4 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
5 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
6 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
15 @c .{Reference Manual}
17 @node Reference Manual
18 @chapter Reference Manual
20 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
21 revision of this document was made for LilyPond 1.4.1. It supposes a
22 passing familiarity with how LilyPond input works. New users are
23 encouraged to study the tutorial first.
25 The reference manual is ordered according to different tasks.
26 More details on the property setting mechanisms and context handling is
27 provided in @ref{Tuning output} and @ref{Interpretation context}. The
28 syntactical details are described at the end of the manual.
50 * Skipping corrected music::
51 * Interpretation context::
61 The purpose of LilyPond is explained informally by the term `music
62 typesetter'. This is not a fully correct name: not only does the
63 program print musical symbols, it also makes aesthetic decisions.
64 Symbols and their placements are @emph{generated} from a high-level
65 musical description. In other words, LilyPond would be best described
66 by `music compiler' or `music to notation compiler'.
68 LilyPond is linked to GUILE, GNU's Scheme library for extension
69 programming. The Scheme library provides the glue that holds together
70 the low-level routines and separate modules which are written in C++.
72 When lilypond is run to typeset sheet music, the following happens:
74 @item GUILE Initialization: various scheme files are read
75 @item parsing: first standard @code{ly} initialization files are read, and
76 then the user @file{ly} file is read.
77 @item interpretation: the music in the file is processed ``in playing
78 order'', i.e. the order that you use to read sheet music, or the
79 order in which notes are played. The result of this step is a typesetting
83 The typesetting specification is solved: positions and formatting is
86 @item the visible results ("virtual ink") are written to the output file.
89 During these stages different types of data play the the main role:
90 during parsing, @strong{Music} objects are created. During the
91 interpretation, @strong{contexts} are constructed, and with these contexts
92 a network of @strong{graphical objects} (``grobs'') is created. These
93 grobs contain unknown variables, and the network forms a set of
94 equations. After solving the equations and filling in these variables,
95 the printed output (in the form of @strong{molecules}) is written to an
98 These threemanship of tasks (parsing, translating, typesetting) and
99 data-structures (music, context, graphical objects) permeates the entire
100 design of the program.
107 The most basic forms of music are notes. We discuss how you enter them
108 here. Notes on their own don't form valid input, but for the sake of
109 brevity we omit obligatory lint such as @code{\score} blocks and
110 @code{\paper} declarations.
121 * Defining pitch names::
122 * Easy Notation note heads ::
129 A note specification has the form
132 @var{pitch}[!][?][@var{duration}]
135 The alteration refers to what note is heard, not to whether an
136 accidental is printed. This is done depending on the key and context.
137 A reminder accidental
138 @cindex reminder accidental
140 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
141 cautionary accidental,
142 @cindex cautionary accidental
143 @cindex parenthesized accidental
144 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
145 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
147 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
148 cis' d' e' cis' c'? d' e' c'!
157 @cindex Note specification
159 @cindex entering notes
161 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
163 @cindex @code{\pitch}
165 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
168 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object, see @ref{Pitch data type}.
170 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
171 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
172 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
173 from @code{c} to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
174 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
176 @cindex note names, Dutch
178 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
179 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
180 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
181 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
182 both forms are accepted.
184 LilyPond has predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
185 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
186 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
187 the names they define are:
190 Note Names sharp flat
191 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
192 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
193 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
194 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
195 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
196 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
197 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
205 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
206 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
207 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
208 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
210 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
211 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
219 Rests are entered like notes, with note name `@code{r}'. The grob is
220 @code{Rest}. Whole bar rests centered in the bar are specified using
221 @code{R}, see @ref{Multi measure rests}.
236 Skips the amount of time specified by @var{duration}. If no other music
237 is played, a gap will be left for the skipped time without any notes
238 printed. The shorthand is only available in Note and Chord mode.
242 @subsection Durations
246 @cindex @code{\duration}
248 The syntax for a verbose duration specification is
250 \duration @var{scmduration}
252 Here, @var{scmduration} is a Scheme object of type @code{Duration}. See
253 @ref{Duration} for more information.
256 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
257 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
258 longer than a whole you must use identifiers.
262 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
264 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
270 \notes \relative c'' {
272 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
274 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
279 \remove "Clef_engraver"
280 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
281 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
282 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
288 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
289 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
290 NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
291 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
292 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
294 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
295 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
299 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
300 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
301 duration can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
305 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
311 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M} by
312 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
313 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
325 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. When used
326 with chords, it connects all the note heads whose pitches match.
327 Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'. If you try to tie
328 together chords which have no common pitches then no ties will be
331 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
332 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
335 If you dislike the amount of ties created for a chord, you set
336 @code{Voice.sparseTies} to true, resulting in a smaller number of
338 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
339 \property Voice.sparseTies = ##t
340 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
343 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
344 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
345 exactly the same concept.
347 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
348 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
351 The name of the tie grob is @code{Voice.Tie}.
355 At present, the tie is implemented as a separate thing, temporally
356 located in between the notes. There is also no way to convert
357 between tied notes, dotted notes and plain notes.
359 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a chord is not supported in a
360 simple way. It can be achieved by moving the tie-engraver into the Thread
361 context and turning on and off ties per Thread.
369 @cindex @code{\times}
371 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all duration
374 @cindex @code{\times}
376 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
379 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
380 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
381 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
382 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
383 their written length:
385 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
386 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
389 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
390 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
391 @code{\times} only once, thus saving typing work.
393 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
394 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
395 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
398 The format of the number is determined by the property
399 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
400 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
401 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
404 The typesetting of brackets and numbers is controlled by the properties
405 @code{tuplet-bracket-visibility} and @code{tuplet-number-visibility}.
407 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
408 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##t
409 \times 2/3{c'8 d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
410 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = #'if-no-beam
411 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
412 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##f
413 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
414 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = ##f
415 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
416 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = #'if-no-beam
417 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
420 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
421 @cindex tuplet formatting
423 Tuplet brackets are printed as @code{TupletBracket} grobs
425 @c . {Defining pitch names}
426 @node Defining pitch names
427 @subsection Defining pitch names
429 @cindex defining pitch names
430 @cindex pitch names, defining
432 Note names and chord modifiers can be customized for nationalities. The
433 syntax is as follows.
435 @cindex @code{\pitchnames}
436 @cindex @code{\chordmodifiers}
438 \pitchnames @var{scheme-alist}
439 \chordmodifiers @var{scheme-alist}
442 See @file{ly/nederlands.ly} and @file{ly/chord-modifiers.ly} for
443 specific examples on how to do this.
446 @node Easy Notation note heads
447 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
449 @cindex easy notation
452 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
453 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
454 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
456 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
457 \include "paper23.ly"
459 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
460 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
464 Note that @code{EasyNotation} overrides a @code{Score} context. You
465 probably will want to print it with magnification to make it more
466 readable, see @ref{Output scaling}.
472 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through the
473 letters. Printing the postscript file obtained either by using dvips or
474 the @code{-f ps} option of lilypond produces the correct result.
479 @section Staff notation
481 @cindex Staff notation
493 @subsection Key signature
498 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
501 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
504 @cindex @code{\minor}
505 @cindex @code{\major}
506 @cindex @code{\minor}
507 @cindex @code{\ionian}
508 @cindex @code{\locrian}
509 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
510 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
511 @cindex @code{\lydian}
512 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
513 @cindex @code{\dorian}
515 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
516 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
517 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
518 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
519 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
521 This command sets the context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
522 Non-standard key signatures can be specified by setting this property
523 directly, see the generated documentation for @rgrob{KeySignature}.
525 The printed signature is a @code{KeySignature} grob.
527 @cindex @code{keySignature}
534 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command.
542 \property Staff.clefGlyph = @var{glyph associated with clefname}
543 \property Staff.clefPosition = @var{clef Y-position for clefname}
544 \property Staff.centralCPosition = @var{position for central C}
545 \property Staff.clefOctavation = @var{extra transposition of clefname}
548 Any change in these properties creates a clef (a @code{Clef} grob).
550 Supported clef-names include
552 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
554 @item treble, violin, G, G2
563 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
578 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
579 transposed one octave down or up, respectively.
581 Supported associated glyphs (for @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) are:
590 @item clefs-vaticana_do
591 Editio Vaticana style do clef
592 @item clefs-vaticana_fa
593 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
594 @item clefs-medicaea_do
595 Editio Medicaea style do clef
596 @item clefs-medicaea_fa
597 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
598 @item clefs-mensural1_c
599 modern style mensural C clef
600 @item clefs-mensural2_c
601 historic style small mensural C clef
602 @item clefs-mensural3_c
603 historic style big mensural C clef
604 @item clefs-mensural1_f
605 historic style traditional mensural F clef
606 @item clefs-mensural2_f
607 historic style new mensural F clef
608 @item clefs-mensural_g
609 historic style mensural G clef
610 @item clefs-hufnagel_do
611 historic style hufnagel do clef
612 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa
613 historic style hufnagel fa clef
614 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa
615 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
616 @item clefs-percussion
617 modern style percussion clef
620 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
621 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
622 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
625 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
626 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
627 @cindex hufnagel clefs
630 @c . {Time signature}
632 @subsection Time signature
633 @cindex Time signature
637 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
640 \time @var{n}@code{/}@var{d}
642 Internally, this is a shortcut for doing
644 \property Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(@var{n} . @var{d})
645 \property Score.beatLength = #(make-moment 1 @var{d})
646 \property Score.measureLength = #(make-moment @var{n} @var{d})
649 These properties @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines
650 should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be
653 Changing the value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a
654 fraction to be printed. This grob is @code{TimeSignature}.
656 The actual symbol that's printed can be customized with the style
658 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, singleline]
660 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
662 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'()
664 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
668 There are many more options for the layout of this grob. They are
669 selected through the @code{style} grob property.
671 @c FIXME: this isn't documented except in example?
673 @file{input/test/time.ly} for examples.
680 @cindex partial measure
681 @cindex measure, partial
682 @cindex shorten measures
683 @cindex @code{\partial}
685 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
686 @code{\partial} command:
688 \partial @var{duration}
691 Internally, this is a shortcut for
694 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
698 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
699 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
702 @node Unmetered music
703 @subsection Unmetered music
705 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
706 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. The property
707 @code{Score.timing} can be used to switch off this automatic timing
709 @lilypond[fragment,relative,singleline,verbatim]
711 \property Score.timing = ##f
713 \property Score.timing = ##t
717 The identifiers @code{\cadenzaOn} and @code{\cadenzaOff} can be used as
724 @subsection Bar lines
728 @cindex measure lines
735 This is a shortcut for doing
737 \property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}
739 The following bar types are available
741 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
754 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
758 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
760 @cindex repeatCommands
761 @cindex defaultBarType
763 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
764 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
765 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
766 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
768 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
769 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
770 @code{whichBar} settings.
772 @code{BarLine} grobs are created by the @code{Bar_engraver}.
779 Polyphonic parts, i.e. parts with more than one voice on a staff can be
780 typeset with LilyPond. To use this, instantiate a separate Voice
781 context for each part, and assign a stem direction to each part.
782 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
784 < \context Voice = VA { \stemUp b'4 a' g' f' e' }
785 \context Voice = VB { \stemDown g'4 g' g' g' g' } >
788 When there are more than two voices on a staff, you must also indicate
789 which voice should moved horizontally in case of a collision. This can
790 be done with the identifiers @code{\shiftOff}, @code{\shiftOn},
791 @code{\shiftOnn}, etc. (which sets the grob property @code{horizontal-shift}
792 in @code{NoteColumn}).
794 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
795 \context Staff \notes\relative c''<
802 \context Voice=three {
803 \shiftOnn \stemUp ais
805 \context Voice=four {
806 \shiftOnnn \stemUp fis
811 The most convenient way is to use the identifiers @code{\voiceOne}
812 through @code{\voiceFour}, which also set slur and tie directions in the
815 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
817 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
818 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
819 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
822 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
823 if you set the grob property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
825 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
827 \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne
829 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
832 \context Voice = VB { \voiceTwo [g'8. f16] [g'8. f'16] }
836 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
838 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
840 \context Voice { \stemUp c''4 }
841 \context Voice =VB { r4 }
845 Note head collisions (horizontal shifting of note heads) are handled by
846 the @code{NoteCollision} grob. @code{RestCollision} handles vertical
849 @cindex @code{NoteCollision}
850 @cindex @code{RestCollision}
855 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
856 handles a few situations. When it can not cope, you are advised to use
857 @code{force-hshift} of the NoteColumn grob and @code{staff-position} of
858 the Rest grob to override typesetting decisions.
863 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
864 the metrum. LilyPond guesses where beams should be inserted. If you're
865 not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can specify which patterns
866 to beam automatically. In specific cases, you can also enter the beams
870 @c . {Automatic beams}
871 @subsection Automatic beams
873 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}
874 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
875 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
878 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
879 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
880 or at durations specified by the properties in
881 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
882 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
884 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
885 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
887 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
888 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
890 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
891 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
892 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
893 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
894 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
897 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
898 you can use the following:
900 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
901 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
903 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
904 entered as @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
906 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
907 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
909 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
910 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
912 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
913 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
914 3/8 has passed within the measure).
916 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
917 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
918 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
919 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
921 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
922 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
925 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
926 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
927 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
928 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
932 @c Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
934 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
935 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
937 @cindex automatic beam generation
939 @cindex @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming}
941 Automatic beaming is on by default, but can be switched off by setting
942 @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming} to true. You you may find this necessary for
943 a melody that goes with lyrics.
947 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
948 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
949 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
950 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,relative]
951 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
952 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
953 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
956 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
957 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
958 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
961 @cindex Automatic beams
962 @subsection Manual beams
963 @cindex beams, manual
967 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
968 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
969 rests or bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point
970 manually using a @code{[} before the first beamed note and a @code{]}
973 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
975 r4 [r8 g' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
978 Whenever an manual beam is busy, the automatic beamer will not produce
981 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
983 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
984 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
985 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount}. can
986 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
987 property, it's value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
989 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
992 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
995 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
997 The beam symbol (grob @code{Voice.Beam}, both for automatic and manual
998 beams) can be tweaked through grob-properties @code{height} and
999 @code{staff-position}. These specify vertical location and vertical
1000 span. Both are measured in half staff-spaces, @code{staff-position=0}
1001 corresponds to the middle staff line.
1004 Set @code{height} to zero, to get horizontal beams:
1006 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1007 \property Voice.Beam \set #'direction = #1
1008 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #0
1012 Here's how you'd specify a weird looking beam that instead of being
1013 horizontal, falls two staff spaces:
1015 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1016 \property Voice.Beam \set #'staff-position = #4
1017 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #-4
1020 @cindex @code{default-neutral-direction}
1022 @node Expressive marks
1023 @section Expressive marks
1038 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1039 They are entered using parentheses:
1041 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1042 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
1046 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1047 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1048 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1049 @code{Voice.Slur}'s grob-property @code{attachment}. It's value is a
1050 pair of symbols, specifying the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1052 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1053 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1054 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1056 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1060 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1061 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1062 stems might look better:
1064 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1065 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
1066 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1068 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1073 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
1074 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
1075 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this decision
1076 is in @code{Voice.Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}. It is loosely
1077 related to the enclosed area between the slur and the notes. Usually,
1078 the default setting works well, but in some cases you may prefer a
1079 curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved one. You can
1080 indicate this preference by increasing the @code{beautiful} value:
1082 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
1083 \property Voice.Beam \override #'direction = #-1
1084 \property Voice.Slur \override #'direction = #1
1085 c16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
1086 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1087 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
1088 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1093 @code{beautiful} is an arbitrary parameter in the slur formatter.
1094 Useful values can only be determined by trial and error.
1096 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1098 @node Phrasing slurs
1099 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1101 @cindex phrasing slurs
1102 @cindex phrasing marks
1104 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1105 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1108 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1109 \time 6/4 c' \( ( d ) e f ( e ) \) d
1112 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
1113 slur. The grob associated with it is @code{Voice.PhrasingSlur}.
1116 @subsection Breath marks
1118 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}. The result is a
1119 @code{Voice.BreathingSign} grob.
1121 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1130 Currently, only tick marks are supported, not comma style breath marks.
1137 @cindex beats per minute
1138 @cindex metronome marking
1140 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1142 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1144 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1147 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1152 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1153 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1154 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1159 @subsection Text spanners
1160 @cindex Text spanners
1162 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando or accelerando, often extend
1163 over many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1164 dotted line. You can create such texts using text spanners. The syntax
1167 \spanrequest \start "text"
1168 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1170 LilyPond will respond by creating a @code{Voice.TextSpanner} grob. The
1171 string to be printed, as well as the style is set through grob
1174 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1175 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1176 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1177 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1178 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1179 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1180 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1181 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1199 @subsection Articulations
1200 @cindex Articulations
1202 @cindex articulations
1206 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1207 different characteristics of the performance. These symbols can be
1208 added to a note with `@var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}'. Numerous symbols
1209 are defined in @file{script.ly}. Symbols can be forced to appear above
1210 or below the note by writing `@var{note}@code{^\}@var{name}' and
1211 `@var{note}@code{_\}@var{name}' respectively. Here is a chart showing
1212 symbols on notes, with the name of the corresponding symbol appearing
1218 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-family =#'typewriter
1219 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1220 \context Staff \notes {
1221 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''^\fermata
1222 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\upbow
1223 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1224 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1225 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1226 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1227 c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1229 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1230 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1231 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ upbow
1232 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1233 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1234 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1235 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1236 thumb__ segno__ coda
1240 linewidth = 5.875\in
1246 To save typing work, some shorthands are available:
1247 @lilypond[singleline]
1249 \notes \context Voice {
1250 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1251 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1257 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1264 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand.
1265 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1266 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1270 @cindex @code{\script}
1275 You can add scripts by editing @file{scm/script.scm}. This file contains
1276 a table, listing script definitions and aliases. The following syntax
1277 accesses a script definition from the table:
1283 Usually the @code{\script} keyword is not used directly. Various
1284 helpful identifier definitions appear in @file{script.ly}.
1286 Grobs for these objects are @code{Script} and @code{Fingering}.
1290 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1291 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1293 Unfortunately, there is no support for adding fingering instructions or
1294 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1295 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1300 @subsection Text scripts
1301 @cindex Text scripts
1303 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1304 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1307 By default, these indications do not influence the note spacing, but
1308 if @code{Voice.textNonEmpty} is set to true the widths will be taken
1309 into account. The identifier @code{\fatText} is defined in the standard
1311 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
1312 \relative c' { c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1315 Text scripts are created in form of @code{Voice.TextScript} grobs.
1317 @ref{Text markup} describes how to change the font or access
1318 special symbols in text scripts.
1322 @subsection Grace notes
1331 @cindex @code{\grace}
1334 @cindex @code{graceAlignPosition}
1336 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out, but do not take up any
1337 logical time in a measure. LilyPond has limited support for grace notes.
1338 The syntax is as follows.
1340 \grace @var{musicexpr}
1343 When grace music is interpreted, a score-within-a-score is set up:
1344 @var{musicexpr} has its own time bookkeeping, and you could (for
1345 example) have a separate time signature within the grace notes. While in
1346 this score-within-a-score, you can create notes, beams, slurs, etc.
1347 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1350 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1352 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1354 \property Voice.Stem \override #'flag-style = #'()
1356 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'flag-style
1362 A grace note expression has duration 0; the next real note is assumed to
1363 be the main note. If you want the note to appear after the main note,
1364 set @code{Voice.graceAlignPosition} to @code{1}.
1368 At present, slurs or ties from the grace notes to the following notes
1369 are not supported. Also, nesting @code{\grace} notes is not
1370 supported. The following may cause run-time errors:
1372 @code{\grace @{ \grace c32 c16 @} c4}
1374 Since the meaning of such a construct is unclear, we don't consider this
1375 a loss. Similarly, juxtaposing two @code{\grace} sections is
1376 syntactically valid, but makes no sense and may cause runtime errors.
1377 Ending a staff or score with grace notes may also generate a run-time
1378 error, since there will be no main note to attach the grace notes to.
1380 The present implementation of grace notes is not robust and generally
1381 kludgey. We expect it to change after LilyPond 1.4. Syntax changes might
1382 also be implemented.
1393 @subsection Glissando
1396 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1398 A glissando line (grob @code{Voice.Glissando}) can be requested by attaching a
1399 @code{\glissando} to a note:
1401 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1407 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1414 @subsection Dynamics
1427 @cindex @code{\ffff}
1437 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an identifier after a
1438 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
1439 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
1440 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
1441 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
1443 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
1444 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
1450 @cindex @code{\decr}
1451 @cindex @code{\rced}
1457 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
1458 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
1459 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
1460 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
1461 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
1462 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
1463 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
1464 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
1465 want several marks during one note, you have to use spacer notes.
1467 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1468 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
1469 < f''1 { s4 s4 \< \! s4 \> \! s4 } >
1472 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
1473 is an example how to do it:
1478 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1480 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc."
1481 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
1486 For everyday use, we recommend the identifiers @code{\cresc},
1487 @code{endcresc}, @code{\dim} and @code{\enddim}.
1491 Dynamics are grobs of @code{Voice.DynamicText} and
1492 @code{Voice.Hairpin}. They are put together on
1493 @code{Voice.DynamicLineSpanner} to align them vertically.
1502 @cindex @code{\repeat}
1504 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
1505 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
1506 different variants of repeats.
1510 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
1511 output, and entering repetitive music.
1514 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
1515 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
1518 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
1519 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
1520 @file{input/star-spangled-banner.ly}.
1526 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
1532 * Manual repeat commands::
1534 * Tremolo subdivisions::
1539 @subsection Repeat syntax
1541 The syntax for repeats is
1544 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
1547 If you have alternative endings, you may add
1548 @cindex @code{\alternative}
1550 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
1552 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
1554 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
1556 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
1557 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1559 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
1560 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
1563 With alternative endings:
1564 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1566 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1567 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1570 Folded repeats look like this:
1573 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1575 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1576 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1580 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
1581 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
1582 the specified number of repeats.
1584 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1588 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
1589 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
1596 Notice that timing information is not remembered at the start of an
1597 alternative, so you have to reset timing information after a repeat,
1598 e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting
1599 @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties
1600 are also not repeated.
1602 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}s, although this probably is only
1603 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
1605 Folded repeats offer little more over simultaneous music. However, it
1606 is to be expected that more functionality -- especially for the MIDI
1607 backend -- will be implemented at some point in the future.
1609 Volta repeats are printed over all staffs in a score. You must turn them
1610 off explicitly, for example by doing
1612 \property Staff.VoltaBracket = \turnOff
1614 in all but the top staff.
1616 @node Manual repeat commands
1617 @subsection Manual repeat commands
1619 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
1621 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
1622 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
1630 @item (volta . @var{text})
1631 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
1633 Stop a running volta bracket
1636 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
1638 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
1640 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
1645 Repeats brackets are @code{Staff.VoltaBracket} grobs.
1647 @node Tremolo repeats
1648 @subsection Tremolo repeats
1649 @cindex tremolo beams
1651 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
1653 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
1655 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
1656 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
1657 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
1658 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
1659 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
1664 Tremolo beams are @code{Voice.Beam} grobs. Single stem tremolos are
1665 @code{Voice.StemTremolo}.
1670 At present, the spacing between tremolo beams is not regular, since the
1671 spacing engine does not notice that not all notes are printed.
1673 @node Tremolo subdivisions
1674 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
1675 @cindex tremolo marks
1676 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
1678 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
1679 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
1680 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
1681 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
1682 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
1684 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
1685 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
1691 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
1694 @node Measure repeats
1695 @subsection Measure repeats
1697 @cindex percent repeats
1698 @cindex measure repeats
1700 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
1701 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
1702 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
1703 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
1705 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1706 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
1707 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
1711 The signs are represented by these grobs: @code{Voice.RepeatSlash} and
1712 @code{Voice.PercentRepeat} and @code{Voice.DoublePercentRepeat}.
1716 You can not nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
1717 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
1719 @node Rhythmic music
1720 @section Rhythmic music
1727 @node Rhythmic staffs
1728 @subsection Rhythmic staffs
1730 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
1731 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
1732 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
1734 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1735 \context RhythmicStaff {
1737 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1744 @section Piano music
1746 Piano music is an odd type of notation. Piano staffs are two normal
1747 staffs coupled with a brace. The staffs are largely independent, but
1748 sometimes voices can cross between the two staffs. The
1749 @code{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
1750 behavior. In this section we discuss the @code{PianoStaff} and some
1751 other pianistic peculiarities.
1754 * Automatic staff changes::
1755 * Manual staff switches::
1758 * Voice follower lines::
1762 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
1763 @node Automatic staff changes
1764 @subsection Automatic staff changes
1765 @cindex Automatic staff changes
1767 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
1768 staff. The syntax for this is
1770 \autochange @var{contexttype} @var{musicexp}
1772 This will switch the interpretation context of @var{musicexp} between a
1773 @var{contexttype} named @code{up} and @code{down}. Typically, you use
1774 @code{Staff} for @var{contexttype}. The autochanger switches on basis
1775 of pitch (central C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping
1776 over rests to switch rests in advance.
1778 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1779 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
1780 \context Staff = "up" {
1781 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
1782 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
1783 \context Staff = "down" {
1789 Note how spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
1790 terminating too soon.
1793 @node Manual staff switches
1794 @subsection Manual staff switches
1796 @cindex manual staff switches
1797 @cindex staff switch, manual
1799 Voices can be switched between staffs manually, using the following command:
1801 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
1803 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
1804 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
1805 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
1808 The formal definition of this construct is obtuse, but for the sake of
1809 completeness we give it here.
1810 @cindex @code{\translator}
1812 \translator @var{contexttype} = @var{name}
1814 Formally, this construct is a music expression indicating
1815 that the context which is a direct child of the context of type
1816 @var{contexttype} should be shifted to a context of type
1817 @var{contexttype} and the specified name.
1825 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
1826 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
1827 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
1829 These identifiers are shorthands for spanner commands of the types
1830 @code{Sustain}, @code{UnaCorda} and @code{Sostenuto}:
1832 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1833 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4
1834 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
1837 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
1838 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal
1839 types. Refer to the generated documentation of @rgrob{PianoPedal} for
1845 Currently, brackets are not supported, only text markings (i.e. `*Ped'
1851 @subsection Arpeggio
1854 @cindex broken arpeggio
1855 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
1857 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
1858 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
1861 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1862 \context Voice <c\arpeggio e g c>
1865 When an arpeggio crosses staffs in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
1866 to the chords in both staffs, and set
1867 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
1869 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1870 \context PianoStaff <
1871 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
1872 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
1873 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
1877 This command creates @code{Voice.Arpeggio} grobs. Cross staff arpeggios
1878 are @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio}.
1882 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios
1887 @node Voice follower lines
1888 @subsection Voice follower lines
1890 @cindex follow voice
1891 @cindex staff switching
1894 @cindex @code{followVoice}
1896 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
1897 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
1898 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
1900 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1901 \context PianoStaff <
1902 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
1903 \context Staff \context Voice {
1905 \translator Staff=two
1908 \context Staff=two {\clef bass \skip 1*2 }
1912 The associated grob is @code{Voice.VoiceFollower}.
1922 * Automatic syllable durations::
1928 @subsection Lyrics mode
1931 To print lyrics, you must first make a music expression from the lyric
1932 text. That music expression can be printed by selecting an appropriate
1936 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
1938 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
1939 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
1940 The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
1941 punctuation and accents without any hassle.
1943 Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text. For
1944 example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that
1945 the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
1948 Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes:
1949 @code{"He could"4 not4} or by using an underscore without quotes:
1950 @code{He_could4 not4}. All unquoted underscores are converted to
1953 The precise definition of this mode can be found in @ref{Lyrics mode
1956 @c . {Printing lyrics}
1957 @node Printing lyrics
1958 @subsection Printing lyrics
1961 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the @code{Lyrics} context.
1963 @c Maybe more pedagogical to avoid \addlyrics in this first example? /MB
1965 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1966 \addlyrics \notes \relative c' {
1968 \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t
1969 d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
1970 b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 }
1971 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1973 share the soft -- ware; }
1977 Notes and syllable durations are matched automatically. This is
1978 accomplished using @code{\addlyrics}, which is documented in
1979 @ref{Automatic syllable durations}. Setting @code{automaticMelismata} in
1980 the melody staff will cause slurs to be interpreted as melismata.
1982 The Lyric syllables are @code{LyricsVoice.LyricSyllable} grobs.
1985 @cindex lyric extender
1988 As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will
1989 create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of the
1990 lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric,
1991 so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
1992 The grob for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricExtender}.
1997 If you want to have hyphens centered between syllables (rather than
1998 attached to the end of the first syllable) you can use the special
1999 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. This
2000 will result in a hyphen whose length varies depending on the space
2001 between syllables. It will be centered between the syllables. The grob
2002 for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricHyphen}.
2004 @cindex Lyric hyphen
2006 @node Automatic syllable durations
2007 @subsection Automatic syllable durations
2008 @cindex Automatic syllable durations
2010 @cindex automatic lyric durations
2011 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
2013 If you have lyrics that are set to a melody, you can copy the rhythm
2014 of that melody into the lyrics using @code{\addlyrics}. The syntax for
2017 \addlyrics @var{musicexpr1 musicexpr2}
2020 Both @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} are interpreted, but every
2021 music event (``every syllable'') in @var{musicexpr2} is interpreted only
2022 when there are events in @var{musicexpr1}.
2024 @cindex @code{automaticMelismata}
2026 If the property @code{automaticMelismata} is set in the
2027 context of @var{musicexpr1}, no lyrics will be put on slurred or tied
2030 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2033 \property Voice.automaticMelismata = ##t
2034 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2036 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2040 If you want the lyric lines to be above the melody staff, or in some
2041 other, more complex configuration, then build that configuration first
2042 using simultaneous music, and use @code{\addlyrics} after that.
2044 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
2046 \context Lyrics = LA { s1 }
2047 \context Staff = SA { s1 }
2049 \context Staff = SA \relative c' { c4 e g g }
2050 \context Lyrics = LA \lyrics { geen ge -- don -- der } >
2053 For @code{\addlyrics} you should use a single rhythm melody, and single
2054 rhythm lyrics (a constant duration is the obvious choice). If you do
2055 not, you can get undesired effects when using multiple stanzas:
2057 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2060 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2062 \context Lyrics \lyrics
2067 It is valid (but probably not very useful) to use notes instead of
2068 lyrics for @var{musicexpr2}.
2071 @subsection More stanzas
2075 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
2076 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
2077 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
2079 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice
2080 to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
2081 In the following example, the Voice
2082 identity is @code{duet}, and the identities of the LyricsVoices are
2083 @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
2086 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2089 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
2091 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
2092 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
2093 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
2094 Hi, my name is bert. }
2095 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
2096 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
2097 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
2102 You can add stanza numbers by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the
2103 first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following
2104 systems. Notice how you must surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics}
2110 @cindex stanza numbering
2118 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords. Chords are
2119 characterized by a set of pitches. They are
2120 internally stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can
2121 enter chords by name and print them as note head, enter them as notes
2122 and print them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by
2123 name, and print them as name.
2126 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2127 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
2137 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
2138 \context Voice \twoWays > }
2141 Note that this example also shows that the chord printing routines do
2142 not attempt to be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not
2143 interpret this as an inversion.
2147 * Printing named chords::
2152 @subsection Chords mode
2155 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
2156 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
2157 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
2158 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc).
2160 Dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions and subtractions,
2161 so articulation scripts can not be entered in Chord mode.
2163 The syntax for named chords is as follows:
2165 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
2168 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration} is
2169 the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
2170 modifiers. One type is formed by @emph{chord additions}. Additions are
2171 obtained by listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written
2172 by its number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising
2173 or lowering by half a step. Chord additions have two effects: they adds
2174 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
2175 chord, and they may lower or raise the specified interval.
2177 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
2178 using @code{\transpose}.
2180 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2184 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5-
2194 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
2195 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
2196 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
2197 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
2198 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
2199 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
2200 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
2202 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2205 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
2211 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
2212 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
2215 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2224 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
2225 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
2226 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the note
2227 is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
2229 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2239 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
2240 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
2241 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
2242 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
2244 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2255 Implementation details are quite gory. For example @code{c:4} not only
2256 adds a fourth, but also removes the third.
2259 @c . {Printing named chords}
2260 @node Printing named chords
2261 @subsection Printing named chords
2263 @cindex printing chord names
2266 @cindex @code{ChordNames}
2269 For displaying printed chord names, use the @code{ChordNames} context.
2270 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
2271 directly using simultaneous music.
2273 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2275 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
2279 \context ChordNames \scheme
2280 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2285 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
2286 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
2287 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of a
2292 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
2296 \context ChordNames {
2297 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
2299 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2303 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
2304 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
2305 an added bass note, which may result in strange chord names when chords
2306 are entered as a list of pitches:
2308 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2317 \context ChordNames \scheme
2318 \context Staff \scheme
2324 By default, a chord name system proposed by Harald Banter (See
2325 @ref{Literature}) is used. The system is very regular and predictable.
2326 Typical American style chord names may be selected by setting the
2327 @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName} grob to
2328 @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz chordnames.
2330 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
2331 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
2332 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}. Here's an example showing the differences in
2336 @c maybe just junk verbatim option?
2337 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2347 \context ChordNames = banter \scheme
2348 \context ChordNames = american {
2349 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2350 #'style = #'american \scheme }
2351 \context ChordNames = jazz {
2352 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2353 #'style = #'jazz \scheme }
2354 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2361 @section Writing parts
2363 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
2364 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
2365 problems in orchestral music.
2372 * Instrument names::
2374 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
2375 * Multi measure rests::
2376 * Automatic part combining::
2377 * Hara kiri staffs::
2380 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
2381 @node Rehearsal marks
2382 @subsection Rehearsal marks
2383 @cindex Rehearsal marks
2385 @cindex @code{\mark}
2386 @cindex @code{Mark_engraver}
2389 \mark @var{unsigned}
2394 This command prints a rehearsal mark above the system. You can provide
2395 a number, a string or a markup text as argument. If you use
2396 @code{\default}, the value of property @code{rehearsalMark} is used and
2397 automatically incremented.
2399 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2405 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-segno")
2410 The grob is @code{Score.RehearsalMark}. See
2411 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} if you need boxes around the marks.
2414 @subsection Bar numbers
2416 Bar numbers (grob: @code{BarNumber}) are printed at the start of the
2417 line. See @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} for boxed bar numbers.
2421 It is not possible to have bar numbers printed at regular intervals
2424 @node Instrument names
2425 @subsection Instrument names
2427 You can specify an instrument name for a staff by setting
2428 @code{Staff.instrument} and @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string
2429 before the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
2430 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
2432 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2433 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
2436 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
2440 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2442 '((font-relative-size . -2 ) (music "accidentals--1")))
2445 \property Staff.instrument = #`((kern . 0.5) (lines
2446 "2 Clarinetti" (columns " (B" ,text-flat ")")))
2454 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
2455 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
2456 the name to avoid a collision.
2459 @subsection Transpose
2461 @cindex transposition of pitches
2462 @cindex @code{\transpose}
2464 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
2467 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
2470 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
2473 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
2474 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
2475 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
2478 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2481 { \key e \major c d e f }
2483 \transpose des'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2484 \transpose cis'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2488 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
2489 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
2490 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
2492 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
2493 @subsection Sound output transposing instruments
2495 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed and
2497 instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch offset (in
2498 semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done using the
2499 @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed output.
2501 @cindex @code{transposing}
2504 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
2505 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
2508 @c . {Multi measure rests}
2509 @node Multi measure rests
2510 @subsection Multi measure rests
2511 @cindex Multi measure rests
2515 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
2516 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
2518 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
2519 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
2520 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
2523 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2524 \time 3/4 r2. | R2. | R2.*2 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
2527 Notice that the @code{R2.} is printed as a whole rest, centered in the
2530 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
2534 Currently, there is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into
2535 a single multimeasure rest.
2537 @cindex condensing rests
2539 @node Automatic part combining
2540 @subsection Automatic part combining
2541 @cindex automatic part combining
2542 @cindex part combiner
2545 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
2546 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting
2547 orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
2548 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are
2549 typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically.
2550 Also, solo and @emph{a due} parts can be identified and marked.
2552 The syntax for part combining is
2555 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
2557 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
2558 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
2559 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
2562 The most useful function of the part combiner is to combine parts into
2563 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
2565 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2567 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2568 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2571 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2577 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
2578 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
2579 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
2580 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
2581 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
2584 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
2585 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
2587 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2589 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
2590 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2591 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2594 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2600 There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak the
2601 behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
2602 documentation of @reng{Thread_devnull_engraver} and
2603 @reng{Voice_devnull_engraver}. Look at the documentation of the
2604 responsible engravers, @code{Thread_devnull_engraver},
2605 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
2609 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
2610 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
2613 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
2615 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2616 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2619 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2625 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2626 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
2627 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
2629 @node Hara kiri staffs
2630 @subsection Hara kiri staffs
2632 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
2633 This saves some space. LilyPond also supports this through the hara
2634 kiri@footnote{Hara kiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
2635 the Japanese Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when
2636 it finds itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will
2637 not disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
2640 The hara kiri staff is specialized version of the Staff context. It is
2641 available as the context identifier @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}.
2642 Observe how the second staff in this example disappears in the second
2647 \notes \relative c' <
2648 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
2649 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
2653 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
2666 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
2667 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
2668 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
2669 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2670 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2675 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
2680 \consists Custos_engraver
2686 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century.
2687 There were different appearances for different notation styles.
2688 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
2689 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
2692 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
2693 @code{StaffContext} when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
2694 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
2695 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
2696 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
2703 \consists Custos_engraver
2704 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2709 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
2714 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
2715 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
2719 @c . {Tuning output}
2721 @section Tuning output
2723 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
2724 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
2725 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
2726 ways to do just that.
2728 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called grobs (graphic
2729 objects). Each grob carries with it a set of properties (grob
2730 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem grob has
2731 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
2733 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
2734 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
2735 temporarily change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus
2736 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
2737 object, and set a grob property in that object.
2740 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
2741 * Tuning per grob ::
2749 @node Tuning groups of grobs
2750 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
2752 @cindex grob description
2756 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a
2757 context property. By assigning to that property (using plain
2758 @code{\property}), you can change the resulting grobs.
2760 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2761 c'4 \property Voice.Stem = #'((meta . ((interfaces . ())))) c'4
2764 The @code{\property} assignment effectively empties the definition of
2765 the Stem object. One of the effects is that the recipe of how it should be
2766 printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible. The above
2767 assignment is available as a standard identifier, for the case that you
2771 \property Voice.Stem = \turnOff
2778 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
2779 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
2782 The definition of a grob is actually a list of default grob
2783 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem grob (available in
2784 @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), defines the following values for
2789 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
2790 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
2794 You can add a property on top of the existing definition, or remove a
2795 property, thus overriding the system defaults:
2797 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
2798 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
2801 You should balance @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. If that's too
2802 much work, you can use the @code{\set} shorthand. It performs a revert
2803 followed by an override. The following example gives exactly the same
2804 result as the previous one.
2806 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
2807 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
2810 If you use @code{\set}, you must explicitly restore the default.
2813 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
2815 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2816 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2817 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
2819 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
2820 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
2823 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
2824 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
2825 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
2826 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and @code{\revert},
2827 must be carefully balanced.
2829 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
2832 A clumsy but correct form:
2834 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
2837 Shorter version of the same:
2839 \override \set \set \revert
2842 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
2845 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
2848 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the grob property is unset),
2851 \set \set \set \revert
2854 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
2855 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a
2856 stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
2857 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding
2858 automatic beaming settings.
2862 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
2863 The backend is not very strict in type-checking grob properties. If you
2864 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
2867 Some grobs are created at the moment that their context is created. An
2868 example of such a grob is the staff itself (i.e. the horizontal lines).
2869 You can not change the appearance of the staff symbol by manipulating
2870 @code{\property Staff.StaffSymbol}. At the moment that @code{\property
2871 Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and the StaffSymbol is
2872 created before any @code{\override} is effective. You can deal with this
2873 either overriding properties in a @code{\translator} definition, or by
2874 using @code{\outputproperty}.
2879 @node Tuning per grob
2880 @subsection Tuning per grob
2882 @cindex \outputproperty
2884 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
2885 feature. The syntax is as follows:
2887 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2889 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
2890 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
2891 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
2892 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
2893 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
2895 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
2896 the appropriate context to apply this to.
2898 Here are some random examples.
2901 In the following example, all note heads occurring at current staff
2902 level, are shifted up and right by setting their @code{extra-offset}
2905 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
2907 \context Staff \outputproperty
2908 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
2909 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
2913 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
2915 In this example, the predicate checks the @code{text} grob property, to
2916 shift only the `m.d.' text, but not the fingering instruction "2".
2917 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2918 #(define (make-text-checker text)
2919 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
2922 \notes\relative c''' {
2923 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
2924 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
2925 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
2933 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
2934 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
2940 @subsection What to tune?
2942 This all tells you how to tune grobs, but you don't know what variables
2943 to set? The question is not answered in this part of the manual
2944 (although you may encounter some examples.).
2946 Grob properties are tied directly to the implementation of LilyPond, and
2947 they are thus a moving target. Documentation of such variables is in the
2948 automatically generated documentation. Description of properties are
2949 generated from the source code for each version. This documentation is
2950 therefore more up to date. It should be available from the same place
2951 where you got this manual.
2953 To decide how to tune a grob, you need to find the following information
2956 which grob to modify
2958 which property to modify
2960 which context the grob comes from.
2963 Included with the automatically generated documentation is a master list
2964 of grobs. Selecting a grob will take you to an overview of the
2965 properties available for that grob.
2967 There is also a master list of contexts. Selecting one takes you to an
2968 overview of that context which lists which grob types are created there.
2971 @node Font selection
2972 @subsection Font selection
2974 Most graphics in LilyPond are composed of characters of fonts. You can
2975 alter the characteristics of the font by setting certain grob
2976 properties. The mechanism that is used for this resembles La@TeX{}'s New
2977 Font Selection Scheme. Within this scheme, a font is entirely
2978 characterized by its font name.
2980 For each grob that uses fonts (in other words, each grob that supports
2981 @code{font-interface}) a font-name must be selected before it can be
2982 printed. The font name is selected by looking at a number of grob
2987 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
2988 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff braces),
2989 @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic
2990 signs) and @code{typewriter}
2993 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
2994 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
2995 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
2998 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
2999 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
3002 @item font-relative-size
3003 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
3004 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
3005 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
3007 @item font-design-size
3008 A number indicating the design size of the font.
3010 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
3011 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
3012 which enhances readability. Scalable type faces such TrueType and Adobe
3013 Type1 usually come as ``one design fits all sizes''.
3016 The name of the font, without the design size, e.g. @code{cmr},
3017 @code{cmti}, etc. Setting this overrides font-family, font-shape and
3022 The font is selected by taking the first font that satisfies all
3023 qualifiers specified. You can override any of these fields through
3024 @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The special value @code{*} matches
3025 any value for that qualifier.
3028 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
3029 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
3032 @cindex @code{font-style}
3034 There are also pre-cooked font selection qualifiers. These are selected
3035 through the grob property @code{font-style}. For example, the style
3036 @code{finger} selects family @code{number} and relative size @code{-3}.
3037 Styles available include @code{volta}, @code{finger}, @code{tuplet},
3038 @code{timesig}, @code{mmrest}, @code{script}, @code{large}, @code{Large}
3041 The style sheets and tables for selecting fonts are located in
3042 @file{scm/font.scm}. Refer to this file for more information.
3046 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
3048 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3049 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts. You
3050 can scale the entire output, of course, see @ref{Output scaling}.
3052 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
3055 @cindex font selection
3056 @cindex font magnification
3057 @cindex @code{font-interface}
3061 @subsection Text markup
3065 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
3066 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
3067 in the following way.
3069 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3074 c^#'(italic "italic")
3075 d_#'((bold italic) "ff")
3077 f_#'(lines "one" (bold "two"))
3078 g^#'(music "noteheads-2" ((raise . 2.4) "flags-u3"))
3082 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
3083 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
3086 text: string | (head? text+)
3087 head: markup | (markup+)
3088 markup-item: property | abbrev
3089 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
3090 abbrev: @code{columns lines roman music bold italic named super sub}
3091 @code{overstrike text finger volta timesig mmrest mark script}
3092 @code{large Large dynamic}
3095 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
3096 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
3097 pair is a grob property. A list of properties available is included in
3098 the generated documentation for @rint{Text_interface}.
3100 The following abbreviations are currently defined:
3103 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
3105 vertical mode: set every text on a new line
3109 selects the Feta font (the standard font for music notation glyphs),
3110 and uses named lookup
3117 lookup by character name
3119 plain text lookup (by character value)
3125 the next text or character overstrikes this one
3127 select fingering number fontstyle
3129 select volta number fontstyle
3131 select time signature number fontstyle
3133 select multi measure rest number fontstyle
3135 select mark number fontstyle
3137 select scriptsize roman fontstyle
3139 select large roman fontstyle
3141 select Large roman fontstyle
3143 select dynamics fontstyle
3147 @cindex metronome mark
3149 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
3153 #(define note '(columns
3154 (music "noteheads-2" ((kern . -0.1) "flags-stem"))))
3155 #(define eight-note `(columns ,note ((kern . -0.1)
3156 (music ((raise . 3.5) "flags-u3")))))
3157 #(define dotted-eight-note
3158 `(columns ,eight-note (music "dots-dot")))
3161 \notes\relative c'' {
3162 a1^#`((columns (font-relative-size . -1)) ,dotted-eight-note " = 64")
3168 TextScript \override #'font-shape = #'upright
3174 @node Invisible grobs
3175 @subsection Invisible grobs
3176 @cindex invisible grobs
3180 ben nog steeds niet kapot van de informatiedichtheid hier.
3186 You can imagine a number of situations where you would want to make
3187 certain grobs not show up in the output. There may be aesthetic
3188 reasons, to make the output resemble an (old) manuscript as close as
3189 possible, or to make lessons or exercises for students.
3191 Grobs can be made invisible in a number of ways:
3193 Here's an example with blanked-out notes and stems:
3194 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3196 \property Voice.NoteHead \override
3198 \property Voice.Stem \override
3199 #'transparent = ##t }
3202 \property Voice.NoteHead \revert #'transparent
3203 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'transparent }
3206 \notes\relative c'' {
3208 a b c b \blanknotes c \unblanknotes d
3212 This method makes the grobs invisible but they still take the normal space.
3213 To remove all traces of the grob, you can redefine the function
3217 \notes\relative c'' {
3220 as bes c bes c d \break
3221 \property Staff.KeySignature \override #'molecule-callback = #'()
3224 \paper{linewidth=5.0\cm indent=0}
3228 A very rigorous way of removing grobs from the whole score is to remove
3229 the engraver that creates them. For example,
3231 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3232 \score {\notes { c'4 d'8 e'8 g2 }
3233 \paper { \translator {
3235 \remove Stem_engraver
3241 @subsection Dirty tricks
3242 @cindex embedded tex
3244 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
3245 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
3246 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
3247 commands won't work with direct PostScript output (see @ref{PostScript
3250 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3251 a'^"3 $\\times$ \\`a deux"
3254 You can also use raw PostScript commands embedded in text scripts. This
3255 offers ultimate flexibility, but requires you to learn PostScript.
3256 Currently, embedded PostScript will @strong{not} work with direct
3257 PostScript output. Note that all dimensions that you use are in staff
3262 \notes \relative c'' {
3263 a-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 5 3 rlineto stroke}"
3264 -#"\\embeddedps{ [ 0 1 ] 0 setdash 3 5 moveto 5 -3 rlineto stroke}"
3265 b-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 0 0 1 2 8 4 20 3.5 rcurveto stroke}"
3269 \paper { linewidth = 70*\staffspace }
3276 @section Page layout
3279 The page layout is the combined product of LilyPond formatting notation,
3280 and (La)@TeX{} putting the notation on a page, including page breaks.
3281 The part of LilyPond is documented here.
3295 @subsection Paper block
3298 The most important output definition is the @code{\paper} block, for
3299 music notation. The syntax is
3302 @code{\paper @{} [@var{paperidentifier}] @var{items} @code{@}}
3305 where each of the items is one of
3308 @item An assignment.
3310 @item A context definition. See @ref{Interpretation context} for
3311 more information on context definitions.
3313 @item \stylesheet declaration. Its syntax is
3315 \stylesheet @var{alist}
3318 See @file{scm/font.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
3319 @item an @code{\elementdescriptions} declaration.
3321 \elementdescriptions @var{alist}
3323 See @file{scm/grob-description.scm} for details of
3324 @var{alist}. This command is not user-serviceable.
3328 @c . {Paper variables}
3329 @node Paper variables
3330 @subsection Paper variables
3331 @cindex Paper variables
3333 The paper block has some variables you may want to use or change:
3336 @cindex @code{indent}
3338 The indentation of the first line of music.
3339 @cindex @code{staffspace}
3341 @item @code{staffspace}
3342 The distance between two staff lines, calculated from the center
3345 @cindex @code{linewidth}
3346 @item @code{linewidth}
3347 Sets the width of the lines.
3349 If set to a negative value, a single unjustified line is produced.
3350 @c rename to singleLinePaper ?
3351 The shorthand @code{\singleLine} defines a default paper block that
3352 produces a single line.
3354 @cindex @code{textheight}
3356 @item @code{textheight}
3357 Sets the total height of the music on each page. Only used by
3360 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
3362 @item @code{interscoreline}
3363 Sets the spacing between systems. The default is 16pt.
3365 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
3367 @item @code{interscorelinefill}
3368 If set to a positive number, the distance between the score
3369 lines will stretch in order to fill the full page. In that
3370 case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
3375 @cindex @code{stafflinethickness}
3377 @item @code{stafflinethickness}
3378 Determines the thickness of staff lines, and also acts as a scaling
3379 parameter for other line thicknesses.
3382 You may enter these dimension using units (@code{cm}, @code{in},
3383 @code{mm}, @code{pt}), or relative to another dimension
3385 linewidth = 20.0 * \staffspace
3392 @subsection Font size
3395 The Feta font provides musical symbols at six different sizes. These
3396 fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point,
3397 23 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the
3398 height of the five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
3400 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
3401 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any of
3402 these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven}, @code{paperThirteen},
3403 @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and
3404 @code{paperTwentysix} are defined respectively. The default
3405 @code{\paper} block is also set.
3407 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
3408 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
3414 @subsection Paper size
3419 @cindex @code{papersize}
3421 To change the paper size, you must first set the
3422 @code{papersize} variable at top level. Set it to
3423 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
3424 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
3425 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
3429 \include "paper16.ly"
3432 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
3433 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
3438 @subsection Line break
3441 @cindex breaking lines
3443 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
3444 that the resulting spacing has low variation, and looks neither cramped
3447 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do
3448 this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at this
3449 point. Do remember that line breaks can only occur at places where there
3450 are bar lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no
3451 bar line, you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
3452 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain point.
3454 @cindex @code{\penalty}
3456 The @code{\break} and @code{\noBreak} commands are defined in terms of
3457 the penalty command:
3462 This encourages or discourages LilyPond to make a line break at this
3467 The scaling of the @code{\penalty} argument is not well-defined. The
3468 command is rather kludgey, and slated for rewriting.
3472 @subsection Page break
3475 @cindex breaking pages
3477 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
3478 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into the
3479 @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages, by inserting
3480 the command @code{\newpage}
3481 @cindex @code{\newpage}
3487 @c why do so difficult?
3488 @c maybe should explain contents of between-system.ly,
3489 @c but not now, we're talking about page breaks here.
3491 @c details, see the example file @file{input/test/between-systems.ly}
3494 @c . {Output scaling}
3495 @node Output scaling
3496 @subsection Output scaling
3511 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3512 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts.
3516 @c . {Output formats}
3517 @node Output formats
3518 @section Output formats
3520 LilyPond can output processed music in different output formats.
3524 * PostScript output::
3526 * ASCIIScript output::
3530 @subsection TeX output
3533 LilyPond will use @TeX{} by default. Even if you want to produce
3534 PostScript output for viewing or printing, you should normally have
3535 LilyPond produce @TeX{} first. The .tex output must be processed by
3536 @TeX{} (@strong{not} La@TeX{}) to generate a .dvi. Then, @file{Dvips}
3537 is used to generate PostScript. Alternatively, @file{ly2dvi} can be
3538 used to generate the .dvi for you.
3542 Titling is not generated unless you use @file{ly2dvi}.
3545 @node PostScript output
3546 @subsection PostScript output
3547 @cindex PostScript output
3548 @cindex direct PostScript output
3550 LilyPond can produce PostScript directly, without going through @TeX{}.
3551 Currently, this is mainly useful if you cannot use TeX, because direct
3552 PostScript output has some problems; see Bugs below.
3555 $ lilypond -fps foo.ly
3556 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3557 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3559 Interpreting music...[3]
3560 Preprocessing elements...
3561 Calculating column positions...
3562 paper output to foo.ps...
3564 $ cat /usr/share/lilypond/pfa/feta20.pfa foo.ps | lpr
3570 Text font selection is broken.
3572 The .ps file does not contain the .pfa font files. To print a .ps
3573 created through direct postscript output, you should prepend the
3574 necessary .pfa files to LilyPond's .ps output, or upload them to the
3575 printer before printing.
3577 The line height calculation is broken, you must set @var{lineheight} in
3578 the paperblock if you have more than one staff in your score, e.g.
3583 % Set line height to 40 staff spaces
3589 @subsection Scheme output
3590 @cindex Scheme output
3592 In the typesetting stage, LilyPond builds a page description, which is
3593 then written to disk in postscript, @TeX{} or ASCII art. Before it is
3594 written, the page description is represented as Scheme expressions. You
3595 can also dump these Scheme expressions to a file, which may be
3596 convenient for debugging output routines. This is done with the Scheme
3600 $ lilypond -fscm foo.ly
3601 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3602 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3604 Interpreting music...[3]
3605 Preprocessing elements...
3606 Calculating column positions...
3607 paper output to foo.scm...
3610 ;;; Usage: guile -s x.scm > x.tex
3611 (primitive-load-path 'standalone.scm)
3615 $ guile -s foo.scm > foo.tex
3619 @node ASCIIScript output
3620 @subsection ASCIIScript output
3621 @cindex ASCIIScript output
3622 @cindex ascii script
3625 LilyPond can output ASCII Art. This is a two step process, LilyPond
3626 produces an ASCII description file, dubbed ASCIIScript (extension
3627 @file{.as}). ASCIIScript has a small and simple command set that
3628 includes font selection, character and string printing and line drawing
3629 commands. The program @file{as2text} is used to translate an .as file
3632 To produce ASCII Art, you must include an ASCII Art paper definition
3633 file in your .ly, one of:
3635 \include "paper-as5.ly"
3636 \include "paper-as9.ly"
3639 Here's an example use for ASCII Art output (the example file
3640 @file{as-email.ly} is included in the LilyPond distribution), the staff
3641 symbol has been made invisible:
3644 $ lilypond -fas as-email.ly
3645 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3646 Now processing: `as-email.ly'
3648 Interpreting music...[3]
3649 Preprocessing elements...
3650 Calculating column positions... [2]
3651 paper output to as-email.as...
3653 $ as2text as-email.as 2>/dev/null
3655 |/ |##|##| | | | | |
3656 /| | | | | |\ |\ |\ |\ |\ |
3657 / |_ 3 | | | | 5 | )| )| )| )| )|
3658 | /| \ 8 * * * | 8 * * * * * |
3668 The ASCII Art fonts are far from complete and not very well designed.
3669 It's easy to change the glyphs, though; if you think you can do better,
3670 have a look at @file{mf/*.af}.
3672 Lots of resizable symbols such as slurs, ties and tuplets are missing.
3674 The poor looks of most ASCII Art output and its limited general
3675 usefulness gives ASCII Art output a low priority; it may be
3676 dropped in future versions.
3683 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
3684 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, etc., but it
3685 is good enough for proof-hearing the music you have entered. Ties,
3686 dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
3688 Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume
3689 levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available
3690 MIDI volume range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary
3691 linearly between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
3692 overriding the @code{absolute-volume-alist} defined in
3693 @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3695 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
3696 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
3697 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. You can add
3698 instruments and ranges or change the default settings by overriding the
3699 @code{instrument-equalizer-alist} defined in @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3701 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
3706 It is currently not possible to use the percussion channel (generally
3707 channel 10 of a MIDI file).
3711 * MIDI instrument names::
3716 @subsection MIDI block
3720 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
3721 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
3725 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
3726 @item context definitions
3729 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
3733 @cindex context definition
3735 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
3736 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
3737 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer.ly}.
3740 @node MIDI instrument names
3741 @subsection MIDI instrument names
3743 @cindex instrument names
3744 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3745 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
3747 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3748 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
3749 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
3750 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
3754 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
3755 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by
3768 @section Music entry
3776 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce errors. This
3777 section deals with tricks and features that help you enter music, and
3778 find and correct mistakes.
3782 @subsection Relative
3784 @cindex relative octave specification
3786 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
3787 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
3788 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
3789 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
3791 @cindex @code{\relative}
3793 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
3796 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
3797 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
3798 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
3799 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
3800 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
3803 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
3804 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
3805 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
3806 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
3808 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
3809 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
3815 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
3816 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3818 c g c f, c' a, e'' }
3821 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
3822 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
3823 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
3826 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3833 @cindex @code{\notes}
3835 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
3836 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
3837 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
3840 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
3841 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
3842 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
3843 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
3848 @subsection Bar check
3852 @cindex @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}
3856 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
3857 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
3858 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
3859 @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
3860 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
3862 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}:
3864 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
3867 @c . {Point and click}
3868 @node Point and click
3869 @subsection Point and click
3871 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
3872 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
3873 error in the sheet music.
3875 To use it, you need the following software
3877 @unnumberedsubsec Installation
3881 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,plain
3882 Xdvi} version 22.36 or newer.
3884 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is a
3885 different and less well maintained program. To find out which xdvi you
3886 are running, try @code{xdvi --version} or @code{xdvi.bin --version}.
3890 Xdvi must be configured to find the TeX fonts and music
3891 fonts. Refer to the Xdvi documentation for more information.
3894 @unnumberedsubsec Using it
3896 Add one of these lines to the top of your .ly file. The first one is for
3897 line location only. The second one is more convenient, but requires
3898 patching @code{emacsclient} and @code{server.el}.
3901 #(set! point-and-click line-location)
3904 In the emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}), add the following
3909 Make sure that the environment variable @code{XEDITOR} is set
3912 emacsclient --no-wait +%l %f
3914 The second one, that also specifies the column, only works if you have
3915 patched your emacsclient and server, and have compiled your @code{.ly}
3916 file using the @code{line-column-location} setting.
3918 When viewing, control-mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
3919 spot in the @file{.ly} file. Control-mousebutton 2 will show all
3923 @unnumberedsubsec Column location
3925 If you want emacs to jump to the exact spot (and not just the line) on a
3926 click, you must enable column positioning. To do so, you need to patch
3927 emacsclient. Apply @file{emacsclient.patch} (included with the source
3928 package) to @file{emacsclient.c} and @file{server.el} from the emacs
3929 source code. Recompile and stick the recompiled emacsclient into a bin
3930 directory, and put @file{server.el} into a elisp directory
3931 (e.g. @file{~/usr/share/emacs/}). Add the following to your @file{.emacs}
3932 init file, before invoking server-start.
3935 (setq load-path (cons "~/usr/share/emacs" load-path))
3938 Set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{emacsclient --no-wait +%l:%c %f}
3940 At the top of the @code{ly} file, replace the @code{set!} line with the
3943 #(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
3950 When you convert the @TeX{} file to PostScript using @code{dvips}, it
3951 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. Those complaints
3952 are harmless, and can be ignored.
3954 When using @code{line-column-location}, the cursor will be one off; it
3955 will not jump to the exact note that you clicked, but to the next one.
3959 @node Skipping corrected music
3960 @section Skipping corrected music
3962 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
3963 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
3964 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
3965 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
3968 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
3969 \relative c'' { c8 d
3970 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
3972 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
3977 @node Interpretation context
3978 @section Interpretation context
3981 * Creating contexts::
3982 * Default contexts::
3983 * Context properties::
3984 * Engravers and performers::
3985 * Changing context definitions::
3986 * Defining new contexts::
3990 Interpretation contexts are objects that only exist during a run of
3991 LilyPond. During the interpretation phase of LilyPond (when it prints
3992 "interpreting music"), the music expression in a @code{\score} block is
3993 interpreted in time order. This is the same order that humans hear and
3996 During this interpretation, the interpretation context holds the
3997 state for the current point within the music. It contains information
4001 @item What notes are playing at this point?
4002 @item What symbols will be printed at this point?
4003 @item What is the current key signature, time signature, point within
4007 Contexts are grouped hierarchically: A @code{Voice} context is
4008 contained in a @code{Staff} context (because a staff can contain
4009 multiple voices at any point), a @code{Staff} context is contained in
4010 @code{Score}, @code{StaffGroup}, or @code{ChoirStaff} context.
4012 Contexts associated with sheet music output are called @emph{notation
4013 contexts}, those for sound output are called @emph{performance
4014 contexts}. The default definitions of the standard notation and
4015 performance contexts can be found in @file{ly/engraver.ly} and
4016 @file{ly/performer.ly}, respectively.
4019 @node Creating contexts
4020 @subsection Creating contexts
4022 @cindex @code{\context}
4023 @cindex context selection
4025 Contexts for a music expression can be selected manually, using the
4026 following music expression.
4029 \context @var{contexttype} [= @var{contextname}] @var{musicexpr}
4032 This instructs lilypond to interpret @var{musicexpr} within the context
4033 of type @var{contexttype} and with name @var{contextname}. If this
4034 context does not exist, it will be created.
4036 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4038 \notes \relative c'' {
4039 c4 <d4 \context Staff = "another" e4> f
4045 In this example, the @code{c} and @code{d} are printed on the
4046 default staff. For the @code{e}, a context Staff called
4047 @code{another} is specified; since that does not exist, a new
4048 context is created. Within @code{another}, a (default) Voice context
4049 is created for the @code{e4}. When all music referring to a
4050 context is finished, the context is ended as well. So after the
4051 third quarter, @code{another} is removed.
4055 @node Default contexts
4056 @subsection Default contexts
4058 Most music expressions don't need an explicit @code{\context}
4059 declaration: they inherit the
4060 notation context from their parent. Each note is a music expression, and
4061 as you can see in the following example, only the sequential music
4062 enclosing the three notes has an explicit context.
4064 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4065 \score { \notes \context Voice = goUp { c'4 d' e' } }
4068 There are some quirks that you must keep in mind when dealing with
4071 First, every top level music is interpreted by the Score context, in other
4072 words, you may think of @code{\score} working like
4075 \context Score @var{music}
4079 Second, contexts are created automatically to be able to interpret the
4080 music expressions. Consider the following example.
4082 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4083 \score { \context Score \notes { c'4 ( d' )e' } }
4086 The sequential music is interpreted by the Score context initially
4087 (notice that the @code{\context} specification is redundant), but when a
4088 note is encountered, contexts are setup to accept that note. In this
4089 case, a Thread, Voice and Staff are created. The rest of the sequential
4090 music is also interpreted with the same Thread, Voice and Staff context,
4091 putting the notes on the same staff, in the same voice.
4093 This is a convenient mechanism, but do not expect opening chords to work
4094 without @code{\context}. For every note, a separate staff is
4097 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4098 \score { \notes <c'4 es'> }
4101 Of course, if the chord is preceded by a normal note in sequential
4102 music, the chord will be interpreted by the Thread of the preceding
4104 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4105 \score { \notes { c'4 <c'4 es'> } }
4110 @node Context properties
4111 @subsection Context properties
4113 Notation contexts have properties. These properties are from
4114 the @file{.ly} file using the following expression:
4115 @cindex @code{\property}
4117 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} = @var{value}
4120 Sets the @var{propname} property of the context @var{contextname} to the
4121 specified Scheme expression @var{value}. All @var{propname} and
4122 @var{contextname} are strings, which are typically unquoted.
4124 Properties that are set in one context are inherited by all of the
4125 contained contexts. This means that a property valid for the
4126 @code{Voice} context can be set in the @code{Score} context (for
4127 example) and thus take effect in all @code{Voice} contexts.
4129 Properties can be unset using the following expression:
4131 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} \unset
4134 @cindex properties, unsetting
4135 @cindex @code{\unset}
4137 This removes the definition of @var{propname} in @var{contextname}. If
4138 @var{propname} was not defined in @var{contextname} (but was inherited
4139 from a higher context), then this has no effect.
4144 The syntax of @code{\unset} is asymmetric: @code{\property \unset} is not
4145 the inverse of @code{\property \set}.
4147 @node Engravers and performers
4148 @subsection Engravers and performers
4152 Basic building blocks of translation are called engravers; they are
4153 special C++ classes.
4157 @c . {Context definitions}
4158 @node Changing context definitions
4159 @subsection Changing context definitions
4161 @cindex context definition
4162 @cindex translator definition
4164 The most common way to define a context is by extending an existing
4165 context. You can change an existing context from the paper block, by
4166 first initializing a translator with an existing context identifier:
4170 @var{context-identifier}
4173 Then you can add and remove engravers using the following syntax:
4175 \remove @var{engravername}
4176 \consists @var{engravername}
4180 Here @var{engravername} is a string, the name of an engraver in the
4184 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4188 \translator { \StaffContext
4189 \remove Clef_engraver
4195 You can also set properties in a translator definition. The syntax is as
4198 @var{propname} = @var{value}
4199 @var{propname} \set @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4200 @var{propname} \override @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4201 @var{propname} \revert @var{grob-propname}
4203 @var{propname} is a string, @var{grob-propname} a symbol, @var{value}
4204 and @code{pvalue} are Scheme expressions. These type of property
4205 assignments happen before interpretation starts, so a @code{\property}
4206 command will override any predefined settings.
4209 To simplify editing translators, all standard contexts have standard
4210 identifiers called @var{name}@code{Context}, e.g. @code{StaffContext},
4211 @code{VoiceContext}, see @file{ly/engraver.ly}.
4213 @node Defining new contexts
4214 @subsection Defining new contexts
4216 If you want to build a context from scratch, you must also supply the
4217 following extra information:
4219 @item A name, specified by @code{\name @var{contextname}}.
4221 @item A cooperation module. This is specified by @code{\type
4228 \type "Engraver_group_engraver"
4231 \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4232 \consists "Note_head_engraver"
4233 \consistsend "Axis_group_engraver"
4237 The argument of @code{\type} is the name for a special engraver that
4238 handles cooperation between simple engravers such as
4239 @code{Note_head_engraver} and @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. Alternatives
4240 for this engraver are the following:
4242 @cindex @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4243 @item @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4244 The standard cooperation engraver.
4246 @cindex @code{Score_engraver}
4248 @item @code{Score_engraver}
4249 This is cooperation module that should be in the top level context,
4250 and only the top level context.
4252 @cindex @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4254 @item @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4255 This is a special cooperation module (resembling
4256 @code{Score_engraver}) that is used to create an embedded
4263 @item @code{\alias} @var{alternate-name}
4264 This specifies a different name. In the above example,
4265 @code{\property Staff.X = Y} will also work on @code{SimpleStaff}s
4267 @item @code{\consistsend} @var{engravername}
4268 Analogous to @code{\consists}, but makes sure that
4269 @var{engravername} is always added to the end of the list of
4272 Some engraver types need to be at the end of the list; this
4273 insures they stay there even if a user adds or removes engravers.
4274 End-users generally don't need this command.
4276 @item @code{\accepts} @var{contextname}
4277 Add @var{contextname} to the list of contexts this context can
4278 contain in the context hierarchy. The first listed context is the
4279 context to create by default.
4281 @item @code{\denies}. The opposite of @code{\accepts}. Added for
4282 completeness, but is never used in practice.
4285 @item @code{\name} @var{contextname}
4286 This sets the type name of the context, e.g. @code{Staff},
4287 @code{Voice}. If the name is not specified, the translator won't do
4291 In the @code{\paper} block, it is also possible to define translator
4292 identifiers. Like other block identifiers, the identifier can only
4293 be used as the very first item of a translator. In order to define
4294 such an identifier outside of @code{\score}, you must do
4299 foo = \translator @{ @dots{} @}
4306 \translator @{ \foo @dots{} @}
4314 @cindex paper types, engravers, and pre-defined translators
4321 @c . {Syntactic details}
4322 @node Syntactic details
4323 @section Syntactic details
4324 @cindex Syntactic details
4326 This section describes details that were too boring to be put elsewhere.
4331 * Music expressions::
4332 * Manipulating music expressions::
4340 @subsection Top level
4343 This section describes what you may enter at top level.
4347 @subsubsection Score
4350 @cindex score definition
4352 The output is generated combining a music expression with an output
4353 definition. A score block has the following syntax:
4356 \score @{ @var{musicexpr} @var{outputdefs} @}
4359 @var{outputdefs} are zero or more output definitions. If none is
4360 supplied, the default @code{\paper} block will be added.
4364 @c . {Default output}
4365 @subsubsection Default output
4367 Default values for the @code{\paper} and @code{\midi} block are set by
4368 entering such a block at the top level.
4371 @subsubsection Header
4373 @cindex @code{\header}
4376 A header describes bibliographic information of the file's contents. It
4377 can also appear in a @code{\score} block. Tools like @code{ly2dvi} can
4378 use this information for generating titles. Key values that are used by
4379 @code{ly2dvi} are: title, subtitle, composer, opus, poet, instrument,
4380 meter, arranger, piece and tagline.
4382 @cindex @code{ly2dvi}
4386 \header @{ @var{key1} = @var{val1}
4387 @var{key2} = @var{val2} @dots{} @}
4390 It is customary to put the @code{\header} at the top of the file.
4392 @subsubsection Default output
4394 A @code{\midi} or @code{\paper} block at top level sets the default
4395 paper block for all scores that lack an explicit paper block.
4399 @subsection Identifiers
4403 What has this section got to do with identifiers?
4404 It seems more appropriate in the introduction to Chapter 4,
4410 All of the information in a LilyPond input file, is internally
4411 represented as a Scheme value. In addition to normal Scheme data types
4412 (such as pair, number, boolean, etc.), LilyPond has a number of
4413 specialized data types,
4420 @item Translator_def
4424 @item Music_output_def
4425 @item Moment (rational number)
4428 LilyPond also includes some transient object types. Objects of these
4429 types are built during a LilyPond run, and do not `exist' per se within
4430 your input file. These objects are created as a result of your input
4431 file, so you can include commands in the input to manipulate them,
4432 during a lilypond run.
4435 @item Grob: short for Graphical object. See @ref{Grobs}.
4436 @item Molecule: device-independent page output object,
4437 including dimensions. Produced by some Grob functions
4439 @item Translator: object that produces audio objects or Grobs. This is
4440 not yet user accessible.
4441 @item Font_metric: object representing a font. (See @ref{Font metrics})
4446 @node Music expressions
4447 @subsection Music expressions
4449 @cindex music expressions
4451 Music in LilyPond is entered as a music expression. Notes, rests, lyric
4452 syllables are music expressions, and you can combine music expressions
4453 to form new ones, for example by enclosing a list of expressions in
4454 @code{\sequential @{ @}} or @code{< >}. In the following example, a
4455 compound expression is formed out of the quarter note @code{c} and a
4456 quarter note @code{d}:
4459 \sequential @{ c4 d4 @}
4462 @cindex Sequential music
4463 @cindex @code{\sequential}
4464 @cindex sequential music
4467 @cindex Simultaneous music
4468 @cindex @code{\simultaneous}
4470 The two basic compound music expressions are simultaneous and
4474 \sequential @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4475 \simultaneous @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4477 For both, there is a shorthand:
4479 @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4483 @code{<} @var{musicexprlist} @code{>}
4485 for simultaneous music.
4486 In principle, the way in which you nest sequential and simultaneous to
4487 produce music is not relevant. In the following example, three chords
4488 are expressed in two different ways:
4490 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4491 \notes \context Voice {
4492 <a c'> <b d' > <c' e'>
4493 < { a b c' } { c' d' e' } >
4498 Other compound music expressions include
4501 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{expr}
4502 \apply @var{func} @var{expr}
4503 \context @var{type} = @var{id} @var{expr}
4504 \times @var{fraction} @var{expr}
4508 @c . {Manipulating music expressions}
4509 @node Manipulating music expressions
4510 @subsection Manipulating music expressions
4512 The @code{\apply} mechanism gives you access to the internal
4513 representation of music. You can write Scheme-functions that operate
4514 directly on it. The syntax is
4516 \apply #@var{func} @var{music}
4518 This means that @var{func} is applied to @var{music}. The function
4519 @var{func} should return a music expression.
4521 This example replaces the text string of a script. It also shows a dump
4522 of the music it processes, which is useful if you want to know more
4523 about how music is stored.
4525 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4526 #(define (testfunc x)
4527 (if (equal? (ly-get-mus-property x 'text) "foo")
4528 (ly-set-mus-property x 'text "bar"))
4530 (ly-set-mus-property x 'elements
4531 (map testfunc (ly-get-mus-property x 'elements)))
4536 \apply #testfunc { c'4_"foo" }
4540 For more information on what is possible, see the automatically
4541 generated documentation.
4544 Directly accessing internal representations is dangerous: the
4545 implementation is subject to changes, so you should avoid this feature
4548 A final example is a function that reverses a piece of music in time:
4550 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4551 #(define (reverse-music music)
4552 (let* ((elements (ly-get-mus-property music 'elements))
4553 (reversed (reverse elements))
4554 (span-dir (ly-get-mus-property music 'span-direction)))
4555 (ly-set-mus-property music 'elements reversed)
4557 (ly-set-mus-property music 'span-direction (- span-dir)))
4558 (map reverse-music reversed)
4561 music = \notes { c'4 d'4( e'4 f'4 }
4563 \score { \context Voice {
4565 \apply #reverse-music \music
4570 More examples are given in the distributed example files in
4573 @c . {Span requests}
4579 @subsubsection Span requests
4580 @cindex Span requests
4582 Notational constructs that start and end on different notes can be
4583 entered using span requests. The syntax is as follows:
4587 \spanrequest @var{startstop} @var{type}
4591 @cindex @code{\start}
4592 @cindex @code{\stop}
4594 This defines a spanning request. The @var{startstop} parameter is either
4595 -1 (@code{\start}) or 1 (@code{\stop}) and @var{type} is a string that
4596 describes what should be started. Much of the syntactic sugar is a
4597 shorthand for @code{\spanrequest}, for example,
4599 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4600 c'4-\spanrequest \start "slur"
4601 c'4-\spanrequest \stop "slur"
4604 Among the supported types are @code{crescendo}, @code{decrescendo},
4605 @code{beam}, @code{slur}. This is an internal command. Users are
4606 encouraged to use the shorthands which are defined in the initialization
4607 file @file{spanners.ly}.
4612 @subsection Assignments
4615 Identifiers allow objects to be assigned to names during the parse
4616 stage. To assign an identifier, you use @var{name}@code{=}@var{value}
4617 and to refer to an identifier, you precede its name with a backslash:
4618 `@code{\}@var{name}'. @var{value} is any valid Scheme value or any of
4619 the input-types listed above. Identifier assignments can appear at top
4620 level in the LilyPond file, but also in @code{\paper} blocks.
4622 An identifier can be created with any string for its name, but you will
4623 only be able to refer to identifiers whose names begin with a letter,
4624 being entirely alphabetical. It is impossible to refer to an identifier
4625 whose name is the same as the name of a keyword.
4627 The right hand side of an identifier assignment is parsed completely
4628 before the assignment is done, so it is allowed to redefine an
4629 identifier in terms of its old value, e.g.
4635 When an identifier is referenced, the information it points to is
4636 copied. For this reason, an identifier reference must always be the
4637 first item in a block.
4641 \paperIdent % wrong and invalid
4645 \paperIdent % correct
4650 @c . {Lexical modes}
4652 @subsection Lexical modes
4653 @cindex Lexical modes
4656 @cindex @code{\notes}
4657 @cindex @code{\chords}
4658 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
4660 To simplify entering notes, lyrics, and chords, LilyPond has three
4661 special input modes in addition to the default mode: note, lyrics and
4662 chords mode. These input modes change the way that normal, unquoted
4663 words are interpreted: for example, the word @code{cis} may be
4664 interpreted as a C-sharp, as a lyric syllable `cis' or as a C-sharp
4665 major triad respectively.
4667 A mode switch is entered as a compound music expression
4669 @code{\notes} @var{musicexpr}
4670 @code{\chords} @var{musicexpr}
4671 @code{\lyrics} @var{musicexpr}.
4674 In each of these cases, these expressions do not add anything to the
4675 meaning of their arguments. They just instruct the parser in what mode
4676 to parse their arguments. The modes are treated in more detail in
4677 @ref{Lyrics} and @ref{Chords}.
4679 Different input modes may be nested.
4683 @subsection Ambiguities
4688 The grammar contains a number of ambiguities. We hope to resolve them at
4692 @item The assignment
4697 is interpreted as the string identifier assignment. However,
4698 it can also be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
4699 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo}
4700 containing the syllable `bar'.
4702 @item If you do a nested repeat like
4714 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the
4715 @code{\alternative} belongs. This is the classic if-then-else
4716 dilemma. It may be solved by using braces.
4718 @item The parser is not sophisticated enough to distinguish at the
4720 @code{c4*2 / 3 } and @code{c4*2 / g} (in chord mode).
4727 @c . {Lexical details}
4728 @node Lexical details
4729 @section Lexical details
4731 Even more boring details, now on lexical side of the input parser.
4742 * Version information::
4747 @subsection Comments
4750 @cindex block comment
4751 @cindex line comment
4755 A one line comment is introduced by a @code{%} character.
4756 Block comments are started by @code{%@{} and ended by @code{%@}}.
4757 They cannot be nested.
4760 @subsection Direct Scheme
4764 @cindex Scheme, in-line code
4767 LilyPond contains a Scheme interpreter (the GUILE library) for
4768 internal use. In some places, Scheme expressions also form valid syntax:
4769 wherever it is allowed,
4773 evaluates the specified Scheme code. Example:
4775 \property Staff.TestObject \override #'foobar = #(+ 1 2)
4777 @code{\override} expects two Scheme expressions, so there are two Scheme
4778 expressions. The first one is a symbol (@code{foobar}), the second one
4779 an integer (namely, 3).
4781 In-line scheme may be used at the top level. In this case the result is
4784 Scheme is a full-blown programming language, and a full discussion is
4785 outside the scope of this document. Interested readers are referred to
4786 the website @uref{http://www.schemers.org/} for more information on
4791 @subsection Keywords
4795 Keywords start with a backslash, followed by a number of lower case
4796 alphabetic characters. These are all the keywords.
4799 apply arpeggio autochange spanrequest commandspanrequest
4800 simultaneous sequential accepts alternative bar breathe
4801 char chordmodifiers chords clef cm consists consistsend
4802 context denies duration dynamicscript elementdescriptions
4803 font grace header in lyrics key mark pitch
4804 time times midi mm name pitchnames notes outputproperty
4805 override set revert partial paper penalty property pt
4806 relative remove repeat addlyrics partcombine score
4807 script stylesheet skip textscript tempo translator
4812 @subsection Integers
4820 Formed from an optional minus sign followed by digits. Arithmetic
4821 operations cannot be done with integers, and integers cannot be mixed
4826 @cindex real numbers
4832 Formed from an optional minus sign and a sequence of digits followed
4833 by a @emph{required} decimal point and an optional exponent such as
4834 @code{-1.2e3}. Reals can be built up using the usual operations:
4835 `@code{+}', `@code{-}', `@code{*}', and
4836 `@code{/}', with parentheses for grouping.
4844 A real constant can be followed by one of the dimension keywords:
4845 @code{\mm} @code{\pt}, @code{\in}, or @code{\cm}, for millimeters,
4846 points, inches and centimeters, respectively. This converts the number
4847 a number that is the internal representation of that dimension.
4855 Begins and ends with the @code{"} character. To include a @code{"}
4856 character in a string write @code{\"}. Various other backslash
4857 sequences have special interpretations as in the C language. A string
4858 that contains no spaces can be written without the quotes. Strings can
4859 be concatenated with the @code{+} operator.
4863 @subsection Main input
4866 @cindex @code{\maininput}
4868 The @code{\maininput} command is used in init files to signal that the
4869 user file must be read. This command cannot be used in a user file.
4871 @node File inclusion
4872 @subsection File inclusion
4873 @cindex @code{\include}
4875 \include @var{filename}
4878 Include @var{filename}. The argument @var{filename} may be a quoted string (an
4879 unquoted string will not work here!) or a string identifier. The full
4880 filename including the @file{.ly} extension must be given,
4883 @node Version information
4884 @subsection Version information
4885 @cindex @code{\version}
4887 \version @var{string}
4890 Specify the version of LilyPond that a file was written for. The
4891 argument is a version string in quotes, for example @code{"1.2.0"}.
4892 This is used to detect invalid input, and to aid
4893 @code{convert-ly} a tool that automatically upgrades input files. See
4894 See @ref{convert-ly} for more information on @code{convert-ly}.
4903 @c .{Local emacs vars}
4906 @c minor-mode: font-lock
4907 @c minor-mode: outline
4908 @c outline-layout: (-1 : 0)
4909 @c outline-use-mode-specific-leader: "@c \."
4910 @c outline-primary-bullet: "{"
4911 @c outline-stylish-prefixes: nil
4912 @c outline-override-protect: t