5 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
6 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
7 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
9 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
18 @macro internalsref{NAME}
19 @uref{../lilypond-internals/\NAME\.html,\NAME\}
22 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
23 See @internalsref{\NAME\}
29 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
31 @macro internalsref{NAME}
38 @c .{Reference Manual}
40 @node Reference Manual
41 @chapter Reference Manual
44 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
47 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
48 revision of this document was made for LilyPond 1.4.1. It supposes a
49 passing familiarity with how LilyPond input works. New users are
50 encouraged to study the tutorial first.
52 The reference manual is ordered according to different tasks.
53 More details on the property setting mechanisms and context handling is
54 provided in @ref{Tuning output} and @ref{Interpretation context}. The
55 syntactical details are described at the end of the manual.
78 * Skipping corrected music::
79 * Interpretation context::
89 The purpose of LilyPond is explained informally by the term `music
90 typesetter'. This is not a fully correct name: not only does the
91 program print musical symbols, it also makes aesthetic decisions.
92 Symbols and their placements are @emph{generated} from a high-level
93 musical description. In other words, LilyPond would be best described
94 by `music compiler' or `music to notation compiler'.
96 LilyPond is linked to GUILE, GNU's Scheme library for extension
97 programming. The Scheme library provides the glue that holds together
98 the low-level routines and separate modules which are written in C++.
100 When lilypond is run to typeset sheet music, the following happens:
102 @item GUILE Initialization: various scheme files are read
103 @item parsing: first standard @code{ly} initialization files are read, and
104 then the user @file{ly} file is read.
105 @item interpretation: the music in the file is processed ``in playing
106 order'', i.e. the order that you use to read sheet music, or the
107 order in which notes are played. The result of this step is a typesetting
111 The typesetting specification is solved: positions and formatting is
114 @item the visible results ("virtual ink") are written to the output file.
117 During these stages different types of data play the the main role:
118 during parsing, @strong{Music} objects are created. During the
119 interpretation, @strong{contexts} are constructed, and with these contexts
120 a network of @strong{graphical objects} (``grobs'') is created. These
121 grobs contain unknown variables, and the network forms a set of
122 equations. After solving the equations and filling in these variables,
123 the printed output (in the form of @strong{molecules}) is written to an
126 These threemanship of tasks (parsing, translating, typesetting) and
127 data-structures (music, context, graphical objects) permeates the entire
128 design of the program.
130 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
136 The most basic forms of music are notes. We discuss how you enter them
137 here. Notes on their own don't form valid input, but for the sake of
138 brevity we omit obligatory lint such as @code{\score} blocks and
139 @code{\paper} declarations.
150 * Defining pitch names::
151 * Easy Notation note heads ::
158 A note specification has the form
161 @var{pitch}[!][?][@var{duration}]
164 The alteration refers to what note is heard, not to whether an
165 accidental is printed. This is done depending on the key and context.
166 A reminder accidental
167 @cindex reminder accidental
169 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
170 cautionary accidental,
171 @cindex cautionary accidental
172 @cindex parenthesized accidental
173 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
174 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
176 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
177 cis' d' e' cis' c'? d' e' c'!
180 The grob for a note head is called @internalsref{NoteHead}.
188 @cindex Note specification
190 @cindex entering notes
192 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
194 @cindex @code{\pitch}
196 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
199 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object.
201 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
202 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
203 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
204 from @code{c} to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
205 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
207 @cindex note names, Dutch
209 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
210 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
211 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
212 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
213 both forms are accepted.
215 LilyPond has predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
216 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
217 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
218 the names they define are:
221 Note Names sharp flat
222 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
223 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
224 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
225 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
226 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
227 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
228 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
236 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
237 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
238 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
239 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
241 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
242 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
250 A rest is entered like a note, with note name `@code{r}':
252 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
256 The grob is @internalsref{Rest}. Whole bar rests centered in the bar are
257 specified using @code{R}, see @ref{Multi measure rests}.
259 For polyphonic music, it can be convenient to specify the rest position
260 directly. You can do that by entering a note, with the keyword
261 @code{\rest} appended, e.g. Rest collisions will leave these rests alone.
263 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
273 @cindex Invisible rest
276 An invisible rest, or skip, can be entered like a note with note name
279 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
283 Actually, this is a shorthand for the @code{\skip} command, and it is
284 only available in Note mode and Chord mode.
286 @c FIXME: in lyrics mode, we have " " and _
288 In Lyrics mode, you can use `@code{" "}' and `@code{_}':
289 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
291 \context Lyrics \lyrics { lah2 di4 " " dah2 _4 di }
292 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a4 a a2 a4 a }
296 The unabbreviated `@code{\skip} @var{duration}' also works outside of
299 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
302 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
303 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
308 Note that the skip does not produce any output, not even transparent output.
313 @subsection Durations
317 @cindex @code{\duration}
319 The syntax for a verbose duration specification is
321 \duration @var{scmduration}
323 Here, @var{scmduration} is a Scheme object of type @code{Duration}.
326 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
327 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
328 longer than a whole you must use identifiers.
332 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
334 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
340 \notes \relative c'' {
342 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
344 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
349 \remove "Clef_engraver"
350 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
351 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
352 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
358 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
359 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
360 NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
361 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
362 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
364 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
365 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
369 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
370 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
371 duration can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
375 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
381 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M} by
382 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
383 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
395 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. When used
396 with chords, it connects all the note heads whose pitches match.
397 Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'. If you try to tie
398 together chords which have no common pitches then no ties will be
401 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
402 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
405 If you dislike the amount of ties created for a chord, you set
406 @code{Voice.sparseTies} to true, resulting in a smaller number of
408 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
409 \property Voice.sparseTies = ##t
410 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
413 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
414 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
415 exactly the same concept.
417 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
418 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
421 The name of the tie grob is @internalsref{Tie}, and it is created in the
422 @internalsref{Voice} context.
426 At present, the tie is implemented as a separate thing, temporally
427 located in between the notes. There is also no way to convert
428 between tied notes, dotted notes and plain notes.
430 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a chord is not supported in a
431 simple way. It can be achieved by moving the tie-engraver into the Thread
432 context and turning on and off ties per Thread.
440 @cindex @code{\times}
442 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all duration
445 @cindex @code{\times}
447 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
450 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
451 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
452 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
453 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
454 their written length:
456 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
457 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
460 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
461 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
462 @code{\times} only once, thus saving typing work.
464 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
465 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
466 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
469 The format of the number is determined by the property
470 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
471 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
472 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
475 The typesetting of brackets and numbers is controlled by the properties
476 @code{tuplet-bracket-visibility} and @code{tuplet-number-visibility}.
478 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
479 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##t
480 \times 2/3{c'8 d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
481 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = #'if-no-beam
482 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
483 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##f
484 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
485 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = ##f
486 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
487 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = #'if-no-beam
488 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
491 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
492 @cindex tuplet formatting
494 Tuplet brackets are printed as @internalsref{TupletBracket} grobs, most
495 often in the @internalsref{Voice} context.
497 @c . {Defining pitch names}
498 @node Defining pitch names
499 @subsection Defining pitch names
501 @cindex defining pitch names
502 @cindex pitch names, defining
504 Note names and chord modifiers can be customized for nationalities. The
505 syntax is as follows.
507 @cindex @code{\pitchnames}
508 @cindex @code{\chordmodifiers}
510 \pitchnames @var{scheme-alist}
511 \chordmodifiers @var{scheme-alist}
514 See @file{ly/nederlands.ly} and @file{ly/chord-modifiers.ly} for
515 specific examples on how to do this.
518 @node Easy Notation note heads
519 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
521 @cindex easy notation
524 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
525 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
526 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
528 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
529 \include "paper23.ly"
531 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
532 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
536 Note that @internalsref{EasyNotation} overrides a @internalsref{Score} context. You
537 probably will want to print it with magnification to make it more
538 readable, see @ref{Output scaling}.
544 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through the
545 letters. Printing the postscript file obtained either by using dvips or
546 the @code{-f ps} option of lilypond produces the correct result.
551 @section Staff notation
553 @cindex Staff notation
565 @subsection Key signature
570 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
573 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
576 @cindex @code{\minor}
577 @cindex @code{\major}
578 @cindex @code{\minor}
579 @cindex @code{\ionian}
580 @cindex @code{\locrian}
581 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
582 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
583 @cindex @code{\lydian}
584 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
585 @cindex @code{\dorian}
587 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
588 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
589 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
590 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
591 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
593 This command sets the context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
594 Non-standard key signatures can be specified by setting this property
597 The printed signature is a @internalsref{KeySignature} grob, typically
598 created in @internalsref{Staff} context.
600 @cindex @code{keySignature}
607 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command.
615 \property Staff.clefGlyph = @var{glyph associated with clefname}
616 \property Staff.clefPosition = @var{clef Y-position for clefname}
617 \property Staff.centralCPosition = @var{position for central C}
618 \property Staff.clefOctavation = @var{extra transposition of clefname}
622 Any change in these properties creates a clef (A @internalsref{Clef} grob).
624 Supported clef-names include
626 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
628 @item treble, violin, G, G2
637 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
652 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
653 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. Note that you have to
654 enclose @var{clefname} in quotes if you use underscores or digits in the
660 Supported associated glyphs (for @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) are:
669 @item clefs-vaticana_do
670 Editio Vaticana style do clef
671 @item clefs-vaticana_fa
672 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
673 @item clefs-medicaea_do
674 Editio Medicaea style do clef
675 @item clefs-medicaea_fa
676 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
677 @item clefs-mensural1_c
678 modern style mensural C clef
679 @item clefs-mensural2_c
680 historic style small mensural C clef
681 @item clefs-mensural3_c
682 historic style big mensural C clef
683 @item clefs-mensural1_f
684 historic style traditional mensural F clef
685 @item clefs-mensural2_f
686 historic style new mensural F clef
687 @item clefs-mensural_g
688 historic style mensural G clef
689 @item clefs-hufnagel_do
690 historic style hufnagel do clef
691 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa
692 historic style hufnagel fa clef
693 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa
694 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
695 @item clefs-percussion
696 modern style percussion clef
699 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
700 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
701 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
704 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
705 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
706 @cindex hufnagel clefs
709 @c . {Time signature}
711 @subsection Time signature
712 @cindex Time signature
716 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
719 \time @var{n}@code{/}@var{d}
721 Internally, this is a shortcut for doing
723 \property Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(@var{n} . @var{d})
724 \property Score.beatLength = #(make-moment 1 @var{d})
725 \property Score.measureLength = #(make-moment @var{n} @var{d})
728 These properties @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines
729 should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be
732 Changing the value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a
733 fraction to be printed. This grob is @internalsref{TimeSignature}.
735 The actual symbol that's printed can be customized with the style
737 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, singleline]
739 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
741 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'()
743 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
747 There are many more options for the layout of this grob. They are
748 selected through the @code{style} grob property.
750 @c FIXME: this isn't documented except in example?
752 @file{input/test/time.ly} for examples.
759 @cindex partial measure
760 @cindex measure, partial
761 @cindex shorten measures
762 @cindex @code{\partial}
764 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
765 @code{\partial} command:
767 \partial @var{duration}
770 Internally, this is a shortcut for
773 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
777 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
778 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
781 @node Unmetered music
782 @subsection Unmetered music
784 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
785 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. The property
786 @code{Score.timing} can be used to switch off this automatic timing
788 @lilypond[fragment,relative,singleline,verbatim]
790 \property Score.timing = ##f
792 \property Score.timing = ##t
796 The identifiers @code{\cadenzaOn} and @code{\cadenzaOff} can be used as
803 @subsection Bar lines
807 @cindex measure lines
814 This is a shortcut for doing
816 \property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}
818 The following bar types are available
820 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
833 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
837 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
839 @cindex repeatCommands
840 @cindex defaultBarType
842 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
843 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
844 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
845 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
847 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
848 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
849 @code{whichBar} settings.
851 @internalsref{BarLine} grobs are created by the @code{Bar_engraver}.
858 Polyphonic parts, i.e. parts with more than one voice on a staff can be
859 typeset with LilyPond.
861 The easiest way to enter such fragments, is the Scheme function
862 @code{voicify-music}. It will split chords using the separator
863 @code{\\}, to make multiple voices. You can use it for small,
864 short-lived voices (make a chord of voices) or for single chords:
866 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
867 \context Voice = VA \apply #voicify-music \relative c'' {
868 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ c, \\ f \\ d >
872 The function @code{voicify-music} instantiates @internalsref{Voice}
873 contexts, bearing the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.
875 To explicity typeset polyphonic music, instantiate a separate Voice
876 context for each part, and assign a stem direction to each part.
878 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
880 < \context Voice = VA { \stemUp b'4 a' g' f' e' }
881 \context Voice = VB { \stemDown g'4 g' g' g' g' } >
884 When there are more than two voices on a staff, you must also indicate
885 which voice should moved horizontally in case of a collision. This can
886 be done with the identifiers @code{\shiftOff}, @code{\shiftOn},
887 @code{\shiftOnn}, etc. (which sets the grob property @code{horizontal-shift}
888 in @internalsref{NoteColumn}).
890 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
891 \context Staff \notes\relative c''<
898 \context Voice=three {
899 \shiftOnn \stemUp ais
901 \context Voice=four {
902 \shiftOnnn \stemUp fis
907 The most convenient way is to use the identifiers @code{\voiceOne}
908 through @code{\voiceFour}, which also set slur and tie directions in the
911 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
913 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
914 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
915 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
918 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
919 if you set the grob property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
921 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
923 \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne
925 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
928 \context Voice = VB { \voiceTwo [g'8. f16] [g'8. f'16] }
932 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
934 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
936 \context Voice { \stemUp c''4 }
937 \context Voice =VB { r4 }
941 Note head collisions (horizontal shifting of note heads) are handled by
942 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} grob. @internalsref{RestCollision}
943 handles vertical shifting of rests.
951 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
952 handles a few situations. When it can not cope, you are advised to use
953 @code{force-hshift} of the NoteColumn grob and @code{staff-position} of
954 the Rest grob to override typesetting decisions.
959 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
960 the metrum. LilyPond guesses where beams should be inserted. If you're
961 not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can specify which patterns
962 to beam automatically. In specific cases, you can also enter the beams
966 @c . {Automatic beams}
967 @subsection Automatic beams
969 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}
970 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
971 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
974 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
975 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
976 or at durations specified by the properties in
977 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
978 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
980 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
981 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
983 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
984 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
986 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
987 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
988 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
989 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
990 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
993 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
994 you can use the following:
996 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
997 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
999 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1000 entered as @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
1002 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1003 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
1005 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1006 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1008 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1009 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1010 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1012 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
1013 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1014 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1015 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1017 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1018 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1021 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
1022 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
1023 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
1024 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
1028 @c Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
1030 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1031 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1033 @cindex automatic beam generation
1035 @cindex @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming}
1037 Automatic beaming is on by default, but can be switched off by setting
1038 @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming} to true. You you may find this necessary for
1039 a melody that goes with lyrics.
1043 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1044 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1045 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
1046 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,relative]
1047 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1048 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1049 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
1052 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1053 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1054 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1057 @cindex Automatic beams
1058 @subsection Manual beams
1059 @cindex beams, manual
1063 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
1064 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
1065 rests or bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point
1066 manually using a @code{[} before the first beamed note and a @code{]}
1067 after the last note:
1069 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1071 r4 [r8 g' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
1074 Whenever an manual beam is busy, the automatic beamer will not produce
1077 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1079 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1080 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1081 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount}. can
1082 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
1083 property, it's value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1085 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1088 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
1091 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1093 The beam symbol (grob @internalsref{Beam} in @internalsref{Voice}
1094 context), both for automatic and manual beams) can be tweaked through
1095 grob-properties @code{height} and @code{staff-position}. These specify
1096 vertical location and vertical span. Both are measured in half
1097 staff-spaces, @code{staff-position=0} corresponds to the middle staff
1100 Set @code{height} to zero, to get horizontal beams:
1102 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1103 \property Voice.Beam \set #'direction = #1
1104 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #0
1108 Here's how you'd specify a weird looking beam that instead of being
1109 horizontal, falls two staff spaces:
1115 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1116 \property Voice.Beam \set #'staff-position = #4
1117 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #-4
1121 [TODO: doc autokneeing ? ]
1123 @c TODO -> why this ref? Document?
1124 @cindex @code{neutral-direction}
1126 @node Expressive marks
1127 @section Expressive marks
1142 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1143 They are entered using parentheses:
1145 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1146 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
1150 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1151 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1152 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1153 grob-property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1154 @internalsref{Voice} context It's value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1155 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1157 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1158 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1159 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1161 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1165 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1166 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1167 stems might look better:
1169 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1170 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
1171 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1173 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1178 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
1179 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
1180 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this decision
1181 is in @internalsref{Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}. It is loosely
1182 related to the enclosed area between the slur and the notes. Usually,
1183 the default setting works well, but in some cases you may prefer a
1184 curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved one. You can
1185 indicate this preference by increasing the @code{beautiful} value:
1187 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
1188 \property Voice.Beam \override #'direction = #-1
1189 \property Voice.Slur \override #'direction = #1
1190 c16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
1191 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1192 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
1193 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1198 @code{beautiful} is an arbitrary parameter in the slur formatter.
1199 Useful values can only be determined by trial and error.
1201 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1203 @node Phrasing slurs
1204 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1206 @cindex phrasing slurs
1207 @cindex phrasing marks
1209 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1210 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1213 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1214 \time 6/4 c' \( ( d ) e f ( e ) \) d
1217 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
1218 slur. The grob associated with it is @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, in
1219 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1222 @subsection Breath marks
1224 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}. The result is a
1225 @internalsref{BreathingSign} grob in @internalsref{Voice} context.
1227 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1236 The current layout of the default comma style breath marks
1237 could be improved and more optional symbols should be added to the
1246 @cindex beats per minute
1247 @cindex metronome marking
1249 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1251 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1253 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1256 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1261 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1262 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1263 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1268 @subsection Text spanners
1269 @cindex Text spanners
1271 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando or accelerando, often extend
1272 over many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1273 dotted line. You can create such texts using text spanners. The syntax
1276 \spanrequest \start "text"
1277 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1279 LilyPond will respond by creating a @internalsref{TextSpanner} grob (typically
1280 in @internalsref{Voice} context). The string to be printed, as well as the
1281 style is set through grob properties.
1283 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1284 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1285 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1286 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1287 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1288 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1289 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1290 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1308 @subsection Articulations
1309 @cindex Articulations
1311 @cindex articulations
1315 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1316 different characteristics of the performance. These symbols can be
1317 added to a note with `@var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}'. Numerous symbols
1318 are defined in @file{script.ly}. Symbols can be forced to appear above
1319 or below the note by writing `@var{note}@code{^\}@var{name}' and
1320 `@var{note}@code{_\}@var{name}' respectively. Here is a chart showing
1321 symbols on notes, with the name of the corresponding symbol appearing
1327 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-family =#'typewriter
1328 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1329 \context Staff \notes {
1330 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''^\fermata
1331 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\upbow
1332 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1333 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1334 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1335 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1336 c''-\upmordent c''-\downmordent c''-\pralldown c''-\prallup
1337 c''-\lineprall c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1339 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1340 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1341 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ upbow
1342 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1343 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1344 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1345 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1346 upmordent__ downmordent__ pralldown__ prallup__
1347 lineprall__ thumb__ segno__ coda
1351 linewidth = 5.875\in
1357 To save typing work, some shorthands are available:
1358 @lilypond[singleline]
1360 \notes \context Voice {
1361 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1362 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1368 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1375 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand. For
1376 changes, some markup texts would be needed:
1377 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1378 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1383 @cindex @code{\script}
1388 You can add scripts by editing @file{scm/script.scm}. This file contains
1389 a table, listing script definitions and aliases. The following syntax
1390 accesses a script definition from the table:
1396 Usually the @code{\script} keyword is not used directly. Various
1397 helpful identifier definitions appear in @file{script.ly}.
1399 Grobs for these objects are @internalsref{Script} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
1403 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1404 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1406 Unfortunately, there is no support for adding fingering instructions or
1407 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1408 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1413 @subsection Text scripts
1414 @cindex Text scripts
1416 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1417 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1420 By default, these indications do not influence the note spacing, but
1421 if @code{Voice.textNonEmpty} is set to true the widths will be taken
1422 into account. The identifier @code{\fatText} is defined in the standard
1424 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
1425 \relative c' { c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1428 Text scripts are created in form of @internalsref{TextScript} grobs, in
1429 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1431 @ref{Text markup} describes how to change the font or access
1432 special symbols in text scripts.
1436 @subsection Grace notes
1445 @cindex @code{\grace}
1448 @cindex @code{graceAlignPosition}
1450 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out, but do not take up any
1451 logical time in a measure. LilyPond has limited support for grace notes.
1452 The syntax is as follows.
1454 \grace @var{musicexpr}
1457 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1460 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1462 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1464 \property Voice.Stem \override #'flag-style = #'()
1466 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'flag-style
1471 A grace note expression has duration 0; the next real note is assumed to
1472 be the main note. If you want the note to appear after the main note,
1473 set @code{Voice.graceAlignPosition} to @code{1}.
1477 Nesting @code{\grace} notes is not supported. The following may cause
1478 run-time errors: @example
1479 @code{\grace @{ \grace c32 c16 @} c4}
1481 Since the meaning of such a construct is unclear, we don't consider this
1482 a loss. Similarly, juxtaposing two @code{\grace} sections is
1483 syntactically valid, but makes no sense and may cause runtime errors.
1484 Ending a staff or score with grace notes may also generate a run-time
1485 error, since there will be no main note to attach the grace notes to.
1496 @subsection Glissando
1499 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1501 A glissando line (grob @internalsref{Glissando}) can be requested by
1502 attaching a @code{\glissando} to a notte:
1504 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1510 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1517 @subsection Dynamics
1530 @cindex @code{\ffff}
1540 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an identifier after a
1541 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
1542 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
1543 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
1544 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
1546 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
1547 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
1553 @cindex @code{\decr}
1554 @cindex @code{\rced}
1560 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
1561 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
1562 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
1563 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
1564 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
1565 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
1566 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
1567 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
1568 want several marks during one note, you have to use spacer notes.
1570 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1571 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
1572 < f''1 { s4 s4 \< \! s4 \> \! s4 } >
1575 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
1576 is an example how to do it:
1581 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1583 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc."
1584 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
1589 For everyday use, we recommend the identifiers @code{\cresc},
1590 @code{endcresc}, @code{\dim} and @code{\enddim}.
1594 Dynamics are grobs of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
1595 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is handled
1596 by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. If you want to adjust
1597 padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you must set properties
1598 for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. Predefined identifiers
1599 to set the vertical direction are \dynamicUp and \dynamicDown.
1601 @cindex direction, of dynamics
1602 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
1603 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
1611 @cindex @code{\repeat}
1613 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
1614 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
1615 different variants of repeats.
1619 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
1620 output, and entering repetitive music.
1623 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
1624 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
1627 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
1628 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
1629 @file{input/star-spangled-banner.ly}.
1635 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
1641 * Manual repeat commands::
1643 * Tremolo subdivisions::
1648 @subsection Repeat syntax
1650 The syntax for repeats is
1653 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
1656 If you have alternative endings, you may add
1657 @cindex @code{\alternative}
1659 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
1661 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
1663 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
1665 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
1666 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1668 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
1669 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
1672 With alternative endings:
1673 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1675 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1676 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1679 Folded repeats look like this:
1682 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1684 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1685 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1689 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
1690 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
1691 the specified number of repeats.
1693 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1697 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
1698 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
1703 @subsection Unfolding repeats for MIDI output.
1705 @cindex expanding repeats
1707 See @file{input/test/unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
1712 Notice that timing information is not remembered at the start of an
1713 alternative, so you have to reset timing information after a repeat,
1714 e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting
1715 @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties
1716 are also not repeated.
1718 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}s, although this probably is only
1719 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
1721 Folded repeats offer little more over simultaneous music. However, it
1722 is to be expected that more functionality -- especially for the MIDI
1723 backend -- will be implemented at some point in the future.
1725 Volta repeats are printed over all staves in a score. You must turn them
1726 off explicitly, for example by doing
1728 \property Staff.VoltaBracket = \turnOff
1730 in all but the top staff.
1732 @node Manual repeat commands
1733 @subsection Manual repeat commands
1735 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
1737 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
1738 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
1746 @item (volta . @var{text})
1747 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
1749 Stop a running volta bracket
1752 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
1754 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
1756 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
1761 Repeats brackets are @internalsref{VoltaBracket} grobs.
1763 @node Tremolo repeats
1764 @subsection Tremolo repeats
1765 @cindex tremolo beams
1767 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
1769 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
1771 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
1772 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
1773 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
1774 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
1775 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
1780 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} grobs. Single stem tremolos are
1781 @internalsref{StemTremolo}.
1786 At present, the spacing between tremolo beams is not regular, since the
1787 spacing engine does not notice that not all notes are printed.
1789 @node Tremolo subdivisions
1790 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
1791 @cindex tremolo marks
1792 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
1794 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
1795 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
1796 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
1797 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
1798 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
1800 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
1801 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
1807 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
1810 @node Measure repeats
1811 @subsection Measure repeats
1813 @cindex percent repeats
1814 @cindex measure repeats
1816 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
1817 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
1818 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
1819 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
1821 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1822 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
1823 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
1827 The signs are represented by these grobs: @internalsref{RepeatSlash} and
1828 @internalsref{PercentRepeat} and @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
1832 You can not nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
1833 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
1835 @node Rhythmic music
1836 @section Rhythmic music
1843 @node Rhythmic staves
1844 @subsection Rhythmic staves
1846 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
1847 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
1848 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
1850 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1851 \context RhythmicStaff {
1853 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1860 @section Piano music
1862 Piano music is an odd type of notation. Piano staves are two normal
1863 staves coupled with a brace. The staves are largely independent, but
1864 sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. The
1865 @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
1866 behavior. In this section we discuss the @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some
1867 other pianistic peculiarities.
1870 * Automatic staff changes::
1871 * Manual staff switches::
1874 * Voice follower lines::
1878 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
1879 @node Automatic staff changes
1880 @subsection Automatic staff changes
1881 @cindex Automatic staff changes
1883 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
1884 staff. The syntax for this is
1886 \autochange @var{contexttype} @var{musicexp}
1888 This will switch the interpretation context of @var{musicexp} between a
1889 @var{contexttype} named @code{up} and @code{down}. Typically, you use
1890 @internalsref{Staff} for @var{contexttype}. The autochanger switches on basis
1891 of pitch (central C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping
1892 over rests to switch rests in advance.
1894 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1895 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
1896 \context Staff = "up" {
1897 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
1898 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
1899 \context Staff = "down" {
1905 Note how spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
1906 terminating too soon.
1909 @node Manual staff switches
1910 @subsection Manual staff switches
1912 @cindex manual staff switches
1913 @cindex staff switch, manual
1915 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
1917 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
1919 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
1920 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
1921 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
1924 The formal definition of this construct is obtuse, but for the sake of
1925 completeness we give it here.
1926 @cindex @code{\translator}
1928 \translator @var{contexttype} = @var{name}
1930 Formally, this construct is a music expression indicating
1931 that the context which is a direct child of the context of type
1932 @var{contexttype} should be shifted to a context of type
1933 @var{contexttype} and the specified name.
1941 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
1942 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
1943 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
1945 These identifiers are shorthands for spanner commands of the types
1946 @internalsref{Sustain}, @internalsref{UnaCorda} and @internalsref{Sostenuto}:
1948 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1949 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4
1950 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
1953 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
1954 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal types:
1955 Sustain, Sostenuto or UnaCorda. Refer to the generated documentation of
1956 @rgrob{SustainPedal}, for example, for more information.
1958 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
1959 @code{pedal-type} property of SustainPedal grobs:
1961 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1962 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'bracket
1963 c''4 \sustainDown d''4 e''4 a'4 \sustainUp \sustainDown f'4 g'4 a'4 \sustainUp
1966 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
1967 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
1969 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1970 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'mixed
1971 c''4 \sustainDown d''4 e''4 c'4 \sustainUp \sustainDown f'4 g'4 a'4 \sustainUp
1974 The default '*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
1975 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
1976 for a sostenuto pedal:
1978 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1979 c''4 \sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4 \sostenutoUp
1982 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
1983 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
1984 @code{PianoPedalBracket} grobs (see the detailed documentation of
1985 @rgrob{PianoPedalBracket}) can be modified. For example, the bracket
1986 may be extended to the end of the note head.
1988 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1989 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
1990 c''4 \sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4 \sostenutoUp
1997 @subsection Arpeggio
2000 @cindex broken arpeggio
2001 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
2003 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
2004 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
2007 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2008 \context Voice <c\arpeggio e g c>
2011 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
2012 to the chords in both staves, and set
2013 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
2015 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2016 \context PianoStaff <
2017 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2018 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2019 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2023 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} grobs. Cross staff arpeggios
2024 are @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio}.
2026 To add an arrow head to explicitly specify the direction of the
2027 arpeggio, you should set the arpeggio grob property
2028 @code{arpeggio-type}.
2030 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2032 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #1
2034 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
2039 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
2040 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
2041 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
2042 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} grobs to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
2043 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before.
2045 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2046 \context PianoStaff <
2047 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2048 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
2049 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2050 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2057 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios
2062 @node Voice follower lines
2063 @subsection Voice follower lines
2065 @cindex follow voice
2066 @cindex staff switching
2069 @cindex @code{followVoice}
2071 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
2072 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
2073 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
2075 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2076 \context PianoStaff <
2077 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2078 \context Staff \context Voice {
2080 \translator Staff=two
2083 \context Staff=two {\clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2087 The associated grob is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2097 * Automatic syllable durations::
2103 @subsection Lyrics mode
2106 To print lyrics, you must first make a music expression from the lyric
2107 text. That music expression can be printed by selecting an appropriate
2111 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
2113 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
2114 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
2115 The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
2116 punctuation and accents without any hassle.
2118 Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text. For
2119 example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that
2120 the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
2123 Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes:
2124 @code{"He could"4 not4} or by using an underscore without quotes:
2125 @code{He_could4 not4}. All unquoted underscores are converted to
2128 The precise definition of this mode can be found in @ref{Lyrics mode
2131 @c . {Printing lyrics}
2132 @node Printing lyrics
2133 @subsection Printing lyrics
2136 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the @internalsref{Lyrics} context.
2138 @c Maybe more pedagogical to avoid \addlyrics in this first example? /MB
2139 @c Add tied and beamed melismata too.
2140 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2142 \notes \relative c' {
2144 \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t
2145 d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
2146 b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 }
2147 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2149 share the soft -- ware; }
2153 Notes and syllable durations are matched automatically. This is
2154 accomplished using @code{\addlyrics}, which is documented in
2155 @ref{Automatic syllable durations}. Setting @code{automaticMelismata} in
2156 the melody staff will cause tied, slurred or beamed notes to be
2157 interpreted as melismata.
2159 The Lyric syllables are @code{LyricsVoice.LyricSyllable} grobs.
2162 @cindex lyric extender
2165 As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will
2166 create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of the
2167 lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric,
2168 so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
2169 The grob for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricExtender}.
2174 If you want to have hyphens centered between syllables (rather than
2175 attached to the end of the first syllable) you can use the special
2176 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. This
2177 will result in a hyphen whose length varies depending on the space
2178 between syllables. It will be centered between the syllables. The grob
2179 for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricHyphen}.
2181 @cindex Lyric hyphen
2183 @node Automatic syllable durations
2184 @subsection Automatic syllable durations
2185 @cindex Automatic syllable durations
2187 @cindex automatic lyric durations
2188 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
2190 If you have lyrics that are set to a melody, you can copy the rhythm
2191 of that melody into the lyrics using @code{\addlyrics}. The syntax for
2194 \addlyrics @var{musicexpr1 musicexpr2}
2197 Both @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} are interpreted, but every
2198 music event (``every syllable'') in @var{musicexpr2} is interpreted only
2199 when there are events in @var{musicexpr1}.
2201 @cindex @code{automaticMelismata}
2203 If the property @code{automaticMelismata} is set in the
2204 context of @var{musicexpr1}, no lyrics will be put on slurred or tied
2207 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2210 \property Voice.automaticMelismata = ##t
2211 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2213 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2217 If you want the lyric lines to be above the melody staff, or in some
2218 other, more complex configuration, then build that configuration first
2219 using simultaneous music, and use @code{\addlyrics} after that.
2221 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
2223 \context Lyrics = LA { s1 }
2224 \context Staff = SA { s1 }
2226 \context Staff = SA \relative c' { c4 e g g }
2227 \context Lyrics = LA \lyrics { geen ge -- don -- der } >
2230 For @code{\addlyrics} you should use a single rhythm melody, and single
2231 rhythm lyrics (a constant duration is the obvious choice). If you do
2232 not, you can get undesired effects when using multiple stanzas:
2234 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2237 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2239 \context Lyrics \lyrics
2244 It is valid (but probably not very useful) to use notes instead of
2245 lyrics for @var{musicexpr2}.
2248 @subsection More stanzas
2252 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
2253 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
2254 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
2256 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice
2257 to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
2258 In the following example, the Voice
2259 identity is @code{duet}, and the identities of the LyricsVoices are
2260 @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
2263 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2266 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
2268 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
2269 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
2270 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
2271 Hi, my name is bert. }
2272 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
2273 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
2274 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
2279 You can add stanza numbers by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the
2280 first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following
2281 systems. Notice how you must surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics}
2287 @cindex stanza numbering
2295 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords. Chords are
2296 characterized by a set of pitches. They are
2297 internally stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can
2298 enter chords by name and print them as note head, enter them as notes
2299 and print them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by
2300 name, and print them as name.
2303 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2304 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
2314 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
2315 \context Voice \twoWays > }
2318 Note that this example also shows that the chord printing routines do
2319 not attempt to be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not
2320 interpret this as an inversion.
2324 * Printing named chords::
2329 @subsection Chords mode
2332 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
2333 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
2334 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
2335 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc).
2337 Dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions and subtractions,
2338 so articulation scripts can not be entered in Chord mode.
2340 The syntax for named chords is as follows:
2342 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
2345 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration} is
2346 the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
2347 modifiers. One type is formed by @emph{chord additions}. Additions are
2348 obtained by listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written
2349 by its number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising
2350 or lowering by half a step. Chord additions have two effects: they adds
2351 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
2352 chord, and they may lower or raise the specified interval.
2354 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
2355 using @code{\transpose}.
2357 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2361 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5-
2371 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
2372 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
2373 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
2374 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
2375 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
2376 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
2377 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
2379 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2382 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
2388 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
2389 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
2392 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2401 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
2402 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
2403 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the note
2404 is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
2406 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2416 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
2417 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
2418 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
2419 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
2421 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2432 Implementation details are quite gory. For example @code{c:4} not only
2433 adds a fourth, but also removes the third.
2436 @c . {Printing named chords}
2437 @node Printing named chords
2438 @subsection Printing named chords
2440 @cindex printing chord names
2444 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
2445 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
2446 directly using simultaneous music.
2448 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2450 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
2454 \context ChordNames \scheme
2455 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2460 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
2461 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
2462 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of a
2467 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
2471 \context ChordNames {
2472 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
2474 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2478 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
2479 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
2480 an added bass note, which may result in strange chord names when chords
2481 are entered as a list of pitches:
2483 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2492 \context ChordNames \scheme
2493 \context Staff \scheme
2499 By default, a chord name system proposed by Harald Banter (See
2500 @ref{Literature}) is used. The system is very regular and predictable.
2501 Typical American style chord names may be selected by setting the
2502 @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName} grob to
2503 @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz chordnames.
2505 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
2506 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
2507 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}. Here's an example showing the differences in
2511 @c maybe just junk verbatim option?
2512 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2522 \context ChordNames = banter \scheme
2523 \context ChordNames = american {
2524 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2525 #'style = #'american \scheme }
2526 \context ChordNames = jazz {
2527 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2528 #'style = #'jazz \scheme }
2529 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2536 @section Writing parts
2538 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
2539 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
2540 problems in orchestral music.
2547 * Instrument names::
2549 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
2550 * Multi measure rests::
2551 * Automatic part combining::
2552 * Hara kiri staves::
2555 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
2556 @node Rehearsal marks
2557 @subsection Rehearsal marks
2558 @cindex Rehearsal marks
2560 @cindex @code{\mark}
2564 \mark @var{unsigned}
2569 This command prints a rehearsal mark above the system. You can provide
2570 a number, a string or a markup text as argument. If you use
2571 @code{\default}, the value of property @code{rehearsalMark} is used and
2572 automatically incremented.
2574 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2580 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-segno")
2585 The grob is @internalsref{RehearsalMark} in @internalsref{Score} context. See
2586 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} if you need boxes around the marks.
2589 @subsection Bar numbers
2593 @cindex measure numbers
2594 @cindex currentBarNumber
2596 Bar numbers are @internalsref{BarNumber} grobs. They are printed at the
2597 start of the line. The number itself is a property that can be set by
2598 modifying the @code{currentBarNumber} property, i.e.
2600 \property Score.currentBarNumber = #217
2603 If you want boxed bar numbers, see the example file
2604 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly}.
2608 It is not possible to have bar numbers printed at regular intervals
2611 @node Instrument names
2612 @subsection Instrument names
2614 You can specify an instrument name for a staff by setting
2615 @code{Staff.instrument} and @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string
2616 before the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
2617 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
2619 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2620 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
2623 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
2627 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2629 '((font-relative-size . -2 ) (music "accidentals--1")))
2632 \property Staff.instrument = #`((kern . 0.5) (lines
2633 "2 Clarinetti" (columns " (B" ,text-flat ")")))
2641 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
2642 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
2643 the name to avoid a collision.
2646 @subsection Transpose
2648 @cindex transposition of pitches
2649 @cindex @code{\transpose}
2651 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
2654 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
2657 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
2660 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
2661 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
2662 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
2665 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2668 { \key e \major c d e f }
2670 \transpose des'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2671 \transpose cis'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2675 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
2676 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
2677 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
2679 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
2680 @subsection Sound output transposing instruments
2682 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed and
2684 instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch offset (in
2685 semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done using the
2686 @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed output.
2688 @cindex @code{transposing}
2691 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
2692 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
2695 @c . {Multi measure rests}
2696 @node Multi measure rests
2697 @subsection Multi measure rests
2698 @cindex Multi measure rests
2702 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
2703 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
2705 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
2706 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
2707 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
2710 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2711 \time 3/4 r2. | R2. | R2.*2 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
2714 Notice that the @code{R2.} is printed as a whole rest, centered in the
2717 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
2719 The grob for this object is @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
2723 Currently, there is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into
2724 a single multimeasure rest.
2726 @cindex condensing rests
2728 @node Automatic part combining
2729 @subsection Automatic part combining
2730 @cindex automatic part combining
2731 @cindex part combiner
2734 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
2735 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting
2736 orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
2737 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are
2738 typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically.
2739 Also, solo and @emph{a due} parts can be identified and marked.
2741 The syntax for part combining is
2744 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
2746 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
2747 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
2748 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
2751 The most useful function of the part combiner is to combine parts into
2752 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
2754 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2756 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2757 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2760 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2766 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
2767 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
2768 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
2769 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
2770 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
2773 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
2774 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
2776 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2778 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
2779 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2780 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2783 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2789 There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak the
2790 behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
2791 documentation of @reng{Thread_devnull_engraver} and
2792 @reng{Voice_devnull_engraver}. Look at the documentation of the
2793 responsible engravers, @code{Thread_devnull_engraver},
2794 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
2798 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
2799 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
2802 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
2804 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2805 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2808 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2814 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2815 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
2816 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
2818 @node Hara kiri staves
2819 @subsection Hara kiri staves
2821 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
2822 This saves some space. LilyPond also supports this through the hara
2823 kiri@footnote{Hara kiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
2824 the Japanese Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when
2825 it finds itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will
2826 not disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
2829 The hara kiri staff is specialized version of the @internalsref{Staff}
2830 context. It is available as the context identifier
2831 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
2832 example disappears in the second line.
2836 \notes \relative c' <
2837 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
2838 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
2842 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
2855 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
2856 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
2857 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
2858 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2859 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2864 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
2869 \consists Custos_engraver
2875 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century.
2876 There were different appearances for different notation styles.
2877 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
2878 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
2881 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
2882 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
2883 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
2884 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
2885 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
2892 \consists Custos_engraver
2893 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2898 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
2903 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
2904 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
2911 @section Figured bass
2913 @cindex Basso continuo
2915 TODO. see figured-bass.ly
2917 @c . {Tuning output}
2919 @section Tuning output
2921 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
2922 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
2923 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
2924 ways to do just that.
2926 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called grobs (graphic
2927 objects). Each grob carries with it a set of properties (grob
2928 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem grob has
2929 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
2931 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
2932 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
2933 temporarily change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus
2934 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
2935 object, and set a grob property in that object.
2938 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
2939 * Tuning per grob ::
2947 @node Tuning groups of grobs
2948 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
2950 @cindex grob description
2954 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a
2955 context property. By assigning to that property (using plain
2956 @code{\property}), you can change the resulting grobs.
2958 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2959 c'4 \property Voice.Stem = #'((meta . ((interfaces . ())))) c'4
2962 The @code{\property} assignment effectively empties the definition of
2963 the Stem object. One of the effects is that the recipe of how it should be
2964 printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible. The above
2965 assignment is available as a standard identifier, for the case that you
2969 \property Voice.Stem = \turnOff
2976 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
2977 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
2980 The definition of a grob is actually a list of default grob
2981 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem grob (available in
2982 @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), defines the following values for
2987 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
2988 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
2992 You can add a property on top of the existing definition, or remove a
2993 property, thus overriding the system defaults:
2995 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
2996 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
2999 You should balance @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. If that's too
3000 much work, you can use the @code{\set} shorthand. It performs a revert
3001 followed by an override. The following example gives exactly the same
3002 result as the previous one.
3004 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
3005 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
3008 If you use @code{\set}, you must explicitly restore the default.
3011 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
3013 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3014 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3015 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
3017 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
3018 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
3021 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
3022 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
3023 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
3024 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and @code{\revert},
3025 must be carefully balanced.
3027 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
3030 A clumsy but correct form:
3032 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
3035 Shorter version of the same:
3037 \override \set \set \revert
3040 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
3043 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
3046 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the grob property is unset),
3049 \set \set \set \revert
3052 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
3053 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a
3054 stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
3055 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding
3056 automatic beaming settings.
3060 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
3061 The backend is not very strict in type-checking grob properties. If you
3062 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
3065 Some grobs are created at the moment that their context is created. An
3066 example of such a grob is the staff itself (i.e. the horizontal lines).
3067 You can not change the appearance of the staff symbol by manipulating
3068 @code{\property Staff.StaffSymbol}. At the moment that @code{\property
3069 Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and the StaffSymbol is
3070 created before any @code{\override} is effective. You can deal with this
3071 either overriding properties in a @code{\translator} definition, or by
3072 using @code{\outputproperty}.
3077 @node Tuning per grob
3078 @subsection Tuning per grob
3080 @cindex \outputproperty
3082 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
3083 feature. The syntax is as follows:
3085 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3087 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
3088 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
3089 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
3090 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
3091 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
3093 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
3094 the appropriate context to apply this to.
3096 Here are some random examples.
3099 In the following example, all note heads occurring at current staff
3100 level, are shifted up and right by setting their @code{extra-offset}
3103 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3105 \context Staff \outputproperty
3106 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
3107 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
3111 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
3113 In this example, the predicate checks the @code{text} grob property, to
3114 shift only the `m.d.' text, but not the fingering instruction "2".
3115 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3116 #(define (make-text-checker text)
3117 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
3120 \notes\relative c''' {
3121 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
3122 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
3123 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
3131 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
3132 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
3138 @subsection What to tune?
3140 This all tells you how to tune grobs, but you don't know what variables
3141 to set? The question is not answered in this part of the manual
3142 (although you may encounter some examples.).
3144 Grob properties are tied directly to the implementation of LilyPond, and
3145 they are thus a moving target. Documentation of such variables is in the
3146 automatically generated documentation. Description of properties are
3147 generated from the source code for each version. This documentation is
3148 therefore more up to date. It should be available from the same place
3149 where you got this manual.
3151 To decide how to tune a grob, you need to find the following information
3154 which grob to modify
3156 which property to modify
3158 which context the grob comes from.
3161 Included with the automatically generated documentation is a master list
3162 of grobs. Selecting a grob will take you to an overview of the
3163 properties available for that grob.
3165 There is also a master list of contexts. Selecting one takes you to an
3166 overview of that context which lists which grob types are created there.
3169 @node Font selection
3170 @subsection Font selection
3172 Most graphics in LilyPond are composed of characters of fonts. You can
3173 alter the characteristics of the font by setting certain grob
3174 properties. The mechanism that is used for this resembles La@TeX{}'s New
3175 Font Selection Scheme. Within this scheme, a font is entirely
3176 characterized by its font name.
3178 For each grob that uses fonts (in other words, each grob that supports
3179 @code{font-interface}) a font-name must be selected before it can be
3180 printed. The font name is selected by looking at a number of grob
3185 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
3186 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff braces),
3187 @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic
3188 signs) and @code{typewriter}
3191 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
3192 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
3193 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
3196 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
3197 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
3200 @item font-relative-size
3201 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
3202 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
3203 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
3205 @item font-design-size
3206 A number indicating the design size of the font.
3208 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
3209 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
3210 which enhances readability. Scalable type faces such TrueType and Adobe
3211 Type1 usually come as ``one design fits all sizes''.
3214 The name of the font, without the design size, e.g. @code{cmr},
3215 @code{cmti}, etc. Setting this overrides font-family, font-shape and
3222 The font is selected by taking the first font that satisfies all
3223 qualifiers specified. You can override any of these fields through
3224 @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The special value @code{*} matches
3225 any value for that qualifier.
3228 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
3229 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
3232 @cindex @code{font-style}
3234 There are also pre-cooked font selection qualifiers. These are selected
3235 through the grob property @code{font-style}. For example, the style
3236 @code{finger} selects family @code{number} and relative size @code{-3}.
3237 Styles available include @code{volta}, @code{finger}, @code{tuplet},
3238 @code{timesig}, @code{mmrest}, @code{script}, @code{large}, @code{Large}
3241 The style sheets and tables for selecting fonts are located in
3242 @file{scm/font.scm}. Refer to this file for more information.
3245 Setting @code{font-name} overrides all other qualifiers. The value for
3246 this property should be a string, the file name of the font. You may use
3247 this to use special fonts, which are not a part of the style sheet, or
3248 which have special encodings.
3250 The size of the font may be set with the grob property
3251 @code{font-magnification}. It is the size of font, relative to its
3252 standard size. For example, @code{1.0} is normal size.
3256 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
3258 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
3261 @cindex font selection
3262 @cindex font magnification
3263 @cindex @code{font-interface}
3267 @subsection Text markup
3271 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
3272 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
3273 in the following way.
3275 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3280 c^#'(italic "italic")
3281 d_#'((bold italic) "ff")
3283 f_#'(lines "one" (bold "two"))
3284 g^#'(music "noteheads-2" ((raise . 2.4) "flags-u3"))
3288 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
3289 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
3292 text: string | (head? text+)
3293 head: markup | (markup+)
3294 markup-item: property | abbrev
3295 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
3296 abbrev: @code{columns lines roman music bold italic named super sub}
3297 @code{overstrike text finger volta timesig mmrest mark script}
3298 @code{large Large dynamic}
3301 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
3302 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
3303 pair is a grob property. A list of properties available is included in
3304 the generated documentation for @rint{Text_interface}.
3306 The following abbreviations are currently defined:
3309 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
3311 vertical mode: set every text on a new line
3315 selects the Feta font (the standard font for music notation glyphs),
3316 and uses named lookup
3323 lookup by character name
3325 plain text lookup (by character value)
3331 the next text or character overstrikes this one
3333 select fingering number fontstyle
3335 select volta number fontstyle
3337 select time signature number fontstyle
3339 select multi measure rest number fontstyle
3341 select mark number fontstyle
3343 select scriptsize roman fontstyle
3345 select large roman fontstyle
3347 select Large roman fontstyle
3349 select dynamics fontstyle
3353 @cindex metronome mark
3355 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
3359 #(define note '(columns
3360 (music "noteheads-2" ((kern . -0.1) "flags-stem"))))
3361 #(define eight-note `(columns ,note ((kern . -0.1)
3362 (music ((raise . 3.5) "flags-u3")))))
3363 #(define dotted-eight-note
3364 `(columns ,eight-note (music "dots-dot")))
3367 \notes\relative c'' {
3368 a1^#`((columns (font-relative-size . -1)) ,dotted-eight-note " = 64")
3374 TextScript \override #'font-shape = #'upright
3380 @node Invisible grobs
3381 @subsection Invisible grobs
3382 @cindex invisible grobs
3386 ben nog steeds niet kapot van de informatiedichtheid hier.
3392 You can imagine a number of situations where you would want to make
3393 certain grobs not show up in the output. There may be aesthetic
3394 reasons, to make the output resemble an (old) manuscript as close as
3395 possible, or to make lessons or exercises for students.
3397 Grobs can be made invisible in a number of ways:
3399 Here's an example with blanked-out notes and stems:
3400 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3402 \property Voice.NoteHead \override
3404 \property Voice.Stem \override
3405 #'transparent = ##t }
3408 \property Voice.NoteHead \revert #'transparent
3409 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'transparent }
3412 \notes\relative c'' {
3414 a b c b \blanknotes c \unblanknotes d
3418 This method makes the grobs invisible but they still take the normal space.
3419 To remove all traces of the grob, you can redefine the function
3423 \notes\relative c'' {
3426 as bes c bes c d \break
3427 \property Staff.KeySignature \override #'molecule-callback = #'()
3430 \paper{linewidth=5.0\cm indent=0}
3434 A very rigorous way of removing grobs from the whole score is to remove
3435 the engraver that creates them. For example,
3437 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3438 \score {\notes { c'4 d'8 e'8 g2 }
3439 \paper { \translator {
3441 \remove Stem_engraver
3447 @subsection Dirty tricks
3448 @cindex embedded tex
3450 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
3451 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
3452 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
3453 commands won't work with direct PostScript output (see @ref{PostScript
3456 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3457 a'^"3 $\\times$ \\`a deux"
3460 You can also use raw PostScript commands embedded in text scripts. This
3461 offers ultimate flexibility, but requires you to learn PostScript.
3462 Currently, embedded PostScript will @strong{not} work with direct
3463 PostScript output. Note that all dimensions that you use are in staff
3468 \notes \relative c'' {
3469 a-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 5 3 rlineto stroke}"
3470 -#"\\embeddedps{ [ 0 1 ] 0 setdash 3 5 moveto 5 -3 rlineto stroke}"
3471 b-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 0 0 1 2 8 4 20 3.5 rcurveto stroke}"
3475 \paper { linewidth = 70*\staffspace }
3482 @section Page layout
3485 The page layout is the combined product of LilyPond formatting notation,
3486 and (La)@TeX{} putting the notation on a page, including page breaks.
3487 The part of LilyPond is documented here.
3501 @subsection Paper block
3504 The most important output definition is the @code{\paper} block, for
3505 music notation. The syntax is
3508 @code{\paper @{} [@var{paperidentifier}] @var{items} @code{@}}
3511 where each of the items is one of
3514 @item An assignment.
3516 @item A context definition. See @ref{Interpretation context} for
3517 more information on context definitions.
3519 @item \stylesheet declaration. Its syntax is
3521 \stylesheet @var{alist}
3524 See @file{scm/font.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
3525 @item an @code{\elementdescriptions} declaration.
3527 \elementdescriptions @var{alist}
3529 See @file{scm/grob-description.scm} for details of
3530 @var{alist}. This command is not user-serviceable.
3534 @c . {Paper variables}
3535 @node Paper variables
3536 @subsection Paper variables
3537 @cindex Paper variables
3539 The paper block has some variables you may want to use or change:
3542 @cindex @code{indent}
3544 The indentation of the first line of music.
3545 @cindex @code{staffspace}
3547 @item @code{staffspace}
3548 The distance between two staff lines, calculated from the center
3551 @cindex @code{linewidth}
3552 @item @code{linewidth}
3553 Sets the width of the lines.
3555 If set to a negative value, a single unjustified line is produced.
3556 @c rename to singleLinePaper ?
3557 The shorthand @code{\singleLine} defines a default paper block that
3558 produces a single line.
3560 @cindex @code{textheight}
3562 @item @code{textheight}
3563 Sets the total height of the music on each page. Only used by
3566 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
3568 @item @code{interscoreline}
3569 Sets the spacing between systems. The default is 16pt.
3571 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
3573 @item @code{interscorelinefill}
3574 If set to a positive number, the distance between the score
3575 lines will stretch in order to fill the full page. In that
3576 case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
3581 @cindex @code{stafflinethickness}
3583 @item @code{stafflinethickness}
3584 Determines the thickness of staff lines, and also acts as a scaling
3585 parameter for other line thicknesses.
3588 You may enter these dimension using units (@code{cm}, @code{in},
3589 @code{mm}, @code{pt}), or relative to another dimension
3591 linewidth = 20.0 * \staffspace
3598 @subsection Font size
3599 @cindex font size, setting
3600 @cindex staff size, setting
3601 @cindex @code{paper} file
3603 The Feta font provides musical symbols at six different sizes. These
3604 fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point, 23 point, and 26
3605 point. The point size of a font is the height of the five lines in a
3606 staff when displayed in the font.
3608 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
3609 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any of
3610 these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven}, @code{paperThirteen},
3611 @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and
3612 @code{paperTwentysix} are defined respectively. The default
3613 @code{\paper} block is also set. These files should be imported at toplevel, i.e.
3615 \include "paper26.ly"
3619 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
3620 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
3626 @subsection Paper size
3631 @cindex @code{papersize}
3633 To change the paper size, you must first set the
3634 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
3635 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
3636 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
3637 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
3640 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
3641 \include "paper16.ly"
3644 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
3645 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
3646 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
3650 @subsection Line break
3653 @cindex breaking lines
3655 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
3656 that it looks neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines have
3659 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do
3660 this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at this
3661 point. Do remember that line breaks can only occur at places where there
3662 are bar lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no
3663 bar line, you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
3664 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain point.
3666 If you want linebreaks at regular intervals, you can use the following:
3669 < \repeat 7 unfold @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
3673 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
3677 @cindex @code{\penalty}
3679 The @code{\break} and @code{\noBreak} commands are defined in terms of
3680 the penalty command:
3685 This encourages or discourages LilyPond to make a line break at this
3690 The scaling of the @code{\penalty} argument is not well-defined. The
3691 command is rather kludgey, and slated for rewriting.
3695 @subsection Page break
3698 @cindex breaking pages
3700 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
3701 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into the
3702 @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages, by inserting
3703 the command @code{\newpage}
3704 @cindex @code{\newpage}
3710 @c why do so difficult?
3711 @c maybe should explain contents of between-system.ly,
3712 @c but not now, we're talking about page breaks here.
3714 @c details, see the example file @file{input/test/between-systems.ly}
3717 @c . {Output scaling}
3718 @node Output scaling
3719 @subsection Output scaling
3734 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3735 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts.
3739 @c . {Output formats}
3740 @node Output formats
3741 @section Output formats
3743 LilyPond can output processed music in different output formats.
3747 * PostScript output::
3749 * ASCIIScript output::
3753 @subsection TeX output
3756 LilyPond will use @TeX{} by default. Even if you want to produce
3757 PostScript output for viewing or printing, you should normally have
3758 LilyPond produce @TeX{} first. The .tex output must be processed by
3759 @TeX{} (@strong{not} La@TeX{}) to generate a .dvi. Then, @file{Dvips}
3760 is used to generate PostScript. Alternatively, @file{ly2dvi} can be
3761 used to generate the .dvi for you.
3765 Titling is not generated unless you use @file{ly2dvi}.
3768 @node PostScript output
3769 @subsection PostScript output
3770 @cindex PostScript output
3771 @cindex direct PostScript output
3773 LilyPond can produce PostScript directly, without going through @TeX{}.
3774 Currently, this is mainly useful if you cannot use TeX, because direct
3775 PostScript output has some problems; see Bugs below.
3778 $ lilypond -fps foo.ly
3779 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3780 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3782 Interpreting music...[3]
3783 Preprocessing elements...
3784 Calculating column positions...
3785 paper output to foo.ps...
3787 $ cat /usr/share/lilypond/pfa/feta20.pfa foo.ps | lpr
3793 Text font selection is broken.
3795 The .ps file does not contain the .pfa font files. To print a .ps
3796 created through direct postscript output, you should prepend the
3797 necessary .pfa files to LilyPond's .ps output, or upload them to the
3798 printer before printing.
3800 The line height calculation is broken, you must set @var{lineheight} in
3801 the paperblock if you have more than one staff in your score, e.g.
3806 % Set line height to 40 staff spaces
3812 @subsection Scheme output
3813 @cindex Scheme output
3815 In the typesetting stage, LilyPond builds a page description, which is
3816 then written to disk in postscript, @TeX{} or ASCII art. Before it is
3817 written, the page description is represented as Scheme expressions. You
3818 can also dump these Scheme expressions to a file, which may be
3819 convenient for debugging output routines. This is done with the Scheme
3823 $ lilypond -fscm foo.ly
3824 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3825 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3827 Interpreting music...[3]
3828 Preprocessing elements...
3829 Calculating column positions...
3830 paper output to foo.scm...
3833 ;;; Usage: guile -s x.scm > x.tex
3834 (primitive-load-path 'standalone.scm)
3838 $ guile -s foo.scm > foo.tex
3842 @node ASCIIScript output
3843 @subsection ASCIIScript output
3844 @cindex ASCIIScript output
3845 @cindex ascii script
3848 LilyPond can output ASCII Art. This is a two step process, LilyPond
3849 produces an ASCII description file, dubbed ASCIIScript (extension
3850 @file{.as}). ASCIIScript has a small and simple command set that
3851 includes font selection, character and string printing and line drawing
3852 commands. The program @file{as2text} is used to translate an .as file
3855 To produce ASCII Art, you must include an ASCII Art paper definition
3856 file in your .ly, one of:
3858 \include "paper-as5.ly"
3859 \include "paper-as9.ly"
3862 Here's an example use for ASCII Art output (the example file
3863 @file{as-email.ly} is included in the LilyPond distribution), the staff
3864 symbol has been made invisible:
3867 $ lilypond -fas as-email.ly
3868 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3869 Now processing: `as-email.ly'
3871 Interpreting music...[3]
3872 Preprocessing elements...
3873 Calculating column positions... [2]
3874 paper output to as-email.as...
3876 $ as2text as-email.as 2>/dev/null
3878 |/ |##|##| | | | | |
3879 /| | | | | |\ |\ |\ |\ |\ |
3880 / |_ 3 | | | | 5 | )| )| )| )| )|
3881 | /| \ 8 * * * | 8 * * * * * |
3891 The ASCII Art fonts are far from complete and not very well designed.
3892 It's easy to change the glyphs, though; if you think you can do better,
3893 have a look at @file{mf/*.af}.
3895 Lots of resizable symbols such as slurs, ties and tuplets are missing.
3897 The poor looks of most ASCII Art output and its limited general
3898 usefulness gives ASCII Art output a low priority; it may be
3899 dropped in future versions.
3906 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
3907 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, etc., but it
3908 is good enough for proof-hearing the music you have entered. Ties,
3909 dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
3911 Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume
3912 levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available
3913 MIDI volume range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary
3914 linearly between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
3915 overriding the @code{absolute-volume-alist} defined in
3916 @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3918 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
3919 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
3920 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. You can add
3921 instruments and ranges or change the default settings by overriding the
3922 @code{instrument-equalizer-alist} defined in @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3924 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
3929 It is currently not possible to use the percussion channel (generally
3930 channel 10 of a MIDI file).
3934 * MIDI instrument names::
3939 @subsection MIDI block
3943 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
3944 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
3948 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
3949 @item context definitions
3952 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
3956 @cindex context definition
3958 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
3959 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
3960 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer.ly}.
3963 @node MIDI instrument names
3964 @subsection MIDI instrument names
3966 @cindex instrument names
3967 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3968 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
3970 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3971 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
3972 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
3973 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
3977 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
3978 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by
3988 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
3991 @section Music entry
3999 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce errors. This
4000 section deals with tricks and features that help you enter music, and
4001 find and correct mistakes.
4005 @subsection Relative
4007 @cindex relative octave specification
4009 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
4010 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
4011 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
4012 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
4014 @cindex @code{\relative}
4016 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
4019 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
4020 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
4021 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
4022 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
4023 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
4026 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
4027 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
4028 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
4029 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
4031 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
4032 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
4038 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
4039 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4041 c g c f, c' a, e'' }
4044 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
4045 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
4046 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
4049 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4056 @cindex @code{\notes}
4058 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
4059 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
4060 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
4063 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
4064 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
4065 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
4066 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
4071 @subsection Bar check
4075 @cindex @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}
4079 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
4080 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
4081 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
4082 @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
4083 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
4085 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}:
4087 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
4092 @cindex skipTypesetting
4094 Failed bar checks are most often caused by entering incorrect
4095 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
4096 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the score
4097 by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To speed up
4098 this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting} (See @ref{Skipping
4099 corrected music})). Bar
4102 @c . {Point and click}
4103 @node Point and click
4104 @subsection Point and click
4106 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
4107 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
4108 error in the sheet music.
4110 To use it, you need the following software
4112 @unnumberedsubsec Installation
4116 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,plain
4117 Xdvi} version 22.36 or newer.
4119 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is a
4120 different and less well maintained program. To find out which xdvi you
4121 are running, try @code{xdvi --version} or @code{xdvi.bin --version}.
4125 Xdvi must be configured to find the TeX fonts and music
4126 fonts. Refer to the Xdvi documentation for more information.
4129 @unnumberedsubsec Using it
4131 Add one of these lines to the top of your .ly file. The first one is for
4132 line location only. The second one is more convenient, but requires
4133 patching @code{emacsclient} and @code{server.el}.
4136 #(set! point-and-click line-location)
4139 In the emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}), add the following
4144 Make sure that the environment variable @code{XEDITOR} is set
4147 emacsclient --no-wait +%l %f
4149 The second one, that also specifies the column, only works if you have
4150 patched your emacsclient and server, and have compiled your @code{.ly}
4151 file using the @code{line-column-location} setting.
4153 When viewing, control-mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
4154 spot in the @file{.ly} file. Control-mousebutton 2 will show all
4158 @unnumberedsubsec Column location
4160 If you want emacs to jump to the exact spot (and not just the line) on a
4161 click, you must enable column positioning. To do so, you need to patch
4162 emacsclient. Apply @file{emacsclient.patch} (included with the source
4163 package) to @file{emacsclient.c} and @file{server.el} from the emacs
4164 source code. Recompile and stick the recompiled emacsclient into a bin
4165 directory, and put @file{server.el} into a elisp directory
4166 (e.g. @file{~/usr/share/emacs/}). Add the following to your @file{.emacs}
4167 init file, before invoking server-start.
4170 (setq load-path (cons "~/usr/share/emacs" load-path))
4173 Set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{emacsclient --no-wait +%l:%c %f}
4175 At the top of the @code{ly} file, replace the @code{set!} line with the
4178 #(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
4181 One final hint: if you correct large files with point-and-click, then
4182 start correcting at the end of the file. When you start at the top, and
4183 insert one line, all subsequent locations will be off by a line.
4188 When you convert the @TeX{} file to PostScript using @code{dvips}, it
4189 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. Those complaints
4190 are harmless, and can be ignored.
4192 @node Skipping corrected music
4193 @section Skipping corrected music
4195 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
4196 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
4197 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
4198 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
4201 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4202 \relative c'' { c8 d
4203 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
4205 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
4210 @node Interpretation context
4211 @section Interpretation context
4214 * Creating contexts::
4215 * Default contexts::
4216 * Context properties::
4217 * Engravers and performers::
4218 * Changing context definitions::
4219 * Defining new contexts::
4223 Interpretation contexts are objects that only exist during a run of
4224 LilyPond. During the interpretation phase of LilyPond (when it prints
4225 "interpreting music"), the music expression in a @code{\score} block is
4226 interpreted in time order. This is the same order that humans hear and
4229 During this interpretation, the interpretation context holds the
4230 state for the current point within the music. It contains information
4234 @item What notes are playing at this point?
4235 @item What symbols will be printed at this point?
4236 @item What is the current key signature, time signature, point within
4240 Contexts are grouped hierarchically: A @internalsref{Voice} context is
4241 contained in a @internalsref{Staff} context (because a staff can contain
4242 multiple voices at any point), a @internalsref{Staff} context is contained in
4243 @internalsref{Score}, @internalsref{StaffGroup}, or @internalsref{ChoirStaff} context.
4245 Contexts associated with sheet music output are called @emph{notation
4246 contexts}, those for sound output are called @emph{performance
4247 contexts}. The default definitions of the standard notation and
4248 performance contexts can be found in @file{ly/engraver.ly} and
4249 @file{ly/performer.ly}, respectively.
4252 @node Creating contexts
4253 @subsection Creating contexts
4255 @cindex @code{\context}
4256 @cindex context selection
4258 Contexts for a music expression can be selected manually, using the
4259 following music expression.
4262 \context @var{contexttype} [= @var{contextname}] @var{musicexpr}
4265 This instructs lilypond to interpret @var{musicexpr} within the context
4266 of type @var{contexttype} and with name @var{contextname}. If this
4267 context does not exist, it will be created.
4269 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4271 \notes \relative c'' {
4272 c4 <d4 \context Staff = "another" e4> f
4278 In this example, the @code{c} and @code{d} are printed on the
4279 default staff. For the @code{e}, a context Staff called
4280 @code{another} is specified; since that does not exist, a new
4281 context is created. Within @code{another}, a (default) Voice context
4282 is created for the @code{e4}. When all music referring to a
4283 context is finished, the context is ended as well. So after the
4284 third quarter, @code{another} is removed.
4288 @node Default contexts
4289 @subsection Default contexts
4291 Most music expressions don't need an explicit @code{\context}
4292 declaration: they inherit the
4293 notation context from their parent. Each note is a music expression, and
4294 as you can see in the following example, only the sequential music
4295 enclosing the three notes has an explicit context.
4297 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4298 \score { \notes \context Voice = goUp { c'4 d' e' } }
4301 There are some quirks that you must keep in mind when dealing with
4304 First, every top level music is interpreted by the Score context, in other
4305 words, you may think of @code{\score} working like
4308 \context Score @var{music}
4312 Second, contexts are created automatically to be able to interpret the
4313 music expressions. Consider the following example.
4315 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4316 \score { \context Score \notes { c'4 ( d' )e' } }
4319 The sequential music is interpreted by the Score context initially
4320 (notice that the @code{\context} specification is redundant), but when a
4321 note is encountered, contexts are setup to accept that note. In this
4322 case, a Thread, Voice and Staff are created. The rest of the sequential
4323 music is also interpreted with the same Thread, Voice and Staff context,
4324 putting the notes on the same staff, in the same voice.
4326 This is a convenient mechanism, but do not expect opening chords to work
4327 without @code{\context}. For every note, a separate staff is
4330 @cindex explicit context
4331 @cindex starting with chords
4332 @cindex chords, starting with
4334 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4335 \score { \notes <c'4 es'> }
4338 Of course, if the chord is preceded by a normal note in sequential
4339 music, the chord will be interpreted by the Thread of the preceding
4341 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4342 \score { \notes { c'4 <c'4 es'> } }
4347 @node Context properties
4348 @subsection Context properties
4350 Notation contexts have properties. These properties are from
4351 the @file{.ly} file using the following expression:
4352 @cindex @code{\property}
4354 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} = @var{value}
4357 Sets the @var{propname} property of the context @var{contextname} to the
4358 specified Scheme expression @var{value}. All @var{propname} and
4359 @var{contextname} are strings, which are typically unquoted.
4361 Properties that are set in one context are inherited by all of the
4362 contained contexts. This means that a property valid for the
4363 @internalsref{Voice} context can be set in the @internalsref{Score} context (for
4364 example) and thus take effect in all @internalsref{Voice} contexts.
4366 Properties can be unset using the following expression:
4368 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} \unset
4371 @cindex properties, unsetting
4372 @cindex @code{\unset}
4374 This removes the definition of @var{propname} in @var{contextname}. If
4375 @var{propname} was not defined in @var{contextname} (but was inherited
4376 from a higher context), then this has no effect.
4381 The syntax of @code{\unset} is asymmetric: @code{\property \unset} is not
4382 the inverse of @code{\property \set}.
4384 @node Engravers and performers
4385 @subsection Engravers and performers
4389 Basic building blocks of translation are called engravers; they are
4390 special C++ classes.
4394 @c . {Context definitions}
4395 @node Changing context definitions
4396 @subsection Changing context definitions
4398 @cindex context definition
4399 @cindex translator definition
4401 The most common way to define a context is by extending an existing
4402 context. You can change an existing context from the paper block, by
4403 first initializing a translator with an existing context identifier:
4407 @var{context-identifier}
4410 Then you can add and remove engravers using the following syntax:
4412 \remove @var{engravername}
4413 \consists @var{engravername}
4417 Here @var{engravername} is a string, the name of an engraver in the
4421 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4425 \translator { \StaffContext
4426 \remove Clef_engraver
4432 You can also set properties in a translator definition. The syntax is as
4435 @var{propname} = @var{value}
4436 @var{propname} \set @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4437 @var{propname} \override @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4438 @var{propname} \revert @var{grob-propname}
4440 @var{propname} is a string, @var{grob-propname} a symbol, @var{value}
4441 and @code{pvalue} are Scheme expressions. These type of property
4442 assignments happen before interpretation starts, so a @code{\property}
4443 command will override any predefined settings.
4446 To simplify editing translators, all standard contexts have standard
4447 identifiers called @var{name}@code{Context}, e.g. @code{StaffContext},
4448 @code{VoiceContext}, see @file{ly/engraver.ly}.
4450 @node Defining new contexts
4451 @subsection Defining new contexts
4453 If you want to build a context from scratch, you must also supply the
4454 following extra information:
4456 @item A name, specified by @code{\name @var{contextname}}.
4458 @item A cooperation module. This is specified by @code{\type
4465 \type "Engraver_group_engraver"
4468 \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4469 \consists "Note_head_engraver"
4470 \consistsend "Axis_group_engraver"
4474 The argument of @code{\type} is the name for a special engraver that
4475 handles cooperation between simple engravers such as
4476 @code{Note_head_engraver} and @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. Alternatives
4477 for this engraver are the following:
4479 @cindex @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4480 @item @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4481 The standard cooperation engraver.
4483 @cindex @code{Score_engraver}
4485 @item @code{Score_engraver}
4486 This is cooperation module that should be in the top level context,
4487 and only the top level context.
4489 @cindex @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4491 @item @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4492 This is a special cooperation module (resembling
4493 @code{Score_engraver}) that is used to create an embedded
4500 @item @code{\alias} @var{alternate-name}
4501 This specifies a different name. In the above example,
4502 @code{\property Staff.X = Y} will also work on @code{SimpleStaff}s
4504 @item @code{\consistsend} @var{engravername}
4505 Analogous to @code{\consists}, but makes sure that
4506 @var{engravername} is always added to the end of the list of
4509 Some engraver types need to be at the end of the list; this
4510 insures they stay there even if a user adds or removes engravers.
4511 End-users generally don't need this command.
4513 @item @code{\accepts} @var{contextname}
4514 Add @var{contextname} to the list of contexts this context can
4515 contain in the context hierarchy. The first listed context is the
4516 context to create by default.
4518 @item @code{\denies}. The opposite of @code{\accepts}. Added for
4519 completeness, but is never used in practice.
4522 @item @code{\name} @var{contextname}
4523 This sets the type name of the context, e.g. @internalsref{Staff},
4524 @internalsref{Voice}. If the name is not specified, the translator won't do
4528 In the @code{\paper} block, it is also possible to define translator
4529 identifiers. Like other block identifiers, the identifier can only
4530 be used as the very first item of a translator. In order to define
4531 such an identifier outside of @code{\score}, you must do
4536 foo = \translator @{ @dots{} @}
4543 \translator @{ \foo @dots{} @}
4551 @cindex paper types, engravers, and pre-defined translators
4558 @c . {Syntactic details}
4559 @node Syntactic details
4560 @section Syntactic details
4561 @cindex Syntactic details
4563 This section describes details that were too boring to be put elsewhere.
4568 * Music expressions::
4569 * Manipulating music expressions::
4577 @subsection Top level
4580 This section describes what you may enter at top level.
4584 @subsubsection Score
4587 @cindex score definition
4589 The output is generated combining a music expression with an output
4590 definition. A score block has the following syntax:
4593 \score @{ @var{musicexpr} @var{outputdefs} @}
4596 @var{outputdefs} are zero or more output definitions. If none is
4597 supplied, the default @code{\paper} block will be added.
4601 @c . {Default output}
4602 @subsubsection Default output
4604 Default values for the @code{\paper} and @code{\midi} block are set by
4605 entering such a block at the top level.
4608 @subsubsection Header
4610 @cindex @code{\header}
4613 A header describes bibliographic information of the file's contents. It
4614 can also appear in a @code{\score} block. Tools like @code{ly2dvi} can
4615 use this information for generating titles. Key values that are used by
4616 @code{ly2dvi} are: title, subtitle, composer, opus, poet, instrument,
4617 meter, arranger, piece and tagline.
4619 @cindex @code{ly2dvi}
4623 \header @{ @var{key1} = @var{val1}
4624 @var{key2} = @var{val2} @dots{} @}
4627 It is customary to put the @code{\header} at the top of the file.
4629 @subsubsection Default output
4631 A @code{\midi} or @code{\paper} block at top level sets the default
4632 paper block for all scores that lack an explicit paper block.
4636 @subsection Identifiers
4640 What has this section got to do with identifiers?
4641 It seems more appropriate in the introduction to Chapter 4,
4647 All of the information in a LilyPond input file, is internally
4648 represented as a Scheme value. In addition to normal Scheme data types
4649 (such as pair, number, boolean, etc.), LilyPond has a number of
4650 specialized data types,
4657 @item Translator_def
4661 @item Music_output_def
4662 @item Moment (rational number)
4665 LilyPond also includes some transient object types. Objects of these
4666 types are built during a LilyPond run, and do not `exist' per se within
4667 your input file. These objects are created as a result of your input
4668 file, so you can include commands in the input to manipulate them,
4669 during a lilypond run.
4672 @item Grob: short for Graphical object. See @ref{Grobs}.
4673 @item Molecule: device-independent page output object,
4674 including dimensions. Produced by some Grob functions
4676 @item Translator: object that produces audio objects or Grobs. This is
4677 not yet user accessible.
4678 @item Font_metric: object representing a font.
4682 @node Music expressions
4683 @subsection Music expressions
4685 @cindex music expressions
4687 Music in LilyPond is entered as a music expression. Notes, rests, lyric
4688 syllables are music expressions, and you can combine music expressions
4689 to form new ones, for example by enclosing a list of expressions in
4690 @code{\sequential @{ @}} or @code{< >}. In the following example, a
4691 compound expression is formed out of the quarter note @code{c} and a
4692 quarter note @code{d}:
4695 \sequential @{ c4 d4 @}
4698 @cindex Sequential music
4699 @cindex @code{\sequential}
4700 @cindex sequential music
4703 @cindex Simultaneous music
4704 @cindex @code{\simultaneous}
4706 The two basic compound music expressions are simultaneous and
4710 \sequential @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4711 \simultaneous @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4713 For both, there is a shorthand:
4715 @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4719 @code{<} @var{musicexprlist} @code{>}
4721 for simultaneous music.
4722 In principle, the way in which you nest sequential and simultaneous to
4723 produce music is not relevant. In the following example, three chords
4724 are expressed in two different ways:
4726 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4727 \notes \context Voice {
4728 <a c'> <b d' > <c' e'>
4729 < { a b c' } { c' d' e' } >
4734 Other compound music expressions include
4737 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{expr}
4738 \apply @var{func} @var{expr}
4739 \context @var{type} = @var{id} @var{expr}
4740 \times @var{fraction} @var{expr}
4744 @c . {Manipulating music expressions}
4745 @node Manipulating music expressions
4746 @subsection Manipulating music expressions
4748 The @code{\apply} mechanism gives you access to the internal
4749 representation of music. You can write Scheme-functions that operate
4750 directly on it. The syntax is
4752 \apply #@var{func} @var{music}
4754 This means that @var{func} is applied to @var{music}. The function
4755 @var{func} should return a music expression.
4757 This example replaces the text string of a script. It also shows a dump
4758 of the music it processes, which is useful if you want to know more
4759 about how music is stored.
4761 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4762 #(define (testfunc x)
4763 (if (equal? (ly-get-mus-property x 'text) "foo")
4764 (ly-set-mus-property x 'text "bar"))
4766 (ly-set-mus-property x 'elements
4767 (map testfunc (ly-get-mus-property x 'elements)))
4772 \apply #testfunc { c'4_"foo" }
4776 For more information on what is possible, see the automatically
4777 generated documentation.
4780 Directly accessing internal representations is dangerous: the
4781 implementation is subject to changes, so you should avoid this feature
4784 A final example is a function that reverses a piece of music in time:
4786 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4787 #(define (reverse-music music)
4788 (let* ((elements (ly-get-mus-property music 'elements))
4789 (reversed (reverse elements))
4790 (span-dir (ly-get-mus-property music 'span-direction)))
4791 (ly-set-mus-property music 'elements reversed)
4793 (ly-set-mus-property music 'span-direction (- span-dir)))
4794 (map reverse-music reversed)
4797 music = \notes { c'4 d'4( e'4 f'4 }
4799 \score { \context Voice {
4801 \apply #reverse-music \music
4806 More examples are given in the distributed example files in
4809 @c . {Span requests}
4815 @subsubsection Span requests
4816 @cindex Span requests
4818 Notational constructs that start and end on different notes can be
4819 entered using span requests. The syntax is as follows:
4823 \spanrequest @var{startstop} @var{type}
4827 @cindex @code{\start}
4828 @cindex @code{\stop}
4830 This defines a spanning request. The @var{startstop} parameter is either
4831 -1 (@code{\start}) or 1 (@code{\stop}) and @var{type} is a string that
4832 describes what should be started. Much of the syntactic sugar is a
4833 shorthand for @code{\spanrequest}, for example,
4835 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4836 c'4-\spanrequest \start "slur"
4837 c'4-\spanrequest \stop "slur"
4840 Among the supported types are @code{crescendo}, @code{decrescendo},
4841 @code{beam}, @code{slur}. This is an internal command. Users are
4842 encouraged to use the shorthands which are defined in the initialization
4843 file @file{spanners.ly}.
4848 @subsection Assignments
4851 Identifiers allow objects to be assigned to names during the parse
4852 stage. To assign an identifier, you use @var{name}@code{=}@var{value}
4853 and to refer to an identifier, you precede its name with a backslash:
4854 `@code{\}@var{name}'. @var{value} is any valid Scheme value or any of
4855 the input-types listed above. Identifier assignments can appear at top
4856 level in the LilyPond file, but also in @code{\paper} blocks.
4858 An identifier can be created with any string for its name, but you will
4859 only be able to refer to identifiers whose names begin with a letter,
4860 being entirely alphabetical. It is impossible to refer to an identifier
4861 whose name is the same as the name of a keyword.
4863 The right hand side of an identifier assignment is parsed completely
4864 before the assignment is done, so it is allowed to redefine an
4865 identifier in terms of its old value, e.g.
4871 When an identifier is referenced, the information it points to is
4872 copied. For this reason, an identifier reference must always be the
4873 first item in a block.
4877 \paperIdent % wrong and invalid
4881 \paperIdent % correct
4886 @c . {Lexical modes}
4888 @subsection Lexical modes
4889 @cindex Lexical modes
4892 @cindex @code{\notes}
4893 @cindex @code{\chords}
4894 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
4896 To simplify entering notes, lyrics, and chords, LilyPond has three
4897 special input modes in addition to the default mode: note, lyrics and
4898 chords mode. These input modes change the way that normal, unquoted
4899 words are interpreted: for example, the word @code{cis} may be
4900 interpreted as a C-sharp, as a lyric syllable `cis' or as a C-sharp
4901 major triad respectively.
4903 A mode switch is entered as a compound music expression
4905 @code{\notes} @var{musicexpr}
4906 @code{\chords} @var{musicexpr}
4907 @code{\lyrics} @var{musicexpr}.
4910 In each of these cases, these expressions do not add anything to the
4911 meaning of their arguments. They just instruct the parser in what mode
4912 to parse their arguments. The modes are treated in more detail in
4913 @ref{Lyrics} and @ref{Chords}.
4915 Different input modes may be nested.
4919 @subsection Ambiguities
4924 The grammar contains a number of ambiguities. We hope to resolve them at
4928 @item The assignment
4933 is interpreted as the string identifier assignment. However,
4934 it can also be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
4935 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo}
4936 containing the syllable `bar'.
4938 @item If you do a nested repeat like
4950 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the
4951 @code{\alternative} belongs. This is the classic if-then-else
4952 dilemma. It may be solved by using braces.
4954 @item The parser is not sophisticated enough to distinguish at the
4956 @code{c4*2 / 3 } and @code{c4*2 / g} (in chord mode).
4963 @c . {Lexical details}
4964 @node Lexical details
4965 @section Lexical details
4967 Even more boring details, now on lexical side of the input parser.
4978 * Version information::
4983 @subsection Comments
4986 @cindex block comment
4987 @cindex line comment
4991 A one line comment is introduced by a @code{%} character.
4992 Block comments are started by @code{%@{} and ended by @code{%@}}.
4993 They cannot be nested.
4996 @subsection Direct Scheme
5000 @cindex Scheme, in-line code
5003 LilyPond contains a Scheme interpreter (the GUILE library) for
5004 internal use. In some places, Scheme expressions also form valid syntax:
5005 wherever it is allowed,
5009 evaluates the specified Scheme code. Example:
5011 \property Staff.TestObject \override #'foobar = #(+ 1 2)
5013 @code{\override} expects two Scheme expressions, so there are two Scheme
5014 expressions. The first one is a symbol (@code{foobar}), the second one
5015 an integer (namely, 3).
5017 In-line scheme may be used at the top level. In this case the result is
5020 Scheme is a full-blown programming language, and a full discussion is
5021 outside the scope of this document. Interested readers are referred to
5022 the website @uref{http://www.schemers.org/} for more information on
5027 @subsection Keywords
5031 Keywords start with a backslash, followed by a number of lower case
5032 alphabetic characters. These are all the keywords.
5035 apply arpeggio autochange spanrequest commandspanrequest
5036 simultaneous sequential accepts alternative bar breathe
5037 char chordmodifiers chords clef cm consists consistsend
5038 context denies duration dynamicscript elementdescriptions
5039 font grace header in lyrics key mark pitch
5040 time times midi mm name pitchnames notes outputproperty
5041 override set revert partial paper penalty property pt
5042 relative remove repeat addlyrics partcombine score
5043 script stylesheet skip textscript tempo translator
5048 @subsection Integers
5056 Formed from an optional minus sign followed by digits. Arithmetic
5057 operations cannot be done with integers, and integers cannot be mixed
5062 @cindex real numbers
5068 Formed from an optional minus sign and a sequence of digits followed
5069 by a @emph{required} decimal point and an optional exponent such as
5070 @code{-1.2e3}. Reals can be built up using the usual operations:
5071 `@code{+}', `@code{-}', `@code{*}', and
5072 `@code{/}', with parentheses for grouping.
5080 A real constant can be followed by one of the dimension keywords:
5081 @code{\mm} @code{\pt}, @code{\in}, or @code{\cm}, for millimeters,
5082 points, inches and centimeters, respectively. This converts the number
5083 a number that is the internal representation of that dimension.
5091 Begins and ends with the @code{"} character. To include a @code{"}
5092 character in a string write @code{\"}. Various other backslash
5093 sequences have special interpretations as in the C language. A string
5094 that contains no spaces can be written without the quotes. Strings can
5095 be concatenated with the @code{+} operator.
5099 @subsection Main input
5102 @cindex @code{\maininput}
5104 The @code{\maininput} command is used in init files to signal that the
5105 user file must be read. This command cannot be used in a user file.
5107 @node File inclusion
5108 @subsection File inclusion
5109 @cindex @code{\include}
5111 \include @var{filename}
5114 Include @var{filename}. The argument @var{filename} may be a quoted string (an
5115 unquoted string will not work here!) or a string identifier. The full
5116 filename including the @file{.ly} extension must be given,
5119 @node Version information
5120 @subsection Version information
5121 @cindex @code{\version}
5123 \version @var{string}
5126 Specify the version of LilyPond that a file was written for. The
5127 argument is a version string in quotes, for example @code{"1.2.0"}.
5128 This is used to detect invalid input, and to aid
5129 @code{convert-ly} a tool that automatically upgrades input files. See
5130 See @ref{convert-ly} for more information on @code{convert-ly}.
5138 @c broken with emacs-21
5139 @c {Local emac s vars}
5140 @c Local varia bles:
5142 @c minor-mod e: font-lock
5143 @c minor-mo de: outline
5144 @c outline -layout: (-1 : 0)
5145 @c outlin e-use-mode-specific-leader: "@c \."
5146 @c outli ne-primary-bullet: "{"
5147 @c outli ne-stylish-prefixes: nil
5148 @c outli ne-override-protect: t