3 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
4 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
5 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
7 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
11 @chapter Notation manual
14 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
20 * Easier music entry::
36 * Contemporary notation::
42 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
53 * Chromatic alterations::
59 * Automatic note splitting ::
61 * Easy Notation note heads ::
69 A note is printed by specifying its pitch and then its duration.
70 @footnote{Notes constitute the most basic elements of LilyPond input,
71 but they do not form valid input on their own without a @code{\score}
72 block. However, for the sake of brevity and simplicity we will
73 generally omit @code{\score} blocks and @code{\paper} declarations in
76 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
85 @cindex Note specification
87 @cindex entering notes
89 The most common syntax for pitch entry is used in @code{\chords} and
90 @code{\notes} mode. In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated
91 by names. The notes are specified by the letters @code{a} through
92 @code{g}, while the octave is formed with notes ranging from @code{c}
93 to @code{b}. The pitch @code{c} is an octave below middle C and the
94 letters span the octave above that C.
96 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
98 a,4 b, c d e f g a b c' d' e' \clef treble f' g' a' b' c''
101 @cindex note names, Dutch
103 A sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
104 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and
105 double flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}.
107 These default names are the Dutch note names. In Dutch, @code{aes} is
108 contracted to @code{as} in Dutch, but both forms are
109 accepted. Similarly, both @code{es} and @code{ees} are accepted.
111 There are predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
112 To use them, include the language specific init file. For
113 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files
114 and the note names they define are:
119 Note Names sharp flat
120 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
121 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
122 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
123 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
124 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
125 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
126 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
127 espanol.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -s -b
136 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
137 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
138 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
139 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
141 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
142 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
146 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
148 @cindex @code{\pitch}
150 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
153 where @var{scmpitch} is a Scheme object of the @code{Pitch} type.
158 @internalsref{NoteEvent}, @internalsref{NoteHead}
160 @node Chromatic alterations
161 @subsection Chromatic alterations
163 Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also
164 print them manually. A reminder accidental
165 @cindex reminder accidental
167 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!}
168 after the pitch. A cautionary accidental
169 @cindex cautionary accidental
170 @cindex parenthesized accidental
171 (an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the
172 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
174 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
175 cis' cis' cis'! cis'?
179 The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many
180 ways. For more information, refer to @ref{Accidentals}.
185 A chord is formed by a enclosing a set of pitches in @code{<<} and
188 TODO: accidental overides?
197 Rests are entered like notes, with the note name @code{r}.
199 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
203 Whole bar rests, centered in middle of the bar, are specified using
204 @code{R} (capital R); see @ref{Multi measure rests}. See also
207 For some music, you may wish to explicitly specify the rest's vertical
208 position. This can be achieved by entering a note with the @code{\rest}
209 keyword appended. Rest collision testing will leave these rests alone.
211 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
217 @internalsref{RestEvent}, @internalsref{Rest}
224 @cindex Invisible rest
227 An invisible rest (also called a `skip') can be entered like a note
228 with note name `@code{s}' or with @code{\skip @var{duration}}:
230 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
234 The @code{s} syntax is only available in Note mode and Chord
235 mode. In other situations, you should use the @code{\skip} command,
236 which will work outside of those two modes:
238 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
241 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
242 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
247 The skip command is merely an empty musical placeholder. It does not
248 produce any output, not even transparent output.
252 @internalsref{SkipEvent}
257 @subsection Durations
261 @cindex @code{\duration}
264 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations are designated by numbers
265 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For example,
266 a quarter note is entered using a @code{4} (since it is a 1/4 note), while
267 a half note is entered using a @code{2} (since it is a 1/2 note). For notes
268 longer than a whole you must use variables.
270 @c FIXME: what is an identifier? I do not think it's been introduced yet.
271 @c and if it has, I obviously skipped that part. - Graham
275 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
277 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
282 \notes \relative c'' {
284 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
286 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
291 \remove "Clef_engraver"
292 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
293 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
294 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
301 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previously entered
302 duration. Default for the first note is a quarter note. The duration
303 can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') in order to obtain dotted note
307 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
308 a' b' c''8 b' a'4 a'4. b'4.. c'8.
313 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M}
314 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
315 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
317 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
318 a'2*2 b'4*2 a'8*4 a'4*3/2 gis'4*3/2 a'4*3/2 a'4
321 Durations can also be produced through GUILE extension mechanism.
322 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
323 c'\duration #(ly:make-duration 2 1)
329 Dot placement for chords is not perfect. In some cases, dots overlap:
342 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in
343 effect extends the length of a note. Ties should not be confused with
344 slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate
345 musical phrasing. A tie is entered using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'.
347 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
348 e' ~ e' <<c' e' g'>> ~ <<c' e' g'>>
351 When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads whose pitches match
352 are connected. When no note heads match, no ties will be created.
354 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
355 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
356 exactly the same concept.
358 @lilypond[fragment, singleline,quote]
359 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
361 If you need to tie notes over bars, it may be easier to use automatic
362 note splitting (See @ref{Automatic note splitting}).
367 @internalsref{TieEvent}, @internalsref{NewTieEvent},
368 @internalsref{Tie}, @ref{Automatic note splitting}.
371 ties created for a chord, see @inputfileref{input/test,tie-sparse.ly}.
375 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a pair of chords is not
376 supported in a simple way. It can be achieved by moving the
377 tie-engraver into the @internalsref{Thread} context and turning on and
378 off ties per @internalsref{Thread}.
380 Switching staves when a tie is active, will produce a horizontal tie
383 Formatting of ties is a difficult subject. The results are often not
388 @node Automatic note splitting
389 @subsection Automatic note splitting
390 @c FIXME: This subsection does not belong in @ref{Note entry}.
392 Long notes can be converted automatically to tied notes. This is done
393 by replacing the @internalsref{Note_heads_engraver} by the
394 @internalsref{Completion_heads_engraver}.
397 \paper @{ \translator @{
399 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
400 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
407 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
414 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
416 \paper { \translator {
418 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
419 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
424 This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts
425 ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are
426 not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how much each measure
431 Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be
432 represented exactly; the engraver will not insert tuplets.
439 @cindex @code{\times}
441 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all durations
444 @cindex @code{\times}
446 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
449 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
450 In the sheet music, the fraction's denominator will be printed over
451 the notes, optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the
452 triplet in which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3
453 of their written length:
455 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
456 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
459 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
460 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
461 @code{\times} only once, saving lots of typing.
463 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
464 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
465 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
468 The format of the number is determined by the property
469 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
470 denominator, but if it is set to the Scheme function
471 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, @var{num}:@var{den} will be printed
475 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
476 @cindex tuplet formatting
480 @seeinternals{TupletBracket}, @seeinternals{TimeScaledMusic}.
484 Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically. In this case, outer
485 tuplet brackets should be moved manually.
487 @node Easy Notation note heads
488 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
490 @cindex easy notation
493 The `easyplay' note head includes a note name inside the head. It is
494 used in music aimed at beginners.
496 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,26pt]
498 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
499 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
503 The @code{EasyNotation} variable overrides a @internalsref{Score}
504 context. You probably will want to print it with magnification or a
505 large font size to make it more readable. To print with
506 magnification, you must create a DVI file (with @file{ly2dvi}) and
507 then enlarge it with something like @file{dvips -x 2000 file.dvi}.
508 See @file{man dvips} for details. To print with a larger font, see
515 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through
516 the letters. Printing the PostScript file obtained with ly2dvi does
517 produce the correct result.
520 @node Easier music entry
521 @section Easier music entry
526 * Skipping corrected music::
529 When entering music it is easy to introduce errors. This section deals
530 with tricks and features that help entering music, and find and
531 correct mistakes. It is also possible to use external programs, for
532 example GUI interfaces, or MIDI transcription programs, to enter or
533 edit music. Refer to the website for more information.
537 @node Relative octaves
538 @subsection Relative octaves
540 @cindex relative octave specification
542 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
543 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch
544 in the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. The relative
545 octave mode prevents these errors
547 @cindex @code{\relative}
549 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
552 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
553 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
554 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
555 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
556 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
559 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
560 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
561 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
562 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
564 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
565 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
571 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
572 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
577 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
578 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
579 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
582 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
589 @cindex @code{\notes}
591 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
592 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
593 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
596 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
597 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
598 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
599 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
603 @subsection Bar check
607 @cindex @code{barCheckSynchronize}
611 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
612 message is issued if it does not fall at a measure boundary. This can
613 help find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
614 @code{barCheckSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
615 relocated. A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, `@code{|}'.
618 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
623 @cindex skipTypesetting
625 Failed bar checks are caused by entering incorrect
626 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
627 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the
628 score by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To
629 speed up this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting}, described
632 @node Skipping corrected music
633 @subsection Skipping corrected music
635 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
636 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
637 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
638 This can be used to skip over the parts of a score that have already
639 been checked for errors.
641 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
643 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
645 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
653 @section Staff notation
655 This section describes with music notation that occurs on staff level,
656 such as keys, clefs and time signatures.
658 @cindex Staff notation
670 @subsection Staff symbol
672 @cindex adjusting staff symbol
673 @cindex StaffSymbol, using \property
674 @cindex staff lines, setting number of
676 Notes, dynamic signs, etc. are grouped
677 with a set of horizontal lines, into a staff (plural `staves'). In our
678 system, these lines are drawn using a separate graphical object called
681 This object is created whenever a @internalsref{Staff} context is
682 created. The appearance of the staff symbol cannot be changed by
683 using @code{\override} or @code{\set}. At the moment that
684 @code{\property Staff} is interpreted, a @internalsref{Staff} context
685 is made, and the @internalsref{StaffSymbol} is created before any
686 @code{\override} is effective. Properties can be changed in a
687 @code{\translator} definition, or by using @code{\outputproperty}.
691 If a staff is ended halfway a piece, the staff symbol may not end
692 exactly on the barline.
696 @subsection Key signature
701 The key signature indicates the scale in which a piece is played. It
702 is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of
707 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
710 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
713 @cindex @code{\minor}
714 @cindex @code{\major}
715 @cindex @code{\minor}
716 @cindex @code{\ionian}
717 @cindex @code{\locrian}
718 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
719 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
720 @cindex @code{\lydian}
721 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
722 @cindex @code{\dorian}
724 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
725 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
726 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
727 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
728 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
730 This command sets the context property
731 @internalsref{Staff}.@code{keySignature}. Non-standard key signatures
732 can be specified by setting this property directly.
736 The ordering of a key restoration (alterations that change back to
737 natural) is wrong when combined with a repeat barline.
741 @internalsref{KeyChangeEvent}, @internalsref{KeySignature}.
743 @cindex @code{keySignature}
750 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
755 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command:
756 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
757 \key f\major c''2 \clef alto g'2
760 Supported clef-names include
761 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
763 @item treble, violin, G, G2
772 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
787 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
788 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. @var{clefname} must
789 be enclosed in quotes when it contains underscores or digits. For
795 This command is equivalent to setting @code{clefGlyph},
796 @code{clefPosition} (which controls the Y position of the clef),
797 @code{centralCPosition} and @code{clefOctavation}. A clef is printed
798 when any of these properties are changed.
802 The object for this symbol is @internalsref{Clef}.
808 @subsection Time signature
809 @cindex Time signature
813 Time signature indicates the metrum of a piece: a regular pattern of
814 strong and weak beats. It is denoted by a fraction at the start of the
819 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
821 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
822 \time 2/4 c'2 \time 3/4 c'2.
825 The actual symbol that is printed can be customized with the
826 @code{style} property. Setting it to @code{#'()} uses fraction style
827 for 4/4 and 2/2 time. There are many more options for its layout.
828 See @inputfileref{input/test,time.ly} for more examples.
831 This command sets the property @code{timeSignatureFraction},
832 @code{beatLength} and @code{measureLength} in the @code{Timing}
833 context, which is normally aliased to @internalsref{Score}. The
834 property @code{timeSignatureFraction} determines where bar lines
835 should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated.
836 Changing the value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes the
837 symbol to be printed.
839 More options are available through the Scheme function
840 @code{set-time-signature}. In combination with the
841 @internalsref{Measure_grouping_engraver}, it will create
842 @internalsref{MeasureGrouping} signs. Such signs ease reading
843 rhythmically complex modern music. In the following example, the 9/8
844 measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to
845 @code{set-time-signature} as the third argument @code{(2 2 2 3)}.
848 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
849 #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3))
850 g8-[ g-] d-[ d-] g-[ g-] a8-[-( bes g-]-) |
851 #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2))
856 \translator { \StaffContext
857 \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
863 @internalsref{TimeSignature}, @internalsref{Timing_engraver}.
868 Automatic beaming does not use measure grouping specified with
869 @code{set-time-signature}.
876 @cindex partial measure
877 @cindex measure, partial
878 @cindex shorten measures
879 @cindex @code{\partial}
881 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
882 @code{\partial} command:
883 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
884 \partial 16*5 c'16 c4 f16 a'2. ~ a'8. a'16 | g'1
887 The syntax for this command is
889 \partial @var{duration}
891 This is internally translated into
893 \property Timing.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
896 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
897 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
899 @node Unmetered music
900 @subsection Unmetered music
902 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
903 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. By setting
904 @code{Score.timing} to false, this automatic timing can be switched
908 @subsection Bar lines
912 @cindex measure lines
916 Bar lines delimit measures, but are also used to indicate
917 repeats. Line breaks may only happen on barlines.
921 Bar lines are inserted automatically. Special types
922 of barlines can be forced with the @code{\bar} command:
923 @lilypond[relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
927 The following bar types are available
928 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
940 In scores with many staves, the barlines are automatically placed at
941 top level, and they are connected between different staves of a
942 @internalsref{StaffGroup}:
943 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
944 < \context StaffGroup <
945 \context Staff = up { e'4 d'
948 \context Staff = down { \clef bass c4 g e g } >
949 \context Staff = pedal { \clef bass c2 c2 } >
953 The command @code{\bar @var{bartype}} is a short cut for
954 doing @code{\property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}}
955 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
956 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
957 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
958 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
960 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
961 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
962 @code{whichBar} settings.
965 @cindex repeatCommands
966 @cindex defaultBarType
968 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
978 The bar line objects that are created at @internalsref{Staff} level
979 are called @internalsref{BarLine}, the bar lines that span staffs are
980 @internalsref{SpanBar}s.
987 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff
988 is to split chords using the separator @code{\\}. You can use it for
989 small, short-lived voices or for single chords:
991 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
992 \context Voice = VA \relative c'' {
993 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ b, \\ f' \\ d' >
997 The separator causes @internalsref{Voice} contexts to be instantiated,
998 bearing the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc. In each of these
999 contexts, vertical direction of slurs, stems, etc. are set
1002 This can also be done by instantiating @internalsref{Voice} contexts
1003 by hand, and using @code{\voiceOne}, up to @code{\voiceFour} to assign
1004 a stem directions and horizontal shift for each part.
1007 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
1009 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
1010 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
1011 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
1014 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
1015 when the object property @code{merge-differently-dotted} is set in
1016 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} object, they are:
1017 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
1018 \relative c' \context Voice < {
1020 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override
1021 #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
1023 } \\ { g8.-[ f16-] g8.-[ f16-] }
1027 Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting
1028 @code{merge-differently-headed}:
1029 @lilypond[fragment, relative=2,verbatim]
1032 \property Staff.NoteCollision
1033 \override #'merge-differently-headed = ##t
1034 c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >
1037 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
1039 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1040 \context Voice < c''4 \\ r4 >
1045 The objects responsible for resolving collisions are
1046 @internalsref{NoteCollision} and @internalsref{RestCollision}. See
1047 also example files @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-dots.ly},
1048 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-head-chords.ly},
1049 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-heads.ly},
1050 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-mesh.ly}, and
1051 @inputfileref{input/regression,collisions.ly}.
1056 Resolving collisions is a intricate subject, and only a few situations
1057 are handled. When LilyPond cannot cope, the @code{force-hshift}
1058 property of the @internalsref{NoteColumn} object and pitched rests can
1059 be used to override typesetting decisions.
1064 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
1065 the metrum. They are inserted automatically in most cases.
1067 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1068 \time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
1071 When these automatic decisions are not good enough, beaming can be
1072 entered explicitly. It is also possible to define beaming patterns
1073 that differ from the defaults.
1077 @internalsref{Beam}.
1080 @cindex Automatic beams
1081 @subsection Manual beams
1082 @cindex beams, manual
1086 In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming
1087 algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over rests or
1088 bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point manually
1089 using @code{[} and @code{]}.
1091 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1093 r4 r8-[ g' a r8-] r8 g-[ | a-] r8
1097 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1099 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1100 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1101 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount} can
1102 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If either property
1103 is set, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1105 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1108 f8-[ r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a-]
1111 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1114 The property @code{subdivideBeams} can be set in order to subdivide
1115 all 16th or shorter beams at beat positions. This accomplishes the
1116 same effect as twiddling with @code{stemLeftBeamCount} and
1117 @code{stemRightBeamCount}, but it take less typing.
1120 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,noindent]
1121 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1122 \property Voice.subdivideBeams = ##t
1123 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1124 c32-[ c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c-]
1125 \property Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
1126 c32-[ c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c-]
1128 @cindex subdivideBeams
1130 Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap is detected
1131 between the note heads. This behavior can be tuned through the object
1132 property @code{auto-knee-gap}.
1134 @cindex beams, kneed
1136 @cindex auto-knee-gap
1144 Automatically kneed beams cannot be used together with Hara Kiri
1149 * Setting automatic beam behavior ::
1153 @no de Beam typography
1154 @sub section Beam typography
1156 One of the strong points of LilyPond is how beams are formatted. Beams
1157 are quantized, meaning that the left and right endpoints beams start
1158 exactly on staff lines. Without quantization, small wedges of white
1159 space appear between the beam and staff line, and this looks untidy.
1161 Beams are also slope-damped: melodies that go up or down should also
1162 have beams that go up or down, but the slope of the beams should be
1163 less than the slope of the notes themselves.
1165 Some beams should be horizontal. These are so-called concave beams.
1167 [TODO: some pictures.]
1171 @node Setting automatic beam behavior
1172 @subsection Setting automatic beam behavior
1174 @cindex @code{autoBeamSettings}
1175 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
1176 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
1177 @cindex automatic beams, tuning
1178 @cindex tuning automatic beaming
1180 [TODO: use \applycontext]
1182 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
1183 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
1184 or at durations specified by the properties in
1185 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
1186 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
1188 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
1189 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
1191 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
1192 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
1194 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
1195 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
1196 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
1197 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
1198 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
1201 For example, if automatic beams should end on every quarter note, use
1204 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1205 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
1207 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1208 entered as @code{(ly:make-moment 1 4)}.
1210 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1211 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
1213 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1214 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1216 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1217 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1218 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1220 Rules can also be restricted to specific time signatures. A rule that
1221 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1222 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1223 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1225 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1226 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1229 If a rule should be to applied only to certain types of beams, use the
1230 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the
1231 shortest note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies
1232 to beams with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), use @code{(end 1 32 *
1235 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1236 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1238 @cindex automatic beam generation
1240 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeaming}
1243 For melodies that have lyrics, you may want to switch off
1244 automatic beaming. This is done by setting @code{Voice.autoBeaming} to
1250 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1251 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1252 durations, i.e., you will have to specify manual beams to get:
1254 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,relative,noverbatim,quote]
1255 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1256 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1257 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c-[ c c c-] c8 c c4
1259 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1260 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1261 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1264 @section Accidentals
1267 This section describes how to change the way that LilyPond automatically
1268 inserts accidentals before the running notes.
1272 * Using the predefined accidental variables::
1273 * Customized accidental rules::
1276 @node Using the predefined accidental variables
1277 @subsection Using the predefined accidental variables
1279 The constructs for describing the accidental typesetting rules are
1280 quite hairy, so non-experts should stick to the variables
1281 defined in @file{ly/property-init.ly}.
1282 @cindex @file{property-init.ly}
1284 The variables set properties in the ``Current'' context (see
1285 @ref{Context properties}). This means that the variables should
1286 normally be added right after the creation of the context in which the
1287 accidental typesetting described by the variable is to take
1288 effect. For example, if you want to use piano-accidentals in a piano
1289 staff then issue @code{\pianoAccidentals} first thing after the
1290 creation of the piano staff:
1293 \notes \relative c'' <
1294 \context Staff = sa @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1295 \context GrandStaff <
1297 \context Staff = sb @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1298 \context Staff = sc @{ es2 c @}
1300 \context Staff = sd @{ es2 c @}
1304 @lilypond[singleline]
1306 \notes \relative c'' <
1307 \context Staff = sa { cis4 d e2 }
1308 \context GrandStaff <
1310 \context Staff = sb { cis4 d e2 }
1311 \context Staff = sc { es2 c }
1313 \context Staff = sd { es2 c }
1318 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 4.0)
1326 @item \defaultAccidentals
1327 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1328 This is the default typesetting behaviour. It should correspond
1329 to 18th century common practice: Accidentals are
1330 remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and
1331 only on their own octave.
1333 @item \voiceAccidentals
1334 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1336 The normal behaviour is to
1337 remember the accidentals on Staff-level. This variable, however,
1338 typesets accidentals individually for each voice. Apart from that the
1339 rule is similar to @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1341 This leads to some weird and often unwanted results
1342 because accidentals from one voice do not get cancelled in other
1344 @lilypond[singleline,relative,fragment,verbatim,quote]
1352 Hence you should only use @code{\voiceAccidentals} if the voices
1353 are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff is to be
1354 used by one musician (e.g., a conductor) then you use
1355 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals} or @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1358 @item \modernAccidentals
1359 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1360 This rule corresponds to the common practice in the 20th
1362 The rule is more complex than @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1363 You get all the same accidentals, but temporary
1364 accidentals also get cancelled in other octaves. Further more,
1365 in the same octave, they also get cancelled in the following measure:
1366 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1368 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1371 @item \modernCautionaries
1372 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1373 This rule is similar to @code{\modernAccidentals}, but the
1374 ``extra'' accidentals (the ones not typeset by
1375 @code{\defaultAccidentals}) are typeset as cautionary accidentals
1376 (i.e. in reduced size):
1377 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1379 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1382 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1383 @item \modernVoiceAccidentals
1384 is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians
1385 playing one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are
1386 typeset for each voice, but they @emph{are} cancelled across voices in
1387 the same @internalsref{Staff}.
1389 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1390 @item \modernVoiceCautionaries
1391 is the same as @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}, but with the extra
1392 accidentals (the ones not typeset by @code{\voiceAccidentals}) typeset
1393 as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset by
1394 @code{\defaultAccidentals} @emph{are} typeset by this variable then
1395 some of them are typeset as cautionaries.
1397 @item \pianoAccidentals
1398 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1399 20th century practice for piano notation. Very similar to
1400 @code{\modernAccidentals} but accidentals also get cancelled
1401 across the staves in the same @internalsref{GrandStaff} or
1402 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.
1404 @item \pianoCautionaries
1405 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1406 As @code{\pianoAccidentals} but with the extra accidentals
1407 typeset as cautionaries.
1410 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1411 Same as @code{\defaultAccidentals} but with accidentals lasting
1412 ``forever'' and not only until the next measure:
1413 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1418 @item \forgetAccidentals
1419 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1420 This is sort of the opposite of @code{\noResetKey}: Accidentals
1421 are not remembered at all - and hence all accidentals are
1422 typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what was
1423 before in the music:
1424 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1426 \key d\major c4 c cis cis d d dis dis
1430 @node Customized accidental rules
1431 @subsection Customized accidental rules
1433 This section must be considered gurus-only, and hence it must be
1434 sufficient with a short description of the system and a reference to
1435 the internal documentation.
1437 The algorithm tries several different rules, and uses the rule
1438 that gives the highest number of accidentals. Each rule consists of
1441 In which context is the rule applied. For example, if
1442 @var{context} is @internalsref{Score} then all staves share
1443 accidentals, and if @var{context} is @internalsref{Staff} then all
1444 voices in the same staff share accidentals, but staves do not.
1446 Whether the accidental changes all octaves or only the current
1449 Over how many barlines the accidental lasts.
1450 If @var{lazyness} is @code{-1} then the accidental is forget
1451 immediately, and if @var{lazyness} is @code{#t} then the accidental
1454 [TODO: should use +infinity for this case?]
1460 @internalsref{Accidental_engraver}, @internalsref{Accidental},
1461 @internalsref{AccidentalPlacement}.
1466 Currently the simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in
1467 sequential mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are
1468 typeset as if the notes in the chord happened one at a time - in the
1469 order in which they appear in the input file.
1471 This is only a problem when there are simultaneous notes whose
1472 accidentals depend on each other. The problem only occurs when using
1473 non-default accidentals. In the default scheme, accidentals only
1474 depend on other accidentals with the same pitch on the same staff, so
1475 no conflicts possible.
1477 This example shows two examples of the same music giving different
1478 accidentals depending on the order in which the notes occur in the
1481 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1482 \property Staff.autoAccidentals = #'( Staff (any-octave . 0) )
1483 cis'4 <<c'' c'>> r2 | cis'4 <<c' c''>> r2
1484 | <<cis' c''>> r | <<c'' cis'>> r |
1487 This problem can be solved by manually inserting @code{!} and @code{?}
1488 for the problematic notes.
1490 @node Expressive marks
1491 @section Expressive marks
1500 * Analysis brackets::
1507 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1511 They are entered using parentheses:
1512 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1513 f'-( g'-)-( a'-) a'8-[ b'-(-] a'4 g'2 f'4-)
1514 <<c' e'>>2-( <<b d'>>2-)
1518 @c TODO: should explain that ^( and _( set directions
1519 @c should set attachments with ^ and _ ?
1521 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1522 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1523 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1524 object property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1525 @internalsref{Voice} context. Its value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1526 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1528 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1530 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1532 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1536 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1537 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1538 stems might look better:
1540 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1543 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1549 @seeinternals{Slur}, @internalsref{SlurEvent}.
1554 Producing nice slurs is a difficult problem, and LilyPond currently
1555 uses a simple, empiric method to produce slurs. In some cases, the
1556 results of this method are ugly.
1559 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1561 @node Phrasing slurs
1562 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1564 @cindex phrasing slurs
1565 @cindex phrasing marks
1567 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1568 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1571 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1572 \time 6/4 c'-\( d-( e-) f-( e-) d-\)
1575 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a
1576 normal slur. However, they are treated as different objects. A
1577 @code{\slurUp} will have no effect on a phrasing slur; instead, you
1578 should use @code{\phrasingSlurUp}, @code{\phrasingSlurDown}, and
1579 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}.
1581 The commands @code{\slurUp}, @code{\slurDown}, and @code{\slurBoth}
1582 will only affect normal slurs and not phrasing slurs.
1586 See also @internalsref{PhrasingSlur},
1587 @internalsref{PhrasingSlurEvent}.
1591 Phrasing slurs have the same limitations in their formatting as normal
1595 @subsection Breath marks
1597 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}.
1600 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1604 The glyph of the breath mark can be tweaked by overriding the
1605 @code{text} property of the @code{BreathingSign} grob with the name of
1606 any glyph of @ref{The Feta font}. For example,
1607 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative]
1609 \property Voice.BreathingSign \override #'text = #"scripts-rvarcomma"
1616 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
1617 @inputfileref{input/regression,breathing-sign.ly}.
1620 @node Metronome marks
1621 @subsection Metronome marks
1624 @cindex beats per minute
1625 @cindex metronome marking
1627 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1629 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1632 In the MIDI output, they are interpreted as a tempo change, and in the
1633 paper output, a metronome marking is printed
1634 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1635 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1641 @internalsref{TempoEvent}
1646 @subsection Text spanners
1647 @cindex Text spanners
1649 Some performance indications, e.g. @i{rallentando} or @i{accelerando},
1650 are written as texts, and extended over many measures with dotted
1651 lines. You can create such texts using text spanners: attach
1652 @code{\startTextSpan} and @code{\stopTextSpan} to the
1653 start and ending note of the spanner.
1655 The string to be printed, as well as the style, is set through object
1658 [TODO: 8va engraver.]
1660 An application is to fake octavation indications.
1662 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1663 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1664 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1665 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1666 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1667 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1668 a-\startTextSpan b c a-\stopTextSpan }
1674 @internalsref{TextSpanEvent},
1675 @internalsref{TextSpanner}, @inputfileref{input/regression,text-spanner.ly}.
1678 @node Analysis brackets
1679 @subsection Analysis brackets
1681 @cindex phrasing brackets
1682 @cindex musicological analysis
1683 @cindex note grouping bracket
1685 Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical
1686 pieces. LilyPond supports a simple form of nested horizontal brackets.
1687 To use this, add the @internalsref{Horizontal_bracket_engraver} to
1688 @internalsref{Staff} context. A bracket is started with
1689 @code{\startGroup} and closed with @code{\stopGroup}.
1691 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
1692 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
1693 c4-\startGroup-\startGroup
1696 c4-\stopGroup-\stopGroup
1698 \paper { \translator {
1699 \StaffContext \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
1705 @internalsref{HorizontalBracket}, @internalsref{NoteGroupingEvent},
1706 @inputfileref{input/regression,note-group-bracket.ly}.
1710 Bracket endings should be angled/slanted. (TODO)
1718 [TODO: ornaments vs. expressive marks]
1730 @subsection Articulations
1731 @cindex Articulations
1733 @cindex articulations
1737 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1738 different characteristics of the performance. They are added to a note
1739 by adding a dash and the the character signifying the
1740 articulation. They are demonstrated here.
1742 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-abbreviations.ly}
1744 The script is automatically placed, but if you need to force
1745 directions, you can use @code{_} to force them down, or @code{^} to
1747 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1752 Other symbols can be added using the syntax
1753 @var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}. Again, they can be forced up or down
1754 using @code{^} and @code{_}.
1758 @cindex staccatissimo
1767 @cindex organ pedal marks
1776 @cindex prallmordent
1780 @cindex thumb marking
1785 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-chart.ly}
1790 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand. For
1791 finger changes, use markup texts:
1793 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1794 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1795 c'^\markup { \fontsize #-3 \number "2-3" }
1798 @cindex finger change
1803 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
1804 << c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >> 4
1805 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #LEFT
1806 << c-1 es-3 g-5 >> 4
1807 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #RIGHT
1808 << c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >> 4-\arpeggio
1809 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #LEFT
1810 << c_1 e-2 g-3 b^5 >> 4
1815 @internalsref{ScriptEvent},
1816 @internalsref{Script}, @internalsref{FingerEvent} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
1820 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1821 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1825 @subsection Text scripts
1826 @cindex Text scripts
1828 It is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup text (see
1829 @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1830 @code{c^"text"}. By default, these indications do not influence the
1831 note spacing, but by using the command @code{\fatText}, the widths
1832 will be taken into account.
1834 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim] \relative c' {
1835 c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1838 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
1839 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
1840 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
1841 commands will not work with direct PostScript output.
1846 @internalsref{TextScriptEvent}, @internalsref{TextScript},
1852 @subsection Grace notes
1856 @cindex @code{\grace}
1860 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out
1862 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment] c4 \grace c16 c4 \grace {
1866 In normal notation, grace notes take up no logical
1867 time in a measure. Such an idea is practical for normal notation, but
1868 is not strict enough to put it into a program. The model that LilyPond
1869 uses for grace notes internally is that all timing is done in two
1872 Every point in musical time consists of two rational numbers: one
1873 denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing. The above
1874 example is shown here with timing tuples.
1877 \score { \notes \relative c''{
1878 c4^"(0,0)" \grace c16_" "_"(1/4,-1/16)" c4^"(1/4,0)" \grace {
1879 c16_"(2/4,-1/8)"-[ d16^"(2/4,-1/16)" ] } c4_" "_"(2/4,0)"
1881 \paper { linewidth = 8.\cm }
1886 The placement of these grace notes is synchronized between different
1889 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
1890 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \grace { c16-[ d e f-] } e4 }
1891 \context Staff = SB { c'4 \grace { g8 b } c4 } >
1895 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1896 stem. This can be controlled with object property @code{stroke-style} of
1897 @internalsref{Stem}. The change in formatting is accomplished by
1898 inserting @code{\startGraceMusic} before handling the grace notes, and
1899 @code{\stopGraceMusic} after finishing the grace notes.
1900 You can add to these definitions to globally change grace note
1901 formatting. The standard definitions are in @file{ly/grace-init.ly}.
1903 [TODO discuss Scheme functionality.]
1906 The @code{\override} is carefully matched with a @code{\revert}.
1911 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1912 \relative c'' \context Voice {
1913 \grace c8 c4 \grace { c16-[ c16-] } c4
1915 \property Voice.Stem \override #'stroke-style = #'()
1917 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'stroke-style
1924 If you want to end a note with a grace note, then the standard trick
1925 is to put the grace notes before a phantom ``space note'', e.g.
1926 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1929 { s2 \grace { c16-[ d-] } } >
1934 A @code{\grace} section has some default values, and LilyPond will
1935 use those default values unless you specify otherwise inside the
1936 @code{\grace} section. For example, if you specify \slurUp
1937 @emph{before} your @code{\grace} section, a slur which starts inside
1938 the @code{\grace} will not be forced up, even if the slur ends outside
1939 of the @code{\grace}. Note the difference between the first and
1940 second bars in this example:
1942 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1943 \relative c'' \context Voice {
1961 @internalsref{GraceMusic}.
1965 Grace notes cannot be used in the smallest size (@file{paper11.ly}).
1967 Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation,
1968 such as key signatures, barlines, etc. are also synchronized. Take
1969 care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without.
1971 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
1972 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
1973 \context Staff = SB { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >
1976 Grace sections should only be used within sequential music
1977 expressions. Nesting, juxtaposing, or ending sequential music with a
1978 grace section is not supported, and might produce crashes or other
1983 @subsection Glissando
1986 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1988 A glissando is a smooth change in pitch. It is denoted by a line or a
1989 wavy line between two notes.
1993 A glissando line can be requested by attaching a @code{\glissando} to
1996 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2002 @internalsref{Glissando}, @internalsref{GlissandoEvent}.
2007 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
2012 @subsection Dynamics
2025 @cindex @code{\ffff}
2035 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an variable after a
2036 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
2037 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
2038 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
2039 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
2041 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
2042 c'-\ppp c-\pp c -\p c-\mp c-\mf c-\f c-\ff c-\fff
2048 @cindex @code{\decr}
2049 @cindex @code{\rced}
2056 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
2057 @code{\endcr}, and decrescendi similarly with @code{\decr} and
2058 @code{\enddecr}. There are also shorthands for these marks. A
2059 crescendo can be started with @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be
2060 started with @code{\>}. Either one can be terminated with @code{\!}.
2061 Because these marks are bound to notes, if you must use spacer notes
2062 if marks during one note are needed.
2064 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,quote]
2065 c''-\< c''-\! d''-\decr e''-\rced
2066 < f''1 { s4 s4-\< s4-\! \> s4-\! } >
2068 This may give rise to very short hairpins. Use @code{minimum-length}
2069 in @internalsref{Voice}.@internalsref{HairPin} to lengthen these, e.g.
2072 \property Staff.Hairpin \override #'minimum-length = #5
2075 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
2076 is an example how to do it:
2078 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
2079 c4 \cresc c4 \endcresc c4
2086 You can also supply your own texts:
2087 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2089 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc. poco"
2090 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
2099 @internalsref{CrescendoEvent}, @internalsref{DecrescendoEvent},
2100 @internalsref{AbsoluteDynamicEvent}.
2102 Dynamics are objects of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
2103 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is
2104 handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2106 If you want to adjust padding or vertical direction of the dynamics,
2107 you must set properties for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner}
2108 object. Predefined variables to set the vertical direction are
2109 @code{\dynamicUp} and @code{\dynamicDown}.
2111 @cindex direction, of dynamics
2112 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
2113 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
2121 @cindex @code{\repeat}
2123 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
2124 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
2125 different variants of repeats.
2129 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
2130 output, and entering repetitive music.
2133 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
2134 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
2138 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
2139 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
2140 @inputfileref{input,star-spangled-banner.ly}.
2147 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
2153 * Repeats and MIDI::
2154 * Manual repeat commands::
2156 * Tremolo subdivisions::
2161 @subsection Repeat syntax
2164 Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist
2169 LilyPond has one syntactic construct for specifying different types of
2170 repeats. The syntax is
2173 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
2176 If you have alternative endings, you may add
2177 @cindex @code{\alternative}
2179 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
2181 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
2183 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression. If you do not
2184 give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then the first
2185 alternative is assumed to be played more than once.
2187 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
2188 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2190 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
2191 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
2194 With alternative endings:
2195 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2197 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
2198 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
2202 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2206 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
2207 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
2214 If you do a nested repeat like
2223 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the @code{\alternative}
2224 belongs. This ambiguity is resolved by always having the
2225 @code{\alternative} belong to the inner @code{\repeat}. This
2226 ambiguity may also be resolved by using braces.
2229 @node Repeats and MIDI
2230 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
2232 @cindex expanding repeats
2234 For instructions on how to unfold repeats for MIDI output, see the
2235 example file @inputfileref{input/test,unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
2240 Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative,
2241 so you have to reset timing information after a repeat, e.g. using a
2242 bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting @code{Score.measurePosition}
2243 or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties are also not repeated.
2246 @node Manual repeat commands
2247 @subsection Manual repeat commands
2249 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
2251 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
2252 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
2260 @item (volta . @var{text})
2261 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}. The text can be specified as
2262 a text string or as a markup text, see @ref{Text markup}. Do not
2263 forget to change the font, as the default number font does not contain
2264 alphabetic characters.
2266 Stop a running volta bracket
2269 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2271 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
2273 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
2280 @internalsref{VoltaBracket}, @internalsref{RepeatedMusic},
2281 @internalsref{VoltaRepeatedMusic},
2282 @internalsref{UnfoldedRepeatedMusic}
2283 @internalsref{FoldedRepeatedMusic}.
2285 @node Tremolo repeats
2286 @subsection Tremolo repeats
2287 @cindex tremolo beams
2289 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
2291 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2293 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
2294 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
2295 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
2296 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
2297 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
2304 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} objects. Single stem tremolos are
2305 @internalsref{StemTremolo}. @internalsref{TremoloEvent}.
2310 The single stem tremolo @emph{must} be entered without @code{@{} and
2313 @node Tremolo subdivisions
2314 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
2315 @cindex tremolo marks
2316 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
2318 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
2319 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
2320 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
2321 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
2322 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
2324 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
2325 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
2328 [TODO : stok is te kort bij 32en]
2332 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
2335 @node Measure repeats
2336 @subsection Measure repeats
2338 @cindex percent repeats
2339 @cindex measure repeats
2341 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
2342 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
2343 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
2344 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
2346 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2347 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
2348 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
2354 @internalsref{RepeatSlash}, @internalsref{PercentRepeat},
2355 @internalsref{PercentRepeatedMusic}, and
2356 @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
2361 You cannot nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
2362 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
2364 @node Rhythmic music
2365 @section Rhythmic music
2367 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
2368 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
2369 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
2371 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2372 \context RhythmicStaff {
2374 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
2379 * Percussion staves::
2380 * Percussion midi output::
2383 @node Percussion staves
2384 @subsection Percussion staves
2388 To typeset more than one piece of percussion to be played by the same
2389 musician one typically uses a multiline staff where each staff
2390 position refers to a specific piece of percussion.
2394 LilyPond is has a set of Scheme functions that can be used to typeset
2395 percussion staves. The system is based on the general MIDI
2396 drum-pitches. Include @file{ly/drumpitch-init.ly} to use drum
2397 pitches. This file defines the pitches from the Scheme variable
2398 @code{drum-pitch-names}, the definition of which can be read in
2399 @file{scm/drums.scm}. Each piece of percussion has a full name and an
2400 abbreviated name, and both the full name or the abbreviation may be
2401 used in input files.
2403 To typeset the music on a staff apply the function @code{drums->paper}
2404 to the percussion music. This function takes a list of percussion
2405 instrument names, notehead scripts and staff positions (that is:
2406 pitches relative to the C-clef) and transforms the input
2407 music by moving the pitch, changing the notehead and (optionally)
2410 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,quote]
2411 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2412 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2413 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2415 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2417 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2418 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2423 In the above example the music was transformed using the list @code{'drums}.
2424 Currently the following lists are defined in @file{scm/drums.scm}:
2427 To typeset a typical drum kit on a five-line staff.
2430 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2431 nam = \lyrics { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2432 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
2433 mus = \notes { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2434 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
2437 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2441 \context Lyrics \nam
2444 linewidth = 100.0\mm
2447 \remove Bar_engraver
2448 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2449 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
2453 \remove Stem_engraver
2459 Scheme supports six different toms. When there fewer toms, simply
2460 select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e., to get toms on
2461 the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml} and
2464 Because general MIDI does not contain rimshots the sidestick is used
2465 for this purpose instead.
2467 To typeset timbales on a two line staff.
2468 @lilypond[singleline]
2469 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2470 nam = \lyrics { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
2471 mus = \notes { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
2474 \apply #(drums->paper 'timbales) \context Staff <
2478 \context Lyrics \nam
2483 \remove Bar_engraver
2484 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2485 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2486 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2487 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2491 \remove Stem_engraver
2498 To typeset congas on a two line staff.
2499 @lilypond[singleline]
2500 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2501 nam = \lyrics { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
2502 mus = \notes { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
2505 \apply #(drums->paper 'congas) \context Staff <
2509 \context Lyrics \nam
2514 \remove Bar_engraver
2515 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2516 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2517 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2518 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2522 \remove Stem_engraver
2528 To typeset bongos on a two line staff.
2529 @lilypond[singleline]
2530 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2531 nam = \lyrics { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
2532 mus = \notes { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
2535 \apply #(drums->paper 'bongos) \context Staff <
2539 \context Lyrics \nam
2544 \remove Bar_engraver
2545 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2546 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2547 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2548 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2552 \remove Stem_engraver
2558 To typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves.
2559 @lilypond[singleline]
2560 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2561 nam = \lyrics { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
2562 mus = \notes { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
2565 \apply #(drums->paper 'percussion) \context Staff <
2569 \context Lyrics \nam
2574 \remove Bar_engraver
2575 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2576 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #1
2577 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-2.0 . 3.0)
2581 \remove Stem_engraver
2588 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
2589 list at the top of your file:
2591 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
2593 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2594 (snare default #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 1 0))
2595 (hihat cross #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2596 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2597 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2599 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2600 up = \notes { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
2601 down = \notes { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
2603 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2605 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2606 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2611 To use a modified existing list, one can prepend modifications to the
2615 #(define mydrums (append `(
2616 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2617 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2621 The file @file{drumpitch-init.ly} replaces the normal pitch names, so
2622 you have to reinclude @file{nederlands.ly} after the
2623 drum-pattern-definitions to enter normal notes.
2625 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2626 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2627 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2628 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2629 \include "nederlands.ly"
2630 bass = \notes \transpose c c,, { a4. e8 r e g e }
2633 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff = drums <
2635 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2636 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2638 \context Staff = bass { \clef "F_8" \bass }
2643 @node Percussion midi output
2644 @subsection Percussion midi output
2646 In order to produce correct midi output you need to produce two score
2647 blocks---one for the paper and one for the midi output. To use the
2648 percussion channel you set the property @code{instrument} to
2649 @code{'drums}. Because the drum-pitches themself are similar to the
2650 general midi pitches all you have to do is to insert the voices with
2651 none of the scheme functions to get the correct midi output:
2655 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2664 \property Staff.instrument = #'drums
2673 This scheme is to be considered a temporary implementation.
2677 @section Piano music
2679 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
2680 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
2681 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
2682 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
2683 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
2684 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
2688 * Automatic staff changes::
2689 * Manual staff switches::
2692 * Voice follower lines::
2697 There is no support for putting chords across staves. You can get
2698 this result by increasing the length of the stem in the lower stave so
2699 it reaches the stem in the upper stave, or vice versa. An example is
2700 included with the distribution as @inputfileref{input/test,stem-cross-staff.ly}.
2702 Dynamics are not centered, but kludges do exist. See
2703 @inputfileref{input/templates,piano-dynamics.ly}.
2705 @cindex cross staff stem
2706 @cindex stem, cross staff
2709 @c fixme: should have hyperlinks as well.
2715 @node Automatic staff changes
2716 @subsection Automatic staff changes
2717 @cindex Automatic staff changes
2719 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
2720 staff. The syntax for this is
2722 \autochange Staff \context Voice @{ @dots{}@var{music}@dots{} @}
2724 The autochanger switches on basis of pitch (central C is the turning
2725 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch rests in
2726 advance. Here is a practical example:
2728 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,quote]
2729 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
2730 \context Staff = "up" {
2731 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
2732 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
2733 \context Staff = "down" {
2738 Spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
2739 terminating too soon.
2744 The staff switches often do not end up in optimal places. For high
2745 quality output staff switches should be specified manually.
2749 @node Manual staff switches
2750 @subsection Manual staff switches
2752 @cindex manual staff switches
2753 @cindex staff switch, manual
2755 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
2757 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
2759 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
2760 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
2761 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
2769 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound are produced. Generally, a
2770 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
2774 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
2775 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
2776 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
2779 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
2780 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal types:
2781 Sustain, Sostenuto or UnaCorda. Refer to the generated documentation
2782 of @internalsref{SustainPedal} for more information.
2784 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
2785 @code{pedal-type} property of @internalsref{SustainPedal} objects:
2787 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2788 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'bracket
2789 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
2790 a'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
2791 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
2794 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
2795 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
2797 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2798 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'mixed
2799 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
2800 c'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
2801 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
2804 The default '*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
2805 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
2806 for a sostenuto pedal:
2808 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2809 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
2812 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
2813 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
2814 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (see the detailed documentation of
2815 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket}) can be modified. For example, the bracket
2816 may be extended to the end of the note head.
2818 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2819 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override
2820 #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
2821 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4
2822 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
2826 @subsection Arpeggio
2829 @cindex broken arpeggio
2830 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
2832 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
2833 @code{\arpeggio} to a chord.
2836 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2837 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
2840 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
2841 to the chords in both staves, and set
2842 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@code{connectArpeggios}.
2844 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2845 \context PianoStaff <
2846 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2847 \context Voice = one { <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio }
2848 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <<c,, e g>>-\arpeggio }
2852 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} objects. Cross staff
2853 arpeggios are @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@internalsref{Arpeggio}.
2855 The direction of the arpeggio is sometimes denoted by adding an
2856 arrowhead to the wiggly line. This can be typeset by setting
2857 @code{arpeggio-direction}.
2859 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2861 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #1
2862 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
2863 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
2864 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
2868 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
2869 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
2870 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
2871 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} objects to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
2872 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before.
2874 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2875 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override
2876 #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
2877 <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio
2883 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected
2884 arpeggios in one @internalsref{PianoStaff} at the same time.
2886 @node Voice follower lines
2887 @subsection Voice follower lines
2890 [TODO: invent better name]
2892 @cindex follow voice
2893 @cindex staff switching
2896 @cindex @code{followVoice}
2898 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
2899 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
2900 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
2902 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2903 \context PianoStaff <
2904 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2905 \context Staff \context Voice {
2907 \translator Staff=two
2910 \context Staff=two { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2914 The associated object is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2918 @section Vocal music
2920 For a discussion of how to put lyrics into a score, see section
2921 @code{Printing lyrics} in the tutorial.
2923 @cindex context variables
2924 @cindex setting context variables
2925 An interpretation context has variables that tune its behavior. These
2926 variables are also called @emph{properties}. The @code{autoBeaming}
2927 variable in a @code{Staff} controls whether 8th and shorter notes are
2928 beamed automatically. Setting the variable to @code{##f}, which is the
2929 boolean value @var{false}, turns it off.
2932 This will create an extender, which is a line
2933 that extends over the entire duration of the lyric. This line will
2934 run all the way to the start of the next lyric, so you may want to
2935 shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
2938 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
2940 To get them printed, you must do two
2941 things: indicate that lyrics are entered with @code{\lyrics}, and
2942 indicate that this type of music must be interpreted as texts (and not
2943 notes). This is done with @code{\context Lyrics}.
2945 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
2946 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword
2947 @code{\lyrics}. In this mode you can enter lyrics, with punctuation
2948 and accents without any hassle. Syllables are entered like notes, but
2949 with pitches replaced by text. For example,
2957 You can use ordinary hyphens at the end of a syllable, i.e.
2961 but then the hyphen will be attached to the end of the first syllable.
2963 If you want them centered between syllables you can use the special
2964 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. The
2965 hyphen will have variable length depending on the space between
2966 the syllables and it will be centered between the syllables.
2971 Normally the notes that you enter are transformed into note heads.
2972 Note heads alone make no sense. They need surrounding information: a
2973 key signature, a clef, staff lines, etc. They need @emph{context}.
2974 In LilyPond, these symbols are created by objects called
2975 `interpretation contexts'. Interpretation contexts exist for
2976 generating notation (`notation context') and for generating sound
2977 (`performance context'). These objects only exist while LilyPond is
2978 executing. For lyrics, the command
2982 must be used to interpret a set of syllables as lyrics.
2987 @cindex interpretation context
2988 @cindex notation context
2992 The melody and the lyrics can be combined with the @code{\addlyrics}:
2995 \notes \relative c' @dots{}
2996 \context Lyrics \lyrics @dots{}
2999 [TODO: Move lyrics section from tutorial to here?]
3001 See also the sections on @ref{Slurs} and @ref{Breath marks}.
3003 [TODO: Move slurs / breath marks section to here?]
3005 [TODO: Write subsection upon usage of ChoirStaff.]
3010 @section More stanzas
3015 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
3016 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
3017 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
3018 We show how you can do this by showing how you could print a frivolous
3019 fragment of a fictional Sesame Street duet.
3021 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3024 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
3026 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
3027 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
3028 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3029 Hi, my name is bert. }
3030 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
3031 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3032 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
3037 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the
3038 LyricsVoice to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
3039 In the following example, the Voice identity is @code{duet},
3041 \context Voice = duet @{
3046 identities of the LyricsVoices are @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
3048 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" @{
3049 Hi, my name is bert. @}
3050 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" @{
3051 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. @}
3053 The convention for naming @code{LyricsVoice} and @code{Voice} must
3054 also be used to get melismata on rests correct.
3057 We add the names of the singers. This can be done by setting
3058 @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the first system) and
3059 @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following systems. You must
3060 surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics} mode.
3063 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3065 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3071 For entering quotes in Lyrics mode, use the following
3073 "\"God\"" is "`King'"
3076 You can use empty syllables, e.g. @code{_4} or @code{" "4} to enter
3077 lyrics. This can confuse the LilyPond -- for example, this might put
3078 (empty) lyrics under rests. To remedy this, use @code{\skip}.
3086 Input for lyrics introduces a syntactical ambiguity:
3093 is interpreted as assigning a string identifier @code{\foo} such that
3094 it contains @code{"bar"}. However, it could also be interpreted as
3095 making or a music identifier @code{\foo} containing the syllable
3096 `bar'. The force the latter interpretation, use
3110 The term @emph{ambitus} denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in
3111 a part of music. It also may denote the pitch range that a musical
3112 instrument is capable of playing. Most musical instruments have their
3113 ambitus standardized (or at least there is agreement upon the minimal
3114 ambitus of a particular type of instrument), such that a composer or
3115 arranger of a piece of music can easily meet the ambitus constraints of
3116 the targeted instrument. However, the ambitus of the human voice
3117 depends on individual physiological state, including education and
3118 training of the voice. Therefore, a singer potentially has to check for
3119 each piece of music if the ambitus of that piece meets his individual
3120 capabilities. This is why the ambitus of a piece may be of particular
3121 value to vocal performers.
3123 The ambitus is typically notated on a per-voice basis at the very
3124 beginning of a piece, e.g. nearby the initial clef or time signature of
3125 each staff. The range is graphically specified by two noteheads, that
3126 represent the minimum and maximum pitch. Some publishers use a textual
3127 notation: they put the range in words in front of the corresponding
3128 staff. Lilypond currently only supports the graphical ambitus notation.
3130 To apply, add the @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the
3131 @internalsref{Voice} context, i.e.
3134 \paper @{ \translator @{
3136 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3142 @lilypond[singleline]
3143 upper = \notes \relative c {
3146 as'' c e2 bes f cis d4 e f2 g
3148 lower = \notes \relative c {
3151 e'4 b g a c es fis a cis b a g f e d2
3154 \context ChoirStaff {
3156 \context Staff = one { \upper }
3157 \context Staff = three { \lower }
3163 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3172 @internalsref{Ambitus}, @inputfileref{input/regression,ambitus.ly}.
3177 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
3178 instruments. It notates pitches not by using note heads, but by
3179 indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
3180 offers limited support for tablature.
3183 * Tablatures basic::
3184 * Non-guitar tablatures::
3187 @node Tablatures basic
3188 @subsection Tablatures basic
3189 @cindex Tablatures basic
3191 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
3192 followed by a number, e.g. @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
3193 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
3194 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
3195 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
3196 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts.
3198 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3199 \notes \context TabStaff {
3205 If you do not specify a string number then one is selected
3206 automatically: the first string that does not give a fret number less
3207 than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default value for
3208 @code{minimumFret} is 0.
3212 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3213 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3214 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3219 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3220 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3221 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3224 \context StaffGroup <
3225 \context Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
3226 \context TabStaff { \frag }
3233 @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}, and
3234 @internalsref{StringNumberEvent}.
3238 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
3239 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
3243 @node Non-guitar tablatures
3244 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
3245 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
3247 You can change the number of strings, by setting the number of lines
3248 in the @internalsref{TabStaff} (the @code{line-count} property of
3249 @internalsref{TabStaff} can only be changed using
3250 @code{\outputproperty}, for more information, see @ref{Tuning objects}.
3252 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
3253 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
3254 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to central C) of an
3255 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
3256 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
3257 by default middle C, in string order: thus the notes are e, a, d, and
3260 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3263 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface)
3265 \property TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
3268 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
3273 Finally, it is possible to change the Scheme function to format the
3274 tablature note text. The default is
3275 @var{fret-number-tablature-format}, which uses the fret number. For
3276 some instruments that do not use this notation, you can create a
3277 special tablature formatting function. This function takes three
3278 argument: the string number, the string tuning and the note pitch.
3282 As tablature is a recent feature, most of the guitar special effects
3283 such as bend are not yet supported.
3287 @section Chord namess
3290 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords.
3291 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3292 twoWays = \notes \transpose c c' {
3302 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
3303 \context Voice \twoWays > }
3306 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
3307 be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not interpret
3308 this as an inversion.
3310 Chords are represented as a set of pitches. They are internally
3311 stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can enter
3312 chords by name and print them as notes, enter them as notes and print
3313 them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by name, and
3318 * Printing chord names::
3323 @subsection Chords mode
3326 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
3327 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}.
3328 In chords mode, a chord is entered by the root, which is entered
3329 like a common pitch, for example,
3330 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote, relative=1]
3331 \chords { es4. d8 c2 }
3336 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon, and introducing a
3337 modifier, and optionally, a number, for example
3339 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote]
3340 \chords { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
3342 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
3343 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
3344 number, for example.
3345 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3346 \chords { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
3349 @cindex root of chord
3350 @cindex additions, in chords
3351 @cindex removals, in chords
3353 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
3354 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
3355 the colon, and are separated by dots. For example
3357 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3358 \chords { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
3360 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
3361 to the number, for example:
3362 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3363 \chords { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
3365 Removals are specified similarly, and are introduced by a caret. They
3366 must come after the additions.
3367 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3368 \chords { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
3371 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
3375 is the minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
3377 is the diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
3380 is the augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
3382 is the major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
3384 is the suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
3385 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
3388 Modifiers can be mixed with additions.
3389 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3390 \chords { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
3393 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
3400 Since the unaltered 11 does sound well when combined with the
3401 unaltered 3, the 11 is removed in this case, unless it is added
3402 explicitly). For example,
3403 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3404 \chords { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
3409 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
3410 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
3411 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord.
3412 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3413 \chords { c1 c/g c/f }
3416 If you do not want to remove the bass note from the chord, but rather
3417 add the note, then you can use @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
3419 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3420 \chords { c1 c/+g c/+f }
3423 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyrics}, @code{\notes} etc. Most
3424 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
3425 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and
3426 @code{\property} may be used to change various settings.
3432 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
3433 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
3436 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3437 \chords { c:5.5-.5+ }
3440 In chord mode, dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions
3441 and subtractions, so articulation scripts cannot be entered.
3444 @node Printing chord names
3445 @subsection Printing chord names
3447 @cindex printing chord names
3451 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
3452 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
3453 directly using simultaneous music.
3455 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3457 \chords {a1 b c} <<d f g>> <<e g b>>
3461 \context ChordNames \scheme
3462 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
3467 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
3468 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
3469 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
3470 the start of a new line.
3474 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
3478 \context ChordNames {
3479 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
3481 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
3483 \paper{linewidth= 9.\cm}
3487 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
3488 Klaus Ignatzek (See @ref{Literature}).
3490 [TODO: add description for banter other jazz.]
3492 The Ignatzek chord name formatting can be tuned in a number of ways
3493 through the following properties:
3495 @item chordNameExceptions
3496 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
3498 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly}.
3500 @item majorSevenSymbol
3501 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
3502 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup},
3503 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
3504 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly} for an example.
3506 @item chordNameSeparator
3507 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
3508 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
3510 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3511 \context ChordNames \chords {
3513 \property ChordNames.chordNameSeparator
3518 @item chordRootNamer
3519 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
3520 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
3521 function. An application of setting this function, is providing chord
3522 names with german notation for the root.
3524 @item chordNoteNamer
3525 The default is to print single notes (as for instance the bass note)
3526 using the chordRootNamer. However, by setting this function to a non-null
3527 value you can specify a different function. I.e. you could use letters
3528 in lower case for the base note.
3534 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly},
3535 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly},
3536 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-german.ly},
3537 @file{scm/chords-ignatzek.scm}, @file{scm/chord-entry.scm}
3542 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
3543 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
3544 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
3545 @code{<< .. >>} syntax.
3551 @section Writing parts
3553 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
3554 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
3555 problems in orchestral music.
3562 * Instrument names::
3564 * Multi measure rests::
3565 * Automatic part combining::
3566 * Hara kiri staves::
3567 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
3571 @node Rehearsal marks
3572 @subsection Rehearsal marks
3573 @cindex Rehearsal marks
3575 @cindex @code{\mark}
3577 To print a rehearsal mark, use the @code{\mark} command.
3578 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3588 The mark is incremented automatically if you use @code{\mark
3589 \default}. The value to use is stored in the property
3590 @code{rehearsalMark} is used and automatically incremented.
3592 The @code{\mark} command can also be used to put signs like coda,
3593 segno and fermatas on a barline. Use @code{\markup} to
3594 to access the appropriate symbol.
3596 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
3597 c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts-ufermata" }
3601 In this case, during line breaks,
3602 marks must also be printed at the end of the line, and not at the
3603 beginning. Use the following to force that behavior
3605 \property Score.RehearsalMark \override
3606 #'break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible
3609 See @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}. for putting boxes
3615 @cindex barlines, putting symbols on
3619 @internalsref{MarkEvent}, @internalsref{RehearsalMark},
3620 @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}.
3624 @subsection Bar numbers
3628 @cindex measure numbers
3629 @cindex currentBarNumber
3631 Bar numbers are printed by default at the start of the line. The
3632 number itself is stored in the
3633 @code{currentBarNumber} property,
3634 which is normally updated automatically for every measure.
3636 Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of at the
3637 beginning of each line. This is illustrated in the following example,
3638 whose source is available as
3639 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
3641 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
3643 The start of that numbering can also be reset, as demonstrated in
3644 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-5-reset.ly}.
3646 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-every-5-reset.ly}
3651 @internalsref{BarNumber}.
3652 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-5-reset.ly}.
3653 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
3657 Bar numbers can collide with the @internalsref{StaffGroup} bracket, if
3658 there is one at the top. To solve this, You have to twiddle with the
3659 @internalsref{padding} property of @internalsref{BarNumber} if your
3660 score starts with a @internalsref{StaffGroup}.
3662 @node Instrument names
3663 @subsection Instrument names
3665 In an orchestral score, instrument names are printed left of the
3668 This can be achieved by setting @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instrument}
3669 and @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instr}. This will print a string before
3670 the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
3671 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
3673 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3674 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
3677 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
3680 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3681 \notes \context Staff = treble {
3682 \property Staff.instrument = \markup {
3683 \column << "Clarinetti"
3685 \smaller \musicglyph #"accidentals--1"
3696 @internalsref{InstrumentName}
3700 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
3701 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
3702 the name to avoid a collision.
3705 @subsection Transpose
3707 @cindex transposition of pitches
3708 @cindex @code{\transpose}
3710 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
3713 \transpose @var{from} @var{to} @var{musicexpr}
3716 This means that @var{musicexpr} is transposed by the interval
3717 between @var{from} and @var{to}.
3719 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
3720 @code{\transpose c cis} or @code{\transpose c des} will transpose up
3721 half a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second
3722 version will print flats.
3724 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
3725 mus =\notes { \key d \major cis d fis g }
3726 \score { \notes \context Staff {
3729 \transpose c g' \mus
3730 \transpose c f' \mus
3736 @internalsref{TransposedMusic}, @internalsref{UntransposableMusic}.
3740 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
3741 you must put @code{\transpose} outside of @code{\relative}, since
3742 @code{\relative} will have no effect music that appears inside a
3748 @node Multi measure rests
3749 @subsection Multi measure rests
3750 @cindex Multi measure rests
3754 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
3755 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
3756 fill a score with rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure
3757 rest. This expansion is controlled by the property
3758 @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true, Lily will not expand
3759 empty measures, and the appropriate number is added automatically.
3761 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3762 \time 4/4 r1 | R1 | R1*2
3763 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R1*17 R1*4
3766 The @code{1} in @code{R1} is similar to the duration notation used for
3767 notes. Hence, for time signatures other than 4/4, you must enter other
3768 durations. This can be done with augmentation dots or fractions:
3770 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3771 \property Score.skipBars = ##t
3779 A @code{R} spanning a single measure is printed as a whole rest
3780 centered in the measure (or a breve when the measure lasts longer than
3781 two whole notes), regardless of the time signature.
3785 @cindex text on multi-measure rest
3786 @cindex script on multi-measure rest
3787 @cindex fermata on multi-measure rest
3789 Texts can be added to multi-measure rests by using the
3790 @var{note}-@code{markup} syntax. In this case, the number is
3791 replaced. If you need both texts and the number, you must add the
3792 number by hand. A variable (@code{\fermataMarkup}) is provided for
3796 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3798 R2._\markup { "Ad lib" }
3803 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
3807 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestEvent},
3808 @internalsref{MultiMeasureTextEvent},
3809 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestMusicGroup},
3810 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
3812 The graphical object @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestNumber} is for the
3813 default number, and @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestText} for user
3818 It is not possible to use fingerings (e.g. @code{R1-4}) to put numbers
3819 over multi-measure rests.
3821 @cindex condensing rests
3823 There is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into a single
3824 multimeasure rest. Multi measure rests do not take part in rest
3827 Be careful when entering multimeasure rests followed by whole notes,
3831 will enter two notes lasting four measures each. The result will look
3832 ok, but the bar numbering will be off.
3834 @node Automatic part combining
3835 @subsection Automatic part combining
3836 @cindex automatic part combining
3837 @cindex part combiner
3840 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
3841 staff. It is aimed at typesetting orchestral scores. When the two
3842 parts are identical for a period of time, only one is shown. In
3843 places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate
3844 voices, and stem directions are set automatically. Also, solo and
3845 @emph{a due} parts are identified and can be marked.
3849 The syntax for part combining is
3852 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
3854 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
3855 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
3856 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
3859 The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part
3860 combiner: putting parts on one staff, and setting stem directions and
3863 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
3865 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3866 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3869 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3875 The first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
3876 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
3877 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
3878 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
3879 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
3882 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
3883 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
3885 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
3887 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
3888 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3889 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3892 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3900 @internalsref{PartCombineMusic},
3901 @internalsref{Thread_devnull_engraver},
3902 @internalsref{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @internalsref{A2_engraver}.
3906 The syntax for naming contexts in inconsistent with the syntax for
3909 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
3910 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
3913 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
3915 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3916 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3919 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3925 The part combiner is slated to be rewritten [TODO: explain why] .
3927 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
3928 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
3929 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
3931 @node Hara kiri staves
3932 @subsection Hara kiri staves
3934 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
3935 This saves some space. This style is called `French Score'.
3939 This is supported through the hara kiri@footnote{Hara kiri is the
3940 vulgar name for Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of the Japanese
3941 Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when it finds
3942 itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will not
3943 disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
3946 For @internalsref{Lyrics}, @internalsref{LyricsVoice},
3947 @internalsref{ChordNames} and @internalsref{FiguredBass}, hara-kiri is
3948 switched on by default. For normal staffs, hara kiri is available as a
3949 specialized @internalsref{Staff} context, with the name variable
3950 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
3951 example disappears in the second line.
3955 \notes \relative c' <
3956 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
3957 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
3961 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
3967 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
3968 @subsection Sound output for transposing instruments
3970 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed
3971 and untransposed instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch
3972 offset (in semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done
3973 using the @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed
3976 @cindex @code{transposing}
3979 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
3980 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
3984 @node Ancient notation
3985 @section Ancient notation
3987 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
3988 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
3993 [TODO: write introduction on ancient notation]
3996 * Ancient note heads::
4005 @node Ancient note heads
4006 @subsection Ancient note heads
4008 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
4009 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
4010 NoteHead object to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
4011 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
4012 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
4014 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4015 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
4020 @subsection Ancient clefs
4022 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
4024 For modern clefs, see section @ref{Clef}. For the percussion clef, see
4025 section @ref{Percussion staves}. For the @code{TAB} clef, see section
4028 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
4029 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but
4030 differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such
4031 cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs.
4032 Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an
4033 arbitrary line, as described in section @ref{Clef}. The note printed
4034 to the right side of each clef in the example column denotes the
4035 @code{c'} with respect to that clef.
4037 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
4038 @c @item modern style G clef (glyph: @code{clefs-G})
4041 @c @code{treble}, @code{violin}, @code{G}, @code{G2}, @code{french}
4043 @c @lilypond[26pt]{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "G" c'}
4045 @c @item modern style F clef (glyph: @code{clefs-F})
4048 @c @code{varbaritone}, @code{bass}, @code{F}, @code{subbass}
4050 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "F" c'}
4052 @c @item modern style C clef (glyph: @code{clefs-C})
4055 @c @code{soprano}, @code{mezzosoprano}, @code{alto}, @code{C},
4056 @c @code{tenor}, @code{baritone}
4058 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "C" c'}
4060 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .3 .1
4064 @b{Description} @tab
4065 @b{Supported Clefs} @tab
4069 @code{clefs-neo_mensural_c} @tab
4070 modern style mensural C clef @tab
4071 @code{neo_mensural_c1}, @code{neo_mensural_c2},
4072 @code{neo_mensural_c3}, @code{neo_mensural_c4} @tab
4073 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4074 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4075 \clef "neo_mensural_c2" c
4079 @code{clefs-petrucci_c1} @tab
4080 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 1st staffline) @tab
4081 @code{petrucci_c1} @tab
4082 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4083 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4084 \clef "petrucci_c1" c
4088 @code{clefs-petrucci_c2} @tab
4089 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 2nd staffline) @tab
4090 @code{petrucci_c2} @tab
4091 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4092 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4093 \clef "petrucci_c2" c
4097 @code{clefs-petrucci_c3} @tab
4098 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 3rd staffline) @tab
4099 @code{petrucci_c3} @tab
4100 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4101 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4102 \clef "petrucci_c3" c
4106 @code{clefs-petrucci_c4} @tab
4107 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 4th staffline) @tab
4108 @code{petrucci_c4} @tab
4109 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4110 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4111 \clef "petrucci_c4" c
4115 @code{clefs-petrucci_c5} @tab
4116 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 5th staffline) @tab
4117 @code{petrucci_c5} @tab
4118 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4119 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4120 \clef "petrucci_c5" c
4124 @code{clefs-petrucci_f} @tab
4125 petrucci style mensural F clef @tab
4126 @code{petrucci_f} @tab
4127 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4128 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4129 \clef "petrucci_f" c
4133 @code{clefs-petrucci_g} @tab
4134 petrucci style mensural G clef @tab
4135 @code{petrucci_g} @tab
4136 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4137 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4138 \clef "petrucci_g" c
4142 @code{clefs-mensural_c'} @tab
4143 historic style mensural C clef @tab
4144 @code{mensural_c1}, @code{mensural_c2}, @code{mensural_c3},
4145 @code{mensural_c4} @tab
4146 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4147 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4148 \clef "mensural_c2" c
4152 @code{clefs-mensural_f} @tab
4153 historic style mensural F clef @tab
4154 @code{mensural_f} @tab
4155 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4156 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4157 \clef "mensural_f" c
4161 @code{clefs-mensural_g} @tab
4162 historic style mensural G clef @tab
4163 @code{mensural_g} @tab
4164 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4165 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4166 \clef "mensural_g" c
4170 @code{clefs-vaticana_do} @tab
4171 Editio Vaticana style do clef @tab
4172 @code{vaticana_do1}, @code{vaticana_do2}, @code{vaticana_do3} @tab
4173 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4175 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4176 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4177 \clef "vaticana_do2" c
4181 @code{clefs-vaticana_fa} @tab
4182 Editio Vaticana style fa clef @tab
4183 @code{vaticana_fa1}, @code{vaticana_fa2} @tab
4184 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4186 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4187 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4188 \clef "vaticana_fa2" c
4192 @code{clefs-medicaea_do} @tab
4193 Editio Medicaea style do clef @tab
4194 @code{medicaea_do1}, @code{medicaea_do2}, @code{medicaea_do3} @tab
4195 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4197 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4198 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4199 \clef "medicaea_do2" c
4203 @code{clefs-medicaea_fa} @tab
4204 Editio Medicaea style fa clef @tab
4205 @code{medicaea_fa1}, @code{medicaea_fa2} @tab
4206 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4208 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4209 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4210 \clef "medicaea_fa2" c
4214 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do} @tab
4215 historic style hufnagel do clef @tab
4216 @code{hufnagel_do1}, @code{hufnagel_do2}, @code{hufnagel_do3} @tab
4217 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4219 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4220 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4221 \clef "hufnagel_do2" c
4225 @code{clefs-hufnagel_fa} @tab
4226 historic style hufnagel fa clef @tab
4227 @code{hufnagel_fa1}, @code{hufnagel_fa2} @tab
4228 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4230 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4231 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4232 \clef "hufnagel_fa2" c
4236 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4237 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef @tab
4238 @code{hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4239 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4240 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4241 \clef "hufnagel_do_fa" c
4246 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
4247 @c @item modern style percussion clef (glyph: @code{clefs-percussion})
4250 @c @code{percussion}
4252 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "percussion" c'}
4254 @c @item modern style tab clef (glyph: @code{clefs-tab})
4259 @c @lilypond{\context Staff \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #6 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "tab" c'}
4261 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
4262 transcribed mensural music''.
4264 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
4265 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
4267 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
4268 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
4270 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
4272 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
4273 beams, depending on which staffline it is printed.
4277 @subsection Custodes
4282 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
4283 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
4284 of the first note(s) of the following line and thus helps the player
4285 or singer to manage line breaks during performance, thus enhancing
4286 readability of a score.
4288 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th
4289 century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms
4290 of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant
4291 like the @emph{editio vaticana}. There are different custos glyphs
4292 used in different flavours of notational style.
4294 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
4295 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block,
4296 as shown in the following example.
4302 \consists Custos_engraver
4303 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
4308 The result looks like this:
4314 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
4321 \consists Custos_engraver
4328 The custos glyph is selected by the @code{style} property. The styles
4329 supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
4330 @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the following fragment:
4340 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-vaticana-u0" }
4344 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-medicaea-u0" }
4348 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-hufnagel-u0" }
4352 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-mensural-u0" }
4361 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4365 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4366 \remove "Key_engraver"
4367 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4368 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4369 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4375 If the boolean property @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} is set to
4376 @code{#t} (which it is by default), lily typesets slightly different
4377 variants of the custos glyph, depending on whether the custos, is
4378 typeset on or between stafflines. The idea is that the glyph will
4379 optically fit well into the staff, with the appendage on the right of
4380 the custos always ending at the same vertical position between two
4381 stafflines regardless of the pitch. If you set
4382 @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} to @code{#f}, then lily takes regardless
4383 of the pitch always a glyph that is a compromise of the former two
4386 Just like stems can be attached to noteheads in two directions
4387 @emph{up} and @emph{down}, each custos glyph is available with its
4388 appendage pointing either up or down. If the pitch of a custos is
4389 above a selectable position, the appendage will point downwards; if
4390 the pitch is below this position, the appendage will point upwards.
4391 Use property @code{neutral-position} to select this position. By
4392 default, it is set to @code{0}, such that the neutral position is the
4393 center of the staff. Use property @code{neutral-direction} to control
4394 what happens if a custos is typeset on the neutral position itself.
4395 By default, this property is set to @code{-1}, such that the appendage
4396 will point downwards. If set to @code{1}, the appendage will point
4397 upwards. Other values such as @code{0} are reserved for future
4398 extensions and should not be used.
4403 @internalsref{Custos}, @inputfileref{input/test,custos-style.ly} and
4404 @inputfileref{input/regression,custos.ly}.
4408 @subsection Divisiones
4414 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; latin word for
4415 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
4416 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
4417 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior} and @emph{divisio maxima}
4418 can be characterized as short, medium and long pause, somewhat like
4419 @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not only marks the end of
4420 a chant, but is also frequently used within a single
4421 antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
4425 To use divisiones, include the file @code{gregorian-init.ly}. It
4426 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
4427 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
4428 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
4429 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
4430 Therefore, @code{gregorian-init.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
4434 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{divisiones.ly}
4438 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
4439 @inputfileref{input/test,divisiones.ly}, @ref{Breath marks}.
4442 @subsection Ligatures
4446 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
4447 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
4449 In musical terminology, a ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that
4450 represents at least two different notes. Ligatures originally appeared
4451 in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th
4452 century as an allusion to the accent symbols of greek lyric poetry to
4453 denote ascending or descending sequences of notes. Both, the shape and
4454 the exact meaning of ligatures changed tremendously during the following
4455 centuries: In early notation, ligatures where used for monophonic tunes
4456 (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way of performance in
4457 the sense of articulation. With upcoming multiphony, the need for a
4458 metric system arised, since multiple voices of a piece have to be
4459 synchronized some way. New notation systems were invented that used
4460 the manifold shapes of ligatures to now denote rhythmical patterns
4461 (e.g. black mensural notation, mannered notation, ars nova). With the
4462 invention of the metric system of the white mensural notation, the need
4463 for ligatures to denote such patterns disappeared. Nevertheless,
4464 ligatures were still in use in the mensural system for a couple of
4465 decades until they finally disappeared during the late 16th / early 17th
4466 century. Still, ligatures have survived in contemporary editions of
4467 Gregorian chant such as the Editio Vaticana from 1905/08.
4471 Syntactically, ligatures are simply enclosed by @code{\[} and
4472 @code{\]}. Some ligature styles (such as Editio Vaticana) may need
4473 additional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature.
4474 By default, the @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a
4475 square bracket above the ligature.
4477 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
4479 \notes \transpose c c' {
4487 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver has
4488 to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in the
4489 following subsections. Currently, Lilypond only supports white mensural
4490 ligatures with certain limitations. Support for Editio Vaticana will be
4491 added in the future.
4494 * White mensural ligatures::
4497 @node White mensural ligatures
4498 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
4500 @cindex Mensural ligatures
4501 @cindex White mensural ligatures
4503 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures. The
4504 implementation is still experimental; it currently may output strange
4505 warnings or even crash in some cases or produce weird results on more
4506 complex ligatures. To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the paper
4507 block the @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} has to be put into
4508 the @internalsref{Voice} context (and you probably want to remove the
4509 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}). There is no additional
4510 input language to describe the shape of a white mensural ligature.
4511 The shape is rather determined solely from the pitch and duration of
4512 the enclosed notes. While this approach may take a new user a while
4513 to get accustomed, it has the great advantage that the full musical
4514 information of the ligature is known internally. This is not only
4515 required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for automatic
4516 transcription of the ligatures.
4520 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
4522 \notes \transpose c c' {
4523 \property Score.timing = ##f
4524 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4525 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4526 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4528 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4530 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4535 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4536 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
4542 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
4543 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
4546 @lilypond[singleline]
4548 \notes \transpose c c' {
4549 \property Score.timing = ##f
4550 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4551 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4552 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4554 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4556 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4562 @subsection Figured bass
4564 @cindex Basso continuo
4566 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
4570 LilyPond has limited support for figured bass:
4572 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
4574 \context Voice \notes { \clef bass dis4 c d ais}
4575 \context FiguredBass
4577 < 6 >4 < 7 >8 < 6+ [_!] >
4583 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
4584 mode, introduced by @code{\figures}, where you can enter bass figures
4585 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass}
4586 that takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
4588 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
4589 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>}.
4594 \context FiguredBass
4598 Accidentals are added to the numbers if you alterate them by
4599 appending @code{-}, @code{!} and @code{+}.
4605 \context FiguredBass
4606 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> }
4609 Spaces or dashes may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
4610 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}.
4616 \context FiguredBass
4617 \figures { < [4 6] 8 [_ 12]> }
4620 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
4621 support, it works much simpler. The @code{\figures} mode simply
4622 stores the numbers , and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints
4623 them as entered. There is no conversion to pitches, and no
4624 realizations of the bass are played in the MIDI file.
4626 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
4627 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
4628 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
4632 @internalsref{BassFigureEvent} music, @internalsref{BassFigure} grob,
4633 @internalsref{FiguredBass} context
4637 Slash notation for alterations is not supported.
4640 @node Contemporary notation
4641 @section Contemporary notation
4643 In the 20th century, composers have greatly expanded the musical
4644 vocabulary. With this expansion, many innovations in musical notation
4645 have been tried. For a comprehensive overview, refer to @cite{Stone
4646 1980} (see @ref{Literature}). In general, the use of new, innovative
4647 notation makes a piece harder to understand and perform and its use
4648 should be avoided if possible. For this reason, support for
4649 contemporary notation in LilyPond is limited.
4658 @subsection Clusters
4662 In musical terminology, a @emph{cluster} denotes a range of
4663 simultaneously sounding pitches that may change over time. The set of
4664 available pitches to apply usually depends on the accoustic source.
4665 Thus, in piano music, a cluster typically consists of a continous range
4666 of the semitones as provided by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic
4667 scale. In choral music, each singer of the choir typically may sing an
4668 arbitrary pitch within the cluster's range that is not bound to any
4669 diatonic, chromatic or other scale. In electronic music, a cluster
4670 (theoretically) may even cover a continuous range of pitches, thus
4671 resulting in coloured noise, such as pink noise.
4673 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
4674 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
4675 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
4676 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by the
4677 shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical extent of
4678 the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster geometrically
4679 describes the development of a range of pitches (vertical extent) over
4680 time (horizontal extent). Still, the geometrical shape of a cluster
4681 covers the area in wich any single pitch contained in the cluster would
4682 be notated as an ordinary note. From this point of view, it is
4683 reasonable to specify a cluster as the envelope of a set of notes.
4687 A cluster is engraved as the envelope of a set of notes. The starting
4688 note is marked with @code{\startCluster}, and the ending note with
4689 @code{\stopCluster}, e.g.,
4697 The following example (from
4698 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly}) shows what the result
4701 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{cluster.ly}
4703 By default, @internalsref{Cluster_engraver} is in the
4704 @internalsref{Voice} context. This allows putting ordinary notes and
4705 clusters together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In such a
4706 case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between
4707 ordinary notes and clusters.
4711 @internalsref{Cluster}, @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly},
4712 @internalsref{Cluster_engraver}, @internalsref{ClusterEvent}.
4716 When a cluster is active, note heads must be switched off manually using
4719 Music expressions like @code{< @{ g8 e8 @} a4 >} are not printed
4720 accurately. Use @code{<<g a>>8 <<e a>>8} instead.
4725 @subsection Fermatas
4731 Contemporary music notation frequently uses special fermata symbols to
4732 indicate fermatas of differing lengths.
4736 The following are supported
4738 @lilypond[singleline]
4761 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
4762 "shortfermata" "fermata" "longfermata" "verylongfermata"
4767 See @ref{Articulations} for general instructions how to apply scripts
4768 such as fermatas to a @code{\notes@{@}} block.
4771 @section Tuning output
4773 As much formatting as possible is performed
4774 automatically. Nevertheless, there are situations where LilyPond needs
4775 some help, or where you want to override its decisions. In this
4776 section we discuss ways to do just that.
4778 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called objects (graphic
4779 objects). Each object carries with it a set of properties (object
4780 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem object has
4781 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
4783 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
4784 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
4785 temporarily change the definition of one type of object, thus
4786 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
4787 object, and set a object property in that object.
4797 @node Tuning objects
4798 @subsection Tuning objects
4800 @cindex object description
4802 The definition of an object is actually a list of default object
4803 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem object (available
4804 in @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), includes the following definitions for
4809 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
4810 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
4815 By adding variables on top of these existing definitions, the system
4816 defaults is overriden, and the appearance of a graphical objects is
4822 Changing a variable for only one object is commonly achieved with
4826 \once \property @var{context}.@var{grobname}
4827 \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4829 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
4830 and @var{grobname} is a string and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
4831 This command applies a setting only during one moment in the score.
4833 In the following example, only one @internalsref{Stem} object is
4834 changed from its original setting:
4836 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment, relative=1]
4838 \once \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4
4842 @cindex @code{\once}
4844 For changing more objects, the same command, without @code{\once} can
4847 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4849 This command adds @code{@var{symbol} = @var{value}} to the definition
4850 of @var{grobname} in the context @var{context}, and this definition
4851 stays in place until it is removed.
4853 An existing definition may be removed by the following command
4856 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
4859 All @code{\override} and @code{\revert} commands should be balanced.
4860 The @code{\set} shorthand, performs a revert followed by an override,
4861 and is often more convenient to use
4864 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4868 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
4869 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
4871 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
4875 The following example gives exactly the same result as the previous
4876 one (assuming the system default for stem thickness is 0.8).
4878 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
4879 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
4881 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
4885 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
4886 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
4887 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
4888 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and
4889 @code{\revert}, must be carefully balanced.
4891 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
4894 A clumsy but correct form:
4896 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
4899 Shorter version of the same:
4901 \override \set \set \revert
4904 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
4907 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
4910 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the object property is unset),
4913 \set \set \set \revert
4916 For the digirati, the object description is an Scheme association
4917 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as
4918 a stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are push and pop
4919 operations. The association list is stored in a normal context
4922 \property Voice.NoteHead = #'()
4924 will effectively erase @internalsref{NoteHead}s from the current
4925 @internalsref{Voice}. However, this mechanism is not guaranteed to
4926 work, and may cause crashes or other anomalous behavior.
4930 @internalsref{OverrideProperty}, @internalsref{RevertProperty},
4931 @internalsref{PropertySet}, @internalsref{backend properties},
4932 @internalsref{All Graphical Objects}.
4937 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
4938 The backend is not very strict in type-checking object properties. If you
4939 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
4944 @subsection Applyoutput
4946 The most versatile way of tuning object is @code{\applyoutput}. Its
4949 \applyoutput @var{proc}
4951 where @var{proc} is a Scheme function, taking four arguments.
4953 When interpreted, the function @var{proc} is called for every grob found
4954 in the context, with the following arguments:
4956 @item the grob itself
4957 @item the context where the grob was created
4958 @item the context where @code{\applyoutput} is processed.
4961 In addition, the cause of the grob, i.e. the music expression or object
4962 that was responsible for creating the object, is in the object property
4963 @code{cause}. For example, for a note head, this is a
4964 @internalsref{NoteHead} event, and for a @internalsref{Stem} object,
4965 this is a @internalsref{NoteHead} object.
4968 @node Outputproperty
4969 @subsection Outputproperty
4971 @cindex \outputproperty
4973 Another way of tuning objects is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
4974 feature. The syntax is as follows:
4976 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4978 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking an object argument, and
4979 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
4980 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
4981 objects that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
4982 true, the object property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
4984 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
4985 the appropriate context to apply this to.
4986 @inputfileref{input/regression,output-property.ly} shows an example of
4987 the use of @code{\outputproperty}.
4991 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
4992 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
4995 @node Font selection
4996 @subsection Font selection
4998 The most common thing to change about the appearance of fonts is
4999 their size. The font size of any context can be easily
5000 changed by setting the @code{fontSize} property for that context:
5002 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,verbatim,quote]
5003 c4 c4 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
5006 This command will set @code{font-relative-size} (see below),
5007 and does not change the size of variable symbols, such as
5008 beams or slurs. You can use this command to get smaller symbol for
5009 cue notes, but that involves some more subtleties. An elaborate
5010 example of those is in @inputfileref{input/test,cue-notes.ly}.
5012 @cindex magnification
5014 The size of the font may be scaled with the object property
5015 @code{font-magnification}. For example, @code{2.0} blows up all
5016 letters by a factor 2 in both directions.
5025 The font used for printing a object can be selected by setting
5026 @code{font-name}, e.g.
5028 \property Staff.TimeSignature
5029 \set #'font-name = #"cmr17"
5031 You may use any font which is available to @TeX{}, such as foreign
5032 fonts or fonts that do not belong to the Computer Modern font family.
5034 Font selection for the standard fonts, @TeX{}'s Computer Modern fonts,
5035 can also be adjusted with a more fine-grained mechanism. By setting
5036 the object properties described below, you can select a different font.
5037 All three mechanisms work for every object that supports
5038 @code{font-interface}.
5042 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
5043 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff
5044 braces), @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{ancient} (the
5045 ancient notation font) @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic signs) and
5049 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
5050 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
5051 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
5054 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
5055 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
5058 @item font-relative-size
5059 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
5060 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
5061 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
5063 There are small differences in design between fonts designed for
5064 different sizes, hence font-relative-size is the preferred way to
5068 @item font-design-size
5069 A number indicating the design size of the font.
5071 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
5072 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
5073 which enhances readability.
5076 For any of these properties, the value @code{*} (i.e. the symbol
5077 @code{*}, entered as @code{#'*}), acts as a wildcard. This can be used
5078 to override default setting, which are always present. For example:
5080 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
5081 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-family = #'typewriter
5082 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
5085 @cindex @code{font-style}
5091 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
5093 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
5094 family, and the style sheet cannot be modified easily.
5096 @cindex font selection
5097 @cindex font magnification
5098 @cindex @code{font-interface}
5102 @subsection Text markup
5107 @cindex typeset text
5109 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can access it
5110 with the keyword @code{\markup}. Within markup mode, you can enter texts
5111 similar to lyrics: simply enter them, surrounded by spaces.
5114 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
5115 c1^\markup { hello }
5116 c1_\markup { hi there }
5117 c1^\markup { hi \bold there, is \italic anyone home? }
5120 @cindex font switching
5122 The line of the example demonstrates font switching commands. The
5123 command only apply to the first following word; enclose a set of texts
5124 with braces to apply a command to more words.
5126 \markup @{ \bold @{ hi there @} @}
5128 For clarity, you can also do this for single arguments, e.g.
5130 \markup @{ is \italic @{ anyone @} home @}
5133 @cindex font size, texts
5135 The following size commands set abolute sizes
5151 You can also make letter larger or smaller relative to their neighbors,
5152 with the commands @code{\larger} and @code{\smaller}.
5156 @cindex font style, for texts
5162 The following font change commands are defined:
5165 This changes to the font used for dynamic signs. This font does not
5166 contain all characters of the alphabet, so when producing ``piu f'',
5167 the ``piu'' should be done in a different font.
5171 This changes to the font used for time signatures. It only contains
5172 numbers and a few punctuation marks.
5174 Changes @code{font-shape} to @code{italic}
5176 Changes @code{font-series} to @code{bold}
5179 @cindex raising text
5180 @cindex lowering text
5182 @cindex translating text
5187 Raising and lowering texts can be done with @code{\super} and
5190 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
5191 c1^\markup { E "=" mc \super "2" }
5196 If you want to give an explicit amount for lowering or raising, use
5197 @code{\raise}. This command takes a Scheme valued first argument, and
5198 a markup object as second argument
5200 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1,quote]
5201 c1^\markup { C \small \raise #1.0 \bold { "9/7+" }}
5203 The argument to @code{\raise} is the vertical displacement amount,
5204 measured in (global) staff spaces.
5206 Other commands taking single arguments include
5209 @item \bracket, \hbracket
5210 Bracket the argument markup with normal and horizontal brackets
5215 This is converted to a musical symbol, e.g. @code{\musicglyph
5216 #"accidentals-0"} will select the natural sign from the music font.
5217 See @ref{The Feta font} for a complete listing of the possible glyphs.
5219 This produces a single character, e.g. @code{\char #65} produces the
5222 @item \hspace #@var{amount}
5224 This produces a invisible object taking horizontal space.
5226 \markup @{ A \hspace #2.0 B @}
5228 will put extra space between A and B, on top of the space that is
5229 normally inserted before elements on a line.
5231 @item \fontsize #@var{size}
5233 This sets the relative font size, eg.
5235 A \fontsize #2 @{ B C @} D
5239 This will enlarge the B and the C by two steps.
5240 @item \translate #(cons @var{x} @var{y})
5242 This translates an object. Its first argument is a cons of numbers
5244 A \translate #(cons 2 -3) @{ B C @} D
5246 This moves `B C' 2 spaces to the right, and 3 down.
5248 @item \magnify #@var{mag}
5250 This sets the font magnification for the its argument. In the following
5251 example, the middle A will be 10% larger.
5253 A \magnify #1.1 @{ A @} A
5257 @item \override #(@var{key} . @var{value})
5259 This overrides a formatting property for its argument. The argument
5260 should be a key/value pair, e.g.
5262 m \override #'(font-family . math) m m
5266 In markup mode you can compose expressions, similar to mathematical
5267 expressions, XML documents and music expressions. The braces group
5268 notes into horizontal lines. Other types of lists also exist: you can
5269 stack expressions grouped with @code{<<}, and @code{>>} vertically with
5270 the command @code{\column}. Similarly, @code{\center} aligns texts by
5273 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
5274 c1^\markup { \column << a bbbb c >> }
5275 c1^\markup { \center << a bbbb c >> }
5276 c1^\markup { \line << a b c >> }
5279 The markup mechanism is very flexible and extensible. Refer to
5280 @file{scm/new-markup.scm} for more information on extending the markup
5287 @internalsref{Markup functions}, @file{scm/new-markup.scm}
5294 Text layout is ultimately done by @TeX{}, which does kerning of
5295 letters. LilyPond does not account for kerning, so texts will be
5296 spaced slightly too wide.
5298 Syntax errors for markup mode are confusing.
5302 @section Global layout
5304 The global layout determined by three factors: the page layout, the
5305 line breaks and the spacing. These all influence each other. The
5306 choice of spacing determines how densely each system of music is set,
5307 which influences where line breaks breaks are chosen, and thus
5308 ultimately how many pages a piece of music takes. In this section we
5309 will explain how the lilypond spacing engine works, and how you can
5312 Globally spoken, this procedure happens in three steps: first,
5313 flexible distances (``springs'') are chosen, based on durations. All
5314 possible line breaking combination are tried, and the one with the
5315 best results---a layout that has uniform density and requires as
5316 little stretching or cramping as possible---is chosen. When the score
5317 is processed by @TeX{}, page are filled with systems, and page breaks
5318 are chosen whenever the page gets full.
5323 * Vertical spacing::
5324 * Horizontal spacing::
5331 @node Vertical spacing
5332 @subsection Vertical spacing
5334 @cindex vertical spacing
5335 @cindex distance between staves
5336 @cindex staff distance
5337 @cindex between staves, distance
5338 @cindex staffs per page
5341 The height of each system is determined automatically by lilypond, to
5342 keep systems from bumping into each other, some minimum distances are
5343 set. By changing these, you can put staves closer together, and thus
5344 put more systems onto one page.
5346 Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make
5347 staves maintain a distance, their vertical size is padded. This is
5348 done with the property @code{minimumVerticalExtent}. It takes a pair
5349 of numbers, so if you want to make it smaller from its, then you could
5352 \property Staff.minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4 . 4)
5354 This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 4 staff-space on
5355 either side of the center staff line. The argument of
5356 @code{minimumVerticalExtent} is interpreted as an interval, where the
5357 center line is the 0, so the first number is generally negative. The
5358 staff can be made larger at the bottom by setting it to @code{(-6
5361 The piano staves are handled a little differently: to make cross-staff
5362 beaming work correctly, it necessary that the distance between staves
5363 is fixed. This is also done with a @internalsref{VerticalAlignment}
5364 object, created in @internalsref{PianoStaff}. In this object the
5365 distance between the staves is fixed by setting
5366 @code{forced-distance}. If you want to override this, use a
5367 @code{\translator} block as follows:
5371 VerticalAlignment \override #'forced-distance = #9
5374 This would bring the staves together at a distance of 9 staff spaces,
5375 measured from the center line of each staff.
5379 Vertical aligment of staves is handled by the
5380 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object.
5384 @node Horizontal spacing
5385 @subsection Horizontal Spacing
5387 The spacing engine translates differences in durations into
5388 stretchable distances (``springs'') of differing lengths. Longer
5389 durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest
5390 durations get a fixed amount of space (which is controlled by
5391 @code{shortest-duration-space} in the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}
5392 object). The longer the duration, the more space it gets: doubling a
5393 duration adds a fixed amount (this amount is controlled by
5394 @code{spacing-increment}) of space to the note.
5396 For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter and
5397 8th notes, the eighth note is followed by 1 note head width (NHW). The
5398 The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by 3 NHW, etc.
5399 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=1] c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8
5403 Normally, @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to 1.2, which is the
5404 width of a note head, and @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to
5405 2.0, meaning that the shortest note gets 2 NHW (2 times
5406 @code{shortest-duration-space}) of space. For normal notes, this space
5407 is always counted from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest
5408 notes are generally followed by one NHW of space.
5410 If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single
5411 32th note to a score that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the
5412 entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a 16th, but a 32nd,
5413 thus adding 2 noteheads of space to every note. To prevent this, the
5414 shortest duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score,
5415 but the most commonly found shortest note. Notes that are even
5416 shorter this are followed by a space that is proportonial to their
5417 duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add
5418 only a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by
5421 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=2]
5422 c2 c4. c8 c4. c16-[ c-] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
5425 The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every
5426 measure, the shortest duration is determined. The most common short
5427 duration, is taken as the basis for the spacing, with the stipulation
5428 that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than
5429 1/8th note. The shortest duration is printed when you run lilypond
5430 with @code{--verbose}. These durations may also be customized. If you
5431 set the @code{common-shortest-duration} in
5432 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, then this sets the base duration for
5433 spacing. The maximum duration for this base (normally 1/8th), is set
5434 through @code{base-shortest-duration}.
5436 @cindex @code{common-shortest-duration}
5437 @cindex @code{base-shortest-duration}
5438 @cindex @code{stem-spacing-correction}
5439 @cindex @code{spacing}
5441 In the introduction it was explained that stem directions influence
5442 spacing. This is controlled with @code{stem-spacing-correction}
5443 property in @internalsref{NoteSpacing}, which are generated for every
5444 @internalsref{Voice} context. The @code{StaffSpacing} object
5445 (generated at @internalsref{Staff} context) contains the same property
5446 for controlling the stem/barline spacing. In the following example
5447 shows these corrections, once with default settings, and once with
5448 exaggerated corrections.
5454 \property Staff.NoteSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
5456 \property Staff.StaffSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
5461 \paper { raggedright = ##t } }
5464 @cindex SpacingSpanner, overriding properties
5466 Properties of the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} must be overriden
5467 from the @code{\paper} block, since the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}
5468 is created before any @code{\property} statements are interpreted.
5470 \paper @{ \translator @{
5472 SpacingSpanner \override #'spacing-increment = #3.0
5479 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, @internalsref{NoteSpacing},
5480 @internalsref{StaffSpacing}, @internalsref{SeparationItem},
5481 @internalsref{SeparatingGroupSpanner}.
5485 Spacing is determined on a score wide basis. If you have a score that
5486 changes its character (measured in durations) halfway during the
5487 score, the part containing the longer durations will be spaced too
5490 There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing.
5495 @subsection Font size
5496 @cindex font size, setting
5497 @cindex staff size, setting
5498 @cindex @code{paper} file
5500 The Feta font provides musical symbols at seven different sizes.
5501 These fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 19 pt, 20 point, 23
5502 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the height of the
5503 five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
5505 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
5506 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 19, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any
5507 of these files, the variables @code{paperEleven},
5508 @code{paperThirteen}, @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperNineteen},
5509 @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and @code{paperTwentysix}
5510 are defined respectively. The default @code{\paper} block is also
5511 set. These files should be imported at toplevel, i.e.
5513 \include "paper26.ly"
5517 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
5518 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
5523 @subsection Line breaking
5526 @cindex breaking lines
5528 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
5529 that lines look neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines
5530 have similar density.
5532 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can
5533 do this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at
5534 this point. Line breaks can only occur at places where there are bar
5535 lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line,
5536 you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
5537 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a
5541 @cindex regular line breaks
5542 @cindex four bar music.
5544 If you want linebreaks at regular intervals, you can use the following:
5546 < \repeat unfold 7 @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
5547 @emph{the real music}
5550 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
5555 @internalsref{BreakEvent}
5559 @subsection Page layout
5562 @cindex breaking pages
5564 @cindex @code{indent}
5565 @cindex @code{linewidth}
5567 The most basic settings influencing the spacing are @code{indent} and
5568 @code{linewidth}. They are set in the @code{\paper} block. They
5569 control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of
5572 If @code{raggedright} is set to true in the @code{\paper}
5573 block, then the lines are justified at their natural length. This
5574 useful for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural
5578 @cindex vertical spacing
5580 The page layout process happens outside lilypond: variables
5581 controlling page layout are passed to the output, and are further
5582 interpreted by @code{ly2dvi}. @code{ly2dvi} responds to the following
5583 variables in the @code{\paper} block. The variable @code{textheight}
5584 sets the total height of the music on each page. The spacing between
5585 systems is controlled with @code{interscoreline}, its default is 16pt.
5586 The distance between the score lines will stretch in order to fill the
5587 full page @code{interscorelinefill} is set to a positive number. In
5588 that case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
5590 @cindex @code{textheight}
5591 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
5592 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
5594 If the variable @code{lastpagefill} is defined,
5595 @c fixme: this should only be done if lastpagefill == #t
5596 systems are evenly distributed vertically on the last page. This
5597 might produce ugly results in case there are not enough systems on the
5598 last page. The @command{lilypond-book} command ignores
5599 @code{lastpagefill}. See @ref{lilypond-book manual} for more
5602 @cindex @code{lastpagefill}
5604 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
5605 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into
5606 the @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages. This
5607 is done by setting the @code{between-systems-strings} on the
5608 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn} where the system is broken.
5609 An example is shown in @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}.
5613 @cindex @code{papersize}
5615 To change the paper size, you must first set the
5616 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
5617 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
5618 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
5619 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
5622 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
5623 \include "paper16.ly"
5626 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
5627 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
5628 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
5633 @ref{Invoking ly2dvi},
5634 @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly},
5635 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn}.
5639 There is no concept of page breaking, which makes it difficult to
5640 choose sensible page breaks in multi-page pieces.
5649 Entered music can also be converted to MIDI output. The performance
5650 is good enough for proof-hearing the music for errors.
5653 Ties, dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted. Dynamic marks,
5654 crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume levels. Dynamic
5655 marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI volume
5656 range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary linearly
5657 between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
5658 @code{dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction} in @internalsref{Voice} context.
5660 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
5661 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
5662 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. The equalizer
5663 can be controlled by setting @code{instrumentEqualizer}.
5665 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
5669 Many musically interesting effects, such as swing, articulation,
5670 slurring, etc., are translated to MIDI.
5675 * MIDI instrument names::
5680 @subsection MIDI block
5684 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
5685 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
5689 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
5690 @item context definitions
5693 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
5697 @cindex context definition
5699 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
5700 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
5701 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer-init.ly}.
5704 @node MIDI instrument names
5705 @subsection MIDI instrument names
5707 @cindex instrument names
5708 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
5709 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
5711 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
5712 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
5713 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
5714 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
5718 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
5719 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by