4 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
5 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
6 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
8 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
17 @c .{Reference Manual}
19 @node Reference Manual
20 @chapter Reference Manual
23 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
26 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
27 revision of this document was made for LilyPond 1.4.1. It supposes a
28 passing familiarity with how LilyPond input works. New users are
29 encouraged to study the tutorial first.
31 The reference manual is ordered according to different tasks.
32 More details on the property setting mechanisms and context handling is
33 provided in @ref{Tuning output} and @ref{Interpretation context}. The
34 syntactical details are described at the end of the manual.
56 * Skipping corrected music::
57 * Interpretation context::
67 The purpose of LilyPond is explained informally by the term `music
68 typesetter'. This is not a fully correct name: not only does the
69 program print musical symbols, it also makes aesthetic decisions.
70 Symbols and their placements are @emph{generated} from a high-level
71 musical description. In other words, LilyPond would be best described
72 by `music compiler' or `music to notation compiler'.
74 LilyPond is linked to GUILE, GNU's Scheme library for extension
75 programming. The Scheme library provides the glue that holds together
76 the low-level routines and separate modules which are written in C++.
78 When lilypond is run to typeset sheet music, the following happens:
80 @item GUILE Initialization: various scheme files are read
81 @item parsing: first standard @code{ly} initialization files are read, and
82 then the user @file{ly} file is read.
83 @item interpretation: the music in the file is processed ``in playing
84 order'', i.e. the order that you use to read sheet music, or the
85 order in which notes are played. The result of this step is a typesetting
89 The typesetting specification is solved: positions and formatting is
92 @item the visible results ("virtual ink") are written to the output file.
95 During these stages different types of data play the the main role:
96 during parsing, @strong{Music} objects are created. During the
97 interpretation, @strong{contexts} are constructed, and with these contexts
98 a network of @strong{graphical objects} (``grobs'') is created. These
99 grobs contain unknown variables, and the network forms a set of
100 equations. After solving the equations and filling in these variables,
101 the printed output (in the form of @strong{molecules}) is written to an
104 These threemanship of tasks (parsing, translating, typesetting) and
105 data-structures (music, context, graphical objects) permeates the entire
106 design of the program.
108 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
114 The most basic forms of music are notes. We discuss how you enter them
115 here. Notes on their own don't form valid input, but for the sake of
116 brevity we omit obligatory lint such as @code{\score} blocks and
117 @code{\paper} declarations.
128 * Defining pitch names::
129 * Easy Notation note heads ::
136 A note specification has the form
139 @var{pitch}[!][?][@var{duration}]
142 The alteration refers to what note is heard, not to whether an
143 accidental is printed. This is done depending on the key and context.
144 A reminder accidental
145 @cindex reminder accidental
147 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
148 cautionary accidental,
149 @cindex cautionary accidental
150 @cindex parenthesized accidental
151 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
152 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
154 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
155 cis' d' e' cis' c'? d' e' c'!
164 @cindex Note specification
166 @cindex entering notes
168 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
170 @cindex @code{\pitch}
172 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
175 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object, see @ref{Pitch data type}.
177 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
178 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
179 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
180 from @code{c} to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
181 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
183 @cindex note names, Dutch
185 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
186 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
187 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
188 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
189 both forms are accepted.
191 LilyPond has predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
192 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
193 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
194 the names they define are:
197 Note Names sharp flat
198 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
199 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
200 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
201 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
202 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
203 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
204 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
212 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
213 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
214 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
215 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
217 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
218 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
226 A rest is entered like a note, with note name `@code{r}':
228 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
232 The grob is @code{Rest}. Whole bar rests centered in the bar are
233 specified using @code{R}, see @ref{Multi measure rests}.
241 @cindex Invisible rest
244 An invisible rest, or skip, can be entered like a note with note name
247 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
251 Actually, this is a shorthand for the @code{\skip} command, and it is
252 only available in Note mode and Chord mode.
254 @c FIXME: in lyrics mode, we have " " and _
256 In Lyrics mode, you can use `@code{" "}' and `@code{_}':
257 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
259 \context Lyrics \lyrics { lah2 di4 " " dah2 _4 di }
260 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a4 a a2 a4 a }
264 The unabbreviated `@code{\skip} @var{duration}' also works outside of
267 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
270 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
271 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
280 @subsection Durations
284 @cindex @code{\duration}
286 The syntax for a verbose duration specification is
288 \duration @var{scmduration}
290 Here, @var{scmduration} is a Scheme object of type @code{Duration}. See
291 @ref{Duration} for more information.
294 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
295 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
296 longer than a whole you must use identifiers.
300 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
302 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
308 \notes \relative c'' {
310 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
312 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
317 \remove "Clef_engraver"
318 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
319 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
320 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
326 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
327 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
328 NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
329 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
330 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
332 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
333 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
337 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
338 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
339 duration can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
343 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
349 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M} by
350 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
351 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
363 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. When used
364 with chords, it connects all the note heads whose pitches match.
365 Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'. If you try to tie
366 together chords which have no common pitches then no ties will be
369 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
370 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
373 If you dislike the amount of ties created for a chord, you set
374 @code{Voice.sparseTies} to true, resulting in a smaller number of
376 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
377 \property Voice.sparseTies = ##t
378 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
381 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
382 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
383 exactly the same concept.
385 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
386 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
389 The name of the tie grob is @code{Voice.Tie}.
393 At present, the tie is implemented as a separate thing, temporally
394 located in between the notes. There is also no way to convert
395 between tied notes, dotted notes and plain notes.
397 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a chord is not supported in a
398 simple way. It can be achieved by moving the tie-engraver into the Thread
399 context and turning on and off ties per Thread.
407 @cindex @code{\times}
409 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all duration
412 @cindex @code{\times}
414 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
417 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
418 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
419 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
420 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
421 their written length:
423 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
424 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
427 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
428 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
429 @code{\times} only once, thus saving typing work.
431 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
432 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
433 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
436 The format of the number is determined by the property
437 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
438 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
439 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
442 The typesetting of brackets and numbers is controlled by the properties
443 @code{tuplet-bracket-visibility} and @code{tuplet-number-visibility}.
445 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
446 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##t
447 \times 2/3{c'8 d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
448 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = #'if-no-beam
449 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
450 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##f
451 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
452 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = ##f
453 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
454 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = #'if-no-beam
455 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
458 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
459 @cindex tuplet formatting
461 Tuplet brackets are printed as @code{TupletBracket} grobs
463 @c . {Defining pitch names}
464 @node Defining pitch names
465 @subsection Defining pitch names
467 @cindex defining pitch names
468 @cindex pitch names, defining
470 Note names and chord modifiers can be customized for nationalities. The
471 syntax is as follows.
473 @cindex @code{\pitchnames}
474 @cindex @code{\chordmodifiers}
476 \pitchnames @var{scheme-alist}
477 \chordmodifiers @var{scheme-alist}
480 See @file{ly/nederlands.ly} and @file{ly/chord-modifiers.ly} for
481 specific examples on how to do this.
484 @node Easy Notation note heads
485 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
487 @cindex easy notation
490 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
491 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
492 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
494 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
495 \include "paper23.ly"
497 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
498 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
502 Note that @code{EasyNotation} overrides a @code{Score} context. You
503 probably will want to print it with magnification to make it more
504 readable, see @ref{Output scaling}.
510 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through the
511 letters. Printing the postscript file obtained either by using dvips or
512 the @code{-f ps} option of lilypond produces the correct result.
517 @section Staff notation
519 @cindex Staff notation
531 @subsection Key signature
536 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
539 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
542 @cindex @code{\minor}
543 @cindex @code{\major}
544 @cindex @code{\minor}
545 @cindex @code{\ionian}
546 @cindex @code{\locrian}
547 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
548 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
549 @cindex @code{\lydian}
550 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
551 @cindex @code{\dorian}
553 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
554 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
555 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
556 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
557 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
559 This command sets the context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
560 Non-standard key signatures can be specified by setting this property
561 directly, see the generated documentation for @rgrob{KeySignature}.
563 The printed signature is a @code{KeySignature} grob.
565 @cindex @code{keySignature}
572 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command.
580 \property Staff.clefGlyph = @var{glyph associated with clefname}
581 \property Staff.clefPosition = @var{clef Y-position for clefname}
582 \property Staff.centralCPosition = @var{position for central C}
583 \property Staff.clefOctavation = @var{extra transposition of clefname}
586 Any change in these properties creates a clef (a @code{Clef} grob).
588 Supported clef-names include
590 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
592 @item treble, violin, G, G2
601 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
616 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
617 transposed one octave down or up, respectively.
619 Supported associated glyphs (for @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) are:
628 @item clefs-vaticana_do
629 Editio Vaticana style do clef
630 @item clefs-vaticana_fa
631 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
632 @item clefs-medicaea_do
633 Editio Medicaea style do clef
634 @item clefs-medicaea_fa
635 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
636 @item clefs-mensural1_c
637 modern style mensural C clef
638 @item clefs-mensural2_c
639 historic style small mensural C clef
640 @item clefs-mensural3_c
641 historic style big mensural C clef
642 @item clefs-mensural1_f
643 historic style traditional mensural F clef
644 @item clefs-mensural2_f
645 historic style new mensural F clef
646 @item clefs-mensural_g
647 historic style mensural G clef
648 @item clefs-hufnagel_do
649 historic style hufnagel do clef
650 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa
651 historic style hufnagel fa clef
652 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa
653 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
654 @item clefs-percussion
655 modern style percussion clef
658 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
659 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
660 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
663 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
664 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
665 @cindex hufnagel clefs
668 @c . {Time signature}
670 @subsection Time signature
671 @cindex Time signature
675 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
678 \time @var{n}@code{/}@var{d}
680 Internally, this is a shortcut for doing
682 \property Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(@var{n} . @var{d})
683 \property Score.beatLength = #(make-moment 1 @var{d})
684 \property Score.measureLength = #(make-moment @var{n} @var{d})
687 These properties @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines
688 should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be
691 Changing the value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a
692 fraction to be printed. This grob is @code{TimeSignature}.
694 The actual symbol that's printed can be customized with the style
696 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, singleline]
698 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
700 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'()
702 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
706 There are many more options for the layout of this grob. They are
707 selected through the @code{style} grob property.
709 @c FIXME: this isn't documented except in example?
711 @file{input/test/time.ly} for examples.
718 @cindex partial measure
719 @cindex measure, partial
720 @cindex shorten measures
721 @cindex @code{\partial}
723 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
724 @code{\partial} command:
726 \partial @var{duration}
729 Internally, this is a shortcut for
732 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
736 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
737 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
740 @node Unmetered music
741 @subsection Unmetered music
743 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
744 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. The property
745 @code{Score.timing} can be used to switch off this automatic timing
747 @lilypond[fragment,relative,singleline,verbatim]
749 \property Score.timing = ##f
751 \property Score.timing = ##t
755 The identifiers @code{\cadenzaOn} and @code{\cadenzaOff} can be used as
762 @subsection Bar lines
766 @cindex measure lines
773 This is a shortcut for doing
775 \property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}
777 The following bar types are available
779 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
792 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
796 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
798 @cindex repeatCommands
799 @cindex defaultBarType
801 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
802 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
803 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
804 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
806 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
807 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
808 @code{whichBar} settings.
810 @code{BarLine} grobs are created by the @code{Bar_engraver}.
817 Polyphonic parts, i.e. parts with more than one voice on a staff can be
818 typeset with LilyPond. To use this, instantiate a separate Voice
819 context for each part, and assign a stem direction to each part.
820 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
822 < \context Voice = VA { \stemUp b'4 a' g' f' e' }
823 \context Voice = VB { \stemDown g'4 g' g' g' g' } >
826 When there are more than two voices on a staff, you must also indicate
827 which voice should moved horizontally in case of a collision. This can
828 be done with the identifiers @code{\shiftOff}, @code{\shiftOn},
829 @code{\shiftOnn}, etc. (which sets the grob property @code{horizontal-shift}
830 in @code{NoteColumn}).
832 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
833 \context Staff \notes\relative c''<
840 \context Voice=three {
841 \shiftOnn \stemUp ais
843 \context Voice=four {
844 \shiftOnnn \stemUp fis
849 The most convenient way is to use the identifiers @code{\voiceOne}
850 through @code{\voiceFour}, which also set slur and tie directions in the
853 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
855 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
856 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
857 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
860 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
861 if you set the grob property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
863 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
865 \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne
867 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
870 \context Voice = VB { \voiceTwo [g'8. f16] [g'8. f'16] }
874 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
876 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
878 \context Voice { \stemUp c''4 }
879 \context Voice =VB { r4 }
883 Note head collisions (horizontal shifting of note heads) are handled by
884 the @code{NoteCollision} grob. @code{RestCollision} handles vertical
887 @cindex @code{NoteCollision}
888 @cindex @code{RestCollision}
893 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
894 handles a few situations. When it can not cope, you are advised to use
895 @code{force-hshift} of the NoteColumn grob and @code{staff-position} of
896 the Rest grob to override typesetting decisions.
901 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
902 the metrum. LilyPond guesses where beams should be inserted. If you're
903 not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can specify which patterns
904 to beam automatically. In specific cases, you can also enter the beams
908 @c . {Automatic beams}
909 @subsection Automatic beams
911 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}
912 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
913 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
916 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
917 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
918 or at durations specified by the properties in
919 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
920 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
922 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
923 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
925 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
926 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
928 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
929 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
930 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
931 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
932 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
935 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
936 you can use the following:
938 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
939 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
941 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
942 entered as @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
944 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
945 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
947 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
948 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
950 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
951 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
952 3/8 has passed within the measure).
954 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
955 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
956 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
957 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
959 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
960 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
963 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
964 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
965 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
966 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
970 @c Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
972 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
973 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
975 @cindex automatic beam generation
977 @cindex @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming}
979 Automatic beaming is on by default, but can be switched off by setting
980 @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming} to true. You you may find this necessary for
981 a melody that goes with lyrics.
985 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
986 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
987 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
988 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,relative]
989 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
990 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
991 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
994 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
995 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
996 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
999 @cindex Automatic beams
1000 @subsection Manual beams
1001 @cindex beams, manual
1005 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
1006 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
1007 rests or bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point
1008 manually using a @code{[} before the first beamed note and a @code{]}
1009 after the last note:
1011 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1013 r4 [r8 g' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
1016 Whenever an manual beam is busy, the automatic beamer will not produce
1019 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1021 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1022 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1023 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount}. can
1024 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
1025 property, it's value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1027 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1030 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
1033 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1035 The beam symbol (grob @code{Voice.Beam}, both for automatic and manual
1036 beams) can be tweaked through grob-properties @code{height} and
1037 @code{staff-position}. These specify vertical location and vertical
1038 span. Both are measured in half staff-spaces, @code{staff-position=0}
1039 corresponds to the middle staff line.
1041 Set @code{height} to zero, to get horizontal beams:
1043 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1044 \property Voice.Beam \set #'direction = #1
1045 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #0
1049 Here's how you'd specify a weird looking beam that instead of being
1050 horizontal, falls two staff spaces:
1052 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1053 \property Voice.Beam \set #'staff-position = #4
1054 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #-4
1058 @c TODO -> why this ref? Document?
1059 @cindex @code{neutral-direction}
1061 @node Expressive marks
1062 @section Expressive marks
1077 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1078 They are entered using parentheses:
1080 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1081 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
1085 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1086 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1087 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1088 @code{Voice.Slur}'s grob-property @code{attachment}. It's value is a
1089 pair of symbols, specifying the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1091 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1092 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1093 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1095 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1099 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1100 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1101 stems might look better:
1103 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1104 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
1105 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1107 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1112 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
1113 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
1114 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this decision
1115 is in @code{Voice.Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}. It is loosely
1116 related to the enclosed area between the slur and the notes. Usually,
1117 the default setting works well, but in some cases you may prefer a
1118 curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved one. You can
1119 indicate this preference by increasing the @code{beautiful} value:
1121 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
1122 \property Voice.Beam \override #'direction = #-1
1123 \property Voice.Slur \override #'direction = #1
1124 c16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
1125 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1126 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
1127 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1132 @code{beautiful} is an arbitrary parameter in the slur formatter.
1133 Useful values can only be determined by trial and error.
1135 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1137 @node Phrasing slurs
1138 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1140 @cindex phrasing slurs
1141 @cindex phrasing marks
1143 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1144 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1147 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1148 \time 6/4 c' \( ( d ) e f ( e ) \) d
1151 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
1152 slur. The grob associated with it is @code{Voice.PhrasingSlur}.
1155 @subsection Breath marks
1157 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}. The result is a
1158 @code{Voice.BreathingSign} grob.
1160 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1169 Currently, only tick marks are supported, not comma style breath marks.
1176 @cindex beats per minute
1177 @cindex metronome marking
1179 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1181 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1183 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1186 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1191 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1192 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1193 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1198 @subsection Text spanners
1199 @cindex Text spanners
1201 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando or accelerando, often extend
1202 over many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1203 dotted line. You can create such texts using text spanners. The syntax
1206 \spanrequest \start "text"
1207 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1209 LilyPond will respond by creating a @code{Voice.TextSpanner} grob. The
1210 string to be printed, as well as the style is set through grob
1213 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1214 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1215 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1216 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1217 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1218 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1219 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1220 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1238 @subsection Articulations
1239 @cindex Articulations
1241 @cindex articulations
1245 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1246 different characteristics of the performance. These symbols can be
1247 added to a note with `@var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}'. Numerous symbols
1248 are defined in @file{script.ly}. Symbols can be forced to appear above
1249 or below the note by writing `@var{note}@code{^\}@var{name}' and
1250 `@var{note}@code{_\}@var{name}' respectively. Here is a chart showing
1251 symbols on notes, with the name of the corresponding symbol appearing
1257 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-family =#'typewriter
1258 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1259 \context Staff \notes {
1260 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''^\fermata
1261 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\upbow
1262 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1263 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1264 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1265 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1266 c''-\upmordent c''-\downmordent c''-\pralldown c''-\prallup
1267 c''-\lineprall c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1269 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1270 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1271 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ upbow
1272 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1273 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1274 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1275 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1276 upmordent__ downmordent__ pralldown__ prallup__
1277 lineprall__ thumb__ segno__ coda
1281 linewidth = 5.875\in
1287 To save typing work, some shorthands are available:
1288 @lilypond[singleline]
1290 \notes \context Voice {
1291 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1292 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1298 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1305 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand.
1306 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1307 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1311 @cindex @code{\script}
1316 You can add scripts by editing @file{scm/script.scm}. This file contains
1317 a table, listing script definitions and aliases. The following syntax
1318 accesses a script definition from the table:
1324 Usually the @code{\script} keyword is not used directly. Various
1325 helpful identifier definitions appear in @file{script.ly}.
1327 Grobs for these objects are @code{Script} and @code{Fingering}.
1331 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1332 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1334 Unfortunately, there is no support for adding fingering instructions or
1335 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1336 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1341 @subsection Text scripts
1342 @cindex Text scripts
1344 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1345 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1348 By default, these indications do not influence the note spacing, but
1349 if @code{Voice.textNonEmpty} is set to true the widths will be taken
1350 into account. The identifier @code{\fatText} is defined in the standard
1352 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
1353 \relative c' { c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1356 Text scripts are created in form of @code{Voice.TextScript} grobs.
1358 @ref{Text markup} describes how to change the font or access
1359 special symbols in text scripts.
1363 @subsection Grace notes
1372 @cindex @code{\grace}
1375 @cindex @code{graceAlignPosition}
1377 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out, but do not take up any
1378 logical time in a measure. LilyPond has limited support for grace notes.
1379 The syntax is as follows.
1381 \grace @var{musicexpr}
1384 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1387 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1389 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1391 \property Voice.Stem \override #'flag-style = #'()
1393 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'flag-style
1398 A grace note expression has duration 0; the next real note is assumed to
1399 be the main note. If you want the note to appear after the main note,
1400 set @code{Voice.graceAlignPosition} to @code{1}.
1404 Nesting @code{\grace} notes is not supported. The following may cause
1405 run-time errors: @example
1406 @code{\grace @{ \grace c32 c16 @} c4}
1408 Since the meaning of such a construct is unclear, we don't consider this
1409 a loss. Similarly, juxtaposing two @code{\grace} sections is
1410 syntactically valid, but makes no sense and may cause runtime errors.
1411 Ending a staff or score with grace notes may also generate a run-time
1412 error, since there will be no main note to attach the grace notes to.
1423 @subsection Glissando
1426 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1428 A glissando line (grob @code{Voice.Glissando}) can be requested by attaching a
1429 @code{\glissando} to a note:
1431 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1437 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1444 @subsection Dynamics
1457 @cindex @code{\ffff}
1467 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an identifier after a
1468 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
1469 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
1470 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
1471 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
1473 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
1474 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
1480 @cindex @code{\decr}
1481 @cindex @code{\rced}
1487 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
1488 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
1489 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
1490 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
1491 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
1492 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
1493 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
1494 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
1495 want several marks during one note, you have to use spacer notes.
1497 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1498 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
1499 < f''1 { s4 s4 \< \! s4 \> \! s4 } >
1502 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
1503 is an example how to do it:
1508 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1510 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc."
1511 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
1516 For everyday use, we recommend the identifiers @code{\cresc},
1517 @code{endcresc}, @code{\dim} and @code{\enddim}.
1521 Dynamics are grobs of @code{Voice.DynamicText} and
1522 @code{Voice.Hairpin}. They are put together on
1523 @code{Voice.DynamicLineSpanner} to align them vertically.
1532 @cindex @code{\repeat}
1534 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
1535 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
1536 different variants of repeats.
1540 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
1541 output, and entering repetitive music.
1544 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
1545 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
1548 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
1549 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
1550 @file{input/star-spangled-banner.ly}.
1556 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
1562 * Manual repeat commands::
1564 * Tremolo subdivisions::
1569 @subsection Repeat syntax
1571 The syntax for repeats is
1574 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
1577 If you have alternative endings, you may add
1578 @cindex @code{\alternative}
1580 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
1582 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
1584 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
1586 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
1587 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1589 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
1590 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
1593 With alternative endings:
1594 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1596 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1597 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1600 Folded repeats look like this:
1603 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1605 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1606 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1610 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
1611 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
1612 the specified number of repeats.
1614 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1618 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
1619 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
1624 @subsection Unfolding repeats for MIDI output.
1626 @cindex expanding repeats
1628 See @file{input/test/unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
1633 Notice that timing information is not remembered at the start of an
1634 alternative, so you have to reset timing information after a repeat,
1635 e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting
1636 @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties
1637 are also not repeated.
1639 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}s, although this probably is only
1640 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
1642 Folded repeats offer little more over simultaneous music. However, it
1643 is to be expected that more functionality -- especially for the MIDI
1644 backend -- will be implemented at some point in the future.
1646 Volta repeats are printed over all staves in a score. You must turn them
1647 off explicitly, for example by doing
1649 \property Staff.VoltaBracket = \turnOff
1651 in all but the top staff.
1653 @node Manual repeat commands
1654 @subsection Manual repeat commands
1656 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
1658 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
1659 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
1667 @item (volta . @var{text})
1668 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
1670 Stop a running volta bracket
1673 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
1675 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
1677 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
1682 Repeats brackets are @code{Staff.VoltaBracket} grobs.
1684 @node Tremolo repeats
1685 @subsection Tremolo repeats
1686 @cindex tremolo beams
1688 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
1690 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
1692 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
1693 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
1694 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
1695 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
1696 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
1701 Tremolo beams are @code{Voice.Beam} grobs. Single stem tremolos are
1702 @code{Voice.StemTremolo}.
1707 At present, the spacing between tremolo beams is not regular, since the
1708 spacing engine does not notice that not all notes are printed.
1710 @node Tremolo subdivisions
1711 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
1712 @cindex tremolo marks
1713 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
1715 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
1716 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
1717 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
1718 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
1719 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
1721 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
1722 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
1728 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
1731 @node Measure repeats
1732 @subsection Measure repeats
1734 @cindex percent repeats
1735 @cindex measure repeats
1737 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
1738 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
1739 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
1740 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
1742 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1743 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
1744 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
1748 The signs are represented by these grobs: @code{Voice.RepeatSlash} and
1749 @code{Voice.PercentRepeat} and @code{Voice.DoublePercentRepeat}.
1753 You can not nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
1754 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
1756 @node Rhythmic music
1757 @section Rhythmic music
1764 @node Rhythmic staves
1765 @subsection Rhythmic staves
1767 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
1768 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
1769 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
1771 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1772 \context RhythmicStaff {
1774 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1781 @section Piano music
1783 Piano music is an odd type of notation. Piano staves are two normal
1784 staves coupled with a brace. The staves are largely independent, but
1785 sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. The
1786 @code{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
1787 behavior. In this section we discuss the @code{PianoStaff} and some
1788 other pianistic peculiarities.
1791 * Automatic staff changes::
1792 * Manual staff switches::
1795 * Voice follower lines::
1799 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
1800 @node Automatic staff changes
1801 @subsection Automatic staff changes
1802 @cindex Automatic staff changes
1804 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
1805 staff. The syntax for this is
1807 \autochange @var{contexttype} @var{musicexp}
1809 This will switch the interpretation context of @var{musicexp} between a
1810 @var{contexttype} named @code{up} and @code{down}. Typically, you use
1811 @code{Staff} for @var{contexttype}. The autochanger switches on basis
1812 of pitch (central C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping
1813 over rests to switch rests in advance.
1815 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1816 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
1817 \context Staff = "up" {
1818 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
1819 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
1820 \context Staff = "down" {
1826 Note how spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
1827 terminating too soon.
1830 @node Manual staff switches
1831 @subsection Manual staff switches
1833 @cindex manual staff switches
1834 @cindex staff switch, manual
1836 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
1838 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
1840 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
1841 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
1842 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
1845 The formal definition of this construct is obtuse, but for the sake of
1846 completeness we give it here.
1847 @cindex @code{\translator}
1849 \translator @var{contexttype} = @var{name}
1851 Formally, this construct is a music expression indicating
1852 that the context which is a direct child of the context of type
1853 @var{contexttype} should be shifted to a context of type
1854 @var{contexttype} and the specified name.
1862 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
1863 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
1864 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
1866 These identifiers are shorthands for spanner commands of the types
1867 @code{Sustain}, @code{UnaCorda} and @code{Sostenuto}:
1869 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1870 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4
1871 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
1874 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
1875 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal
1876 types. Refer to the generated documentation of @rgrob{PianoPedal} for
1882 Currently, brackets are not supported, only text markings (i.e. `*Ped'
1888 @subsection Arpeggio
1891 @cindex broken arpeggio
1892 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
1894 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
1895 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
1898 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1899 \context Voice <c\arpeggio e g c>
1902 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
1903 to the chords in both staves, and set
1904 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
1906 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1907 \context PianoStaff <
1908 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
1909 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
1910 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
1914 This command creates @code{Voice.Arpeggio} grobs. Cross staff arpeggios
1915 are @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio}.
1917 To add an arrow head to explicitly specify the direction of the
1918 arpeggio, you should set the arpeggio grob property
1919 @code{arpeggio-type}.
1921 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1923 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #1
1925 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
1931 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
1932 arpeggiate the chord.
1934 @lil ypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1935 \context PianoStaff <
1936 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
1937 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #'bracket
1938 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
1939 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
1947 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios
1952 @node Voice follower lines
1953 @subsection Voice follower lines
1955 @cindex follow voice
1956 @cindex staff switching
1959 @cindex @code{followVoice}
1961 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
1962 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
1963 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
1965 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1966 \context PianoStaff <
1967 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
1968 \context Staff \context Voice {
1970 \translator Staff=two
1973 \context Staff=two {\clef bass \skip 1*2 }
1977 The associated grob is @code{Voice.VoiceFollower}.
1987 * Automatic syllable durations::
1993 @subsection Lyrics mode
1996 To print lyrics, you must first make a music expression from the lyric
1997 text. That music expression can be printed by selecting an appropriate
2001 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
2003 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
2004 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
2005 The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
2006 punctuation and accents without any hassle.
2008 Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text. For
2009 example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that
2010 the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
2013 Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes:
2014 @code{"He could"4 not4} or by using an underscore without quotes:
2015 @code{He_could4 not4}. All unquoted underscores are converted to
2018 The precise definition of this mode can be found in @ref{Lyrics mode
2021 @c . {Printing lyrics}
2022 @node Printing lyrics
2023 @subsection Printing lyrics
2026 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the @code{Lyrics} context.
2028 @c Maybe more pedagogical to avoid \addlyrics in this first example? /MB
2029 @c Add tied and beamed melismata too.
2030 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2032 \notes \relative c' {
2034 \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t
2035 d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
2036 b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 }
2037 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2039 share the soft -- ware; }
2043 Notes and syllable durations are matched automatically. This is
2044 accomplished using @code{\addlyrics}, which is documented in
2045 @ref{Automatic syllable durations}. Setting @code{automaticMelismata} in
2046 the melody staff will cause tied, slurred or beamed notes to be
2047 interpreted as melismata.
2049 The Lyric syllables are @code{LyricsVoice.LyricSyllable} grobs.
2052 @cindex lyric extender
2055 As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will
2056 create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of the
2057 lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric,
2058 so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
2059 The grob for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricExtender}.
2064 If you want to have hyphens centered between syllables (rather than
2065 attached to the end of the first syllable) you can use the special
2066 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. This
2067 will result in a hyphen whose length varies depending on the space
2068 between syllables. It will be centered between the syllables. The grob
2069 for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricHyphen}.
2071 @cindex Lyric hyphen
2073 @node Automatic syllable durations
2074 @subsection Automatic syllable durations
2075 @cindex Automatic syllable durations
2077 @cindex automatic lyric durations
2078 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
2080 If you have lyrics that are set to a melody, you can copy the rhythm
2081 of that melody into the lyrics using @code{\addlyrics}. The syntax for
2084 \addlyrics @var{musicexpr1 musicexpr2}
2087 Both @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} are interpreted, but every
2088 music event (``every syllable'') in @var{musicexpr2} is interpreted only
2089 when there are events in @var{musicexpr1}.
2091 @cindex @code{automaticMelismata}
2093 If the property @code{automaticMelismata} is set in the
2094 context of @var{musicexpr1}, no lyrics will be put on slurred or tied
2097 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2100 \property Voice.automaticMelismata = ##t
2101 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2103 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2107 If you want the lyric lines to be above the melody staff, or in some
2108 other, more complex configuration, then build that configuration first
2109 using simultaneous music, and use @code{\addlyrics} after that.
2111 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
2113 \context Lyrics = LA { s1 }
2114 \context Staff = SA { s1 }
2116 \context Staff = SA \relative c' { c4 e g g }
2117 \context Lyrics = LA \lyrics { geen ge -- don -- der } >
2120 For @code{\addlyrics} you should use a single rhythm melody, and single
2121 rhythm lyrics (a constant duration is the obvious choice). If you do
2122 not, you can get undesired effects when using multiple stanzas:
2124 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2127 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2129 \context Lyrics \lyrics
2134 It is valid (but probably not very useful) to use notes instead of
2135 lyrics for @var{musicexpr2}.
2138 @subsection More stanzas
2142 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
2143 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
2144 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
2146 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice
2147 to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
2148 In the following example, the Voice
2149 identity is @code{duet}, and the identities of the LyricsVoices are
2150 @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
2153 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2156 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
2158 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
2159 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
2160 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
2161 Hi, my name is bert. }
2162 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
2163 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
2164 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
2169 You can add stanza numbers by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the
2170 first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following
2171 systems. Notice how you must surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics}
2177 @cindex stanza numbering
2185 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords. Chords are
2186 characterized by a set of pitches. They are
2187 internally stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can
2188 enter chords by name and print them as note head, enter them as notes
2189 and print them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by
2190 name, and print them as name.
2193 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2194 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
2204 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
2205 \context Voice \twoWays > }
2208 Note that this example also shows that the chord printing routines do
2209 not attempt to be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not
2210 interpret this as an inversion.
2214 * Printing named chords::
2219 @subsection Chords mode
2222 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
2223 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
2224 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
2225 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc).
2227 Dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions and subtractions,
2228 so articulation scripts can not be entered in Chord mode.
2230 The syntax for named chords is as follows:
2232 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
2235 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration} is
2236 the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
2237 modifiers. One type is formed by @emph{chord additions}. Additions are
2238 obtained by listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written
2239 by its number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising
2240 or lowering by half a step. Chord additions have two effects: they adds
2241 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
2242 chord, and they may lower or raise the specified interval.
2244 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
2245 using @code{\transpose}.
2247 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2251 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5-
2261 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
2262 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
2263 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
2264 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
2265 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
2266 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
2267 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
2269 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2272 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
2278 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
2279 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
2282 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2291 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
2292 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
2293 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the note
2294 is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
2296 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2306 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
2307 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
2308 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
2309 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
2311 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2322 Implementation details are quite gory. For example @code{c:4} not only
2323 adds a fourth, but also removes the third.
2326 @c . {Printing named chords}
2327 @node Printing named chords
2328 @subsection Printing named chords
2330 @cindex printing chord names
2333 @cindex @code{ChordNames}
2336 For displaying printed chord names, use the @code{ChordNames} context.
2337 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
2338 directly using simultaneous music.
2340 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2342 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
2346 \context ChordNames \scheme
2347 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2352 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
2353 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
2354 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of a
2359 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
2363 \context ChordNames {
2364 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
2366 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2370 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
2371 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
2372 an added bass note, which may result in strange chord names when chords
2373 are entered as a list of pitches:
2375 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2384 \context ChordNames \scheme
2385 \context Staff \scheme
2391 By default, a chord name system proposed by Harald Banter (See
2392 @ref{Literature}) is used. The system is very regular and predictable.
2393 Typical American style chord names may be selected by setting the
2394 @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName} grob to
2395 @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz chordnames.
2397 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
2398 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
2399 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}. Here's an example showing the differences in
2403 @c maybe just junk verbatim option?
2404 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2414 \context ChordNames = banter \scheme
2415 \context ChordNames = american {
2416 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2417 #'style = #'american \scheme }
2418 \context ChordNames = jazz {
2419 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2420 #'style = #'jazz \scheme }
2421 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2428 @section Writing parts
2430 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
2431 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
2432 problems in orchestral music.
2439 * Instrument names::
2441 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
2442 * Multi measure rests::
2443 * Automatic part combining::
2444 * Hara kiri staves::
2447 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
2448 @node Rehearsal marks
2449 @subsection Rehearsal marks
2450 @cindex Rehearsal marks
2452 @cindex @code{\mark}
2453 @cindex @code{Mark_engraver}
2456 \mark @var{unsigned}
2461 This command prints a rehearsal mark above the system. You can provide
2462 a number, a string or a markup text as argument. If you use
2463 @code{\default}, the value of property @code{rehearsalMark} is used and
2464 automatically incremented.
2466 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2472 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-segno")
2477 The grob is @code{Score.RehearsalMark}. See
2478 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} if you need boxes around the marks.
2481 @subsection Bar numbers
2483 Bar numbers (grob: @code{BarNumber}) are printed at the start of the
2484 line. See @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} for boxed bar numbers.
2488 It is not possible to have bar numbers printed at regular intervals
2491 @node Instrument names
2492 @subsection Instrument names
2494 You can specify an instrument name for a staff by setting
2495 @code{Staff.instrument} and @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string
2496 before the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
2497 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
2499 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2500 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
2503 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
2507 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2509 '((font-relative-size . -2 ) (music "accidentals--1")))
2512 \property Staff.instrument = #`((kern . 0.5) (lines
2513 "2 Clarinetti" (columns " (B" ,text-flat ")")))
2521 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
2522 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
2523 the name to avoid a collision.
2526 @subsection Transpose
2528 @cindex transposition of pitches
2529 @cindex @code{\transpose}
2531 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
2534 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
2537 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
2540 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
2541 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
2542 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
2545 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2548 { \key e \major c d e f }
2550 \transpose des'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2551 \transpose cis'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2555 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
2556 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
2557 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
2559 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
2560 @subsection Sound output transposing instruments
2562 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed and
2564 instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch offset (in
2565 semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done using the
2566 @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed output.
2568 @cindex @code{transposing}
2571 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
2572 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
2575 @c . {Multi measure rests}
2576 @node Multi measure rests
2577 @subsection Multi measure rests
2578 @cindex Multi measure rests
2582 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
2583 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
2585 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
2586 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
2587 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
2590 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2591 \time 3/4 r2. | R2. | R2.*2 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
2594 Notice that the @code{R2.} is printed as a whole rest, centered in the
2597 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
2601 Currently, there is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into
2602 a single multimeasure rest.
2604 @cindex condensing rests
2606 @node Automatic part combining
2607 @subsection Automatic part combining
2608 @cindex automatic part combining
2609 @cindex part combiner
2612 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
2613 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting
2614 orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
2615 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are
2616 typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically.
2617 Also, solo and @emph{a due} parts can be identified and marked.
2619 The syntax for part combining is
2622 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
2624 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
2625 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
2626 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
2629 The most useful function of the part combiner is to combine parts into
2630 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
2632 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2634 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2635 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2638 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2644 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
2645 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
2646 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
2647 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
2648 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
2651 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
2652 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
2654 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2656 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
2657 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2658 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2661 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2667 There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak the
2668 behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
2669 documentation of @reng{Thread_devnull_engraver} and
2670 @reng{Voice_devnull_engraver}. Look at the documentation of the
2671 responsible engravers, @code{Thread_devnull_engraver},
2672 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
2676 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
2677 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
2680 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
2682 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2683 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2686 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2692 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2693 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
2694 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
2696 @node Hara kiri staves
2697 @subsection Hara kiri staves
2699 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
2700 This saves some space. LilyPond also supports this through the hara
2701 kiri@footnote{Hara kiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
2702 the Japanese Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when
2703 it finds itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will
2704 not disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
2707 The hara kiri staff is specialized version of the Staff context. It is
2708 available as the context identifier @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}.
2709 Observe how the second staff in this example disappears in the second
2714 \notes \relative c' <
2715 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
2716 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
2720 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
2733 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
2734 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
2735 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
2736 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2737 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2742 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
2747 \consists Custos_engraver
2753 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century.
2754 There were different appearances for different notation styles.
2755 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
2756 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
2759 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
2760 @code{StaffContext} when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
2761 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
2762 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
2763 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
2770 \consists Custos_engraver
2771 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2776 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
2781 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
2782 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
2786 @c . {Tuning output}
2788 @section Tuning output
2790 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
2791 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
2792 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
2793 ways to do just that.
2795 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called grobs (graphic
2796 objects). Each grob carries with it a set of properties (grob
2797 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem grob has
2798 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
2800 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
2801 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
2802 temporarily change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus
2803 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
2804 object, and set a grob property in that object.
2807 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
2808 * Tuning per grob ::
2816 @node Tuning groups of grobs
2817 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
2819 @cindex grob description
2823 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a
2824 context property. By assigning to that property (using plain
2825 @code{\property}), you can change the resulting grobs.
2827 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2828 c'4 \property Voice.Stem = #'((meta . ((interfaces . ())))) c'4
2831 The @code{\property} assignment effectively empties the definition of
2832 the Stem object. One of the effects is that the recipe of how it should be
2833 printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible. The above
2834 assignment is available as a standard identifier, for the case that you
2838 \property Voice.Stem = \turnOff
2845 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
2846 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
2849 The definition of a grob is actually a list of default grob
2850 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem grob (available in
2851 @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), defines the following values for
2856 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
2857 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
2861 You can add a property on top of the existing definition, or remove a
2862 property, thus overriding the system defaults:
2864 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
2865 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
2868 You should balance @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. If that's too
2869 much work, you can use the @code{\set} shorthand. It performs a revert
2870 followed by an override. The following example gives exactly the same
2871 result as the previous one.
2873 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
2874 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
2877 If you use @code{\set}, you must explicitly restore the default.
2880 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
2882 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2883 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2884 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
2886 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
2887 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
2890 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
2891 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
2892 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
2893 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and @code{\revert},
2894 must be carefully balanced.
2896 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
2899 A clumsy but correct form:
2901 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
2904 Shorter version of the same:
2906 \override \set \set \revert
2909 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
2912 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
2915 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the grob property is unset),
2918 \set \set \set \revert
2921 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
2922 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a
2923 stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
2924 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding
2925 automatic beaming settings.
2929 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
2930 The backend is not very strict in type-checking grob properties. If you
2931 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
2934 Some grobs are created at the moment that their context is created. An
2935 example of such a grob is the staff itself (i.e. the horizontal lines).
2936 You can not change the appearance of the staff symbol by manipulating
2937 @code{\property Staff.StaffSymbol}. At the moment that @code{\property
2938 Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and the StaffSymbol is
2939 created before any @code{\override} is effective. You can deal with this
2940 either overriding properties in a @code{\translator} definition, or by
2941 using @code{\outputproperty}.
2946 @node Tuning per grob
2947 @subsection Tuning per grob
2949 @cindex \outputproperty
2951 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
2952 feature. The syntax is as follows:
2954 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2956 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
2957 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
2958 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
2959 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
2960 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
2962 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
2963 the appropriate context to apply this to.
2965 Here are some random examples.
2968 In the following example, all note heads occurring at current staff
2969 level, are shifted up and right by setting their @code{extra-offset}
2972 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
2974 \context Staff \outputproperty
2975 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
2976 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
2980 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
2982 In this example, the predicate checks the @code{text} grob property, to
2983 shift only the `m.d.' text, but not the fingering instruction "2".
2984 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2985 #(define (make-text-checker text)
2986 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
2989 \notes\relative c''' {
2990 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
2991 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
2992 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
3000 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
3001 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
3007 @subsection What to tune?
3009 This all tells you how to tune grobs, but you don't know what variables
3010 to set? The question is not answered in this part of the manual
3011 (although you may encounter some examples.).
3013 Grob properties are tied directly to the implementation of LilyPond, and
3014 they are thus a moving target. Documentation of such variables is in the
3015 automatically generated documentation. Description of properties are
3016 generated from the source code for each version. This documentation is
3017 therefore more up to date. It should be available from the same place
3018 where you got this manual.
3020 To decide how to tune a grob, you need to find the following information
3023 which grob to modify
3025 which property to modify
3027 which context the grob comes from.
3030 Included with the automatically generated documentation is a master list
3031 of grobs. Selecting a grob will take you to an overview of the
3032 properties available for that grob.
3034 There is also a master list of contexts. Selecting one takes you to an
3035 overview of that context which lists which grob types are created there.
3038 @node Font selection
3039 @subsection Font selection
3041 Most graphics in LilyPond are composed of characters of fonts. You can
3042 alter the characteristics of the font by setting certain grob
3043 properties. The mechanism that is used for this resembles La@TeX{}'s New
3044 Font Selection Scheme. Within this scheme, a font is entirely
3045 characterized by its font name.
3047 For each grob that uses fonts (in other words, each grob that supports
3048 @code{font-interface}) a font-name must be selected before it can be
3049 printed. The font name is selected by looking at a number of grob
3054 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
3055 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff braces),
3056 @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic
3057 signs) and @code{typewriter}
3060 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
3061 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
3062 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
3065 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
3066 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
3069 @item font-relative-size
3070 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
3071 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
3072 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
3074 @item font-design-size
3075 A number indicating the design size of the font.
3077 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
3078 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
3079 which enhances readability. Scalable type faces such TrueType and Adobe
3080 Type1 usually come as ``one design fits all sizes''.
3083 The name of the font, without the design size, e.g. @code{cmr},
3084 @code{cmti}, etc. Setting this overrides font-family, font-shape and
3089 The font is selected by taking the first font that satisfies all
3090 qualifiers specified. You can override any of these fields through
3091 @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The special value @code{*} matches
3092 any value for that qualifier.
3095 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
3096 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
3099 @cindex @code{font-style}
3101 There are also pre-cooked font selection qualifiers. These are selected
3102 through the grob property @code{font-style}. For example, the style
3103 @code{finger} selects family @code{number} and relative size @code{-3}.
3104 Styles available include @code{volta}, @code{finger}, @code{tuplet},
3105 @code{timesig}, @code{mmrest}, @code{script}, @code{large}, @code{Large}
3108 The style sheets and tables for selecting fonts are located in
3109 @file{scm/font.scm}. Refer to this file for more information.
3113 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
3115 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3116 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts. You
3117 can scale the entire output, of course, see @ref{Output scaling}.
3119 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
3122 @cindex font selection
3123 @cindex font magnification
3124 @cindex @code{font-interface}
3128 @subsection Text markup
3132 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
3133 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
3134 in the following way.
3136 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3141 c^#'(italic "italic")
3142 d_#'((bold italic) "ff")
3144 f_#'(lines "one" (bold "two"))
3145 g^#'(music "noteheads-2" ((raise . 2.4) "flags-u3"))
3149 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
3150 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
3153 text: string | (head? text+)
3154 head: markup | (markup+)
3155 markup-item: property | abbrev
3156 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
3157 abbrev: @code{columns lines roman music bold italic named super sub}
3158 @code{overstrike text finger volta timesig mmrest mark script}
3159 @code{large Large dynamic}
3162 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
3163 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
3164 pair is a grob property. A list of properties available is included in
3165 the generated documentation for @rint{Text_interface}.
3167 The following abbreviations are currently defined:
3170 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
3172 vertical mode: set every text on a new line
3176 selects the Feta font (the standard font for music notation glyphs),
3177 and uses named lookup
3184 lookup by character name
3186 plain text lookup (by character value)
3192 the next text or character overstrikes this one
3194 select fingering number fontstyle
3196 select volta number fontstyle
3198 select time signature number fontstyle
3200 select multi measure rest number fontstyle
3202 select mark number fontstyle
3204 select scriptsize roman fontstyle
3206 select large roman fontstyle
3208 select Large roman fontstyle
3210 select dynamics fontstyle
3214 @cindex metronome mark
3216 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
3220 #(define note '(columns
3221 (music "noteheads-2" ((kern . -0.1) "flags-stem"))))
3222 #(define eight-note `(columns ,note ((kern . -0.1)
3223 (music ((raise . 3.5) "flags-u3")))))
3224 #(define dotted-eight-note
3225 `(columns ,eight-note (music "dots-dot")))
3228 \notes\relative c'' {
3229 a1^#`((columns (font-relative-size . -1)) ,dotted-eight-note " = 64")
3235 TextScript \override #'font-shape = #'upright
3241 @node Invisible grobs
3242 @subsection Invisible grobs
3243 @cindex invisible grobs
3247 ben nog steeds niet kapot van de informatiedichtheid hier.
3253 You can imagine a number of situations where you would want to make
3254 certain grobs not show up in the output. There may be aesthetic
3255 reasons, to make the output resemble an (old) manuscript as close as
3256 possible, or to make lessons or exercises for students.
3258 Grobs can be made invisible in a number of ways:
3260 Here's an example with blanked-out notes and stems:
3261 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3263 \property Voice.NoteHead \override
3265 \property Voice.Stem \override
3266 #'transparent = ##t }
3269 \property Voice.NoteHead \revert #'transparent
3270 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'transparent }
3273 \notes\relative c'' {
3275 a b c b \blanknotes c \unblanknotes d
3279 This method makes the grobs invisible but they still take the normal space.
3280 To remove all traces of the grob, you can redefine the function
3284 \notes\relative c'' {
3287 as bes c bes c d \break
3288 \property Staff.KeySignature \override #'molecule-callback = #'()
3291 \paper{linewidth=5.0\cm indent=0}
3295 A very rigorous way of removing grobs from the whole score is to remove
3296 the engraver that creates them. For example,
3298 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3299 \score {\notes { c'4 d'8 e'8 g2 }
3300 \paper { \translator {
3302 \remove Stem_engraver
3308 @subsection Dirty tricks
3309 @cindex embedded tex
3311 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
3312 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
3313 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
3314 commands won't work with direct PostScript output (see @ref{PostScript
3317 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3318 a'^"3 $\\times$ \\`a deux"
3321 You can also use raw PostScript commands embedded in text scripts. This
3322 offers ultimate flexibility, but requires you to learn PostScript.
3323 Currently, embedded PostScript will @strong{not} work with direct
3324 PostScript output. Note that all dimensions that you use are in staff
3329 \notes \relative c'' {
3330 a-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 5 3 rlineto stroke}"
3331 -#"\\embeddedps{ [ 0 1 ] 0 setdash 3 5 moveto 5 -3 rlineto stroke}"
3332 b-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 0 0 1 2 8 4 20 3.5 rcurveto stroke}"
3336 \paper { linewidth = 70*\staffspace }
3343 @section Page layout
3346 The page layout is the combined product of LilyPond formatting notation,
3347 and (La)@TeX{} putting the notation on a page, including page breaks.
3348 The part of LilyPond is documented here.
3362 @subsection Paper block
3365 The most important output definition is the @code{\paper} block, for
3366 music notation. The syntax is
3369 @code{\paper @{} [@var{paperidentifier}] @var{items} @code{@}}
3372 where each of the items is one of
3375 @item An assignment.
3377 @item A context definition. See @ref{Interpretation context} for
3378 more information on context definitions.
3380 @item \stylesheet declaration. Its syntax is
3382 \stylesheet @var{alist}
3385 See @file{scm/font.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
3386 @item an @code{\elementdescriptions} declaration.
3388 \elementdescriptions @var{alist}
3390 See @file{scm/grob-description.scm} for details of
3391 @var{alist}. This command is not user-serviceable.
3395 @c . {Paper variables}
3396 @node Paper variables
3397 @subsection Paper variables
3398 @cindex Paper variables
3400 The paper block has some variables you may want to use or change:
3403 @cindex @code{indent}
3405 The indentation of the first line of music.
3406 @cindex @code{staffspace}
3408 @item @code{staffspace}
3409 The distance between two staff lines, calculated from the center
3412 @cindex @code{linewidth}
3413 @item @code{linewidth}
3414 Sets the width of the lines.
3416 If set to a negative value, a single unjustified line is produced.
3417 @c rename to singleLinePaper ?
3418 The shorthand @code{\singleLine} defines a default paper block that
3419 produces a single line.
3421 @cindex @code{textheight}
3423 @item @code{textheight}
3424 Sets the total height of the music on each page. Only used by
3427 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
3429 @item @code{interscoreline}
3430 Sets the spacing between systems. The default is 16pt.
3432 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
3434 @item @code{interscorelinefill}
3435 If set to a positive number, the distance between the score
3436 lines will stretch in order to fill the full page. In that
3437 case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
3442 @cindex @code{stafflinethickness}
3444 @item @code{stafflinethickness}
3445 Determines the thickness of staff lines, and also acts as a scaling
3446 parameter for other line thicknesses.
3449 You may enter these dimension using units (@code{cm}, @code{in},
3450 @code{mm}, @code{pt}), or relative to another dimension
3452 linewidth = 20.0 * \staffspace
3459 @subsection Font size
3462 The Feta font provides musical symbols at six different sizes. These
3463 fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point,
3464 23 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the
3465 height of the five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
3467 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
3468 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any of
3469 these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven}, @code{paperThirteen},
3470 @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and
3471 @code{paperTwentysix} are defined respectively. The default
3472 @code{\paper} block is also set.
3474 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
3475 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
3481 @subsection Paper size
3486 @cindex @code{papersize}
3488 To change the paper size, you must first set the
3489 @code{papersize} variable at top level. Set it to
3490 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
3491 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
3492 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
3496 \include "paper16.ly"
3499 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
3500 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
3505 @subsection Line break
3508 @cindex breaking lines
3510 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
3511 that the resulting spacing has low variation, and looks neither cramped
3514 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do
3515 this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at this
3516 point. Do remember that line breaks can only occur at places where there
3517 are bar lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no
3518 bar line, you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
3519 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain point.
3521 @cindex @code{\penalty}
3523 The @code{\break} and @code{\noBreak} commands are defined in terms of
3524 the penalty command:
3529 This encourages or discourages LilyPond to make a line break at this
3534 The scaling of the @code{\penalty} argument is not well-defined. The
3535 command is rather kludgey, and slated for rewriting.
3539 @subsection Page break
3542 @cindex breaking pages
3544 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
3545 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into the
3546 @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages, by inserting
3547 the command @code{\newpage}
3548 @cindex @code{\newpage}
3554 @c why do so difficult?
3555 @c maybe should explain contents of between-system.ly,
3556 @c but not now, we're talking about page breaks here.
3558 @c details, see the example file @file{input/test/between-systems.ly}
3561 @c . {Output scaling}
3562 @node Output scaling
3563 @subsection Output scaling
3578 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3579 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts.
3583 @c . {Output formats}
3584 @node Output formats
3585 @section Output formats
3587 LilyPond can output processed music in different output formats.
3591 * PostScript output::
3593 * ASCIIScript output::
3597 @subsection TeX output
3600 LilyPond will use @TeX{} by default. Even if you want to produce
3601 PostScript output for viewing or printing, you should normally have
3602 LilyPond produce @TeX{} first. The .tex output must be processed by
3603 @TeX{} (@strong{not} La@TeX{}) to generate a .dvi. Then, @file{Dvips}
3604 is used to generate PostScript. Alternatively, @file{ly2dvi} can be
3605 used to generate the .dvi for you.
3609 Titling is not generated unless you use @file{ly2dvi}.
3612 @node PostScript output
3613 @subsection PostScript output
3614 @cindex PostScript output
3615 @cindex direct PostScript output
3617 LilyPond can produce PostScript directly, without going through @TeX{}.
3618 Currently, this is mainly useful if you cannot use TeX, because direct
3619 PostScript output has some problems; see Bugs below.
3622 $ lilypond -fps foo.ly
3623 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3624 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3626 Interpreting music...[3]
3627 Preprocessing elements...
3628 Calculating column positions...
3629 paper output to foo.ps...
3631 $ cat /usr/share/lilypond/pfa/feta20.pfa foo.ps | lpr
3637 Text font selection is broken.
3639 The .ps file does not contain the .pfa font files. To print a .ps
3640 created through direct postscript output, you should prepend the
3641 necessary .pfa files to LilyPond's .ps output, or upload them to the
3642 printer before printing.
3644 The line height calculation is broken, you must set @var{lineheight} in
3645 the paperblock if you have more than one staff in your score, e.g.
3650 % Set line height to 40 staff spaces
3656 @subsection Scheme output
3657 @cindex Scheme output
3659 In the typesetting stage, LilyPond builds a page description, which is
3660 then written to disk in postscript, @TeX{} or ASCII art. Before it is
3661 written, the page description is represented as Scheme expressions. You
3662 can also dump these Scheme expressions to a file, which may be
3663 convenient for debugging output routines. This is done with the Scheme
3667 $ lilypond -fscm foo.ly
3668 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3669 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3671 Interpreting music...[3]
3672 Preprocessing elements...
3673 Calculating column positions...
3674 paper output to foo.scm...
3677 ;;; Usage: guile -s x.scm > x.tex
3678 (primitive-load-path 'standalone.scm)
3682 $ guile -s foo.scm > foo.tex
3686 @node ASCIIScript output
3687 @subsection ASCIIScript output
3688 @cindex ASCIIScript output
3689 @cindex ascii script
3692 LilyPond can output ASCII Art. This is a two step process, LilyPond
3693 produces an ASCII description file, dubbed ASCIIScript (extension
3694 @file{.as}). ASCIIScript has a small and simple command set that
3695 includes font selection, character and string printing and line drawing
3696 commands. The program @file{as2text} is used to translate an .as file
3699 To produce ASCII Art, you must include an ASCII Art paper definition
3700 file in your .ly, one of:
3702 \include "paper-as5.ly"
3703 \include "paper-as9.ly"
3706 Here's an example use for ASCII Art output (the example file
3707 @file{as-email.ly} is included in the LilyPond distribution), the staff
3708 symbol has been made invisible:
3711 $ lilypond -fas as-email.ly
3712 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3713 Now processing: `as-email.ly'
3715 Interpreting music...[3]
3716 Preprocessing elements...
3717 Calculating column positions... [2]
3718 paper output to as-email.as...
3720 $ as2text as-email.as 2>/dev/null
3722 |/ |##|##| | | | | |
3723 /| | | | | |\ |\ |\ |\ |\ |
3724 / |_ 3 | | | | 5 | )| )| )| )| )|
3725 | /| \ 8 * * * | 8 * * * * * |
3735 The ASCII Art fonts are far from complete and not very well designed.
3736 It's easy to change the glyphs, though; if you think you can do better,
3737 have a look at @file{mf/*.af}.
3739 Lots of resizable symbols such as slurs, ties and tuplets are missing.
3741 The poor looks of most ASCII Art output and its limited general
3742 usefulness gives ASCII Art output a low priority; it may be
3743 dropped in future versions.
3750 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
3751 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, etc., but it
3752 is good enough for proof-hearing the music you have entered. Ties,
3753 dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
3755 Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume
3756 levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available
3757 MIDI volume range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary
3758 linearly between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
3759 overriding the @code{absolute-volume-alist} defined in
3760 @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3762 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
3763 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
3764 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. You can add
3765 instruments and ranges or change the default settings by overriding the
3766 @code{instrument-equalizer-alist} defined in @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3768 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
3773 It is currently not possible to use the percussion channel (generally
3774 channel 10 of a MIDI file).
3778 * MIDI instrument names::
3783 @subsection MIDI block
3787 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
3788 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
3792 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
3793 @item context definitions
3796 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
3800 @cindex context definition
3802 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
3803 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
3804 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer.ly}.
3807 @node MIDI instrument names
3808 @subsection MIDI instrument names
3810 @cindex instrument names
3811 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3812 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
3814 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3815 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
3816 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
3817 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
3821 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
3822 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by
3832 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
3835 @section Music entry
3843 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce errors. This
3844 section deals with tricks and features that help you enter music, and
3845 find and correct mistakes.
3849 @subsection Relative
3851 @cindex relative octave specification
3853 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
3854 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
3855 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
3856 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
3858 @cindex @code{\relative}
3860 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
3863 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
3864 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
3865 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
3866 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
3867 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
3870 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
3871 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
3872 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
3873 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
3875 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
3876 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
3882 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
3883 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3885 c g c f, c' a, e'' }
3888 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
3889 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
3890 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
3893 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3900 @cindex @code{\notes}
3902 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
3903 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
3904 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
3907 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
3908 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
3909 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
3910 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
3915 @subsection Bar check
3919 @cindex @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}
3923 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
3924 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
3925 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
3926 @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
3927 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
3929 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}:
3931 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
3934 @c . {Point and click}
3935 @node Point and click
3936 @subsection Point and click
3938 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
3939 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
3940 error in the sheet music.
3942 To use it, you need the following software
3944 @unnumberedsubsec Installation
3948 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,plain
3949 Xdvi} version 22.36 or newer.
3951 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is a
3952 different and less well maintained program. To find out which xdvi you
3953 are running, try @code{xdvi --version} or @code{xdvi.bin --version}.
3957 Xdvi must be configured to find the TeX fonts and music
3958 fonts. Refer to the Xdvi documentation for more information.
3961 @unnumberedsubsec Using it
3963 Add one of these lines to the top of your .ly file. The first one is for
3964 line location only. The second one is more convenient, but requires
3965 patching @code{emacsclient} and @code{server.el}.
3968 #(set! point-and-click line-location)
3971 In the emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}), add the following
3976 Make sure that the environment variable @code{XEDITOR} is set
3979 emacsclient --no-wait +%l %f
3981 The second one, that also specifies the column, only works if you have
3982 patched your emacsclient and server, and have compiled your @code{.ly}
3983 file using the @code{line-column-location} setting.
3985 When viewing, control-mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
3986 spot in the @file{.ly} file. Control-mousebutton 2 will show all
3990 @unnumberedsubsec Column location
3992 If you want emacs to jump to the exact spot (and not just the line) on a
3993 click, you must enable column positioning. To do so, you need to patch
3994 emacsclient. Apply @file{emacsclient.patch} (included with the source
3995 package) to @file{emacsclient.c} and @file{server.el} from the emacs
3996 source code. Recompile and stick the recompiled emacsclient into a bin
3997 directory, and put @file{server.el} into a elisp directory
3998 (e.g. @file{~/usr/share/emacs/}). Add the following to your @file{.emacs}
3999 init file, before invoking server-start.
4002 (setq load-path (cons "~/usr/share/emacs" load-path))
4005 Set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{emacsclient --no-wait +%l:%c %f}
4007 At the top of the @code{ly} file, replace the @code{set!} line with the
4010 #(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
4013 One final hint: if you correct large files with point-and-click, then
4014 start correcting at the end of the file. When you start at the top, and
4015 insert one line, all subsequent locations will be off by a line.
4020 When you convert the @TeX{} file to PostScript using @code{dvips}, it
4021 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. Those complaints
4022 are harmless, and can be ignored.
4024 @node Skipping corrected music
4025 @section Skipping corrected music
4027 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
4028 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
4029 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
4030 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
4033 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4034 \relative c'' { c8 d
4035 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
4037 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
4042 @node Interpretation context
4043 @section Interpretation context
4046 * Creating contexts::
4047 * Default contexts::
4048 * Context properties::
4049 * Engravers and performers::
4050 * Changing context definitions::
4051 * Defining new contexts::
4055 Interpretation contexts are objects that only exist during a run of
4056 LilyPond. During the interpretation phase of LilyPond (when it prints
4057 "interpreting music"), the music expression in a @code{\score} block is
4058 interpreted in time order. This is the same order that humans hear and
4061 During this interpretation, the interpretation context holds the
4062 state for the current point within the music. It contains information
4066 @item What notes are playing at this point?
4067 @item What symbols will be printed at this point?
4068 @item What is the current key signature, time signature, point within
4072 Contexts are grouped hierarchically: A @code{Voice} context is
4073 contained in a @code{Staff} context (because a staff can contain
4074 multiple voices at any point), a @code{Staff} context is contained in
4075 @code{Score}, @code{StaffGroup}, or @code{ChoirStaff} context.
4077 Contexts associated with sheet music output are called @emph{notation
4078 contexts}, those for sound output are called @emph{performance
4079 contexts}. The default definitions of the standard notation and
4080 performance contexts can be found in @file{ly/engraver.ly} and
4081 @file{ly/performer.ly}, respectively.
4084 @node Creating contexts
4085 @subsection Creating contexts
4087 @cindex @code{\context}
4088 @cindex context selection
4090 Contexts for a music expression can be selected manually, using the
4091 following music expression.
4094 \context @var{contexttype} [= @var{contextname}] @var{musicexpr}
4097 This instructs lilypond to interpret @var{musicexpr} within the context
4098 of type @var{contexttype} and with name @var{contextname}. If this
4099 context does not exist, it will be created.
4101 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4103 \notes \relative c'' {
4104 c4 <d4 \context Staff = "another" e4> f
4110 In this example, the @code{c} and @code{d} are printed on the
4111 default staff. For the @code{e}, a context Staff called
4112 @code{another} is specified; since that does not exist, a new
4113 context is created. Within @code{another}, a (default) Voice context
4114 is created for the @code{e4}. When all music referring to a
4115 context is finished, the context is ended as well. So after the
4116 third quarter, @code{another} is removed.
4120 @node Default contexts
4121 @subsection Default contexts
4123 Most music expressions don't need an explicit @code{\context}
4124 declaration: they inherit the
4125 notation context from their parent. Each note is a music expression, and
4126 as you can see in the following example, only the sequential music
4127 enclosing the three notes has an explicit context.
4129 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4130 \score { \notes \context Voice = goUp { c'4 d' e' } }
4133 There are some quirks that you must keep in mind when dealing with
4136 First, every top level music is interpreted by the Score context, in other
4137 words, you may think of @code{\score} working like
4140 \context Score @var{music}
4144 Second, contexts are created automatically to be able to interpret the
4145 music expressions. Consider the following example.
4147 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4148 \score { \context Score \notes { c'4 ( d' )e' } }
4151 The sequential music is interpreted by the Score context initially
4152 (notice that the @code{\context} specification is redundant), but when a
4153 note is encountered, contexts are setup to accept that note. In this
4154 case, a Thread, Voice and Staff are created. The rest of the sequential
4155 music is also interpreted with the same Thread, Voice and Staff context,
4156 putting the notes on the same staff, in the same voice.
4158 This is a convenient mechanism, but do not expect opening chords to work
4159 without @code{\context}. For every note, a separate staff is
4162 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4163 \score { \notes <c'4 es'> }
4166 Of course, if the chord is preceded by a normal note in sequential
4167 music, the chord will be interpreted by the Thread of the preceding
4169 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4170 \score { \notes { c'4 <c'4 es'> } }
4175 @node Context properties
4176 @subsection Context properties
4178 Notation contexts have properties. These properties are from
4179 the @file{.ly} file using the following expression:
4180 @cindex @code{\property}
4182 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} = @var{value}
4185 Sets the @var{propname} property of the context @var{contextname} to the
4186 specified Scheme expression @var{value}. All @var{propname} and
4187 @var{contextname} are strings, which are typically unquoted.
4189 Properties that are set in one context are inherited by all of the
4190 contained contexts. This means that a property valid for the
4191 @code{Voice} context can be set in the @code{Score} context (for
4192 example) and thus take effect in all @code{Voice} contexts.
4194 Properties can be unset using the following expression:
4196 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} \unset
4199 @cindex properties, unsetting
4200 @cindex @code{\unset}
4202 This removes the definition of @var{propname} in @var{contextname}. If
4203 @var{propname} was not defined in @var{contextname} (but was inherited
4204 from a higher context), then this has no effect.
4209 The syntax of @code{\unset} is asymmetric: @code{\property \unset} is not
4210 the inverse of @code{\property \set}.
4212 @node Engravers and performers
4213 @subsection Engravers and performers
4217 Basic building blocks of translation are called engravers; they are
4218 special C++ classes.
4222 @c . {Context definitions}
4223 @node Changing context definitions
4224 @subsection Changing context definitions
4226 @cindex context definition
4227 @cindex translator definition
4229 The most common way to define a context is by extending an existing
4230 context. You can change an existing context from the paper block, by
4231 first initializing a translator with an existing context identifier:
4235 @var{context-identifier}
4238 Then you can add and remove engravers using the following syntax:
4240 \remove @var{engravername}
4241 \consists @var{engravername}
4245 Here @var{engravername} is a string, the name of an engraver in the
4249 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4253 \translator { \StaffContext
4254 \remove Clef_engraver
4260 You can also set properties in a translator definition. The syntax is as
4263 @var{propname} = @var{value}
4264 @var{propname} \set @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4265 @var{propname} \override @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4266 @var{propname} \revert @var{grob-propname}
4268 @var{propname} is a string, @var{grob-propname} a symbol, @var{value}
4269 and @code{pvalue} are Scheme expressions. These type of property
4270 assignments happen before interpretation starts, so a @code{\property}
4271 command will override any predefined settings.
4274 To simplify editing translators, all standard contexts have standard
4275 identifiers called @var{name}@code{Context}, e.g. @code{StaffContext},
4276 @code{VoiceContext}, see @file{ly/engraver.ly}.
4278 @node Defining new contexts
4279 @subsection Defining new contexts
4281 If you want to build a context from scratch, you must also supply the
4282 following extra information:
4284 @item A name, specified by @code{\name @var{contextname}}.
4286 @item A cooperation module. This is specified by @code{\type
4293 \type "Engraver_group_engraver"
4296 \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4297 \consists "Note_head_engraver"
4298 \consistsend "Axis_group_engraver"
4302 The argument of @code{\type} is the name for a special engraver that
4303 handles cooperation between simple engravers such as
4304 @code{Note_head_engraver} and @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. Alternatives
4305 for this engraver are the following:
4307 @cindex @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4308 @item @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4309 The standard cooperation engraver.
4311 @cindex @code{Score_engraver}
4313 @item @code{Score_engraver}
4314 This is cooperation module that should be in the top level context,
4315 and only the top level context.
4317 @cindex @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4319 @item @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4320 This is a special cooperation module (resembling
4321 @code{Score_engraver}) that is used to create an embedded
4328 @item @code{\alias} @var{alternate-name}
4329 This specifies a different name. In the above example,
4330 @code{\property Staff.X = Y} will also work on @code{SimpleStaff}s
4332 @item @code{\consistsend} @var{engravername}
4333 Analogous to @code{\consists}, but makes sure that
4334 @var{engravername} is always added to the end of the list of
4337 Some engraver types need to be at the end of the list; this
4338 insures they stay there even if a user adds or removes engravers.
4339 End-users generally don't need this command.
4341 @item @code{\accepts} @var{contextname}
4342 Add @var{contextname} to the list of contexts this context can
4343 contain in the context hierarchy. The first listed context is the
4344 context to create by default.
4346 @item @code{\denies}. The opposite of @code{\accepts}. Added for
4347 completeness, but is never used in practice.
4350 @item @code{\name} @var{contextname}
4351 This sets the type name of the context, e.g. @code{Staff},
4352 @code{Voice}. If the name is not specified, the translator won't do
4356 In the @code{\paper} block, it is also possible to define translator
4357 identifiers. Like other block identifiers, the identifier can only
4358 be used as the very first item of a translator. In order to define
4359 such an identifier outside of @code{\score}, you must do
4364 foo = \translator @{ @dots{} @}
4371 \translator @{ \foo @dots{} @}
4379 @cindex paper types, engravers, and pre-defined translators
4386 @c . {Syntactic details}
4387 @node Syntactic details
4388 @section Syntactic details
4389 @cindex Syntactic details
4391 This section describes details that were too boring to be put elsewhere.
4396 * Music expressions::
4397 * Manipulating music expressions::
4405 @subsection Top level
4408 This section describes what you may enter at top level.
4412 @subsubsection Score
4415 @cindex score definition
4417 The output is generated combining a music expression with an output
4418 definition. A score block has the following syntax:
4421 \score @{ @var{musicexpr} @var{outputdefs} @}
4424 @var{outputdefs} are zero or more output definitions. If none is
4425 supplied, the default @code{\paper} block will be added.
4429 @c . {Default output}
4430 @subsubsection Default output
4432 Default values for the @code{\paper} and @code{\midi} block are set by
4433 entering such a block at the top level.
4436 @subsubsection Header
4438 @cindex @code{\header}
4441 A header describes bibliographic information of the file's contents. It
4442 can also appear in a @code{\score} block. Tools like @code{ly2dvi} can
4443 use this information for generating titles. Key values that are used by
4444 @code{ly2dvi} are: title, subtitle, composer, opus, poet, instrument,
4445 meter, arranger, piece and tagline.
4447 @cindex @code{ly2dvi}
4451 \header @{ @var{key1} = @var{val1}
4452 @var{key2} = @var{val2} @dots{} @}
4455 It is customary to put the @code{\header} at the top of the file.
4457 @subsubsection Default output
4459 A @code{\midi} or @code{\paper} block at top level sets the default
4460 paper block for all scores that lack an explicit paper block.
4464 @subsection Identifiers
4468 What has this section got to do with identifiers?
4469 It seems more appropriate in the introduction to Chapter 4,
4475 All of the information in a LilyPond input file, is internally
4476 represented as a Scheme value. In addition to normal Scheme data types
4477 (such as pair, number, boolean, etc.), LilyPond has a number of
4478 specialized data types,
4485 @item Translator_def
4489 @item Music_output_def
4490 @item Moment (rational number)
4493 LilyPond also includes some transient object types. Objects of these
4494 types are built during a LilyPond run, and do not `exist' per se within
4495 your input file. These objects are created as a result of your input
4496 file, so you can include commands in the input to manipulate them,
4497 during a lilypond run.
4500 @item Grob: short for Graphical object. See @ref{Grobs}.
4501 @item Molecule: device-independent page output object,
4502 including dimensions. Produced by some Grob functions
4504 @item Translator: object that produces audio objects or Grobs. This is
4505 not yet user accessible.
4506 @item Font_metric: object representing a font. (See @ref{Font metrics})
4511 @node Music expressions
4512 @subsection Music expressions
4514 @cindex music expressions
4516 Music in LilyPond is entered as a music expression. Notes, rests, lyric
4517 syllables are music expressions, and you can combine music expressions
4518 to form new ones, for example by enclosing a list of expressions in
4519 @code{\sequential @{ @}} or @code{< >}. In the following example, a
4520 compound expression is formed out of the quarter note @code{c} and a
4521 quarter note @code{d}:
4524 \sequential @{ c4 d4 @}
4527 @cindex Sequential music
4528 @cindex @code{\sequential}
4529 @cindex sequential music
4532 @cindex Simultaneous music
4533 @cindex @code{\simultaneous}
4535 The two basic compound music expressions are simultaneous and
4539 \sequential @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4540 \simultaneous @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4542 For both, there is a shorthand:
4544 @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4548 @code{<} @var{musicexprlist} @code{>}
4550 for simultaneous music.
4551 In principle, the way in which you nest sequential and simultaneous to
4552 produce music is not relevant. In the following example, three chords
4553 are expressed in two different ways:
4555 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4556 \notes \context Voice {
4557 <a c'> <b d' > <c' e'>
4558 < { a b c' } { c' d' e' } >
4563 Other compound music expressions include
4566 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{expr}
4567 \apply @var{func} @var{expr}
4568 \context @var{type} = @var{id} @var{expr}
4569 \times @var{fraction} @var{expr}
4573 @c . {Manipulating music expressions}
4574 @node Manipulating music expressions
4575 @subsection Manipulating music expressions
4577 The @code{\apply} mechanism gives you access to the internal
4578 representation of music. You can write Scheme-functions that operate
4579 directly on it. The syntax is
4581 \apply #@var{func} @var{music}
4583 This means that @var{func} is applied to @var{music}. The function
4584 @var{func} should return a music expression.
4586 This example replaces the text string of a script. It also shows a dump
4587 of the music it processes, which is useful if you want to know more
4588 about how music is stored.
4590 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4591 #(define (testfunc x)
4592 (if (equal? (ly-get-mus-property x 'text) "foo")
4593 (ly-set-mus-property x 'text "bar"))
4595 (ly-set-mus-property x 'elements
4596 (map testfunc (ly-get-mus-property x 'elements)))
4601 \apply #testfunc { c'4_"foo" }
4605 For more information on what is possible, see the automatically
4606 generated documentation.
4609 Directly accessing internal representations is dangerous: the
4610 implementation is subject to changes, so you should avoid this feature
4613 A final example is a function that reverses a piece of music in time:
4615 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4616 #(define (reverse-music music)
4617 (let* ((elements (ly-get-mus-property music 'elements))
4618 (reversed (reverse elements))
4619 (span-dir (ly-get-mus-property music 'span-direction)))
4620 (ly-set-mus-property music 'elements reversed)
4622 (ly-set-mus-property music 'span-direction (- span-dir)))
4623 (map reverse-music reversed)
4626 music = \notes { c'4 d'4( e'4 f'4 }
4628 \score { \context Voice {
4630 \apply #reverse-music \music
4635 More examples are given in the distributed example files in
4638 @c . {Span requests}
4644 @subsubsection Span requests
4645 @cindex Span requests
4647 Notational constructs that start and end on different notes can be
4648 entered using span requests. The syntax is as follows:
4652 \spanrequest @var{startstop} @var{type}
4656 @cindex @code{\start}
4657 @cindex @code{\stop}
4659 This defines a spanning request. The @var{startstop} parameter is either
4660 -1 (@code{\start}) or 1 (@code{\stop}) and @var{type} is a string that
4661 describes what should be started. Much of the syntactic sugar is a
4662 shorthand for @code{\spanrequest}, for example,
4664 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4665 c'4-\spanrequest \start "slur"
4666 c'4-\spanrequest \stop "slur"
4669 Among the supported types are @code{crescendo}, @code{decrescendo},
4670 @code{beam}, @code{slur}. This is an internal command. Users are
4671 encouraged to use the shorthands which are defined in the initialization
4672 file @file{spanners.ly}.
4677 @subsection Assignments
4680 Identifiers allow objects to be assigned to names during the parse
4681 stage. To assign an identifier, you use @var{name}@code{=}@var{value}
4682 and to refer to an identifier, you precede its name with a backslash:
4683 `@code{\}@var{name}'. @var{value} is any valid Scheme value or any of
4684 the input-types listed above. Identifier assignments can appear at top
4685 level in the LilyPond file, but also in @code{\paper} blocks.
4687 An identifier can be created with any string for its name, but you will
4688 only be able to refer to identifiers whose names begin with a letter,
4689 being entirely alphabetical. It is impossible to refer to an identifier
4690 whose name is the same as the name of a keyword.
4692 The right hand side of an identifier assignment is parsed completely
4693 before the assignment is done, so it is allowed to redefine an
4694 identifier in terms of its old value, e.g.
4700 When an identifier is referenced, the information it points to is
4701 copied. For this reason, an identifier reference must always be the
4702 first item in a block.
4706 \paperIdent % wrong and invalid
4710 \paperIdent % correct
4715 @c . {Lexical modes}
4717 @subsection Lexical modes
4718 @cindex Lexical modes
4721 @cindex @code{\notes}
4722 @cindex @code{\chords}
4723 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
4725 To simplify entering notes, lyrics, and chords, LilyPond has three
4726 special input modes in addition to the default mode: note, lyrics and
4727 chords mode. These input modes change the way that normal, unquoted
4728 words are interpreted: for example, the word @code{cis} may be
4729 interpreted as a C-sharp, as a lyric syllable `cis' or as a C-sharp
4730 major triad respectively.
4732 A mode switch is entered as a compound music expression
4734 @code{\notes} @var{musicexpr}
4735 @code{\chords} @var{musicexpr}
4736 @code{\lyrics} @var{musicexpr}.
4739 In each of these cases, these expressions do not add anything to the
4740 meaning of their arguments. They just instruct the parser in what mode
4741 to parse their arguments. The modes are treated in more detail in
4742 @ref{Lyrics} and @ref{Chords}.
4744 Different input modes may be nested.
4748 @subsection Ambiguities
4753 The grammar contains a number of ambiguities. We hope to resolve them at
4757 @item The assignment
4762 is interpreted as the string identifier assignment. However,
4763 it can also be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
4764 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo}
4765 containing the syllable `bar'.
4767 @item If you do a nested repeat like
4779 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the
4780 @code{\alternative} belongs. This is the classic if-then-else
4781 dilemma. It may be solved by using braces.
4783 @item The parser is not sophisticated enough to distinguish at the
4785 @code{c4*2 / 3 } and @code{c4*2 / g} (in chord mode).
4792 @c . {Lexical details}
4793 @node Lexical details
4794 @section Lexical details
4796 Even more boring details, now on lexical side of the input parser.
4807 * Version information::
4812 @subsection Comments
4815 @cindex block comment
4816 @cindex line comment
4820 A one line comment is introduced by a @code{%} character.
4821 Block comments are started by @code{%@{} and ended by @code{%@}}.
4822 They cannot be nested.
4825 @subsection Direct Scheme
4829 @cindex Scheme, in-line code
4832 LilyPond contains a Scheme interpreter (the GUILE library) for
4833 internal use. In some places, Scheme expressions also form valid syntax:
4834 wherever it is allowed,
4838 evaluates the specified Scheme code. Example:
4840 \property Staff.TestObject \override #'foobar = #(+ 1 2)
4842 @code{\override} expects two Scheme expressions, so there are two Scheme
4843 expressions. The first one is a symbol (@code{foobar}), the second one
4844 an integer (namely, 3).
4846 In-line scheme may be used at the top level. In this case the result is
4849 Scheme is a full-blown programming language, and a full discussion is
4850 outside the scope of this document. Interested readers are referred to
4851 the website @uref{http://www.schemers.org/} for more information on
4856 @subsection Keywords
4860 Keywords start with a backslash, followed by a number of lower case
4861 alphabetic characters. These are all the keywords.
4864 apply arpeggio autochange spanrequest commandspanrequest
4865 simultaneous sequential accepts alternative bar breathe
4866 char chordmodifiers chords clef cm consists consistsend
4867 context denies duration dynamicscript elementdescriptions
4868 font grace header in lyrics key mark pitch
4869 time times midi mm name pitchnames notes outputproperty
4870 override set revert partial paper penalty property pt
4871 relative remove repeat addlyrics partcombine score
4872 script stylesheet skip textscript tempo translator
4877 @subsection Integers
4885 Formed from an optional minus sign followed by digits. Arithmetic
4886 operations cannot be done with integers, and integers cannot be mixed
4891 @cindex real numbers
4897 Formed from an optional minus sign and a sequence of digits followed
4898 by a @emph{required} decimal point and an optional exponent such as
4899 @code{-1.2e3}. Reals can be built up using the usual operations:
4900 `@code{+}', `@code{-}', `@code{*}', and
4901 `@code{/}', with parentheses for grouping.
4909 A real constant can be followed by one of the dimension keywords:
4910 @code{\mm} @code{\pt}, @code{\in}, or @code{\cm}, for millimeters,
4911 points, inches and centimeters, respectively. This converts the number
4912 a number that is the internal representation of that dimension.
4920 Begins and ends with the @code{"} character. To include a @code{"}
4921 character in a string write @code{\"}. Various other backslash
4922 sequences have special interpretations as in the C language. A string
4923 that contains no spaces can be written without the quotes. Strings can
4924 be concatenated with the @code{+} operator.
4928 @subsection Main input
4931 @cindex @code{\maininput}
4933 The @code{\maininput} command is used in init files to signal that the
4934 user file must be read. This command cannot be used in a user file.
4936 @node File inclusion
4937 @subsection File inclusion
4938 @cindex @code{\include}
4940 \include @var{filename}
4943 Include @var{filename}. The argument @var{filename} may be a quoted string (an
4944 unquoted string will not work here!) or a string identifier. The full
4945 filename including the @file{.ly} extension must be given,
4948 @node Version information
4949 @subsection Version information
4950 @cindex @code{\version}
4952 \version @var{string}
4955 Specify the version of LilyPond that a file was written for. The
4956 argument is a version string in quotes, for example @code{"1.2.0"}.
4957 This is used to detect invalid input, and to aid
4958 @code{convert-ly} a tool that automatically upgrades input files. See
4959 See @ref{convert-ly} for more information on @code{convert-ly}.
4968 @c .{Local emacs vars}
4971 @c minor-mode: font-lock
4972 @c minor-mode: outline
4973 @c outline-layout: (-1 : 0)
4974 @c outline-use-mode-specific-leader: "@c \."
4975 @c outline-primary-bullet: "{"
4976 @c outline-stylish-prefixes: nil
4977 @c outline-override-protect: t