @}
3307 \context Staff = SA @{ s1 @}
3308 \context Lyrics = LB @{ s1 @}
3309 \context Staff = SB @{ s1 @}
3312 and then combine the appropriate melodies and lyric lines:
3315 \context Staff = SA @emph{the music}
3316 \context Lyrics = LA @emph{the lyrics}
3319 putting both together, you would get
3321 \context ChoirStaff \notes <
3322 \context Lyrics = LA @dots{}
3323 \context Staff = SB @dots{}
3329 @cindex choral score
3331 A complete example of a SATB score setup is in the file
3332 @inputfileref{input/template,satb}.
3336 @internalsref{LyricCombineMusic}, @internalsref{Lyrics}, and
3337 @inputfileref{input/template,satb}.
3341 @code{\addlyrics} is not automatic enough: melismata are not detected
3342 automatically, and melismata are not stopped when they hit a rest. A
3343 melisma on the last note in a melody is not printed.
3347 @subsection More stanzas
3350 @cindex phrasing, in lyrics
3352 When multiple stanzas are printed underneath each other, the vertical
3353 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. This can be
3354 done automatically when corresponding lyric lines and melodies are
3357 To this end, give the @internalsref{Voice} context an identity:
3359 \context Voice = duet @{
3364 Then set the @internalsref{LyricsVoice} contexts to names starting with
3365 that identity followed by a dash. In the preceding example, the
3366 @internalsref{Voice} identity is @code{duet}, so the identities of the
3367 @internalsref{LyricsVoices} are marked @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}:
3369 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" @{
3370 Hi, my name is bert. @}
3371 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" @{
3372 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. @}
3374 The convention for naming @internalsref{LyricsVoice} and
3375 @internalsref{Voice} must also be used to get melismata correct in
3376 conjunction with rests.
3378 The complete example is shown here:
3379 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3382 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
3384 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
3385 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
3386 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3387 Hi, my name is bert. }
3388 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
3389 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3390 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
3395 Stanza numbers, or the names of the singers can be added by setting
3396 @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the first system) and
3397 @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following systems. Notice how dots are
3398 surrounded with spaces in @code{\lyrics} mode:
3401 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3403 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3406 To make empty spaces in lyrics, use @code{\skip}.
3414 Input for lyrics introduces a syntactical ambiguity:
3421 is interpreted as assigning a string identifier @code{\foo} such that
3422 it contains @code{"bar"}. However, it could also be interpreted as
3423 making or a music identifier @code{\foo} containing the syllable
3424 `bar'. The force the latter interpretation, use
3434 The term @emph{ambitus} denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in
3435 a part of music. It also may denote the pitch range that a musical
3436 instrument is capable of playing. Most musical instruments have their
3437 ambitus standardized (or at least there is agreement upon the minimal
3438 ambitus of a particular type of instrument), such that a composer or
3439 arranger of a piece of music can easily meet the ambitus constraints of
3440 the targeted instrument. However, the ambitus of the human voice
3441 depends on individual physiological state, including education and
3442 training of the voice. Therefore, a singer potentially has to check for
3443 each piece of music if the ambitus of that piece meets his individual
3444 capabilities. This is why the ambitus of a piece may be of particular
3445 value to vocal performers.
3447 The ambitus is typically notated on a per-voice basis at the very
3448 beginning of a piece, e.g. nearby the initial clef or time signature of
3449 each staff. The range is graphically specified by two noteheads, that
3450 represent the minimum and maximum pitch. Some publishers use a textual
3451 notation: they put the range in words in front of the corresponding
3452 staff. LilyPond currently only supports the graphical ambitus notation.
3454 To apply, add the @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the
3455 @internalsref{Voice} context, i.e.
3458 \paper @{ \translator @{
3460 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3466 @lilypond[singleline]
3467 upper = \notes \relative c {
3470 as'' c e2 bes f cis d4 e f2 g
3472 lower = \notes \relative c {
3475 e'4 b g a c es fis a cis b a g f e d2
3478 \context ChoirStaff {
3480 \context Staff = one { \upper }
3481 \context Staff = three { \lower }
3487 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3496 @internalsref{Ambitus}, and @inputfileref{input/regression,ambitus.ly}.
3501 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
3502 instruments. It notates pitches not by using note heads, but by
3503 indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
3504 offers limited support for tablature.
3507 * Tablatures basic::
3508 * Non-guitar tablatures::
3511 @node Tablatures basic
3512 @subsection Tablatures basic
3513 @cindex Tablatures basic
3515 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
3516 followed by a number, e.g. @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
3517 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
3518 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
3519 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
3520 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts:
3522 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3523 \notes \context TabStaff {
3529 When no string is specified, the first string that does not give a
3530 fret number less than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default
3531 value for @code{minimumFret} is 0:
3535 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3536 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3537 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3542 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3543 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3544 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3547 \context StaffGroup <
3548 \context Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
3549 \context TabStaff { \frag }
3556 @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}, and
3557 @internalsref{StringNumberEvent}.
3561 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
3562 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
3566 @node Non-guitar tablatures
3567 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
3568 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
3570 You can change the number of strings, by setting the number of lines
3571 in the @internalsref{TabStaff} (the @code{line-count} property of
3572 @internalsref{TabStaff} can only be changed using
3573 @code{\outputproperty}, for more information, see @ref{Tuning
3576 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
3577 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
3578 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to central C) of an
3579 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
3580 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
3581 by default middle C, in string order. Thus, the notes are e, a, d, and
3584 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3587 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface)
3589 \property TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
3592 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
3597 It is possible to change the Scheme function to format the tablature
3598 note text. The default is @code{fret-number-tablature-format}, which
3599 uses the fret number. For instruments that do not use this notation,
3600 you can create a special tablature formatting function. This function
3601 takes three argument: string number, string tuning and note pitch.
3605 Most of the guitar special effects such as bend have not been
3611 @section Chord names
3614 LilyPond has support for both printing chord names. Chords may be
3615 entered in musical chord notation, i.e. @code{<< .. >>}, but they can
3616 also be entered by name. Internally, the chords are represented as a
3617 set of pitches, so they can be transposed:
3620 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3621 twoWays = \notes \transpose c c' {
3631 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
3632 \context Voice \twoWays > }
3635 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
3636 be intelligent. The last chord (@code{f bes d}) is not interpreted as
3642 * Printing chord names::
3647 @subsection Chords mode
3650 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
3651 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}.
3652 In chords mode, a chord is entered by the root, which is entered
3653 like a common pitch:
3654 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote, relative=1]
3655 \chords { es4. d8 c2 }
3660 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon, and introducing a
3661 modifier, and optionally, a number:
3663 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote]
3664 \chords { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
3666 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
3667 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
3669 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3670 \chords { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
3673 @cindex root of chord
3674 @cindex additions, in chords
3675 @cindex removals, in chords
3677 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
3678 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
3679 the colon, and are separated by dots:
3681 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3682 \chords { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
3684 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
3686 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3687 \chords { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
3689 Removals are specified similarly, and are introduced by a caret. They
3690 must come after the additions:
3691 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3692 \chords { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
3695 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
3699 is the minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
3701 is the diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
3704 is the augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
3706 is the major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
3708 is the suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
3709 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
3712 Modifiers can be mixed with additions:
3713 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3714 \chords { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
3717 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
3724 Since an unaltered 11 does not sound good when combined with an
3725 unaltered 13, the 11 is removed in this case (, unless it is added
3727 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3728 \chords { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
3733 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
3734 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
3735 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord:
3736 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3737 \chords { c1 c/g c/f }
3741 A bass note can be added instead of transposed out of the chord,
3742 by using @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
3744 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3745 \chords { c1 c/+g c/+f }
3748 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyrics}, @code{\notes} etc. Most
3749 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
3750 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and
3751 @code{\property} may be used to change various settings.
3757 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
3758 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
3761 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3762 \chords { c:5.5-.5+ }
3766 @node Printing chord names
3767 @subsection Printing chord names
3769 @cindex printing chord names
3773 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
3774 The chords may be entered either using the notation
3775 described above, or directly using @code{<<} and @code{>>}:
3777 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3779 \chords {a1 b c} <<d' f' a'>> <<e' g' b'>>
3783 \context ChordNames \scheme
3784 \context Staff \scheme
3789 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
3790 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
3791 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
3792 the start of a new line:
3794 @lilypond[verbatim, linewidth=9cm]
3796 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
3800 \context ChordNames {
3801 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
3803 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
3808 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
3809 Klaus Ignatzek (see @ref{Literature}). It can be tuned through the
3810 following properties:
3813 @cindex chordNameExceptions
3814 @item chordNameExceptions
3815 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
3817 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly}.
3818 @cindex exceptions, chord names.
3821 @cindex majorSevenSymbol
3822 @item majorSevenSymbol
3823 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
3824 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup} and
3825 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
3826 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly} for an example.
3828 @cindex chordNameSeparator
3829 @item chordNameSeparator
3830 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
3831 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
3833 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3834 \context ChordNames \chords {
3836 \property ChordNames.chordNameSeparator
3837 = \markup { \typewriter "|" }
3841 @cindex chordRootNamer
3842 @item chordRootNamer
3843 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
3844 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
3845 function. Special note names (for example, the German ``H'' for a
3846 B-chord) can be produced by storing a new function in this property.
3848 @cindex chordNoteNamer
3849 @item chordNoteNamer
3850 The default is to print single pitch, e.g. the bass note, using the
3851 @code{chordRootNamer}. The @code{chordNoteNamer} property can be set
3852 to a specialized function to change this behavior. For example, the
3853 base can be printed in lower case.
3858 There are also two other chord name schemes implemented: an alternate
3859 Jazz chord notation, and a systematic scheme called Banter chords. The
3860 alternate jazz notation is also shown on the chart in @ref{Chord name
3861 chart}. Turning on these styles is described in the input file
3862 @inputfileref{input/test/,chord-names-jazz.ly}.
3866 @cindex chords, jazz
3871 @cindex @code{\germanChords}
3872 @code{\germanChords},
3873 @cindex @code{\semiGermanChords}
3874 @code{\semiGermanChords}.
3881 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly},
3882 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly},
3883 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-jazz.ly},
3884 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-german.ly},
3885 @file{scm/chords-ignatzek.scm}, and @file{scm/chord-entry.scm}.
3890 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
3891 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
3892 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
3893 @code{<< .. >>} syntax.
3898 @node Orchestral music
3899 @section Orchestral music
3901 @cindex Writing parts
3903 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full
3904 score and the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle
3905 some common problems in orchestral music.
3910 * Multiple staff contexts::
3913 * Instrument names::
3915 * Multi measure rests::
3916 * Automatic part combining::
3918 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
3921 @node Multiple staff contexts
3922 @subsection Multiple staff contexts
3924 Polyphonic scores consist of many staffs. These staffs can be
3925 constructed in three different ways:
3927 @item The group is started with a brace at the left. This is done with the
3928 @internalsref{GrandStaff} context.
3929 @item The group is started with a bracket. This is done with the
3930 @internalsref{StaffGroup} context
3931 @item The group is started with a vertical line. This is the default
3935 @cindex Staff, multiple
3936 @cindex bracket, vertical
3937 @cindex brace, vertical
3944 @node Rehearsal marks
3945 @subsection Rehearsal marks
3946 @cindex Rehearsal marks
3948 @cindex @code{\mark}
3950 To print a rehearsal mark, use the @code{\mark} command:
3951 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3961 The mark is incremented automatically if you use @code{\mark
3962 \default}. The value to use is stored in the property
3963 @code{rehearsalMark} is used and automatically incremented.
3965 The @code{\mark} command can also be used to put signs like coda,
3966 segno and fermatas on a barline. Use @code{\markup} to
3967 to access the appropriate symbol:
3969 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
3970 c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts-ufermata" }
3974 In this case, during line breaks,
3975 marks must also be printed at the end of the line, and not at the
3976 beginning. Use the following to force that behavior:
3978 \property Score.RehearsalMark \override
3979 #'break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible
3982 See @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly} for putting boxes
3988 @cindex barlines, putting symbols on
3992 @internalsref{MarkEvent}, @internalsref{RehearsalMark}, and
3993 @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}.
3997 @subsection Bar numbers
4001 @cindex measure numbers
4002 @cindex currentBarNumber
4004 Bar numbers are printed by default at the start of the line. The
4005 number itself is stored in the
4006 @code{currentBarNumber} property,
4007 which is normally updated automatically for every measure.
4009 Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of at the
4010 beginning of each line. This is illustrated in the following example,
4011 whose source is available as
4012 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-regular-interval.ly}:
4014 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-regular-interval.ly}
4019 @internalsref{BarNumber},
4020 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-five-reset.ly}, and
4021 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-regular-interval.ly}.
4025 Bar numbers can collide with the @internalsref{StaffGroup} bracket, if
4026 there is one at the top. To solve this, the
4027 @internalsref{padding} property of @internalsref{BarNumber} can be
4028 used to position the number correctly.
4030 @node Instrument names
4031 @subsection Instrument names
4033 In an orchestral score, instrument names are printed left side of the
4036 This can be achieved by setting @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instrument}
4037 and @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instr}. This will print a string before
4038 the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
4039 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used:
4041 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4042 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
4045 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
4048 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
4049 \notes \context Staff = treble {
4050 \property Staff.instrument = \markup {
4051 \column << "Clarinetti"
4053 \smaller \musicglyph #"accidentals--1"
4064 @internalsref{InstrumentName}.
4068 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
4069 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
4070 the name to avoid a collision.
4073 @subsection Transpose
4075 @cindex transposition of pitches
4076 @cindex @code{\transpose}
4078 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
4081 \transpose @var{from} @var{to} @var{musicexpr}
4084 This means that @var{musicexpr} is transposed by the interval
4085 between @var{from} and @var{to}.
4087 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
4088 @code{\transpose c cis} or @code{\transpose c des} will transpose up
4089 half a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second
4090 version will print flats:
4092 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
4093 mus =\notes { \key d \major cis d fis g }
4094 \score { \notes \context Staff {
4097 \transpose c g' \mus
4098 \transpose c f' \mus
4104 @internalsref{TransposedMusic}, and @internalsref{UntransposableMusic}.
4108 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
4109 you must put @code{\transpose} outside of @code{\relative}, since
4110 @code{\relative} will have no effect music that appears inside a
4116 @node Multi measure rests
4117 @subsection Multi measure rests
4118 @cindex multi measure rests
4119 @cindex Rests, multi measure
4123 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
4124 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
4125 fill a score with rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure
4126 rest. This expansion is controlled by the property
4127 @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true, Lily will not expand
4128 empty measures, and the appropriate number is added automatically:
4130 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4131 \time 4/4 r1 | R1 | R1*2
4132 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R1*17 R1*4
4135 The @code{1} in @code{R1} is similar to the duration notation used for
4136 notes. Hence, for time signatures other than 4/4, you must enter other
4137 durations. This can be done with augmentation dots or fractions:
4139 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4140 \property Score.skipBars = ##t
4148 An @code{R} spanning a single measure is printed as either a whole rest
4149 or a breve, centered in the measure regardless of the time signature.
4151 @cindex text on multi-measure rest
4152 @cindex script on multi-measure rest
4153 @cindex fermata on multi-measure rest
4155 Texts can be added to multi-measure rests by using the
4156 @var{note}-@code{markup} syntax (see @ref{Text markup}). In this case, the number is
4157 replaced. If you need both texts and the number, you must add the
4158 number by hand. A variable (@code{\fermataMarkup}) is provided for
4162 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
4164 R2._\markup { "Ad lib" }
4169 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
4173 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestEvent},
4174 @internalsref{MultiMeasureTextEvent},
4175 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestMusicGroup}, and
4176 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
4178 The layout object @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestNumber} is for the
4179 default number, and @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestText} for user
4184 It is not possible to use fingerings (e.g. @code{R1-4}) to put numbers
4185 over multi-measure rests.
4187 @cindex condensing rests
4189 There is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into a single
4190 multimeasure rest. Multi measure rests do not take part in rest
4193 Be careful when entering multimeasure rests followed by whole notes,
4197 will enter two notes lasting four measures each. When @code{skipBars}
4198 is set, then the result will look OK, but the bar numbering will be
4201 @node Automatic part combining
4202 @subsection Automatic part combining
4203 @cindex automatic part combining
4204 @cindex part combiner
4207 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
4208 staff. It is aimed at typesetting orchestral scores. When the two
4209 parts are identical for a period of time, only one is shown. In
4210 places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate
4211 voices, and stem directions are set automatically. Also, solo and
4212 @emph{a due} parts are identified and can be marked.
4216 The syntax for part combining is
4219 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
4221 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
4222 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
4223 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
4226 The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part
4227 combiner: putting parts on one staff, and setting stem directions and
4230 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
4232 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4233 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4236 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4242 The first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
4243 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
4244 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
4245 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
4246 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
4249 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
4250 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false:
4252 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
4254 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
4255 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4256 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4259 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4267 @internalsref{PartCombineMusic},
4268 @internalsref{Thread_devnull_engraver}, and
4269 @internalsref{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @internalsref{A2_engraver}.
4273 The syntax for naming contexts in inconsistent with the syntax for
4276 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
4277 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
4280 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
4282 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4283 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4286 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4292 The part combiner is slated to be rewritten [TODO: explain why].
4294 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
4295 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
4296 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
4298 @node Frenched scores
4299 @subsection Frenched scores
4301 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually
4302 removed. This saves some space. This style is called `French Score'.
4303 For @internalsref{Lyrics}, @internalsref{LyricsVoice},
4304 @internalsref{ChordNames} and @internalsref{FiguredBass}, this is
4305 switched on by default. When these line of these contexts turn out
4306 empty after the line-breaking process, they are removed.
4309 For normal staffs, a specialized @internalsref{Staff} context is
4310 available, which does the same: staffs containing nothing (or only
4311 multi measure rests) are removed. The context definition is stored in
4312 @code{\RemoveEmptyStaffContext} variable. Observe how the second staff
4313 in this example disappears in the second line:
4318 \notes \relative c' <
4319 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
4320 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
4324 \translator { \RemoveEmptyStaffContext }
4330 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
4331 @subsection Sound output for transposing instruments
4333 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed
4334 and untransposed instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch
4335 offset (in semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done
4336 using the @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed
4339 @cindex @code{transposing}
4342 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
4343 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
4347 @node Ancient notation
4348 @section Ancient notation
4350 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
4351 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
4356 @c [TODO: write introduction on ancient notation]
4359 * Ancient note heads::
4368 @node Ancient note heads
4369 @subsection Ancient note heads
4371 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
4372 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
4373 NoteHead object to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
4374 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
4375 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes:
4377 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4378 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
4383 @subsection Ancient clefs
4385 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
4387 For modern clefs, see section @ref{Clef}. For the percussion clef, see
4388 section @ref{Percussion staves}. For the @code{TAB} clef, see section
4391 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
4392 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but
4393 differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such
4394 cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs.
4395 Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an
4396 arbitrary line, as described in section @ref{Clef}. The note printed
4397 to the right side of each clef in the example column denotes the
4398 @code{c'} with respect to that clef.
4400 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .3 .1
4404 @b{Description} @tab
4405 @b{Supported Clefs} @tab
4409 @code{clefs-neo_mensural_c} @tab
4410 modern style mensural C clef @tab
4411 @code{neo_mensural_c1}, @code{neo_mensural_c2},
4412 @code{neo_mensural_c3}, @code{neo_mensural_c4} @tab
4413 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4414 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4415 \clef "neo_mensural_c2" c
4419 @code{clefs-petrucci_c1}
4420 @code{clefs-petrucci_c2}
4421 @code{clefs-petrucci_c3}
4422 @code{clefs-petrucci_c4}
4423 @code{clefs-petrucci_c5}
4426 petrucci style mensural C clefs, for use on different stafflines
4427 (the examples shows the 2nd staffline C clef).
4437 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4438 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4439 \clef "petrucci_c2" c
4443 @code{clefs-petrucci_f} @tab
4444 petrucci style mensural F clef @tab
4445 @code{petrucci_f} @tab
4446 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4447 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4448 \clef "petrucci_f" c
4452 @code{clefs-petrucci_g} @tab
4453 petrucci style mensural G clef @tab
4454 @code{petrucci_g} @tab
4455 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4456 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4457 \clef "petrucci_g" c
4461 @code{clefs-mensural_c'} @tab
4462 historic style mensural C clef @tab
4463 @code{mensural_c1}, @code{mensural_c2}, @code{mensural_c3},
4464 @code{mensural_c4} @tab
4465 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4466 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4467 \clef "mensural_c2" c
4471 @code{clefs-mensural_f} @tab
4472 historic style mensural F clef @tab
4473 @code{mensural_f} @tab
4474 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4475 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4476 \clef "mensural_f" c
4480 @code{clefs-mensural_g} @tab
4481 historic style mensural G clef @tab
4482 @code{mensural_g} @tab
4483 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4484 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4485 \clef "mensural_g" c
4489 @code{clefs-vaticana_do} @tab
4490 Editio Vaticana style do clef @tab
4491 @code{vaticana_do1}, @code{vaticana_do2}, @code{vaticana_do3} @tab
4492 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4494 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4495 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4496 \clef "vaticana_do2" c
4500 @code{clefs-vaticana_fa} @tab
4501 Editio Vaticana style fa clef @tab
4502 @code{vaticana_fa1}, @code{vaticana_fa2} @tab
4503 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4505 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4506 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4507 \clef "vaticana_fa2" c
4511 @code{clefs-medicaea_do} @tab
4512 Editio Medicaea style do clef @tab
4513 @code{medicaea_do1}, @code{medicaea_do2}, @code{medicaea_do3} @tab
4514 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4516 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4517 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4518 \clef "medicaea_do2" c
4522 @code{clefs-medicaea_fa} @tab
4523 Editio Medicaea style fa clef @tab
4524 @code{medicaea_fa1}, @code{medicaea_fa2} @tab
4525 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4527 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4528 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4529 \clef "medicaea_fa2" c
4533 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do} @tab
4534 historic style hufnagel do clef @tab
4535 @code{hufnagel_do1}, @code{hufnagel_do2}, @code{hufnagel_do3} @tab
4536 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4538 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4539 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4540 \clef "hufnagel_do2" c
4544 @code{clefs-hufnagel_fa} @tab
4545 historic style hufnagel fa clef @tab
4546 @code{hufnagel_fa1}, @code{hufnagel_fa2} @tab
4547 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4549 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4550 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4551 \clef "hufnagel_fa2" c
4555 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4556 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef @tab
4557 @code{hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4558 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4559 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4560 \clef "hufnagel_do_fa" c
4565 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
4566 @c @item modern style percussion clef (glyph: @code{clefs-percussion})
4569 @c @code{percussion}
4571 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "percussion" c'}
4573 @c @item modern style tab clef (glyph: @code{clefs-tab})
4578 @c @lilypond{\context Staff \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #6 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "tab" c'}
4580 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
4581 transcribed mensural music''.
4583 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
4584 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
4586 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
4587 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
4589 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
4591 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
4592 beams, depending on which staffline it is printed.
4596 @subsection Custodes
4601 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
4602 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
4603 of the first note(s) of the following line and thus helps the player
4604 or singer to manage line breaks during performance, thus enhancing
4605 readability of a score.
4607 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th
4608 century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms
4609 of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant
4610 like the @emph{editio vaticana}. There are different custos glyphs
4611 used in different flavours of notational style.
4613 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
4614 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block,
4615 as shown in the following example:
4621 \consists Custos_engraver
4622 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
4627 The result looks like this:
4633 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
4640 \consists Custos_engraver
4647 The custos glyph is selected by the @code{style} property. The styles
4648 supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
4649 @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the following fragment:
4659 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-vaticana-u0" }
4663 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-medicaea-u0" }
4667 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-hufnagel-u0" }
4671 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-mensural-u0" }
4680 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4684 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4685 \remove "Key_engraver"
4686 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4687 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4688 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4694 If the boolean property @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} is set to
4695 @code{#t} (which it is by default), lily typesets slightly different
4696 variants of the custos glyph, depending on whether the custos, is
4697 typeset on or between stafflines. The glyph will
4698 optically fit well into the staff, with the appendage on the right of
4699 the custos always ending at the same vertical position between two
4700 stafflines regardless of the pitch. If you set
4701 @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} to @code{#f}, then
4702 a compromise between both forms is used.
4704 Just like stems can be attached to noteheads in two directions
4705 @emph{up} and @emph{down}, each custos glyph is available with its
4706 appendage pointing either up or down. If the pitch of a custos is
4707 above a selectable position, the appendage will point downwards; if
4708 the pitch is below this position, the appendage will point upwards.
4709 Use property @code{neutral-position} to select this position. By
4710 default, it is set to @code{0}, such that the neutral position is the
4711 center of the staff. Use property @code{neutral-direction} to control
4712 what happens if a custos is typeset on the neutral position itself.
4713 By default, this property is set to @code{-1}, such that the appendage
4714 will point downwards. If set to @code{1}, the appendage will point
4715 upwards. Other values such as @code{0} are reserved for future
4716 extensions and should not be used.
4721 @internalsref{Custos}, @inputfileref{input/test,custos-style.ly} and
4722 @inputfileref{input/regression,custos.ly}.
4726 @subsection Divisiones
4732 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; latin word for
4733 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
4734 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
4735 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior} and @emph{divisio maxima}
4736 can be characterized as short, medium and long pause, somewhat like
4737 @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not only marks the end of
4738 a chant, but is also frequently used within a single
4739 antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
4743 To use divisiones, include the file @code{gregorian-init.ly}. It
4744 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
4745 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
4746 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
4747 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
4748 Therefore, @code{gregorian-init.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
4752 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{divisiones.ly}
4756 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
4757 @inputfileref{input/test,divisiones.ly}, and @ref{Breath marks}.
4760 @subsection Ligatures
4764 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
4765 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
4767 In musical terminology, a ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that
4768 represents at least two different notes. Ligatures originally appeared
4769 in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th
4770 century as an allusion to the accent symbols of greek lyric poetry to
4771 denote ascending or descending sequences of notes. Both, the shape and
4772 the exact meaning of ligatures changed tremendously during the following
4773 centuries: In early notation, ligatures were used for monophonic tunes
4774 (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way of performance in
4775 the sense of articulation. With upcoming multiphony, the need for a
4776 metric system arised, since multiple voices of a piece have to be
4777 synchronized some way. New notation systems were invented that used
4778 the manifold shapes of ligatures to now denote rhythmical patterns
4779 (e.g. black mensural notation, mannered notation, ars nova). With the
4780 invention of the metric system of the white mensural notation, the need
4781 for ligatures to denote such patterns disappeared. Nevertheless,
4782 ligatures were still in use in the mensural system for a couple of
4783 decades until they finally disappeared during the late 16th / early 17th
4784 century. Still, ligatures have survived in contemporary editions of
4785 Gregorian chant such as the Editio Vaticana from 1905/08.
4789 Syntactically, ligatures are simply enclosed by @code{\[} and
4790 @code{\]}. Some ligature styles (such as Editio Vaticana) may need
4791 additional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature.
4792 By default, the @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a
4793 square bracket above the ligature:
4795 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
4797 \notes \transpose c c' {
4805 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver
4806 has to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in
4807 the following subsections. Currently, only white mensural ligatures
4808 are supported with certain limitations. Support for Editio Vaticana
4809 will be added in the future.
4812 * White mensural ligatures::
4813 * Gregorian square neumes ligatures::
4816 @node White mensural ligatures
4817 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
4819 @cindex Mensural ligatures
4820 @cindex White mensural ligatures
4822 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures. The
4823 implementation is still experimental; it currently may output strange
4824 warnings or even crash in some cases or produce weird results on more
4825 complex ligatures. To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the paper
4826 block the @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} has to be put into
4827 the @internalsref{Voice} context, and remove the
4828 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}:
4834 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4835 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
4840 There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a
4841 white mensural ligature. The shape is rather determined solely from
4842 the pitch and duration of the enclosed notes. While this approach may
4843 take a new user a while to get accustomed, it has the great advantage
4844 that the full musical information of the ligature is known internally.
4845 This is not only required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for
4846 automatic transcription of the ligatures.
4851 \property Score.timing = ##f
4852 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4853 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4854 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4856 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4858 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4860 @lilypond[singleline]
4862 \notes \transpose c c' {
4863 \property Score.timing = ##f
4864 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4865 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4866 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4868 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4870 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4875 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4876 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
4882 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
4883 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
4886 @lilypond[singleline]
4888 \notes \transpose c c' {
4889 \property Score.timing = ##f
4890 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4891 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4892 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4894 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4896 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4901 @node Gregorian square neumes ligatures
4902 @subsubsection Gregorian square neumes ligatures
4904 @cindex Square neumes ligatures
4905 @cindex Gregorian square neumes ligatures
4907 Gregorian square neumes notation (following the style of the Editio
4908 Vaticana) is under heavy development, but not yet really usable for
4909 production purposes. Core ligatures can already be typeset, but
4910 essential issues for serious typesetting are still under development,
4911 such as (among others) horizontal alignment of multiple ligatures,
4912 lyrics alignment and proper accidentals handling. Still, this section
4913 gives a sneak preview of what Gregorian chant may look like once it
4916 The following table contains the extended neumes table of the 2nd
4917 volume of the Antiphonale Romanum (@emph{Liber Hymnarius}), published
4918 1983 by the monks of Solesmes.
4920 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .2 .2 .2
4923 @b{Neuma aut@*Neumarum Elementa} @tab
4924 @b{Figurae@*Rectae} @tab
4925 @b{Figurae@*Liquescentes Auctae} @tab
4926 @b{Figurae@*Liquescentes Deminutae}
4928 @c TODO: \paper block is identical in all of the below examples.
4929 @c Therefore, it should somehow be included rather than duplicated all
4932 @c why not make identifiers in ly/engraver-init.ly? --hwn
4934 @c Because it's just used to typeset plain notes without
4935 @c a staff for demonstration purposes rather than something
4936 @c special of Gregorian chant notation. --jr
4941 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.5cm]
4942 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
4944 \notes \transpose c c' {
4947 \noBreak s^\markup {"a"} \noBreak
4949 % Punctum Inclinatum
4951 \noBreak s^\markup {"b"}
4957 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4961 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4962 \remove "Key_engraver"
4963 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
4964 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4965 \remove "Bar_engraver"
4966 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4970 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4971 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
4972 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
4973 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
4979 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.5cm]
4980 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
4982 \notes \transpose c c' {
4983 % Punctum Auctum Ascendens
4984 \[ \auctum \ascendens b \]
4985 \noBreak s^\markup {"c"} \noBreak
4987 % Punctum Auctum Descendens
4988 \[ \auctum \descendens b \]
4989 \noBreak s^\markup {"d"} \noBreak
4991 % Punctum Inclinatum Auctum
4992 \[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]
4993 \noBreak s^\markup {"e"}
4999 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5003 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5004 \remove "Key_engraver"
5005 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5006 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5007 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5008 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5012 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5013 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5014 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5015 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5021 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5022 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5024 \notes \transpose c c' {
5025 % Punctum Inclinatum Parvum
5026 \[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]
5027 \noBreak s^\markup {"f"}
5033 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5037 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5038 \remove "Key_engraver"
5039 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5040 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5041 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5042 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5046 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5047 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5048 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5049 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5058 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5059 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5061 \notes \transpose c c' {
5064 \noBreak s^\markup {"g"}
5070 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5074 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5075 \remove "Key_engraver"
5076 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5077 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5078 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5079 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5083 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5084 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5085 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5086 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5095 @code{3. Apostropha vel Stropha}
5097 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5098 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5100 \notes \transpose c c' {
5103 \noBreak s^\markup {"h"}
5109 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5113 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5114 \remove "Key_engraver"
5115 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5116 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5117 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5118 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5122 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5123 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5124 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5125 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5131 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5132 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5134 \notes \transpose c c' {
5136 \[ \stropha \auctum b \]
5137 \noBreak s^\markup {"i"}
5143 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5147 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5148 \remove "Key_engraver"
5149 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5150 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5151 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5152 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5156 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5157 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5158 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5159 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5169 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5170 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5172 \notes \transpose c c' {
5175 \noBreak s^\markup {"j"}
5181 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5185 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5186 \remove "Key_engraver"
5187 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5188 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5189 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5190 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5194 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5195 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5196 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5197 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5206 @code{5. Clivis vel Flexa}
5208 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5209 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5211 \notes \transpose c c' {
5220 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5224 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5225 \remove "Key_engraver"
5226 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5227 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5228 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5229 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5233 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5234 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5235 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5236 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5242 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.0cm]
5243 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5245 \notes \transpose c c' {
5246 % Clivis Aucta Descendens
5247 \[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
5248 \noBreak s^\markup {"l"} \noBreak
5250 % Clivis Aucta Ascendens
5251 \[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]
5252 \noBreak s^\markup {"m"}
5258 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5262 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5263 \remove "Key_engraver"
5264 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5265 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5266 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5267 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5271 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5272 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5273 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5274 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5280 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5281 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5283 \notes \transpose c c' {
5285 \[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]
5292 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5296 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5297 \remove "Key_engraver"
5298 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5299 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5300 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5301 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5305 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5306 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5307 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5308 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5315 @code{6. Podatus vel Pes}
5317 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5318 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5320 \notes \transpose c c' {
5329 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5333 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5334 \remove "Key_engraver"
5335 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5336 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5337 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5338 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5342 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5343 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5344 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5345 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5351 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.0cm]
5352 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5354 \notes \transpose c c' {
5355 % Pes Auctus Descendens
5356 \[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5357 \noBreak s^\markup {"p"} \noBreak
5359 % Pes Auctus Ascendens
5360 \[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]
5361 \noBreak s^\markup {"q"}
5367 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5371 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5372 \remove "Key_engraver"
5373 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5374 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5375 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5376 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5380 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5381 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5382 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5383 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5389 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5390 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5392 \notes \transpose c c' {
5394 \[ g \pes \deminutum b \]
5401 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5405 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5406 \remove "Key_engraver"
5407 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5408 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5409 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5410 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5414 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5415 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5416 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5417 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5424 @code{7. Pes Quassus}
5426 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5427 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5429 \notes \transpose c c' {
5431 \[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]
5438 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5442 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5443 \remove "Key_engraver"
5444 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5445 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5446 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5447 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5451 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5452 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5453 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5454 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5460 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5461 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5463 \notes \transpose c c' {
5464 % Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens
5465 \[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5472 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5476 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5477 \remove "Key_engraver"
5478 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5479 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5480 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5481 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5485 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5486 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5487 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5488 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5496 @code{8. Quilisma Pes}
5498 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5499 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5501 \notes \transpose c c' {
5503 \[ \quilisma g \pes b \]
5510 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5514 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5515 \remove "Key_engraver"
5516 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5517 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5518 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5519 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5523 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5524 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5525 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5526 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5532 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5533 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5535 \notes \transpose c c' {
5536 % Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens
5537 \[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5544 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5548 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5549 \remove "Key_engraver"
5550 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5551 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5552 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5553 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5557 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5558 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5559 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5560 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5568 @code{9. Podatus Initio Debilis}
5570 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5571 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5573 \notes \transpose c c' {
5574 % Pes Initio Debilis
5575 \[ \deminutum g \pes b \]
5582 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5586 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5587 \remove "Key_engraver"
5588 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5589 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5590 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5591 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5595 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5596 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5597 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5598 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5604 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5605 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5607 \notes \transpose c c' {
5608 % Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
5609 \[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5616 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5620 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5621 \remove "Key_engraver"
5622 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5623 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5624 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5625 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5629 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5630 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5631 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5632 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5642 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5643 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5645 \notes \transpose c c' {
5647 \[ a \pes b \flexa g \]
5654 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5658 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5659 \remove "Key_engraver"
5660 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5661 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5662 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5663 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5667 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5668 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5669 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5670 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5676 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5677 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5679 \notes \transpose c c' {
5680 % Torculus Auctus Descendens
5681 \[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
5688 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5692 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5693 \remove "Key_engraver"
5694 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5695 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5696 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5697 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5701 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5702 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5703 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5704 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5710 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5711 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5713 \notes \transpose c c' {
5714 % Torculus Deminutus
5715 \[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
5722 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5726 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5727 \remove "Key_engraver"
5728 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5729 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5730 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5731 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5735 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5736 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5737 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5738 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5745 @code{11. Torculus Initio Debilis}
5747 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5748 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5750 \notes \transpose c c' {
5751 % Torculus Initio Debilis
5752 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]
5759 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5763 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5764 \remove "Key_engraver"
5765 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5766 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5767 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5768 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5772 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5773 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5774 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5775 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5781 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5782 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5784 \notes \transpose c c' {
5785 % Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
5786 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
5793 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5797 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5798 \remove "Key_engraver"
5799 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5800 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5801 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5802 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5806 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5807 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5808 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5809 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5815 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5816 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5818 \notes \transpose c c' {
5819 % Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis
5820 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
5827 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5831 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5832 \remove "Key_engraver"
5833 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5834 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5835 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5836 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5840 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5841 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5842 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5843 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5850 @code{12. Porrectus}
5852 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5853 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5855 \notes \transpose c c' {
5857 \[ a \flexa g \pes b \]
5864 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5868 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5869 \remove "Key_engraver"
5870 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5871 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5872 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5873 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5877 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5878 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5879 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5880 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5886 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5887 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5889 \notes \transpose c c' {
5890 % Porrectus Auctus Descendens
5891 \[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5898 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5902 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5903 \remove "Key_engraver"
5904 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5905 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5906 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5907 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5911 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5912 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5913 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5914 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5920 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5921 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5923 \notes \transpose c c' {
5924 % Porrectus Deminutus
5925 \[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]
5932 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5936 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5937 \remove "Key_engraver"
5938 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5939 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5940 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5941 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5945 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5946 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5947 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5948 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5957 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5958 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5960 \notes \transpose c c' {
5962 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]
5969 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5973 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5974 \remove "Key_engraver"
5975 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5976 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5977 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5978 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5982 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5983 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5984 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5985 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5991 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5992 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5994 \notes \transpose c c' {
5996 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]
6003 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6007 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6008 \remove "Key_engraver"
6009 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6010 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6011 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6012 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6016 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6017 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6018 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6019 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6025 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6026 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6028 \notes \transpose c c' {
6029 % Climacus Deminutus
6030 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]
6037 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6041 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6042 \remove "Key_engraver"
6043 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6044 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6045 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6046 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6050 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6051 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6052 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6053 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6060 @code{14. Scandicus}
6062 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6063 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6065 \notes \transpose c c' {
6067 \[ g \pes a \virga b \]
6074 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6078 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6079 \remove "Key_engraver"
6080 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6081 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6082 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6083 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6087 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6088 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6089 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6090 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6096 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6097 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6099 \notes \transpose c c' {
6100 % Scandicus Auctus Descendens
6101 \[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6108 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6112 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6113 \remove "Key_engraver"
6114 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6115 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6116 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6117 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6121 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6122 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6123 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6124 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6130 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6131 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6133 \notes \transpose c c' {
6134 % Scandicus Deminutus
6135 \[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]
6142 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6146 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6147 \remove "Key_engraver"
6148 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6149 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6150 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6151 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6155 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6156 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6157 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6158 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6167 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6168 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6170 \notes \transpose c c' {
6172 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]
6179 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6183 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6184 \remove "Key_engraver"
6185 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6186 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6187 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6188 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6192 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6193 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6194 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6195 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6201 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6202 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6204 \notes \transpose c c' {
6205 % Salicus Auctus Descendens
6206 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6213 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6217 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6218 \remove "Key_engraver"
6219 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6220 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6221 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6222 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6226 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6227 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6228 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6229 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6239 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6240 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6242 \notes \transpose c c' {
6244 \[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]
6251 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6255 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6256 \remove "Key_engraver"
6257 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6258 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6259 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6260 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6264 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6265 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6266 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6267 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6278 Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the input language for
6279 neumes does not necessarily reflect directly the typographical
6280 appearance, but is designed to solely focuse on musical meaning. For
6281 example, @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]} produces a Torculus consisting
6282 of three Punctum heads, while @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]} produces
6283 a torculus with a curved flexa shape and only a single Punctum head.
6284 There is no command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa shape; the
6285 decision of when to typeset a curved flexa shape is purely taken from
6286 the musical input. The idea of this approach is to separate the
6287 musical aspects of the input from the notation style of the output.
6288 This way, the same input can be reused to typeset the same music in a
6289 different style of Gregorian chant notation such as Hufnagel (also
6290 known as German gothic neumes) or Medicaea (kind of a very simple
6291 forerunner of the Editio Vaticana). As soon as Hufnagel ligature
6292 engraver and Medicaea ligature engraver will have been implemented, it
6293 will be as simple as replacing the ligature engraver in the
6294 @internalsref{Voice} context to get the desired notation style from
6297 The following table shows the code fragments that produce the
6298 ligatures in the above neumes table. The letter in the first column
6299 in each line of the below table indicates to which ligature in the
6300 above table it refers. The second column gives the name of the
6301 ligature. The third column shows the code fragment that produces this
6302 ligature, using @code{g}, @code{a} and @code{b} as example pitches.
6304 @multitable @columnfractions .1 .4 .5
6318 Punctum Inclinatum @tab
6319 @code{\[ \inclinatum b \]}
6323 Punctum Auctum Ascendens @tab
6324 @code{\[ \auctum \ascendens b \]}
6328 Punctum Auctum Descendens @tab
6329 @code{\[ \auctum \descendens b \]}
6333 Punctum Inclinatum Auctum @tab
6334 @code{\[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]}
6338 Punctum Inclinatum Parvum @tab
6339 @code{\[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]}
6344 @code{\[ \virga b \]}
6349 @code{\[ \stropha b \]}
6354 @code{\[ \stropha \auctum b \]}
6359 @code{\[ \oriscus b \]}
6363 Clivis vel Flexa @tab
6364 @code{\[ b \flexa g \]}
6368 Clivis Aucta Descendens @tab
6369 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
6373 Clivis Aucta Ascendens @tab
6374 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]}
6379 @code{\[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
6383 Podatus vel Pes @tab
6384 @code{\[ g \pes b \]}
6388 Pes Auctus Descendens @tab
6389 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6393 Pes Auctus Ascendens @tab
6394 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]}
6399 @code{\[ g \pes \deminutum b \]}
6404 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]}
6408 Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens @tab
6409 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6414 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes b \]}
6418 Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens @tab
6419 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6423 Pes Initio Debilis @tab
6424 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes b \]}
6428 Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis @tab
6429 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6434 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]}
6438 Torculus Auctus Descendens @tab
6439 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
6443 Torculus Deminutus @tab
6444 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
6448 Torculus Initio Debilis @tab
6449 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]}
6453 Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis @tab
6454 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
6458 Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis @tab
6459 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
6464 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]}
6468 Porrectus Auctus Descendens @tab
6469 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6473 Porrectus Deminutus @tab
6474 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]}
6479 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]}
6483 Climacus Auctus @tab
6484 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]}
6488 Climacus Deminutus @tab
6489 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]}
6494 @code{\[ g \pes a \virga b \]}
6498 Scandicus Auctus Descendens @tab
6499 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6503 Scandicus Deminutus @tab
6504 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]}
6509 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]}
6513 Salicus Auctus Descendens @tab
6514 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6519 @code{\[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]}
6525 Scandicus Deminutus: Punctum Auctum Ascendens overlaps with
6526 Semivocalis head; this looks awful.
6528 Trigonus: apply equal spacing, regardless of pitch.
6531 @subsection Figured bass
6533 @cindex Basso continuo
6535 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
6539 LilyPond has limited support for figured bass:
6541 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
6543 \context Voice \notes { \clef bass dis4 c d ais}
6544 \context FiguredBass
6546 < 6 >4 < 7 >8 < 6+ [_!] >
6552 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
6553 mode, introduced by @code{\figures}, where you can enter bass figures
6554 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass} that
6555 takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
6557 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
6558 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>}:
6563 \context FiguredBass
6567 Accidentals are added when you append @code{-}, @code{!} and @code{+}
6574 \context FiguredBass
6575 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> }
6578 Spaces or dashes may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
6579 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}:
6585 \context FiguredBass
6586 \figures { < [4 6] 8 [_! 12]> }
6589 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
6590 support, it works much simpler. The @code{\figures} mode simply
6591 stores the numbers , and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints
6592 them as entered. There is no conversion to pitches, and no
6593 realizations of the bass are played in the MIDI file.
6595 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
6596 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
6597 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
6601 @internalsref{BassFigureEvent} music, @internalsref{BassFigure} object,
6602 and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context.
6606 Slash notation for alterations is not supported.
6609 @node Contemporary notation
6610 @section Contemporary notation
6612 In the 20th century, composers have greatly expanded the musical
6613 vocabulary. With this expansion, many innovations in musical notation
6614 have been tried. For a comprehensive overview, refer to @cite{Stone
6615 1980} (see @ref{Literature}). In general, the use of new, innovative
6616 notation makes a piece harder to understand and perform and its use
6617 should therefore be avoided if possible. For this reason, support for
6618 contemporary notation in LilyPond is limited.
6627 @subsection Clusters
6631 In musical terminology, a @emph{cluster} denotes a range of
6632 simultaneously sounding pitches that may change over time. The set of
6633 available pitches to apply usually depends on the accoustic source.
6634 Thus, in piano music, a cluster typically consists of a continous range
6635 of the semitones as provided by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic
6636 scale. In choral music, each singer of the choir typically may sing an
6637 arbitrary pitch within the cluster's range that is not bound to any
6638 diatonic, chromatic or other scale. In electronic music, a cluster
6639 (theoretically) may even cover a continuous range of pitches, thus
6640 resulting in coloured noise, such as pink noise.
6642 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
6643 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
6644 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
6645 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by the
6646 shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical extent of
6647 the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster geometrically
6648 describes the development of a range of pitches (vertical extent) over
6649 time (horizontal extent). Still, the geometrical shape of a cluster
6650 covers the area in wich any single pitch contained in the cluster would
6651 be notated as an ordinary note. From this point of view, it is
6652 reasonable to specify a cluster as the envelope of a set of notes.
6656 A cluster is engraved as the envelope of a set of
6657 cluster-notes. Cluster notes are created by applying the function
6658 @code{notes-to-clusters} to a sequence of chords, e.g.
6660 @lilypond[relative 1,verbatim]
6661 \apply #notes-to-clusters { <<c e >> <<b f'>> }
6664 The following example (from
6665 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly}) shows what the result
6668 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{cluster.ly}
6670 By default, @internalsref{Cluster_engraver} is in the
6671 @internalsref{Voice} context. This allows putting ordinary notes and
6672 clusters together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In such a
6673 case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between
6674 ordinary notes and clusters.
6678 @internalsref{ClusterSpanner}, @internalsref{ClusterSpannerBeacon},
6679 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly},
6680 @internalsref{Cluster_engraver}, and @internalsref{ClusterNoteEvent}.
6684 Music expressions like @code{< @{ g8 e8 @} a4 >} are not printed
6685 accurately. Use @code{<<g a>>8 <<e a>>8} instead.
6690 @subsection Fermatas
6696 Contemporary music notation frequently uses special fermata symbols to
6697 indicate fermatas of differing lengths.
6701 The following are supported
6703 @lilypond[singleline]
6705 < \addlyrics \notes {
6725 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
6726 "shortfermata" "fermata" "longfermata" "verylongfermata"
6731 See @ref{Articulations} for general instructions how to apply scripts
6732 such as fermatas to a @code{\notes@{@}} block.
6735 @section Tuning output
6737 There are situations where default layout decisions are not
6738 sufficient. In this section we discuss ways to override these
6741 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called objects
6742 (graphic objects). Each object carries with it a set of properties
6743 (object or layout properties) specific to that object. For example, a
6744 stem object has properties that specify its direction, length and
6747 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
6748 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
6749 temporarily change the definition of one type of object, thus
6750 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
6751 object, and set a layout property in that object.
6753 Do not confuse layout properties with translation
6754 properties. Translation properties always use a mixed caps style
6755 naming, and are manipulated using @code{\property}:
6757 \property Context.propertyName = @var{value}
6759 Layout properties are use Scheme style variable naming, i.e. lower
6760 case words separated with dashes. They are symbols, and should always
6761 be quoted using @code{#'}. For example, this could be an imaginary
6762 layout property name:
6764 #'layout-property-name
6769 * Constructing a tweak::
6778 @node Tuning objects
6779 @subsection Tuning objects
6781 @cindex object description
6783 The definition of an object is a list of default object
6784 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem object (available
6785 in @file{scm/define-grobs.scm}), includes the following definitions
6786 for @internalsref{Stem}:
6790 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
6791 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
6796 Adding variables on top of this existing definition overrides the
6797 system default, and alters the resulting appearance of the layout
6803 Changing a variable for only one object is commonly achieved with
6807 \once \property @var{context}.@var{objectname}
6808 \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
6810 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
6811 and @var{objectname} is a string and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
6812 This command applies a setting only during one moment in the score.
6814 In the following example, only one @internalsref{Stem} object is
6815 changed from its original setting:
6817 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment, relative=1]
6819 \once \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4
6823 @cindex @code{\once}
6825 For changing more objects, the same command, without @code{\once} can
6828 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
6830 This command adds @code{@var{symbol} = @var{value}} to the definition
6831 of @var{objectname} in the context @var{context}, and this definition
6832 stays in place until it is removed.
6834 An existing definition may be removed by the following command:
6837 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \revert @var{symbol}
6840 All @code{\override} and @code{\revert} commands should be balanced.
6841 The @code{\set} shorthand performs a revert followed by an override,
6842 and is often more convenient to use
6845 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
6849 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
6850 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
6852 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
6856 The following example gives exactly the same result as the previous
6857 one (assuming the system default for stem thickness is 1.3):
6859 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
6860 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
6862 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #1.3
6866 Reverting a setting which was not set in the first place has no
6867 effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, this may
6868 remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
6869 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and
6870 @code{\revert} must be carefully balanced. The following are examples
6871 of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set}, @code{\revert}:
6875 a clumsy but correct form:
6877 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
6881 shorter version of the same:
6883 \override \set \set \revert
6887 a short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
6890 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
6894 if there is no default (i.e. by default, the object property is unset),
6897 \set \set \set \revert
6901 For the digirati, the object description is an Scheme association
6902 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as
6903 a stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are push and pop
6904 operations. The association list is stored in a normal context
6907 \property Voice.NoteHead = #'()
6909 will effectively erase @internalsref{NoteHead}s from the current
6910 @internalsref{Voice}. However, this mechanism is not guaranteed to
6911 work, and may cause crashes or other anomalous behavior.
6915 @internalsref{OverrideProperty}, @internalsref{RevertProperty},
6916 @internalsref{PropertySet}, @internalsref{backend properties}, and
6917 @internalsref{All layout objects}.
6922 The backend is not very strict in type-checking object properties.
6923 Cyclic references in @var{value} cause hangs and/or crashes.
6924 Similarly, reverting properties that are system defaults may also lead
6927 @node Constructing a tweak
6928 @subsection Constructing a tweak
6931 @cindex internal documentation
6932 @cindex finding graphical objects
6933 @cindex graphical object descriptions
6935 @cindex @code{\override}
6937 @cindex internal documentation
6941 Three pieces of information are required to use @code{\override} and
6942 @code{\set}: the name of the layout object, the context and the name
6943 of the property. We demonstrate how to glean this information from
6944 the notation manual and the generated documentation.
6946 The generated documentation is a set of HTML pages which should be
6947 included if you installed a binary distribution, typically in
6948 @file{/usr/share/doc/lilypond}. They are also available on the web:
6949 go to the @uref{http://lilypond.org,LilyPond website}, click
6950 ``Documentation'', and then ``Program reference'' on the side bar. It
6951 is advisable to bookmark either the local HTML files if possible. They
6952 will load faster than the ones on the web. If you use the version
6953 from the web, you must check whether the documentation matches the
6954 program version: the documentation is generated from the definitions
6955 that the program uses, and therefore it is strongly tied to the
6959 @c [TODO: revise for new site.]
6961 Suppose we want to move the fingering indication in the fragment below:
6963 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim]
6969 If you visit the documentation of @code{Fingering} (in @ref{Fingering
6970 instructions}), you will notice that there is written:
6975 @internalsref{FingerEvent} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
6979 In other words, the fingerings once entered, are internally stored as
6980 @code{FingerEvent} music objects. When printed, a @code{Fingering}
6981 layout object is created for every @code{FingerEvent}.
6983 The Fingering object has a number of different functions, and each of
6984 those is captured in an interface, when we look up
6985 @internalsref{Fingering} in the generated documentation.
6989 The @code{Fingering} object has a fixed size
6990 (@internalsref{item-interface}), the symbol is a piece of text
6991 (@internalsref{text-interface}), whose font can be set
6992 (@internalsref{font-interface}). It is centered horizontally
6993 (@internalsref{self-alignment-interface}), it is placed next to other
6994 objects (@internalsref{side-position-interface}) vertically, and its
6995 placement is coordinated with other scripts
6996 (@internalsref{text-script-interface}). It also has the standard
6997 @internalsref{grob-interface} (grob stands for Graphical object)
6999 @cindex graphical object
7000 @cindex layout object
7001 @cindex object, layout
7002 with all the variables that come with
7003 it. Finally, it denotes a fingering instruction, so it has
7004 @internalsref{finger-interface}.
7006 For the vertical placement, we have to look under
7007 @code{side-position-interface}:
7009 @code{side-position-interface}
7011 Position a victim object (this one) next to other objects (the
7012 support). In this case, the direction signifies where to put the
7013 victim object relative to the support (left or right, up or down?)
7015 below this description, the variable @code{padding} is described as
7019 (dimension, in staff space)
7021 add this much extra space between objects that are next to each
7022 other. Default value: @code{0.6}
7026 By increasing the value of @code{padding}, we can move away the
7027 fingering. The following command inserts 3 staff spaces of white
7028 between the note and the fingering:
7030 \once \property Voice.Fingering \set #'padding = #3
7033 Inserting this command before the Fingering object is created,
7034 i.e. before @code{c2}, yields the following result:
7036 @lilypond[relative=2,fragment,verbatim]
7037 \once \property Voice.Fingering
7044 The context name @code{Voice} in the example above can be determined
7045 as follows. In the documentation for @internalsref{Fingering}, it says
7047 Fingering grobs are created by: @internalsref{Fingering_engraver}
7050 Clicking @code{Fingering_engraver} shows the documentation of
7051 the module responsible for interpreting the fingering instructions and
7052 translating them to a @code{Fingering} object. Such a module is called
7053 an @emph{engraver}. The documentation of the @code{Fingering_engraver}
7056 Fingering_engraver is part of contexts: Voice
7058 so tuning the settings for Fingering should be done with
7060 \property Voice.Fingering \set @dots{}
7063 Of course, the tweak may also done in a larger context than
7064 @code{Voice}, for example, @internalsref{Staff} or
7065 @internalsref{Score}.
7067 The internals document also contains alphabetical lists of
7068 @internalsref{All contexts}, @internalsref{All layout objects} and
7069 @internalsref{All music types}, so you can also find which objects to
7070 tweak by browsing the internals document.
7074 @subsection Applyoutput
7076 The most versatile way of tuning an object is @code{\applyoutput}. Its
7079 \applyoutput @var{proc}
7083 where @var{proc} is a Scheme function, taking four arguments.
7085 When interpreted, the function @var{proc} is called for every layout object found
7086 in the context, with the following arguments:
7088 @item the layout object itself,
7089 @item the context where the layout object was created, and
7090 @item the context where @code{\applyoutput} is processed.
7093 In addition, the cause of the layout object, i.e. the music
7094 expression or object that was responsible for creating it, is in the
7095 object property @code{cause}. For example, for a note head, this is a
7096 @internalsref{NoteHead} event, and for a @internalsref{Stem} object,
7097 this is a @internalsref{NoteHead} object.
7100 @node Outputproperty
7101 @subsection Outputproperty
7103 @cindex @code{\outputproperty}
7105 Another way of tuning objects is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
7106 feature. The syntax is as follows:
7108 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
7110 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking an object argument, and
7111 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
7112 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
7113 objects that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
7114 true, the object property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
7116 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
7117 the appropriate context to apply this to.
7118 @inputfileref{input/regression,output-property.ly} shows an example of
7119 the use of @code{\outputproperty}.
7123 This command is slated for removal. Please use the
7124 @code{\applyoutput} command, see @ref{Applyoutput}.
7127 @node Font selection
7128 @subsection Font selection
7130 The most common thing to change about the appearance of fonts is their
7131 size. The font size of any context can be easily changed by setting
7132 the @code{fontSize} property for that context. Its value is an
7133 integer: negative numbers make the font smaller, positive numbers
7134 larger. An example is given below:
7136 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,verbatim,quote]
7137 c4 c4 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
7140 This command will set @code{font-relative-size} (see below), and does
7141 not change the size of variable symbols, such as beams or slurs.
7144 One of the uses of @code{fontSize} is to get smaller symbol for cue
7145 notes. An elaborate example of those is in
7146 @inputfileref{input/test,cue-notes.ly}.
7148 @cindex magnification
7150 The size of the font may be scaled with the object property
7151 @code{font-magnification}. For example, @code{2.0} blows up all
7152 letters by a factor 2 in both directions.
7161 The font used for printing a object can be selected by setting
7162 @code{font-name}, e.g.
7164 \property Staff.TimeSignature
7165 \set #'font-name = #"cmr17"
7169 Any font can be used, as long as it is available to @TeX{}. Possible
7170 fonts include foreign fonts or fonts that do not belong to the
7171 Computer Modern font family.
7173 Font selection for the standard fonts, @TeX{}'s Computer Modern fonts,
7174 can also be adjusted with a more fine-grained mechanism. By setting
7175 the object properties described below, you can select a different font;
7176 all three mechanisms work for every object that supports
7177 @code{font-interface}:
7181 is a symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
7182 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff
7183 braces), @code{music} (the standard music font, including ancient
7184 glyphs), @code{dynamic} (for dynamic signs) and @code{typewriter}.
7187 is a symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
7188 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
7189 @code{caps} and @code{upright}.
7192 is a symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
7193 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
7196 @item font-relative-size
7197 is a number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
7198 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
7199 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
7201 There are small differences in design between fonts designed for
7202 different sizes, hence @code{font-relative-size} is preferred over
7203 @code{font-magnification} for changing font sizes.
7206 @item font-design-size
7207 is a number indicating the design size of the font.
7209 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
7210 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
7211 which enhances readability.
7214 For any of these properties, the value @code{*} (i.e. the symbol
7215 @code{*}, entered as @code{#'*}), acts as a wildcard. This can be used
7216 to override default setting, which are always present. For example:
7218 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
7219 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-family = #'typewriter
7220 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
7223 @cindex @code{font-style}
7227 The following commands set @code{fontSize} for the current voice.
7229 @cindex @code{\tiny}
7231 @cindex @code{\small}
7233 @cindex @code{\normalsize}
7238 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
7240 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
7241 family, and the style sheet cannot be modified easily.
7243 @cindex font selection
7244 @cindex font magnification
7245 @cindex @code{font-interface}
7249 @subsection Text markup
7254 @cindex typeset text
7256 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can access it
7257 with the keyword @code{\markup}. Within markup mode, you can enter texts
7258 similar to lyrics: simply enter them, surrounded by spaces:
7261 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
7262 c1^\markup { hello }
7263 c1_\markup { hi there }
7264 c1^\markup { hi \bold there, is \italic anyone home? }
7267 @cindex font switching
7269 The markup in the example demonstrates font switching commands. The
7270 command @code{\bold} and @code{\italic} only apply to the first
7271 following word; enclose a set of texts with braces to apply a command
7274 \markup @{ \bold @{ hi there @} @}
7278 For clarity, you can also do this for single arguments, e.g.
7280 \markup @{ is \italic @{ anyone @} home @}
7283 @cindex font size, texts
7285 The following size commands set absolute sizes:
7287 @cindex @code{\teeny}
7288 @cindex @code{\tiny}
7289 @cindex @code{\small}
7290 @cindex @code{\large}
7291 @cindex @code{\huge}
7301 You can also make letter larger or smaller relative to their neighbors,
7302 with the commands @code{\larger} and @code{\smaller}.
7306 @cindex font style, for texts
7307 @cindex @code{\bold}
7308 @cindex @code{\dynamic}
7309 @cindex @code{\number}
7310 @cindex @code{\italic}
7312 The following font change commands are defined:
7315 changes to the font used in dynamic signs. This font does not
7316 contain all characters of the alphabet, so when producing ``piu f'',
7317 the ``piu'' should be done in a different font.
7321 changes to the font used in time signatures. It only contains
7322 numbers and a few punctuation marks.
7324 changes @code{font-shape} to @code{italic}.
7326 changes @code{font-series} to @code{bold}.
7329 @cindex raising text
7330 @cindex lowering text
7332 @cindex translating text
7335 @cindex @code{\super}
7337 Raising and lowering texts can be done with @code{\super} and
7340 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
7341 c1^\markup { E "=" mc \super "2" }
7344 @cindex @code{\raise}
7346 If you want to give an explicit amount for lowering or raising, use
7347 @code{\raise}. This command takes a Scheme valued first argument, and
7348 a markup object as second argument:
7350 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1,quote]
7351 c1^\markup { C \small \raise #1.0 \bold { "9/7+" }}
7353 The argument to @code{\raise} is the vertical displacement amount,
7354 measured in (global) staff spaces.
7356 Other commands taking single arguments include
7359 @item \bracket, \hbracket
7360 Bracket the argument markup with normal and horizontal brackets
7364 @cindex @code{\musicglyph}
7365 This is converted to a musical symbol, e.g. @code{\musicglyph
7366 #"accidentals-0"} will select the natural sign from the music font.
7367 See @ref{The Feta font} for a complete listing of the possible glyphs.
7369 This produces a single character, e.g. @code{\char #65} produces the
7372 @item \note @var{log} @var{dots} @var{dir}
7373 @cindex @code{\note}
7375 This produces a note with a stem pointing in @var{dir} direction, with
7376 duration log @var{log} and @var{dots} augmentation dots. The duration
7377 log is the negative 2-logarithm of the duration denominator. For
7378 example, a quarter note has log 2, an eighth note 3 and a breve has
7381 @item \hspace #@var{amount}
7382 @cindex @code{\hspace}
7383 This produces a invisible object taking horizontal space.
7385 \markup @{ A \hspace #2.0 B @}
7387 will put extra space between A and B, on top of the space that is
7388 normally inserted before elements on a line.
7390 @item \fontsize #@var{size}
7391 @cindex @code{\fontsize}
7392 This sets the relative font size, eg.
7394 A \fontsize #2 @{ B C @} D
7398 This will enlarge the B and the C by two steps.
7399 @item \translate #(cons @var{x} @var{y})
7401 This translates an object. Its first argument is a cons of numbers
7403 A \translate #(cons 2 -3) @{ B C @} D
7405 This moves `B C' 2 spaces to the right, and 3 down.
7407 @item \magnify #@var{mag}
7408 @cindex @code{\magnify}
7409 This sets the font magnification for the its argument. In the following
7410 example, the middle A will be 10% larger:
7412 A \magnify #1.1 @{ A @} A
7416 @item \override #(@var{key} . @var{value})
7417 @cindex @code{\override}
7418 This overrides a formatting property for its argument. The argument
7419 should be a key/value pair, e.g.
7421 m \override #'(font-family . math) m m
7425 In markup mode you can compose expressions, similar to mathematical
7426 expressions, XML documents and music expressions. The braces group
7427 notes into horizontal lines. Other types of lists also exist: you can
7428 stack expressions grouped with @code{<<}, and @code{>>} vertically with
7429 the command @code{\column}. Similarly, @code{\center} aligns texts by
7432 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
7433 c1^\markup { \column << a bbbb c >> }
7434 c1^\markup { \center << a bbbb c >> }
7435 c1^\markup { \line << a b c >> }
7438 The markup mechanism is extensible. Refer to
7439 @file{scm/new-markup.scm} for more information on extending the markup
7446 @internalsref{Markup functions}, and @file{scm/new-markup.scm}.
7453 Text layout is ultimately done by @TeX{}, which does kerning of
7454 letters. LilyPond does not account for kerning, so texts will be
7455 spaced slightly too wide.
7457 Syntax errors for markup mode are confusing.
7461 @section Global layout
7463 The global layout determined by three factors: the page layout, the
7464 line breaks and the spacing. These all influence each other. The
7465 choice of spacing determines how densely each system of music is set,
7466 which influences where line breaks breaks are chosen, and thus
7467 ultimately how many pages a piece of music takes. In this section, the
7468 algorithm for spacing music is explained, and how spacing can be
7471 Globally spoken, this procedure happens in three steps: first,
7472 flexible distances (``springs'') are chosen, based on durations. All
7473 possible line breaking combination are tried, and the one with the
7474 best results---a layout that has uniform density and requires as
7475 little stretching or cramping as possible---is chosen. When the score
7476 is processed by @TeX{}, each page is filled with systems, and page breaks
7477 are chosen whenever the page gets full.
7482 * Vertical spacing::
7483 * Horizontal spacing::
7490 @node Vertical spacing
7491 @subsection Vertical spacing
7493 @cindex vertical spacing
7494 @cindex distance between staves
7495 @cindex staff distance
7496 @cindex between staves, distance
7497 @cindex staffs per page
7500 The height of each system is determined automatically by LilyPond, to
7501 keep systems from bumping into each other, some minimum distances are
7502 set. By changing these, you can put staves closer together, and thus
7503 put more systems onto one page.
7505 Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make
7506 staves maintain a distance, their vertical size is padded. This is
7507 done with the property @code{minimumVerticalExtent}. It takes a pair
7508 of numbers, so if you want to make it smaller from its, then you could
7511 \property Staff.minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4 . 4)
7513 This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 4 staff-space on
7514 either side of the center staff line. The argument of
7515 @code{minimumVerticalExtent} is interpreted as an interval, where the
7516 center line is the 0, so the first number is generally negative. The
7517 staff can be made larger at the bottom by setting it to @code{(-6
7520 The piano staves are handled a little differently: to make cross-staff
7521 beaming work correctly, it is necessary that the distance between staves
7522 is fixed beforehand. This is also done with a
7523 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object, created in
7524 @internalsref{PianoStaff}. In this object the distance between the
7525 staves is fixed by setting @code{forced-distance}. If you want to
7526 override this, use a @code{\translator} block as follows:
7530 VerticalAlignment \override #'forced-distance = #9
7533 This would bring the staves together at a distance of 9 staff spaces,
7534 measured from the center line of each staff.
7538 Vertical alignment of staves is handled by the
7539 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object.
7543 @node Horizontal spacing
7544 @subsection Horizontal Spacing
7546 The spacing engine translates differences in durations into
7547 stretchable distances (``springs'') of differing lengths. Longer
7548 durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest
7549 durations get a fixed amount of space (which is controlled by
7550 @code{shortest-duration-space} in the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} object).
7551 /The longer the duration, the more space it gets: doubling a
7552 duration adds a fixed amount (this amount is controlled by
7553 @code{spacing-increment}) of space to the note.
7555 For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter and
7556 8th notes, the eighth note is followed by 1 note head width (NHW).
7557 The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by 3 NHW, etc.
7558 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=1] c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8
7562 Normally, @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to 1.2, which is the
7563 width of a note head, and @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to
7564 2.0, meaning that the shortest note gets 2 NHW (2 times
7565 @code{shortest-duration-space}) of space. For normal notes, this space
7566 is always counted from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest
7567 notes are generally followed by one NHW of space.
7569 If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single
7570 32th note to a score that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the
7571 entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a 16th, but a 32nd,
7572 thus adding 2 noteheads of space to every note. To prevent this, the
7573 shortest duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score,
7574 but the most commonly found shortest note. Notes that are even
7575 shorter this are followed by a space that is proportonial to their
7576 duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add
7577 only a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by
7580 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=2]
7581 c2 c4. c8 c4. c16-[ c-] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
7584 The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every
7585 measure, the shortest duration is determined. The most common short
7586 duration, is taken as the basis for the spacing, with the stipulation
7587 that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than
7588 1/8th note. The shortest duration is printed when you run lilypond
7589 with @code{--verbose}. These durations may also be customized. If you
7590 set the @code{common-shortest-duration} in
7591 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, then this sets the base duration for
7592 spacing. The maximum duration for this base (normally 1/8th), is set
7593 through @code{base-shortest-duration}.
7595 @cindex @code{common-shortest-duration}
7596 @cindex @code{base-shortest-duration}
7597 @cindex @code{stem-spacing-correction}
7598 @cindex @code{spacing}
7600 In the introduction it was explained that stem directions influence
7601 spacing. This is controlled with @code{stem-spacing-correction}
7602 property in @internalsref{NoteSpacing}, which are generated for every
7603 @internalsref{Voice} context. The @code{StaffSpacing} object
7604 (generated at @internalsref{Staff} context) contains the same property
7605 for controlling the stem/barline spacing. The following example
7606 shows these corrections, once with default settings, and once with
7607 exaggerated corrections:
7613 \property Staff.NoteSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
7615 \property Staff.StaffSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
7620 \paper { raggedright = ##t } }
7623 @cindex SpacingSpanner, overriding properties
7625 Properties of the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} must be overridden
7626 from the @code{\paper} block, since the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} is
7627 created before any @code{\property} statements are interpreted.
7629 \paper @{ \translator @{
7631 SpacingSpanner \override #'spacing-increment = #3.0
7638 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, @internalsref{NoteSpacing},
7639 @internalsref{StaffSpacing}, @internalsref{SeparationItem}, and
7640 @internalsref{SeparatingGroupSpanner}.
7644 Spacing is determined on a score wide basis. If you have a score that
7645 changes its character (measured in durations) halfway during the
7646 score, the part containing the longer durations will be spaced too
7649 There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing.
7654 @subsection Font size
7655 @cindex font size, setting
7656 @cindex staff size, setting
7657 @cindex @code{paper} file
7659 The Feta font provides musical symbols at seven different sizes.
7660 These fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point, 23 point, and
7661 26 point. The point size of a font is the height of the corresponding
7662 staff (excluding line thicknesses).
7664 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
7665 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any
7666 of these files, the variables @code{paperEleven},
7667 @code{paperThirteen}, @code{paperSixteen},
7668 @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and @code{paperTwentysix}
7669 are defined respectively. The default @code{\paper} block is also
7670 set. These files should be imported at toplevel, i.e.
7672 \include "paper26.ly"
7676 The default font size settings for each staff heights are generated
7677 from the 20pt style sheet. For more details, see the file
7678 @file{scm/font.scm}.
7682 @subsection Line breaking
7685 @cindex breaking lines
7687 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
7688 that lines look neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines
7689 have similar density.
7691 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can
7692 do this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at
7693 this point. Line breaks can only occur at places where there are bar
7694 lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line,
7695 you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
7696 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a
7700 @cindex regular line breaks
7701 @cindex four bar music.
7703 For linebreaks at regular intervals use @code{\break} separated by
7704 skips and repeated with @code{\repeat}:
7706 < \repeat unfold 7 @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
7707 @emph{the real music}
7712 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
7717 @internalsref{BreakEvent}.
7721 @subsection Page layout
7724 @cindex breaking pages
7726 @cindex @code{indent}
7727 @cindex @code{linewidth}
7729 The most basic settings influencing the spacing are @code{indent} and
7730 @code{linewidth}. They are set in the @code{\paper} block. They
7731 control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of
7734 If @code{raggedright} is set to true in the @code{\paper}
7735 block, then the lines are justified at their natural length. This
7736 useful for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural
7740 @cindex vertical spacing
7742 The page layout process happens outside the LilyPond formatting
7743 engine: variables controlling page layout are passed to the output,
7744 and are further interpreted by @code{ly2dvi}. @code{ly2dvi} responds
7745 to the following variables in the @code{\paper} block. The variable
7746 @code{textheight} sets the total height of the music on each page.
7747 The spacing between systems is controlled with @code{interscoreline},
7748 its default is 16pt. The distance between the score lines will
7749 stretch in order to fill the full page @code{interscorelinefill} is
7750 set to a positive number. In that case @code{interscoreline}
7751 specifies the minimum spacing.
7753 @cindex @code{textheight}
7754 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
7755 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
7757 If the variable @code{lastpagefill} is defined,
7758 @c fixme: this should only be done if lastpagefill == #t
7759 systems are evenly distributed vertically on the last page. This
7760 might produce ugly results in case there are not enough systems on the
7761 last page. The @command{lilypond-book} command ignores
7762 @code{lastpagefill}. See @ref{lilypond-book manual} for more
7765 @cindex @code{lastpagefill}
7767 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
7768 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into
7769 the @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages. This
7770 is done by setting the @code{between-systems-strings} on the
7771 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn} where the system is broken.
7772 An example is shown in @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}.
7773 The predefined command @code{\newpage} also does this.
7777 @cindex @code{papersize}
7779 To change the paper size, you must first set the @code{papersize} paper
7780 variable variable as in the example below. Set it to
7781 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
7782 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
7783 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
7786 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
7787 \include "paper16.ly"
7790 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
7791 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
7792 @code{lilypond} and @code{ly2dvi}).
7797 @cindex @code{\newpage}
7803 @ref{Invoking ly2dvi},
7804 @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}, and
7805 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn}.
7809 LilyPond has no concept of page layout, which makes it difficult to
7810 reliably choose page breaks in longer pieces.
7819 Entered music can also be converted to MIDI output. The performance
7820 is good enough for proof-hearing the music for errors.
7822 Ties, dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted. Dynamic marks,
7823 crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume levels. Dynamic
7824 marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI volume
7825 range, crescendi and decrescendi make the volume vary linearly between
7826 their two extremities. The fractions can be adjusted by
7827 @code{dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction} in @internalsref{Voice} context.
7828 For each type of MIDI instrument, a volume range can be defined. This
7829 gives a basic equalizer control, which can enhance the quality of
7830 the MIDI output remarkably. The equalizer can be controlled by
7831 setting @code{instrumentEqualizer}.
7835 Many musically interesting effects, such as swing, articulation,
7836 slurring, etc., are not translated to MIDI.
7841 * MIDI instrument names::
7846 @subsection MIDI block
7850 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
7851 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
7855 @item a @code{\tempo} definition, and
7856 @item context definitions.
7859 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
7863 @cindex context definition
7865 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
7866 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
7867 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer-init.ly}.
7870 @node MIDI instrument names
7871 @subsection MIDI instrument names
7873 @cindex instrument names
7874 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
7875 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
7877 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
7878 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
7879 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
7880 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
7884 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
7885 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by