3 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
4 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
5 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
7 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
11 @chapter Notation manual
14 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Notation manual --->
20 * Easier music entry::
27 * Fingering instructions::
36 * Contemporary notation::
42 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
48 This chapter describes all the different types of notation supported
49 by LilyPond. It is intended as a reference for users that are already
50 somewhat familiar with using LilyPond.
56 * Chromatic alterations::
64 * Easy Notation note heads ::
72 A note is printed by specifying its pitch and then its duration:
73 @footnote{Notes constitute the most basic elements of LilyPond input,
74 but they do not form valid input on their own without a @code{\score}
75 block. However, for the sake of brevity and simplicity we will
76 generally omit @code{\score} blocks and @code{\paper} declarations in
79 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
88 @cindex Note specification
90 @cindex entering notes
92 The most common syntax for pitch entry is used in @code{\chords} and
93 @code{\notes} mode. In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated
94 by names. The notes are specified by the letters @code{a} through
95 @code{g}, while the octave is formed with notes ranging from @code{c}
96 to @code{b}. The pitch @code{c} is an octave below middle C and the
97 letters span the octave above that C:
99 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
101 a,4 b, c d e f g a b c' d' e' \clef treble f' g' a' b' c''
104 @cindex note names, Dutch
106 A sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch name and
107 a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double flats
108 are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. These
109 names are the Dutch note names. In Dutch, @code{aes} is contracted to
110 @code{as} in Dutch, but both forms are accepted. Similarly, both
111 @code{es} and @code{ees} are accepted.
113 There are predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
114 To use them, include the language specific init file. For
115 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files
116 and the note names they define are:
121 Note Names sharp flat
122 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
123 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
124 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
125 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
126 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
127 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
128 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
129 espanol.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -s -b
138 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
139 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
140 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
141 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave:
143 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
144 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
148 There is also a verbose syntax for pitch specification:
151 @cindex @code{\pitch}
153 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
157 where @var{scmpitch} is a Scheme object of the @code{Pitch} type.
161 Notes can be hidden and unhidden with the following commands:
163 @cindex @code{\hideNotes}
165 @cindex @code{\unHideNotes}
172 @internalsref{NoteEvent}, and @internalsref{NoteHead}.
174 @node Chromatic alterations
175 @subsection Chromatic alterations
177 Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also
178 print them manually. A reminder accidental
179 @cindex reminder accidental
181 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!}
182 after the pitch. A cautionary accidental
183 @cindex cautionary accidental
184 @cindex parenthesized accidental
185 (an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the
186 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch:
188 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
189 cis' cis' cis'! cis'?
193 The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many
194 ways. For more information, refer to @ref{Accidentals}.
199 A chord is formed by a enclosing a set of pitches in @code{<<} and
200 @code{>>}. A chord may be followed by a duration, and a set of
201 articulations, just like simple notes.
211 Rests are entered like notes, with the note name @code{r}:
213 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
217 Whole bar rests, centered in middle of the bar,
218 must be done with multi measure rests. They are discussed in
219 @ref{Multi measure rests}.
222 A rest's vertical position may be explicitly specified by entering a
223 note with the @code{\rest} keyword appended. This makes manual
224 formatting in polyphonic music easier. Rest collision testing will
225 leave these rests alone:
227 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
233 @internalsref{RestEvent}, and @internalsref{Rest}.
240 @cindex Invisible rest
243 An invisible rest (also called a `skip') can be entered like a note
244 with note name `@code{s}' or with @code{\skip @var{duration}}:
246 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
250 The @code{s} syntax is only available in Note mode and Chord mode. In
251 other situations, you should use the @code{\skip} command:
253 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
256 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
257 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
262 The skip command is merely an empty musical placeholder. It does not
263 produce any output, not even transparent output.
267 @internalsref{SkipEvent}.
272 @subsection Durations
276 @cindex @code{\duration}
279 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations are designated by numbers
280 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For example,
281 a quarter note is entered using a @code{4} (since it is a 1/4 note), while
282 a half note is entered using a @code{2} (since it is a 1/2 note). For notes
283 longer than a whole you must use variables:
285 @c FIXME: what is an identifier? I do not think it's been introduced yet.
286 @c and if it has, I obviously skipped that part. - Graham
290 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
292 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
297 \notes \relative c'' {
299 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
301 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
306 \remove "Clef_engraver"
307 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
308 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
309 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
316 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previously entered
317 duration. The default for the first note is a quarter note. The duration
318 can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') in order to obtain dotted note
322 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
323 a' b' c''8 b' a'4 a'4. b'4.. c'8.
328 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M}
329 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
330 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
331 In the following example, the first three notes take up exactly two
333 @lilypond[fragment,relative 2,verbatim]
335 a4*2/3 gis4*2/3 a4*2/3
339 Durations can also be produced using the verbose syntax
340 @code{\duration @var{Scheme object}}:
341 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
342 c'\duration #(ly:make-duration 4 1)
349 Dots are normally moved up to avoid staff lines, except in polyphonic
350 situations. The following commands may be used to force a particular
353 @cindex @code{\dotsUp}
355 @cindex @code{\dotsDown}
357 @cindex @code{\dotsBoth}
362 @internalsref{Dots}, and @internalsref{DotColumn}.
366 In dense chords, dots can overlap.
371 Whenever a note is found, a
372 @internalsref{Stem} object is created automatically. For whole notes
373 and rests, stem objects are also created, but in those cases, the stem
378 @cindex @code{\stemUp}
380 @cindex @code{\stemDown}
382 @cindex @code{\stemBoth}
393 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in
394 effect extends the length of a note. Ties should not be confused with
395 slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate
396 musical phrasing. A tie is entered using the tilde symbol `@code{~}':
398 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
399 e' ~ e' <<c' e' g'>> ~ <<c' e' g'>>
402 When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads whose pitches match
403 are connected. When no note heads match, no ties will be created.
405 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
406 to the augmentation dot; in the following example there are two ways of
407 notating exactly the same concept:
409 @lilypond[fragment, singleline,quote]
410 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
412 If you need to tie a lot of notes over bars, it may be easier to use automatic
413 note splitting (See @ref{Automatic note splitting}).
418 @cindex @code{\tieUp}
420 @cindex @code{\tieDown}
422 @cindex @code{\tieBoth}
424 @cindex @code{\tieDotted}
426 @cindex @code{\tieSolid}
431 @internalsref{TieEvent}, @internalsref{NewTieEvent},
432 @internalsref{Tie}, and @ref{Automatic note splitting}.
435 ties created for a chord, see @inputfileref{input/test,tie-sparse.ly}.
439 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a pair of chords is not
440 supported in a simple way. It can be achieved by moving the
441 tie-engraver into the @internalsref{Thread} context and turning on and
442 off ties per @internalsref{Thread}.
444 Switching staves when a tie is active, will not produce a slanted tie.
446 Formatting of ties is a difficult subject. The results are often not
456 @cindex @code{\times}
458 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all durations
461 @cindex @code{\times}
463 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
466 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
467 In the sheet music, the fraction's denominator will be printed over
468 the notes, optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the
469 triplet in which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3
470 of their written length:
472 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
473 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
476 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each
477 bracket should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while
478 typing @code{\times} only once, saving lots of typing. In the next
479 example, there are two triplets shown, while @code{\times} was only
482 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
483 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
484 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
487 The format of the number is determined by the property
488 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
489 denominator, but if it is set to the Scheme function
490 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, @var{num}:@var{den} will be printed
494 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
495 @cindex tuplet formatting
500 @cindex @code{\tupletUp}
502 @cindex @code{\tupletDown}
504 @cindex @code{\tupletBoth}
509 @internalsref{TupletBracket}, and @internalsref{TimeScaledMusic}.
513 Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically. In this case, outer
514 tuplet brackets should be moved manually.
516 @node Easy Notation note heads
517 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
519 @cindex easy notation
522 The `easyplay' note head includes a note name inside the head. It is
523 used in music aimed at beginners.
525 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,26pt]
527 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
528 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
532 The @code{EasyNotation} variable overrides a @internalsref{Score} context.
533 You probably will want to print it with magnification or a
534 large font size to make it more readable. To print with
535 magnification, you must create a DVI file (with @file{ly2dvi}) and
536 then enlarge it with something like @file{dvips -x 2000 file.dvi}.
537 See the @code{dvips} documentation for more details. To print with a
538 larger font, see @ref{Font Size}.
544 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through
545 the letters. Printing the PostScript file obtained with ly2dvi does
546 produce the correct result.
549 @node Easier music entry
550 @section Easier music entry
553 When entering music it is easy to introduce errors. This section deals
554 with tricks and features of the input language that help when entering
555 music, and find and correct mistakes. Some features of the input
556 language ease entering music, but also have other applications. They
557 are not described in this section.
559 It is also possible to use external programs, for example GUI
560 interfaces, or MIDI transcription programs, to enter or edit
561 music. Refer to the website for more information. Finally, there are
562 tools make debugging easier, by linking the input file and the output
563 shown on screen. See @ref{Point and click} for more information.
569 * Skipping corrected music::
570 * Automatic note splitting ::
576 @node Relative octaves
577 @subsection Relative octaves
579 @cindex relative octave specification
581 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
582 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch
583 in the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. The relative
584 octave mode prevents these errors: a single error puts the rest of the
585 piece off by one octave:
587 @cindex @code{\relative}
589 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
592 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
593 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
594 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
595 (; this distance is determined without regarding alterations: a
596 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
599 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise
600 or lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode,
601 an absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
602 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
604 Here is the relative mode shown in action:
605 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
611 Octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth:
612 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
617 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
618 to determine the first note of the next chord:
620 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
627 @cindex @code{\notes}
629 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
630 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
631 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
634 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
635 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
636 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
637 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
641 @subsection Bar check
645 @cindex @code{barCheckSynchronize}
648 Bar checks help detect errors in the durations. A bar check is
649 entered using the bar symbol, `@code{|}'. Whenever it is encountered
650 during interpretation, it should fall on a measure boundary. If it
651 does not, a warning is printed. Depending on the value of
652 @code{barCheckSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
655 In the next example, the second bar check will signal an error:
657 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2 |
662 @cindex skipTypesetting
664 Failed bar checks are caused by entering incorrect
665 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
666 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the
667 score by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To
668 speed up this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting}, described
671 @node Skipping corrected music
672 @subsection Skipping corrected music
674 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
675 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
676 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
677 This can be used to skip over the parts of a score that have already
678 been checked for errors:
680 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
682 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
684 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
688 @node Automatic note splitting
689 @subsection Automatic note splitting
691 Long notes can be converted automatically to tied notes. This is done
692 by replacing the @internalsref{Note_heads_engraver} by the
693 @internalsref{Completion_heads_engraver}:
696 \paper @{ \translator @{
698 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
699 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
703 which will make long notes tied in the following example:
706 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
713 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
715 \paper { \translator {
717 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
718 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
723 This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts
724 ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are
725 not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how much each measure
730 Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be
731 represented exactly; the engraver will not insert tuplets.
737 @section Staff notation
739 This section describes music notation that occurs on staff level,
740 such as keys, clefs and time signatures.
742 @cindex Staff notation
756 @subsection Staff symbol
758 @cindex adjusting staff symbol
759 @cindex StaffSymbol, using \property
760 @cindex staff lines, setting number of
762 Notes, dynamic signs, etc. are grouped
763 with a set of horizontal lines, into a staff (plural `staves'). In our
764 system, these lines are drawn using a separate layout object called
767 This object is created whenever a @internalsref{Staff} context is
768 created. The appearance of the staff symbol cannot be changed by
769 using @code{\override} or @code{\set}. At the moment that
770 @code{\property Staff} is interpreted, a @internalsref{Staff} context
771 is made, and the @internalsref{StaffSymbol} is created before any
772 @code{\override} is effective. Properties can be changed in a
773 @code{\translator} definition, or by using @code{\outputproperty}.
777 If a staff is ended halfway a piece, the staff symbol may not end
778 exactly on the barline.
782 @subsection Key signature
783 @cindex Key signature
787 The key signature indicates the scale in which a piece is played. It
788 is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of
793 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
796 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
799 @cindex @code{\minor}
800 @cindex @code{\major}
801 @cindex @code{\minor}
802 @cindex @code{\ionian}
803 @cindex @code{\locrian}
804 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
805 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
806 @cindex @code{\lydian}
807 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
808 @cindex @code{\dorian}
810 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
811 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
812 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
813 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
814 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
816 This command sets the context property
817 @internalsref{Staff}.@code{keySignature}. Non-standard key signatures
818 can be specified by setting this property directly.
822 The ordering of a key cancellation is wrong when it is combined with
823 repeat bar lines. The cancellation is also printed after a line break.
827 @internalsref{KeyChangeEvent}, and @internalsref{KeySignature}.
829 @cindex @code{keySignature}
836 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
841 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command:
842 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
843 \key f\major c''2 \clef alto g'2
846 Supported clef-names include:
847 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
849 @item treble, violin, G, G2
858 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
873 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
874 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. Argument @var{clefname}
875 must be enclosed in quotes when it contains underscores or digits. For
881 This command is equivalent to setting @code{clefGlyph},
882 @code{clefPosition} (which controls the Y position of the clef),
883 @code{centralCPosition} and @code{clefOctavation}. A clef is printed
884 when any of these properties are changed.
888 The object for this symbol is @internalsref{Clef}.
892 @node Ottava brackets
893 @subsection Ottava brackets
895 ``Ottava'' brackets introduce an extra transposition of an octave for
896 the staff. They are created by invoking the function
897 @code{set-octavation}:
903 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
912 Internally the @code{set-octavation} function sets the properties
913 @code{ottavation} (eg. to @code{"8va"}) and @code{centralCPosition}.
917 @internalsref{OttavaBracket}.
921 @code{set-octavation} will get confused when clef changes happen
922 during an octavation bracket.
925 @subsection Time signature
926 @cindex Time signature
930 Time signature indicates the metrum of a piece: a regular pattern of
931 strong and weak beats. It is denoted by a fraction at the start of the
936 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
938 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
939 \time 2/4 c'2 \time 3/4 c'2.
942 The symbol that is printed can be customized with the @code{style}
943 property. Setting it to @code{#'()} uses fraction style for 4/4 and
944 2/2 time. There are many more options for its layout. See
945 @inputfileref{input/test,time.ly} for more examples.
948 This command sets the property @code{timeSignatureFraction},
949 @code{beatLength} and @code{measureLength} in the @code{Timing}
950 context, which is normally aliased to @internalsref{Score}. The
951 property @code{measureLength} determines where bar lines should be
952 inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated. Changing the
953 value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes the symbol to be
956 More options are available through the Scheme function
957 @code{set-time-signature}. In combination with the
958 @internalsref{Measure_grouping_engraver}, it will create
959 @internalsref{MeasureGrouping} signs. Such signs ease reading
960 rhythmically complex modern music. In the following example, the 9/8
961 measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to
962 @code{set-time-signature} as the third argument @code{(2 2 2 3)}:
965 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
966 #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3))
967 g8-[ g-] d-[ d-] g-[ g-] a8-[-( bes g-]-) |
968 #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2))
973 \translator { \StaffContext
974 \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
980 @internalsref{TimeSignature}, and @internalsref{Timing_engraver}.
985 Automatic beaming does not use measure grouping specified with
986 @code{set-time-signature}.
988 @node Partial measures
989 @subsection Partial measures
992 @cindex partial measure
993 @cindex measure, partial
994 @cindex shorten measures
995 @cindex @code{\partial}
997 Partial measures, for example in upsteps, are entered using the
998 @code{\partial} command:
999 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1000 \partial 16*5 c'16 c4 | a'2. ~ a'8. a'16 | g'1
1003 The syntax for this command is
1005 \partial @var{duration}
1007 This is internally translated into
1009 \property Timing.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
1012 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
1013 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
1015 @node Unmetered music
1016 @subsection Unmetered music
1018 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
1019 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. By setting
1020 @code{Score.timing} to false, this automatic timing can be switched
1026 @cindex @code{\cadenzaOn}
1028 @cindex @code{\cadenzaOff}
1032 @subsection Bar lines
1036 @cindex measure lines
1040 Bar lines delimit measures, but are also used to indicate repeats.
1041 Normally, they are inserted automatically. Line breaks may only
1047 of barlines can be forced with the @code{\bar} command:
1048 @lilypond[relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
1052 The following bar types are available:
1053 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
1065 In scores with many staves, a @code{\bar} command in one staff is
1066 automatically applied to all staffs. The resulting bar lines are
1067 connected between different staves of a @internalsref{StaffGroup}:
1069 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1070 < \context StaffGroup <
1071 \context Staff = up { e'4 d'
1074 \context Staff = down { \clef bass c4 g e g } >
1075 \context Staff = pedal { \clef bass c2 c2 } >
1079 The command @code{\bar @var{bartype}} is a short cut for doing
1080 @code{\property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}} Whenever
1081 @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
1082 created. At the start of a measure it is set to
1083 @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of @code{repeatCommands} are used
1084 to override default measure bars.
1086 Property @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property}
1087 or @code{\bar}. These settings take precedence over the automatic
1088 @code{whichBar} settings.
1091 @cindex repeatCommands
1092 @cindex defaultBarType
1094 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
1104 The bar line objects that are created at @internalsref{Staff} level
1105 are called @internalsref{BarLine}, the bar lines that span staffs are
1106 @internalsref{SpanBar}s.
1113 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff
1114 is to split chords using the separator @code{\\}. You can use it for
1115 small, short-lived voices or for single chords:
1117 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
1118 \context Voice = VA \relative c'' {
1119 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ b, \\ f' \\ d >
1123 The separator causes @internalsref{Voice} contexts to be
1125 bear the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc. In each of these
1126 contexts, vertical direction of slurs, stems, etc. is set
1129 This can also be done by instantiating @internalsref{Voice} contexts
1130 by hand, and using @code{\voiceOne}, up to @code{\voiceFour} to assign
1131 a stem directions and horizontal shift for each part:
1134 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
1136 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
1137 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
1138 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
1141 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
1142 when the object property @code{merge-differently-dotted} is set in
1143 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} object, they are merged:
1144 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
1145 \relative c'' \context Voice < {
1147 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override
1148 #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
1150 } \\ { g8.-[ f16-] g8.-[ f16-] }
1154 Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting
1155 @code{merge-differently-headed}:
1156 @lilypond[fragment, relative=2,verbatim]
1159 \property Staff.NoteCollision
1160 \override #'merge-differently-headed = ##t
1161 c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >
1164 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem:
1167 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1168 \context Voice < c''4 \\ r4 >
1176 @cindex @code{\oneVoice}
1178 @cindex @code{\voiceOne}
1180 @cindex @code{\voiceTwo}
1182 @cindex @code{\voiceThree}
1184 @cindex @code{\voiceFour}
1187 The following commands specify in what chords of the current voice
1188 should be shifted: the outer voice has @code{\shiftOff}, and the inner
1189 voices have @code{\shiftOn}, @code{\shiftOnn}, etc.
1192 @cindex @code{\shiftOn}
1194 @cindex @code{\shiftOnn}
1196 @cindex @code{\shiftOnnn}
1198 @cindex @code{\shiftOff}
1205 The objects responsible for resolving collisions are
1206 @internalsref{NoteCollision} and @internalsref{RestCollision}. See
1207 also example files @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-dots.ly},
1208 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-head-chords.ly},
1209 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-heads.ly},
1210 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-mesh.ly}, and
1211 @inputfileref{input/regression,collisions.ly}.
1216 Resolving collisions is a intricate subject, and only a few situations
1217 are handled. When LilyPond cannot cope, the @code{force-hshift}
1218 property of the @internalsref{NoteColumn} object and pitched rests can
1219 be used to override typesetting decisions.
1221 When using @code{merge-differently-headed} with an upstem 8th or a shorter
1222 note, and a downstem half note, the 8th note gets the wrong offset.
1227 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
1228 the metrum. They are inserted automatically in most cases:
1230 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1231 \time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
1234 When these automatic decisions are not good enough, beaming can be
1235 entered explicitly. It is also possible to define beaming patterns
1236 that differ from the defaults.
1240 @internalsref{Beam}.
1243 @cindex Automatic beams
1244 @subsection Manual beams
1245 @cindex beams, manual
1249 In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming
1250 algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not put beams over rests
1251 or bar lines. Such beams are specified by manually: the begin and end
1252 point are marked with @code{[} and @code{]}:
1254 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1256 r4 r8-[ g' a r8-] r8 g-[ | a-] r8
1260 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1262 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1263 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1264 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount} can
1265 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If either property
1266 is set, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1268 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1271 f8-[ r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a-]
1274 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1277 The property @code{subdivideBeams} can be set in order to subdivide
1278 all 16th or shorter beams at beat positions, as defined by the
1279 @code{beatLength} property . This accomplishes the same effect as
1280 twiddling with @code{stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{stemRightBeamCount},
1281 but it take less typing:
1284 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,noindent]
1285 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1286 \property Voice.subdivideBeams = ##t
1287 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1288 \property Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
1289 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1291 @cindex subdivideBeams
1293 Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap is detected
1294 between the note heads. This behavior can be tuned through the object
1295 property @code{auto-knee-gap}.
1297 @cindex beams, kneed
1299 @cindex auto-knee-gap
1307 Automatically kneed beams cannot be used together with Hara Kiri
1312 * Setting automatic beam behavior ::
1316 @no de Beam typography
1317 @sub section Beam typography
1319 One of the strong points of LilyPond is how beams are formatted. Beams
1320 are quantized, meaning that the left and right endpoints beams start
1321 exactly on staff lines. Without quantization, small wedges of white
1322 space appear between the beam and staff line, and this looks untidy.
1324 Beams are also slope-damped: melodies that go up or down should also
1325 have beams that go up or down, but the slope of the beams should be
1326 less than the slope of the notes themselves.
1328 Some beams should be horizontal. These are so-called concave beams.
1330 [TODO: some pictures.]
1334 @node Setting automatic beam behavior
1335 @subsection Setting automatic beam behavior
1337 @cindex @code{autoBeamSettings}
1338 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
1339 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
1340 @cindex automatic beams, tuning
1341 @cindex tuning automatic beaming
1343 @c [TODO: use \applycontext]
1345 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
1346 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
1347 or at durations specified by the properties in
1348 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
1349 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
1351 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
1352 @code{\override} and restored with @code{\revert}:
1354 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
1355 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
1357 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
1358 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
1359 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
1360 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
1361 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
1364 For example, if automatic beams should end on every quarter note, use
1367 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1368 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
1370 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1371 entered as @code{(ly:make-moment 1 4)}.
1373 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1374 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note:
1376 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1377 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1379 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1380 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1381 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1383 Rules can also be restricted to specific time signatures. A rule that
1384 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1385 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1386 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1388 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1389 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1392 If a rule should be to applied only to certain types of beams, use the
1393 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the
1394 shortest note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies
1395 to beams with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), use @code{(end 1 32 *
1398 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1399 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1401 @cindex automatic beam generation
1403 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeaming}
1406 For melodies that have lyrics, you may want to switch off
1407 automatic beaming. This is done by setting @code{Voice.autoBeaming} to
1412 @cindex @code{\autoBeamOff}
1413 @code{\autoBeamOff},
1414 @cindex @code{\autoBeamOn}
1420 The rules for ending a beam depend on the shortest note in a beam.
1421 So, while it is possible to have different ending rules for eight
1422 beams and sixteenth beams, a beam that contains both eight and
1423 sixteenth notes will use the rules for the sixteenth beam.
1425 In the example below, the autobeamer makes eight beams and sixteenth
1426 end at 3 eights; the third beam can only be corrected by specifying
1429 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,relative,noverbatim,quote]
1430 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1431 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1432 % rather show case where it goes wrong
1433 %\time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c-[ c c c-] c8-[ c-] c4
1434 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c c c c c8 c c4
1436 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1437 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1438 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1441 @section Accidentals
1444 This section describes how to change the way that accidentals are
1445 inserted automatically before the running notes.
1449 * Using the predefined accidental variables::
1450 * Customized accidental rules::
1453 @node Using the predefined accidental variables
1454 @subsection Using the predefined accidental variables
1456 The constructs for describing the accidental typesetting rules are
1457 quite hairy, so non-experts should stick to the variables
1458 defined in @file{ly/property-init.ly}.
1459 @cindex @file{property-init.ly}
1461 The variables set properties in the ``@code{Current}'' context (see
1462 @ref{Context properties}). This means that the variables should
1463 normally be added right after the creation of the context in which the
1464 accidental typesetting described by the variable is to take
1465 effect. For example, if you want to use piano-accidentals in a piano
1466 staff then issue @code{\pianoAccidentals} first thing after the
1467 creation of the piano staff:
1470 \notes \relative c'' <
1471 \context Staff = sa @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1472 \context GrandStaff <
1474 \context Staff = sb @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1475 \context Staff = sc @{ es2 c @}
1477 \context Staff = sd @{ es2 c @}
1481 @lilypond[singleline]
1483 \notes \relative c'' <
1484 \context Staff = sa { cis4 d e2 }
1485 \context GrandStaff <
1487 \context Staff = sb { cis4 d e2 }
1488 \context Staff = sc { es2 c }
1490 \context Staff = sd { es2 c }
1495 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 4.0)
1503 @item \defaultAccidentals
1504 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1505 This is the default typesetting behaviour. It should correspond
1506 to 18th century common practice: Accidentals are
1507 remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and
1508 only on their own octave.
1510 @item \voiceAccidentals
1511 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1513 The normal behaviour is to
1514 remember the accidentals on Staff-level. This variable, however,
1515 typesets accidentals individually for each voice. Apart from that the
1516 rule is similar to @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1518 This leads to some weird and often unwanted results
1519 because accidentals from one voice do not get cancelled in other
1521 @lilypond[singleline,relative,fragment,verbatim,quote]
1529 Hence you should only use @code{\voiceAccidentals} if the voices
1530 are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff is to be
1531 used by one musician (e.g. a conductor) then you use
1532 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals} or @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1535 @item \modernAccidentals
1536 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1537 This rule corresponds to the common practice in the 20th
1539 The rule is more complex than @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1540 You get all the same accidentals, but temporary
1541 accidentals also get cancelled in other octaves. Furthermore,
1542 in the same octave, they also get cancelled in the following measure:
1543 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1545 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1548 @item \modernCautionaries
1549 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1550 This rule is similar to @code{\modernAccidentals}, but the
1551 ``extra'' accidentals (the ones not typeset by
1552 @code{\defaultAccidentals}) are typeset as cautionary accidentals.
1553 They are printed in reduced size or with parentheses:
1554 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1556 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1559 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1560 @item \modernVoiceAccidentals
1561 is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians
1562 playing one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are
1563 typeset for each voice, but they @emph{are} cancelled across voices in
1564 the same @internalsref{Staff}.
1566 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1567 @item \modernVoiceCautionaries
1568 is the same as @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}, but with the extra
1569 accidentals (the ones not typeset by @code{\voiceAccidentals}) typeset
1570 as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset by
1571 @code{\defaultAccidentals} @emph{are} typeset by this variable then
1572 some of them are typeset as cautionaries.
1574 @item \pianoAccidentals
1575 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1576 20th century practice for piano notation. Very similar to
1577 @code{\modernAccidentals} but accidentals also get cancelled
1578 across the staves in the same @internalsref{GrandStaff} or
1579 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.
1581 @item \pianoCautionaries
1582 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1583 As @code{\pianoAccidentals} but with the extra accidentals
1584 typeset as cautionaries.
1587 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1588 Same as @code{\defaultAccidentals} but with accidentals lasting
1589 ``forever'' and not only until the next measure:
1590 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1595 @item \forgetAccidentals
1596 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1597 This is sort of the opposite of @code{\noResetKey}: Accidentals
1598 are not remembered at all---and hence all accidentals are
1599 typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what was
1600 before in the music:
1601 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1603 \key d\major c4 c cis cis d d dis dis
1607 @node Customized accidental rules
1608 @subsection Customized accidental rules
1610 This section must be considered gurus-only, and hence it must be
1611 sufficient with a short description of the system and a reference to
1612 the internal documentation.
1614 The algorithm tries several different rules, and uses the rule
1615 that gives the highest number of accidentals. Each rule consists of
1618 In which context is the rule applied. For example, if
1619 @var{context} is @internalsref{Score} then all staves share
1620 accidentals, and if @var{context} is @internalsref{Staff} then all
1621 voices in the same staff share accidentals, but staves do not.
1623 Whether the accidental changes all octaves or only the current
1626 Over how many barlines the accidental lasts.
1627 If @var{lazyness} is @code{-1} then the accidental is forget
1628 immediately, and if @var{lazyness} is @code{#t} then the accidental
1631 @c [TODO: should use +infinity for this case?]
1637 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1638 @code{\defaultAccidentals},
1639 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1640 @code{\voiceAccidentals},
1641 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1642 @code{\modernAccidentals},
1643 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1644 @code{\modernCautionaries},
1645 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1646 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals},
1647 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1648 @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries},
1649 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1650 @code{\pianoAccidentals},
1651 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1652 @code{\pianoCautionaries},
1653 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1655 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1656 @code{\forgetAccidentals}.
1660 @internalsref{Accidental_engraver}, @internalsref{Accidental}, and
1661 @internalsref{AccidentalPlacement}.
1666 Currently the simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in
1667 sequential mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are
1668 typeset as if the notes in the chord happened once at a time - in the
1669 order in which they appear in the input file.
1671 This is only a problem when there are simultaneous notes whose
1672 accidentals depend on each other. The problem only occurs when using
1673 non-default accidentals. In the default scheme, accidentals only
1674 depend on other accidentals with the same pitch on the same staff, so
1675 no conflicts possible.
1677 This example shows two examples of the same music giving different
1678 accidentals depending on the order in which the notes occur in the
1681 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1682 \property Staff.autoAccidentals = #'( Staff (any-octave . 0) )
1683 cis'4 <<c'' c'>> r2 | cis'4 <<c' c''>> r2
1684 | <<cis' c''>> r | <<c'' cis'>> r |
1687 This problem can be solved by manually inserting @code{!} and @code{?}
1688 for the problematic notes.
1690 @node Expressive marks
1691 @section Expressive marks
1699 * Analysis brackets::
1706 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1710 They are entered using parentheses:
1711 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1712 f'-( g'-)-( a'-) a'8-[ b'-(-] a'4 g'2 f'4-)
1713 <<c' e'>>2-( <<b d'>>2-)
1717 @c TODO: should explain that ^( and _( set directions
1718 @c should set attachments with ^ and _ ?
1720 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1721 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1722 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1723 object property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1724 @internalsref{Voice} context. Its value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1725 the attachment type of the left and right end points:
1727 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1729 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1731 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1735 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1736 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1737 stems might look better:
1739 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1742 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1749 @cindex @code{\slurUp}
1751 @cindex @code{\slurDown}
1753 @cindex @code{\slurBoth}
1755 @cindex @code{\slurDotted}
1757 @cindex @code{\slurSolid}
1762 @seeinternals{Slur}, and @internalsref{SlurEvent}.
1767 Producing nice slurs is a difficult problem, and LilyPond currently
1768 uses a simple, empiric method to produce slurs. In some cases, its
1772 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1774 @node Phrasing slurs
1775 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1777 @cindex phrasing slurs
1778 @cindex phrasing marks
1780 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1781 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1784 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1785 \time 6/4 c'-\( d-( e-) f-( e-) d-\)
1788 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a
1789 normal slur. However, they are treated as different objects. A
1790 @code{\slurUp} will have no effect on a phrasing slur; instead, you
1791 should use @code{\phrasingSlurUp}, @code{\phrasingSlurDown}, and
1792 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}.
1794 The commands @code{\slurUp}, @code{\slurDown}, and @code{\slurBoth}
1795 will only affect normal slurs and not phrasing slurs.
1799 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurUp}
1800 @code{\phrasingSlurUp},
1801 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurDown}
1802 @code{\phrasingSlurDown},
1803 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}
1804 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth},
1808 See also @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, and
1809 @internalsref{PhrasingSlurEvent}.
1813 Phrasing slurs have the same limitations in their formatting as normal
1814 slurs. Putting phrasing slurs over rests leads to spurious warnings.
1817 @subsection Breath marks
1819 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}:
1822 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1826 The glyph of the breath mark can be tweaked by overriding the
1827 @code{text} property of the @code{BreathingSign} layout object with the name of
1828 any glyph of @ref{The Feta font}. For example,
1829 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative]
1831 \property Voice.BreathingSign \override #'text = #"scripts-rvarcomma"
1838 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent}, and
1839 @inputfileref{input/regression,breathing-sign.ly}.
1842 @node Metronome marks
1843 @subsection Metronome marks
1846 @cindex beats per minute
1847 @cindex metronome marking
1849 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1851 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1854 In the MIDI output, they are interpreted as a tempo change, and in the
1855 paper output, a metronome marking is printed:
1856 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1857 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1863 @internalsref{TempoEvent}.
1868 @subsection Text spanners
1869 @cindex Text spanners
1871 Some performance indications, e.g. @i{rallentando} or @i{accelerando},
1872 are written as texts, and extended over many measures with dotted
1873 lines. You can create such texts using text spanners: attach
1874 @code{\startTextSpan} and @code{\stopTextSpan} to the
1875 start and ending note of the spanner.
1877 The string to be printed, as well as the style, is set through object
1880 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1882 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'direction = #-1
1883 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("rall " . "")
1884 c2-\startTextSpan b c-\stopTextSpan a }
1890 @internalsref{TextSpanEvent},
1891 @internalsref{TextSpanner}, and
1892 @inputfileref{input/regression,text-spanner.ly}.
1895 @node Analysis brackets
1896 @subsection Analysis brackets
1898 @cindex phrasing brackets
1899 @cindex musicological analysis
1900 @cindex note grouping bracket
1902 Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical
1903 pieces. LilyPond supports a simple form of nested horizontal brackets.
1904 To use this, add the @internalsref{Horizontal_bracket_engraver} to
1905 @internalsref{Staff} context. A bracket is started with
1906 @code{\startGroup} and closed with @code{\stopGroup}:
1908 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
1909 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
1910 c4-\startGroup-\startGroup
1913 c4-\stopGroup-\stopGroup
1915 \paper { \translator {
1916 \StaffContext \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
1922 @internalsref{HorizontalBracket}, @internalsref{NoteGroupingEvent}, and
1923 @inputfileref{input/regression,note-group-bracket.ly}.
1927 @section Articulations
1928 @cindex Articulations
1930 @cindex articulations
1934 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1935 different characteristics of the performance. They are added to a note
1936 by adding a dash and the character signifying the
1937 articulation. They are demonstrated here:
1939 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-abbreviations.ly}
1941 The script is automatically placed, but if you need to force
1942 directions, you can use @code{_} to force them down, or @code{^} to
1944 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1951 Other symbols can be added using the syntax
1952 @var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}, e.g. @code{c4-\fermata}. Again, they
1953 can be forced up or down using @code{^} and @code{_}:
1957 @cindex staccatissimo
1966 @cindex organ pedal marks
1975 @cindex prallmordent
1979 @cindex thumb marking
1984 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-chart.ly}
1989 @cindex @code{\scriptUp}
1991 @cindex @code{\scriptDown}
1993 @cindex @code{\scriptBoth}
1998 @internalsref{ScriptEvent}, and @internalsref{Script}.
2002 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
2003 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
2006 @node Fingering instructions
2007 @section Fingering instructions
2011 Fingering instructions can be entered using
2013 @var{note}-@var{digit}
2015 For finger changes, use markup texts:
2017 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
2018 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
2019 c'^\markup { \fontsize #-3 \number "2-3" }
2022 @cindex finger change
2027 You can use the thumb-script to indicate that a note should be
2028 played with your thumb (used in cello music):
2030 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragmnt]
2031 <<a' a''-3>>8-(_\thumb-[ <<b' b''-3>>-)_\thumb
2032 <<c'' c'''-3>>-(_\thumb <<d'' d'''-3>>-)_\thumb-]
2035 Fingerings for chords can also be added to individual notes
2036 of the chord by adding them after the pitches:
2037 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
2038 << c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >> 4
2041 Setting @code{fingerHorizontalDirection} will put the fingerings next
2044 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
2045 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #LEFT
2046 << c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 >> 4
2047 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #RIGHT
2048 << c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 >> 4
2053 @internalsref{FingerEvent}, and @internalsref{Fingering}.
2064 @subsection Text scripts
2065 @cindex Text scripts
2067 It is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup text (see
2068 @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
2069 @code{c^"text"}. By default, these indications do not influence the
2070 note spacing, but by using the command @code{\fatText}, the widths
2071 will be taken into account:
2073 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim] \relative c' {
2074 c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
2077 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should
2078 be avoided because the exact dimensions of the string can then no
2084 @internalsref{TextScriptEvent}, @internalsref{TextScript}, and
2090 @subsection Grace notes
2092 @cindex @code{\grace}
2096 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out:
2098 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment] c4 \grace c16 c4 \grace {
2102 In normal notation, grace notes take up no logical
2103 time in a measure. Such an idea is practical for normal notation, but
2104 is not strict enough to put it into a program. The model that LilyPond
2105 uses for grace notes internally is that all timing is done in two
2108 Every point in musical time consists of two rational numbers: one
2109 denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing. The above
2110 example is shown here with timing tuples:
2113 \score { \notes \relative c''{
2114 c4^"(0,0)" \grace c16_" "_"(1/4,-1/16)" c4^"(1/4,0)" \grace {
2115 c16_"(2/4,-1/8)"-[ d16^"(2/4,-1/16)" ] } c4_" "_"(2/4,0)"
2117 \paper { linewidth = 12.\cm }
2122 The placement of grace notes is synchronized between different staves.
2123 In the following example, there are two sixteenth graces notes for
2124 every eighth grace note:
2126 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2127 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \grace { c16-[ d e f-] } e4 }
2128 \context Staff = SB { c'4 \grace { g8-[ b-] } c4 } >
2132 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
2133 stem. This can be controlled with object property @code{stroke-style} of
2134 @internalsref{Stem}. For proper matching of override and reverts of
2135 such properties, it is necessary to use a Scheme function.
2137 The following fragment overrides the default formatting Grace style stems:
2139 #(add-to-grace-init "Voice" 'Stem 'stroke-style '())
2142 The @code{\override} is carefully matched with a @code{\revert}:
2147 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2148 \relative c'' \context Voice {
2149 \grace c8 c4 \grace { c16-[ c16-] } c4
2151 \property Voice.Stem \override #'stroke-style = #'()
2153 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'stroke-style
2158 If you want to end a note with a grace note, then the standard trick
2159 is to put the grace notes before a phantom ``space note'', e.g.
2160 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
2163 { s2 \grace { c16-[ d-] } } >
2169 By adjusting the duration of the skip note (here it is a half-note),
2170 the space between the main-note and the grace is adjusted.
2172 A @code{\grace} section has some default values, and LilyPond will
2173 use those default values unless you specify otherwise inside the
2174 @code{\grace} section. For example, if you specify \slurUp
2175 @emph{before} your @code{\grace} section, a slur which starts inside
2176 the @code{\grace} will not be forced up, even if the slur ends outside
2177 of the @code{\grace}. Note the difference between the first and
2178 second bars in this example:
2180 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2181 \relative c'' \context Voice {
2199 @internalsref{GraceMusic}.
2203 Grace notes cannot be used in the smallest size (@file{paper11.ly}).
2205 A score that starts with an @code{\grace} section needs an explicit
2206 @code{\context Voice} declaration, otherwise the main note and grace
2207 note end up on different staffs.
2209 Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation,
2210 such as key signatures, barlines, etc. are also synchronized. Take
2211 care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without, for example,
2213 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2214 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
2215 \context Staff = SB { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >
2218 Grace sections should only be used within sequential music
2219 expressions. Nesting or juxtaposing grace sections is not supported,
2220 and might produce crashes or other errors.
2222 Overriding settings for grace music globally cannot be done in a
2223 modular way. A kludge (@code{add-to-grace-init}) is defined in
2224 @file{ly/grace-init.ly}.
2228 @subsection Glissando
2231 @cindex @code{\glissando}
2233 A glissando is a smooth change in pitch. It is denoted by a line or a
2234 wavy line between two notes.
2238 A glissando line can be requested by attaching a @code{\glissando} to
2241 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2247 @internalsref{Glissando}, and @internalsref{GlissandoEvent}.
2252 Additional texts (such as @emph{gliss.}) is not supported.
2256 @subsection Dynamics
2269 @cindex @code{\ffff}
2279 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an variable after a
2280 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are @code{\ppp},
2281 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
2282 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
2283 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}:
2285 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
2286 c'-\ppp c-\pp c -\p c-\mp c-\mf c-\f c-\ff c-\fff
2292 @cindex @code{\decr}
2293 @cindex @code{\rced}
2300 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\<} and terminated with
2301 @code{\!}. A decrescendo is started with @code{\>} and also terminated
2302 with @code{\!}. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you must
2303 use spacer notes if multiple marks during one note are needed:
2305 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,quote]
2306 c''-\< c''-\! d''-\decr e''-\rced
2307 < f''1 { s4 s4-\< s4-\! \> s4-\! } >
2309 This may give rise to very short hairpins. Use @code{minimum-length}
2310 in @internalsref{Voice}.@internalsref{HairPin} to lengthen them, for
2314 \property Staff.Hairpin \override #'minimum-length = #5
2317 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
2318 is an example how to do it:
2320 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
2321 c4 \cresc c4 c c c \endcresc c4
2327 You can also supply your own texts:
2328 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2330 \property Voice.crescendoText = \markup { \italic "cresc. poco" }
2331 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
2341 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
2343 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
2344 @code{\dynamicDown},
2345 @cindex @code{\dynamicBoth}
2346 @code{\dynamicBoth}.
2348 @cindex direction, of dynamics
2352 @internalsref{CrescendoEvent}, @internalsref{DecrescendoEvent}, and
2353 @internalsref{AbsoluteDynamicEvent}.
2355 Dynamics are objects of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
2356 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is
2357 handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2359 If you want to adjust padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you
2360 must set properties for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2368 @cindex @code{\repeat}
2371 Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist
2372 for repetitions. In LilyPond, most of these notations can be captured
2373 in a uniform syntax. One of the advantages is, all these repetitions
2374 can be rendered in MIDI accurately.
2376 The following types of repetition are supported:
2380 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
2381 output, and entering repetitive music.
2384 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
2385 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
2389 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
2390 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
2391 @inputfileref{input,star-spangled-banner.ly}.
2398 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
2404 * Repeats and MIDI::
2405 * Manual repeat commands::
2407 * Tremolo subdivisions::
2412 @subsection Repeat syntax
2416 LilyPond has one syntactic construct for specifying different types of
2417 repeats. The syntax is
2420 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
2423 If you have alternative endings, you may add
2424 @cindex @code{\alternative}
2426 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
2428 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
2430 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression. If you do not
2431 give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then the first
2432 alternative is assumed to be played more than once.
2434 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
2435 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2437 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
2438 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
2441 With alternative endings:
2442 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2444 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
2445 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
2449 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2453 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
2454 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
2461 If you do a nested repeat like
2470 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the @code{\alternative}
2471 belongs. This ambiguity is resolved by always having the
2472 @code{\alternative} belong to the inner @code{\repeat}. For clarity,
2473 it is advisable to use braces in such situations.
2476 @node Repeats and MIDI
2477 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
2479 @cindex expanding repeats
2481 For instructions on how to unfold repeats for MIDI output, see the
2482 example file @inputfileref{input/test,unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
2487 Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative,
2488 so after a repeat timing information must be reset by hand, for
2489 example by setting @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering
2490 @code{\partial}. Similarly, slurs or ties are also not repeated.
2493 @node Manual repeat commands
2494 @subsection Manual repeat commands
2496 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
2498 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
2499 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
2503 @item the symbol @code{start-repeat},
2504 which prints a @code{|:} bar line,
2505 @item the symbol @code{end-repeat},
2506 which prints a @code{:|} bar line,
2507 @item the list @code{(volta @var{text})},
2508 which prints a volta bracket saying @var{text}: The text can be specified as
2509 a text string or as a markup text, see @ref{Text markup}. Do not
2510 forget to change the font, as the default number font does not contain
2511 alphabetic characters. Or,
2512 @item the list @code{(volta #f)}, which
2513 stops a running volta bracket:
2516 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2518 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
2520 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
2527 @internalsref{VoltaBracket}, @internalsref{RepeatedMusic},
2528 @internalsref{VoltaRepeatedMusic},
2529 @internalsref{UnfoldedRepeatedMusic}, and
2530 @internalsref{FoldedRepeatedMusic}.
2532 @node Tremolo repeats
2533 @subsection Tremolo repeats
2534 @cindex tremolo beams
2536 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
2538 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2540 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
2541 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
2542 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
2543 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
2544 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
2551 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} objects. Single stem tremolos
2552 are @internalsref{StemTremolo}s. The music expression is
2553 @internalsref{TremoloEvent}.
2558 The single stem tremolo must be entered without @code{@{} and
2561 @node Tremolo subdivisions
2562 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
2563 @cindex tremolo marks
2564 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
2566 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
2567 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
2568 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
2569 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
2570 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used:
2572 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
2573 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
2576 @c [TODO : stok is te kort bij 32en]
2580 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
2583 @node Measure repeats
2584 @subsection Measure repeats
2586 @cindex percent repeats
2587 @cindex measure repeats
2589 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
2590 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
2591 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
2592 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes:
2594 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2595 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
2596 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
2602 @internalsref{RepeatSlash}, @internalsref{PercentRepeat},
2603 @internalsref{PercentRepeatedMusic}, and
2604 @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
2608 @node Rhythmic music
2609 @section Rhythmic music
2611 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This
2612 can be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a
2613 staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single line:
2615 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2616 \context RhythmicStaff {
2618 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
2623 * Percussion staves::
2624 * Percussion MIDI output::
2627 @node Percussion staves
2628 @subsection Percussion staves
2632 A percussion part for more than one instrument typically uses a
2633 multiline staff where each position in the staff refers to one piece
2638 Percussion staves are typeset with help of a set of Scheme
2639 functions. The system is based on the general MIDI drum-pitches.
2640 Include @file{drumpitch-init.ly} to use drum pitches. This file
2641 defines the pitches from the Scheme variable @code{drum-pitch-names},
2642 the definition of which can be read in @file{scm/drums.scm}. Each
2643 piece of percussion has a full name and an abbreviated name, and either
2644 the full name or the abbreviation may be used in input files.
2646 To typeset the music on a staff apply the function @code{drums->paper}
2647 to the percussion music. This function takes a list of percussion
2648 instrument names, notehead scripts and staff positions (that is:
2649 pitches relative to the C-clef) and transforms the input
2650 music by moving the pitch, changing the notehead and (optionally)
2653 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,quote]
2654 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2655 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2656 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2658 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2660 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2661 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2666 In the above example the music was transformed using the list @code{'drums}.
2667 Currently the following lists are defined in @file{scm/drums.scm}:
2670 to typeset a typical drum kit on a five-line staff:
2673 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2674 nam = \lyrics { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2675 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
2676 mus = \notes { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2677 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
2680 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2684 \context Lyrics \nam
2687 linewidth = 100.0\mm
2690 \remove Bar_engraver
2691 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2692 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
2696 \remove Stem_engraver
2702 The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there fewer toms, simply
2703 select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e. to get toms on
2704 the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml} and
2707 Because general MIDI does not contain rimshots the sidestick is used
2708 for this purpose instead.
2710 to typeset timbales on a two line staff:
2712 @lilypond[singleline]
2713 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2714 nam = \lyrics { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
2715 mus = \notes { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
2718 \apply #(drums->paper 'timbales) \context Staff <
2722 \context Lyrics \nam
2727 \remove Bar_engraver
2728 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2729 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2730 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2731 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2735 \remove Stem_engraver
2742 to typeset congas on a two line staff:
2744 @lilypond[singleline]
2745 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2746 nam = \lyrics { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
2747 mus = \notes { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
2750 \apply #(drums->paper 'congas) \context Staff <
2754 \context Lyrics \nam
2759 \remove Bar_engraver
2760 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2761 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2762 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2763 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2767 \remove Stem_engraver
2773 to typeset bongos on a two line staff:
2775 @lilypond[singleline]
2776 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2777 nam = \lyrics { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
2778 mus = \notes { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
2781 \apply #(drums->paper 'bongos) \context Staff <
2785 \context Lyrics \nam
2790 \remove Bar_engraver
2791 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2792 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2793 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2794 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2798 \remove Stem_engraver
2804 to typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves:
2805 @lilypond[singleline]
2806 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2807 nam = \lyrics { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
2808 mus = \notes { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
2811 \apply #(drums->paper 'percussion) \context Staff <
2815 \context Lyrics \nam
2820 \remove Bar_engraver
2821 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2822 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #1
2823 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-2.0 . 3.0)
2827 \remove Stem_engraver
2834 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
2835 list at the top of your file:
2837 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
2838 #(set-drum-kit 'mydrums `(
2839 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2840 (snare default #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 1 0))
2841 (hihat cross #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2842 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2843 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2845 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2846 up = \notes { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
2847 down = \notes { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
2849 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2851 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2852 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2857 To use a modified existing list, one can prepend modifications to the
2861 #(set-drum-kit 'mydrums (append `(
2862 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2863 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2864 ) (get-drum-kit 'drums)))
2867 You can easily combine percussion notation with pitched notation.
2868 Indeed, the file @file{drumpitch-init.ly} replaces the normal pitch
2869 names, so you will have to reinclude @file{nederlands.ly} after the
2870 drum-pattern-definitions to enter normal notes:
2872 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2873 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2874 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2875 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2876 \include "nederlands.ly"
2877 bass = \notes \transpose c c,, { a4. e8 r e g e }
2880 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff = drums <
2882 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2883 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2885 \context Staff = bass { \clef "F_8" \bass }
2890 @node Percussion MIDI output
2891 @subsection Percussion MIDI output
2893 In order to produce correct MIDI output you need to produce two score
2894 blocks---one for the paper and one for the MIDI output. To use the
2895 percussion channel you set the property @code{instrument} to
2896 @code{'drums}. Because the drum-pitches themselves are similar to the
2897 general MIDI pitches all you have to do is to insert the voices with
2898 none of the scheme functions to get the correct MIDI output:
2902 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2911 \property Staff.instrument = #'drums
2920 This scheme is a temporary implementation.
2924 @section Piano music
2926 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
2927 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
2928 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
2929 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
2930 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
2931 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
2935 * Automatic staff changes::
2936 * Manual staff switches::
2939 * Staff switch lines::
2944 There is no support for putting chords across staves. You can get
2945 this result by increasing the length of the stem in the lower stave so
2946 it reaches the stem in the upper stave, or vice versa. An example is
2947 included with the distribution as @inputfileref{input/test,stem-cross-staff.ly}.
2949 Dynamics are not centered, but kludges do exist. See
2950 @inputfileref{input/templates,piano-dynamics.ly}.
2952 @cindex cross staff stem
2953 @cindex stem, cross staff
2956 @c fixme: should have hyperlinks as well.
2962 @node Automatic staff changes
2963 @subsection Automatic staff changes
2964 @cindex Automatic staff changes
2966 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
2967 staff. The syntax for this is
2969 \autochange Staff \context Voice @{ @dots{}@var{music}@dots{} @}
2971 The autochanger switches on basis of pitch (central C is the turning
2972 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch in
2973 advance. Here is a practical example:
2975 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,quote]
2976 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
2977 \context Staff = "up" {
2978 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
2979 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
2980 \context Staff = "down" {
2987 In this example, spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
2988 terminating too soon.
2993 @internalsref{AutoChangeMusic}.
2997 The staff switches often do not end up in optimal places. For high
2998 quality output staff switches should be specified manually.
3002 @node Manual staff switches
3003 @subsection Manual staff switches
3005 @cindex manual staff switches
3006 @cindex staff switch, manual
3008 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
3010 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
3014 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
3015 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
3016 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
3024 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound are produced. Generally, a
3025 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
3029 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
3030 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
3031 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
3034 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3035 c'4-\sustainDown c'4-\sustainUp
3038 What is printed can be modified by setting @code{pedal@var{X}Strings},
3039 where @var{X} is one of the pedal types: @code{Sustain},
3040 @code{Sostenuto} or @code{UnaCorda}. Refer to the generated
3041 documentation of @internalsref{SustainPedal} for more information.
3043 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
3044 @code{pedalSustainStyle} property to @code{bracket} objects:
3046 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3047 \property Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'bracket
3048 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
3049 a'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
3050 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
3053 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
3054 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
3056 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3057 \property Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'mixed
3058 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
3059 c'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
3060 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
3063 The default `*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
3064 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
3065 for a sostenuto pedal:
3067 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3068 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
3071 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
3072 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
3073 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (, see the detailed documentation of
3074 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket},) can be modified. For example, the bracket
3075 may be extended to the end of the note head:
3077 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3078 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override
3079 #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
3080 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4
3081 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
3085 @subsection Arpeggio
3088 @cindex broken arpeggio
3089 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
3091 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
3092 @code{\arpeggio} to a chord:
3095 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3096 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
3099 When an arpeggio crosses staves, you attach an arpeggio to the chords
3100 in both staves, and set
3101 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@code{connectArpeggios}:
3103 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3104 \context PianoStaff <
3105 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
3106 \context Voice = one { <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio }
3107 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <<c,, e g>>-\arpeggio }
3111 The direction of the arpeggio is sometimes denoted by adding an
3112 arrowhead to the wiggly line. This can be typeset by setting
3113 @code{arpeggio-direction}:
3115 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3117 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #1
3118 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
3119 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
3120 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
3124 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
3125 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
3126 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
3127 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} objects to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
3128 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before:
3130 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3131 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override
3132 #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
3133 <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio
3138 @cindex @code{\arpeggioBracket}
3139 @code{\arpeggioBracket},
3140 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
3145 @internalsref{ArpeggioEvent} expression lead to
3146 @internalsref{Arpeggio} objects. Cross staff arpeggios are
3147 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@internalsref{Arpeggio}.
3151 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected
3152 arpeggios in one @internalsref{PianoStaff} at the same time.
3154 @node Staff switch lines
3155 @subsection Staff switch lines
3158 @cindex follow voice
3159 @cindex staff switching
3162 @cindex @code{followVoice}
3164 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
3165 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
3166 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
3168 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3169 \context PianoStaff <
3170 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
3171 \context Staff \context Voice {
3173 \translator Staff=two
3176 \context Staff=two { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
3180 The associated object is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
3184 @cindex @code{\showStaffSwitch}
3185 @code{\showStaffSwitch},
3186 @cindex @code{\hideStaffSwitch}
3187 @code{\hideStaffSwitch}.
3191 @section Vocal music
3193 This section discusses how to enter and print lyrics.
3197 * The Lyrics context::
3202 @node Entering lyrics
3203 @subsection Entering lyrics
3207 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
3210 Lyrics are entered in a special input mode. This mode is is introduced
3211 by the keyword @code{\lyrics}. In this mode you can enter lyrics, with
3212 punctuation and accents without any hassle. Syllables are entered like
3213 notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example,
3215 \lyrics @{ Twin-4 kle4 twin- kle litt- le star2 @}
3218 A word in Lyrics mode begins with: an alphabetic character, @code{_},
3219 @code{?}, @code{!}, @code{:}, @code{'}, the control characters @code{^A}
3220 through @code{^F}, @code{^Q} through @code{^W}, @code{^Y}, @code{^^},
3221 any 8-bit character with ASCII code over 127, or a two-character
3222 combination of a backslash followed by one of @code{`}, @code{'},
3223 @code{"}, or @code{^}.
3225 Subsequent characters of a word can be any character that is not a digit
3226 and not white space. One important consequence of this is that a word
3227 can end with @code{@}}. The following example is usually a bug. The
3228 syllable includes a @code{@}}, and hence the opening brace is not balanced:
3230 \lyrics @{ twinkle@}
3233 @cindex @code{\property}, in @code{\lyrics}
3234 Similarly, a period following a alphabetic sequence, is included in the
3235 resulting string. As a consequence, spaces must be inserted around
3236 @code{\property} commands:
3238 \property Lyrics . LyricText \set #'font-shape = #'italic
3242 @cindex spaces, in lyrics
3243 @cindex quotes, in lyrics
3245 Any @code{_} character which appears in an unquoted word is converted
3246 to a space. This provides a mechanism for introducing spaces into words
3247 without using quotes. Quoted words can also be used in Lyrics mode to
3248 specify words that cannot be written with the above rules:
3251 \lyrics @{ He said: "\"Let" my peo ple "go\"" @}
3255 Hyphens can be entered as ordinary hyphens at the end of a syllable, i.e.
3260 These will be attached to the end of the first syllable.
3262 Centered hyphens are entered using the special `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric
3263 as a separate word between syllables. The hyphen will have variable
3264 length depending on the space between the syllables and it will be
3265 centered between the syllables.
3270 When a lyric is sung over many notes (this is called a melisma), this is
3271 indicated with a horizontal line centered between a syllable and the
3272 next one. Such a line is called an extender line, and it is entered as
3277 @internalsref{LyricEvent}, @internalsref{HyphenEvent}, and
3278 @internalsref{ExtenderEvent}.
3282 The definition of lyrics mode is too complex.
3284 @node The Lyrics context
3285 @subsection The Lyrics context
3287 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in @internalsref{Lyrics} context:
3289 \context Lyrics \lyrics @dots{}
3292 @cindex automatic syllable durations
3293 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
3294 @cindex lyrics and melodies
3296 This will place the lyrics according to the durations that were
3297 entered. The lyrics can also be aligned under a given melody
3298 automatically. In this case, it is no longer necessary to enter the
3299 correct duration for each syllable. This is achieved by combining the
3300 melody and the lyrics with the @code{\addlyrics} expression:
3304 \context Lyrics @dots{}
3307 @cindex staff order, with @code{\addlyrics}
3309 Normally, this will put the lyrics below the staff. For different or
3310 more complex orderings, the best way is to setup the hierarchy of
3311 staffs and lyrics first, e.g.
3313 \context ChoirStaff \notes <
3314 \context Lyrics = LA @{ s1 @}
3315 \context Staff = SA @{ s1 @}
3316 \context Lyrics = LB @{ s1 @}
3317 \context Staff = SB @{ s1 @}
3320 and then combine the appropriate melodies and lyric lines:
3323 \context Staff = SA @emph{the music}
3324 \context Lyrics = LA @emph{the lyrics}
3327 putting both together, you would get
3329 \context ChoirStaff \notes <
3330 \context Lyrics = LA @dots{}
3331 \context Staff = SB @dots{}
3337 @cindex choral score
3339 A complete example of a SATB score setup is in the file
3340 @inputfileref{input/template,satb}.
3344 @internalsref{LyricCombineMusic}, @internalsref{Lyrics}, and
3345 @inputfileref{input/template,satb}.
3349 @code{\addlyrics} is not automatic enough: melismata are not detected
3350 automatically, and melismata are not stopped when they hit a rest. A
3351 melisma on the last note in a melody is not printed.
3355 @subsection More stanzas
3358 @cindex phrasing, in lyrics
3360 When multiple stanzas are printed underneath each other, the vertical
3361 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. This can be
3362 done automatically when corresponding lyric lines and melodies are
3365 To this end, give the @internalsref{Voice} context an identity:
3367 \context Voice = duet @{
3372 Then set the @internalsref{LyricsVoice} contexts to names starting with
3373 that identity followed by a dash. In the preceding example, the
3374 @internalsref{Voice} identity is @code{duet}, so the identities of the
3375 @internalsref{LyricsVoices} are marked @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}:
3377 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" @{
3378 Hi, my name is bert. @}
3379 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" @{
3380 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. @}
3382 The convention for naming @internalsref{LyricsVoice} and
3383 @internalsref{Voice} must also be used to get melismata correct in
3384 conjunction with rests.
3386 The complete example is shown here:
3387 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3390 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
3392 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
3393 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
3394 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3395 Hi, my name is bert. }
3396 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
3397 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3398 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
3403 Stanza numbers, or the names of the singers can be added by setting
3404 @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the first system) and
3405 @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following systems. Notice how dots are
3406 surrounded with spaces in @code{\lyrics} mode:
3409 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3411 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3414 To make empty spaces in lyrics, use @code{\skip}.
3422 Input for lyrics introduces a syntactical ambiguity:
3429 is interpreted as assigning a string identifier @code{\foo} such that
3430 it contains @code{"bar"}. However, it could also be interpreted as
3431 making or a music identifier @code{\foo} containing the syllable
3432 `bar'. The force the latter interpretation, use
3442 The term @emph{ambitus} denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in
3443 a part of music. It also may denote the pitch range that a musical
3444 instrument is capable of playing. Most musical instruments have their
3445 ambitus standardized (or at least there is agreement upon the minimal
3446 ambitus of a particular type of instrument), such that a composer or
3447 arranger of a piece of music can easily meet the ambitus constraints of
3448 the targeted instrument. However, the ambitus of the human voice
3449 depends on individual physiological state, including education and
3450 training of the voice. Therefore, a singer potentially has to check for
3451 each piece of music if the ambitus of that piece meets his individual
3452 capabilities. This is why the ambitus of a piece may be of particular
3453 value to vocal performers.
3455 The ambitus is typically notated on a per-voice basis at the very
3456 beginning of a piece, e.g. nearby the initial clef or time signature of
3457 each staff. The range is graphically specified by two noteheads, that
3458 represent the minimum and maximum pitch. Some publishers use a textual
3459 notation: they put the range in words in front of the corresponding
3460 staff. LilyPond currently only supports the graphical ambitus notation.
3462 To apply, add the @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the
3463 @internalsref{Voice} context, i.e.
3466 \paper @{ \translator @{
3468 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3474 @lilypond[singleline]
3475 upper = \notes \relative c {
3478 as'' c e2 bes f cis d4 e f2 g
3480 lower = \notes \relative c {
3483 e'4 b g a c es fis a cis b a g f e d2
3486 \context ChoirStaff {
3488 \context Staff = one { \upper }
3489 \context Staff = three { \lower }
3495 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3504 @internalsref{Ambitus}, and @inputfileref{input/regression,ambitus.ly}.
3509 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
3510 instruments. It notates pitches not by using note heads, but by
3511 indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
3512 offers limited support for tablature.
3515 * Tablatures basic::
3516 * Non-guitar tablatures::
3519 @node Tablatures basic
3520 @subsection Tablatures basic
3521 @cindex Tablatures basic
3523 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
3524 followed by a number, e.g. @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
3525 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
3526 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
3527 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
3528 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts:
3530 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3531 \notes \context TabStaff {
3537 When no string is specified, the first string that does not give a
3538 fret number less than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default
3539 value for @code{minimumFret} is 0:
3543 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3544 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3545 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3550 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3551 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3552 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3555 \context StaffGroup <
3556 \context Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
3557 \context TabStaff { \frag }
3564 @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}, and
3565 @internalsref{StringNumberEvent}.
3569 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
3570 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
3574 @node Non-guitar tablatures
3575 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
3576 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
3578 You can change the number of strings, by setting the number of lines
3579 in the @internalsref{TabStaff} (the @code{line-count} property of
3580 @internalsref{TabStaff} can only be changed using
3581 @code{\outputproperty}, for more information, see @ref{Tuning
3584 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
3585 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
3586 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to central C) of an
3587 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
3588 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
3589 by default middle C, in string order. Thus, the notes are e, a, d, and
3592 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3595 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface)
3597 \property TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
3600 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
3605 It is possible to change the Scheme function to format the tablature
3606 note text. The default is @code{fret-number-tablature-format}, which
3607 uses the fret number. For instruments that do not use this notation,
3608 you can create a special tablature formatting function. This function
3609 takes three argument: string number, string tuning and note pitch.
3613 Most of the guitar special effects such as bend have not been
3619 @section Chord names
3622 LilyPond has support for both printing chord names. Chords may be
3623 entered in musical chord notation, i.e. @code{<< .. >>}, but they can
3624 also be entered by name. Internally, the chords are represented as a
3625 set of pitches, so they can be transposed:
3628 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3629 twoWays = \notes \transpose c c' {
3639 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
3640 \context Voice \twoWays > }
3643 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
3644 be intelligent. The last chord (@code{f bes d}) is not interpreted as
3650 * Printing chord names::
3655 @subsection Chords mode
3658 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
3659 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}.
3660 In chords mode, a chord is entered by the root, which is entered
3661 like a common pitch:
3662 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote, relative=1]
3663 \chords { es4. d8 c2 }
3668 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon, and introducing a
3669 modifier, and optionally, a number:
3671 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote]
3672 \chords { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
3674 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
3675 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
3677 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3678 \chords { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
3681 @cindex root of chord
3682 @cindex additions, in chords
3683 @cindex removals, in chords
3685 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
3686 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
3687 the colon, and are separated by dots:
3689 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3690 \chords { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
3692 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
3694 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3695 \chords { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
3697 Removals are specified similarly, and are introduced by a caret. They
3698 must come after the additions:
3699 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3700 \chords { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
3703 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
3707 is the minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
3709 is the diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
3712 is the augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
3714 is the major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
3716 is the suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
3717 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
3720 Modifiers can be mixed with additions:
3721 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3722 \chords { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
3725 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
3732 Since an unaltered 11 does not sound good when combined with an
3733 unaltered 13, the 11 is removed in this case (, unless it is added
3735 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3736 \chords { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
3741 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
3742 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
3743 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord:
3744 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3745 \chords { c1 c/g c/f }
3749 A bass note can be added instead of transposed out of the chord,
3750 by using @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
3752 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3753 \chords { c1 c/+g c/+f }
3756 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyrics}, @code{\notes} etc. Most
3757 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
3758 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and
3759 @code{\property} may be used to change various settings.
3765 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
3766 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
3769 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3770 \chords { c:5.5-.5+ }
3774 @node Printing chord names
3775 @subsection Printing chord names
3777 @cindex printing chord names
3781 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
3782 The chords may be entered either using the notation
3783 described above, or directly using @code{<<} and @code{>>}:
3785 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3787 \chords {a1 b c} <<d' f' a'>> <<e' g' b'>>
3791 \context ChordNames \scheme
3792 \context Staff \scheme
3797 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
3798 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
3799 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
3800 the start of a new line:
3802 @lilypond[verbatim, linewidth=9cm]
3804 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
3808 \context ChordNames {
3809 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
3811 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
3816 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
3817 Klaus Ignatzek (see @ref{Literature}). It can be tuned through the
3818 following properties:
3821 @cindex chordNameExceptions
3822 @item chordNameExceptions
3823 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
3825 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly}.
3826 @cindex exceptions, chord names.
3829 @cindex majorSevenSymbol
3830 @item majorSevenSymbol
3831 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
3832 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup} and
3833 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
3834 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly} for an example.
3836 @cindex chordNameSeparator
3837 @item chordNameSeparator
3838 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
3839 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
3841 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3842 \context ChordNames \chords {
3844 \property ChordNames.chordNameSeparator
3845 = \markup { \typewriter "|" }
3849 @cindex chordRootNamer
3850 @item chordRootNamer
3851 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
3852 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
3853 function. Special note names (for example, the German ``H'' for a
3854 B-chord) can be produced by storing a new function in this property.
3856 @cindex chordNoteNamer
3857 @item chordNoteNamer
3858 The default is to print single pitch, e.g. the bass note, using the
3859 @code{chordRootNamer}. The @code{chordNoteNamer} property can be set
3860 to a specialized function to change this behavior. For example, the
3861 base can be printed in lower case.
3866 There are also two other chord name schemes implemented: an alternate
3867 Jazz chord notation, and a systematic scheme called Banter chords. The
3868 alternate jazz notation is also shown on the chart in @ref{Chord name
3869 chart}. Turning on these styles is described in the input file
3870 @inputfileref{input/test/,chord-names-jazz.ly}.
3874 @cindex chords, jazz
3879 @cindex @code{\germanChords}
3880 @code{\germanChords},
3881 @cindex @code{\semiGermanChords}
3882 @code{\semiGermanChords}.
3889 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly},
3890 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly},
3891 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-jazz.ly},
3892 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-german.ly},
3893 @file{scm/chords-ignatzek.scm}, and @file{scm/chord-entry.scm}.
3898 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
3899 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
3900 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
3901 @code{<< .. >>} syntax.
3906 @node Orchestral music
3907 @section Orchestral music
3909 @cindex Writing parts
3911 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full
3912 score and the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle
3913 some common problems in orchestral music.
3918 * Multiple staff contexts::
3921 * Instrument names::
3923 * Multi measure rests::
3924 * Automatic part combining::
3926 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
3929 @node Multiple staff contexts
3930 @subsection Multiple staff contexts
3932 Polyphonic scores consist of many staffs. These staffs can be
3933 constructed in three different ways:
3935 @item The group is started with a brace at the left. This is done with the
3936 @internalsref{GrandStaff} context.
3937 @item The group is started with a bracket. This is done with the
3938 @internalsref{StaffGroup} context
3939 @item The group is started with a vertical line. This is the default
3943 @cindex Staff, multiple
3944 @cindex bracket, vertical
3945 @cindex brace, vertical
3952 @node Rehearsal marks
3953 @subsection Rehearsal marks
3954 @cindex Rehearsal marks
3956 @cindex @code{\mark}
3958 To print a rehearsal mark, use the @code{\mark} command:
3959 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3969 The mark is incremented automatically if you use @code{\mark
3970 \default}. The value to use is stored in the property
3971 @code{rehearsalMark} is used and automatically incremented.
3973 The @code{\mark} command can also be used to put signs like coda,
3974 segno and fermatas on a barline. Use @code{\markup} to
3975 to access the appropriate symbol:
3977 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
3978 c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts-ufermata" }
3982 In this case, during line breaks,
3983 marks must also be printed at the end of the line, and not at the
3984 beginning. Use the following to force that behavior:
3986 \property Score.RehearsalMark \override
3987 #'break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible
3990 See @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly} for putting boxes
3996 @cindex barlines, putting symbols on
4000 @internalsref{MarkEvent}, @internalsref{RehearsalMark}, and
4001 @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}.
4005 @subsection Bar numbers
4009 @cindex measure numbers
4010 @cindex currentBarNumber
4012 Bar numbers are printed by default at the start of the line. The
4013 number itself is stored in the
4014 @code{currentBarNumber} property,
4015 which is normally updated automatically for every measure.
4017 Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of at the
4018 beginning of each line. This is illustrated in the following example,
4019 whose source is available as
4020 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-regular-interval.ly}:
4022 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-regular-interval.ly}
4027 @internalsref{BarNumber},
4028 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-five-reset.ly}, and
4029 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-regular-interval.ly}.
4033 Bar numbers can collide with the @internalsref{StaffGroup} bracket, if
4034 there is one at the top. To solve this, the
4035 @internalsref{padding} property of @internalsref{BarNumber} can be
4036 used to position the number correctly.
4038 @node Instrument names
4039 @subsection Instrument names
4041 In an orchestral score, instrument names are printed left side of the
4044 This can be achieved by setting @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instrument}
4045 and @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instr}. This will print a string before
4046 the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
4047 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used:
4049 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4050 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
4053 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
4056 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
4057 \notes \context Staff = treble {
4058 \property Staff.instrument = \markup {
4059 \column << "Clarinetti"
4061 \smaller \musicglyph #"accidentals--1"
4072 @internalsref{InstrumentName}.
4076 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
4077 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
4078 the name to avoid a collision.
4081 @subsection Transpose
4083 @cindex transposition of pitches
4084 @cindex @code{\transpose}
4086 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
4089 \transpose @var{from} @var{to} @var{musicexpr}
4092 This means that @var{musicexpr} is transposed by the interval
4093 between @var{from} and @var{to}.
4095 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
4096 @code{\transpose c cis} or @code{\transpose c des} will transpose up
4097 half a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second
4098 version will print flats:
4100 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
4101 mus =\notes { \key d \major cis d fis g }
4102 \score { \notes \context Staff {
4105 \transpose c g' \mus
4106 \transpose c f' \mus
4112 @internalsref{TransposedMusic}, and @internalsref{UntransposableMusic}.
4116 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
4117 you must put @code{\transpose} outside of @code{\relative}, since
4118 @code{\relative} will have no effect music that appears inside a
4124 @node Multi measure rests
4125 @subsection Multi measure rests
4126 @cindex multi measure rests
4127 @cindex Rests, multi measure
4131 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
4132 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
4133 fill a score with rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure
4134 rest. This expansion is controlled by the property
4135 @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true, Lily will not expand
4136 empty measures, and the appropriate number is added automatically:
4138 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4139 \time 4/4 r1 | R1 | R1*2
4140 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R1*17 R1*4
4143 The @code{1} in @code{R1} is similar to the duration notation used for
4144 notes. Hence, for time signatures other than 4/4, you must enter other
4145 durations. This can be done with augmentation dots or fractions:
4147 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4148 \property Score.skipBars = ##t
4156 An @code{R} spanning a single measure is printed as either a whole rest
4157 or a breve, centered in the measure regardless of the time signature.
4159 @cindex text on multi-measure rest
4160 @cindex script on multi-measure rest
4161 @cindex fermata on multi-measure rest
4163 Texts can be added to multi-measure rests by using the
4164 @var{note}-@code{markup} syntax (see @ref{Text markup}). In this case, the number is
4165 replaced. If you need both texts and the number, you must add the
4166 number by hand. A variable (@code{\fermataMarkup}) is provided for
4170 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
4172 R2._\markup { "Ad lib" }
4177 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
4181 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestEvent},
4182 @internalsref{MultiMeasureTextEvent},
4183 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestMusicGroup}, and
4184 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
4186 The layout object @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestNumber} is for the
4187 default number, and @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestText} for user
4192 It is not possible to use fingerings (e.g. @code{R1-4}) to put numbers
4193 over multi-measure rests.
4195 @cindex condensing rests
4197 There is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into a single
4198 multimeasure rest. Multi measure rests do not take part in rest
4201 Be careful when entering multimeasure rests followed by whole notes,
4205 will enter two notes lasting four measures each. When @code{skipBars}
4206 is set, then the result will look OK, but the bar numbering will be
4209 @node Automatic part combining
4210 @subsection Automatic part combining
4211 @cindex automatic part combining
4212 @cindex part combiner
4215 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
4216 staff. It is aimed at typesetting orchestral scores. When the two
4217 parts are identical for a period of time, only one is shown. In
4218 places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate
4219 voices, and stem directions are set automatically. Also, solo and
4220 @emph{a due} parts are identified and can be marked.
4224 The syntax for part combining is
4227 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
4229 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
4230 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
4231 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
4234 The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part
4235 combiner: putting parts on one staff, and setting stem directions and
4238 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
4240 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4241 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4244 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4250 The first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
4251 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
4252 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
4253 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
4254 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
4257 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
4258 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false:
4260 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
4262 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
4263 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4264 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4267 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4275 @internalsref{PartCombineMusic},
4276 @internalsref{Thread_devnull_engraver}, and
4277 @internalsref{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @internalsref{A2_engraver}.
4281 The syntax for naming contexts in inconsistent with the syntax for
4284 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
4285 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
4288 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
4290 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4291 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4294 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4300 The part combiner is slated to be rewritten [TODO: explain why].
4302 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
4303 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
4304 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
4307 @subsection Hiding staffs
4309 @cindex Frenched scores
4312 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually
4313 removed. This saves some space. This style is called `French Score'.
4314 For @internalsref{Lyrics}, @internalsref{LyricsVoice},
4315 @internalsref{ChordNames} and @internalsref{FiguredBass}, this is
4316 switched on by default. When these line of these contexts turn out
4317 empty after the line-breaking process, they are removed.
4319 For normal staffs, a specialized @internalsref{Staff} context is
4320 available, which does the same: staffs containing nothing (or only
4321 multi measure rests) are removed. The context definition is stored in
4322 @code{\RemoveEmptyStaffContext} variable. Observe how the second staff
4323 in this example disappears in the second line:
4328 \notes \relative c' <
4329 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
4330 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
4334 \translator { \RemoveEmptyStaffContext }
4340 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
4341 @subsection Sound output for transposing instruments
4343 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed
4344 and untransposed instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch
4345 offset (in semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done
4346 using the @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed
4349 @cindex @code{transposing}
4352 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
4353 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
4357 @node Ancient notation
4358 @section Ancient notation
4360 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
4361 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
4366 @c [TODO: write introduction on ancient notation]
4369 * Ancient note heads::
4378 @node Ancient note heads
4379 @subsection Ancient note heads
4381 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
4382 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
4383 NoteHead object to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
4384 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
4385 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes:
4387 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4388 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
4393 @subsection Ancient clefs
4395 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
4397 For modern clefs, see section @ref{Clef}. For the percussion clef, see
4398 section @ref{Percussion staves}. For the @code{TAB} clef, see section
4401 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
4402 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but
4403 differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such
4404 cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs.
4405 Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an
4406 arbitrary line, as described in section @ref{Clef}. The note printed
4407 to the right side of each clef in the example column denotes the
4408 @code{c'} with respect to that clef.
4410 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .3 .1
4414 @b{Description} @tab
4415 @b{Supported Clefs} @tab
4419 @code{clefs-neo_mensural_c} @tab
4420 modern style mensural C clef @tab
4421 @code{neo_mensural_c1}, @code{neo_mensural_c2},
4422 @code{neo_mensural_c3}, @code{neo_mensural_c4} @tab
4423 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4424 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4425 \clef "neo_mensural_c2" c
4429 @code{clefs-petrucci_c1}
4430 @code{clefs-petrucci_c2}
4431 @code{clefs-petrucci_c3}
4432 @code{clefs-petrucci_c4}
4433 @code{clefs-petrucci_c5}
4436 petrucci style mensural C clefs, for use on different stafflines
4437 (the examples shows the 2nd staffline C clef).
4447 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4448 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4449 \clef "petrucci_c2" c
4453 @code{clefs-petrucci_f} @tab
4454 petrucci style mensural F clef @tab
4455 @code{petrucci_f} @tab
4456 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4457 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4458 \clef "petrucci_f" c
4462 @code{clefs-petrucci_g} @tab
4463 petrucci style mensural G clef @tab
4464 @code{petrucci_g} @tab
4465 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4466 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4467 \clef "petrucci_g" c
4471 @code{clefs-mensural_c'} @tab
4472 historic style mensural C clef @tab
4473 @code{mensural_c1}, @code{mensural_c2}, @code{mensural_c3},
4474 @code{mensural_c4} @tab
4475 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4476 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4477 \clef "mensural_c2" c
4481 @code{clefs-mensural_f} @tab
4482 historic style mensural F clef @tab
4483 @code{mensural_f} @tab
4484 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4485 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4486 \clef "mensural_f" c
4490 @code{clefs-mensural_g} @tab
4491 historic style mensural G clef @tab
4492 @code{mensural_g} @tab
4493 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4494 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4495 \clef "mensural_g" c
4499 @code{clefs-vaticana_do} @tab
4500 Editio Vaticana style do clef @tab
4501 @code{vaticana_do1}, @code{vaticana_do2}, @code{vaticana_do3} @tab
4502 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4504 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4505 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4506 \clef "vaticana_do2" c
4510 @code{clefs-vaticana_fa} @tab
4511 Editio Vaticana style fa clef @tab
4512 @code{vaticana_fa1}, @code{vaticana_fa2} @tab
4513 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4515 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4516 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4517 \clef "vaticana_fa2" c
4521 @code{clefs-medicaea_do} @tab
4522 Editio Medicaea style do clef @tab
4523 @code{medicaea_do1}, @code{medicaea_do2}, @code{medicaea_do3} @tab
4524 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4526 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4527 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4528 \clef "medicaea_do2" c
4532 @code{clefs-medicaea_fa} @tab
4533 Editio Medicaea style fa clef @tab
4534 @code{medicaea_fa1}, @code{medicaea_fa2} @tab
4535 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4537 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4538 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4539 \clef "medicaea_fa2" c
4543 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do} @tab
4544 historic style hufnagel do clef @tab
4545 @code{hufnagel_do1}, @code{hufnagel_do2}, @code{hufnagel_do3} @tab
4546 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4548 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4549 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4550 \clef "hufnagel_do2" c
4554 @code{clefs-hufnagel_fa} @tab
4555 historic style hufnagel fa clef @tab
4556 @code{hufnagel_fa1}, @code{hufnagel_fa2} @tab
4557 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4559 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4560 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4561 \clef "hufnagel_fa2" c
4565 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4566 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef @tab
4567 @code{hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4568 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4569 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4570 \clef "hufnagel_do_fa" c
4575 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
4576 @c @item modern style percussion clef (glyph: @code{clefs-percussion})
4579 @c @code{percussion}
4581 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "percussion" c'}
4583 @c @item modern style tab clef (glyph: @code{clefs-tab})
4588 @c @lilypond{\context Staff \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #6 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "tab" c'}
4590 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
4591 transcribed mensural music''.
4593 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
4594 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
4596 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
4597 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
4599 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
4601 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
4602 beams, depending on which staffline it is printed.
4606 @subsection Custodes
4611 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
4612 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
4613 of the first note(s) of the following line and thus helps the player
4614 or singer to manage line breaks during performance, thus enhancing
4615 readability of a score.
4617 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th
4618 century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms
4619 of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant
4620 like the @emph{editio vaticana}. There are different custos glyphs
4621 used in different flavours of notational style.
4623 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
4624 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block,
4625 as shown in the following example:
4631 \consists Custos_engraver
4632 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
4637 The result looks like this:
4643 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
4650 \consists Custos_engraver
4657 The custos glyph is selected by the @code{style} property. The styles
4658 supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
4659 @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the following fragment:
4669 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-vaticana-u0" }
4673 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-medicaea-u0" }
4677 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-hufnagel-u0" }
4681 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-mensural-u0" }
4690 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4694 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4695 \remove "Key_engraver"
4696 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4697 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4698 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4704 If the boolean property @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} is set to
4705 @code{#t} (which it is by default), lily typesets slightly different
4706 variants of the custos glyph, depending on whether the custos, is
4707 typeset on or between stafflines. The glyph will
4708 optically fit well into the staff, with the appendage on the right of
4709 the custos always ending at the same vertical position between two
4710 stafflines regardless of the pitch. If you set
4711 @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} to @code{#f}, then
4712 a compromise between both forms is used.
4714 Just like stems can be attached to noteheads in two directions
4715 @emph{up} and @emph{down}, each custos glyph is available with its
4716 appendage pointing either up or down. If the pitch of a custos is
4717 above a selectable position, the appendage will point downwards; if
4718 the pitch is below this position, the appendage will point upwards.
4719 Use property @code{neutral-position} to select this position. By
4720 default, it is set to @code{0}, such that the neutral position is the
4721 center of the staff. Use property @code{neutral-direction} to control
4722 what happens if a custos is typeset on the neutral position itself.
4723 By default, this property is set to @code{-1}, such that the appendage
4724 will point downwards. If set to @code{1}, the appendage will point
4725 upwards. Other values such as @code{0} are reserved for future
4726 extensions and should not be used.
4731 @internalsref{Custos}, @inputfileref{input/test,custos-style.ly} and
4732 @inputfileref{input/regression,custos.ly}.
4736 @subsection Divisiones
4742 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; latin word for
4743 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
4744 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
4745 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior} and @emph{divisio maxima}
4746 can be characterized as short, medium and long pause, somewhat like
4747 @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not only marks the end of
4748 a chant, but is also frequently used within a single
4749 antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
4753 To use divisiones, include the file @code{gregorian-init.ly}. It
4754 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
4755 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
4756 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
4757 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
4758 Therefore, @code{gregorian-init.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
4762 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{divisiones.ly}
4766 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
4767 @inputfileref{input/test,divisiones.ly}, and @ref{Breath marks}.
4770 @subsection Ligatures
4774 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
4775 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
4777 In musical terminology, a ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that
4778 represents at least two different notes. Ligatures originally appeared
4779 in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th
4780 century as an allusion to the accent symbols of greek lyric poetry to
4781 denote ascending or descending sequences of notes. Both, the shape and
4782 the exact meaning of ligatures changed tremendously during the following
4783 centuries: In early notation, ligatures were used for monophonic tunes
4784 (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way of performance in
4785 the sense of articulation. With upcoming multiphony, the need for a
4786 metric system arised, since multiple voices of a piece have to be
4787 synchronized some way. New notation systems were invented that used
4788 the manifold shapes of ligatures to now denote rhythmical patterns
4789 (e.g. black mensural notation, mannered notation, ars nova). With the
4790 invention of the metric system of the white mensural notation, the need
4791 for ligatures to denote such patterns disappeared. Nevertheless,
4792 ligatures were still in use in the mensural system for a couple of
4793 decades until they finally disappeared during the late 16th / early 17th
4794 century. Still, ligatures have survived in contemporary editions of
4795 Gregorian chant such as the Editio Vaticana from 1905/08.
4799 Syntactically, ligatures are simply enclosed by @code{\[} and
4800 @code{\]}. Some ligature styles (such as Editio Vaticana) may need
4801 additional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature.
4802 By default, the @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a
4803 square bracket above the ligature:
4805 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
4807 \notes \transpose c c' {
4815 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver
4816 has to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in
4817 the following subsections. Currently, only white mensural ligatures
4818 are supported with certain limitations. Support for Editio Vaticana
4819 will be added in the future.
4822 * White mensural ligatures::
4823 * Gregorian square neumes ligatures::
4826 @node White mensural ligatures
4827 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
4829 @cindex Mensural ligatures
4830 @cindex White mensural ligatures
4832 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures. The
4833 implementation is still experimental; it currently may output strange
4834 warnings or even crash in some cases or produce weird results on more
4835 complex ligatures. To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the paper
4836 block the @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} has to be put into
4837 the @internalsref{Voice} context, and remove the
4838 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}:
4844 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4845 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
4850 There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a
4851 white mensural ligature. The shape is rather determined solely from
4852 the pitch and duration of the enclosed notes. While this approach may
4853 take a new user a while to get accustomed, it has the great advantage
4854 that the full musical information of the ligature is known internally.
4855 This is not only required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for
4856 automatic transcription of the ligatures.
4861 \property Score.timing = ##f
4862 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4863 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4864 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4866 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4868 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4870 @lilypond[singleline]
4872 \notes \transpose c c' {
4873 \property Score.timing = ##f
4874 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4875 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4876 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4878 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4880 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4885 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4886 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
4892 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
4893 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
4896 @lilypond[singleline]
4898 \notes \transpose c c' {
4899 \property Score.timing = ##f
4900 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4901 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4902 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4904 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4906 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4911 @node Gregorian square neumes ligatures
4912 @subsubsection Gregorian square neumes ligatures
4914 @cindex Square neumes ligatures
4915 @cindex Gregorian square neumes ligatures
4917 Gregorian square neumes notation (following the style of the Editio
4918 Vaticana) is under heavy development, but not yet really usable for
4919 production purposes. Core ligatures can already be typeset, but
4920 essential issues for serious typesetting are still under development,
4921 such as (among others) horizontal alignment of multiple ligatures,
4922 lyrics alignment and proper accidentals handling. Still, this section
4923 gives a sneak preview of what Gregorian chant may look like once it
4926 The following table contains the extended neumes table of the 2nd
4927 volume of the Antiphonale Romanum (@emph{Liber Hymnarius}), published
4928 1983 by the monks of Solesmes.
4930 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .2 .2 .2
4933 @b{Neuma aut@*Neumarum Elementa} @tab
4934 @b{Figurae@*Rectae} @tab
4935 @b{Figurae@*Liquescentes Auctae} @tab
4936 @b{Figurae@*Liquescentes Deminutae}
4938 @c TODO: \paper block is identical in all of the below examples.
4939 @c Therefore, it should somehow be included rather than duplicated all
4942 @c why not make identifiers in ly/engraver-init.ly? --hwn
4944 @c Because it's just used to typeset plain notes without
4945 @c a staff for demonstration purposes rather than something
4946 @c special of Gregorian chant notation. --jr
4951 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.5cm]
4952 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
4954 \notes \transpose c c' {
4957 \noBreak s^\markup {"a"} \noBreak
4959 % Punctum Inclinatum
4961 \noBreak s^\markup {"b"}
4967 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4971 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4972 \remove "Key_engraver"
4973 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
4974 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4975 \remove "Bar_engraver"
4976 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4980 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4981 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
4982 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
4983 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
4989 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.5cm]
4990 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
4992 \notes \transpose c c' {
4993 % Punctum Auctum Ascendens
4994 \[ \auctum \ascendens b \]
4995 \noBreak s^\markup {"c"} \noBreak
4997 % Punctum Auctum Descendens
4998 \[ \auctum \descendens b \]
4999 \noBreak s^\markup {"d"} \noBreak
5001 % Punctum Inclinatum Auctum
5002 \[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]
5003 \noBreak s^\markup {"e"}
5009 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5013 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5014 \remove "Key_engraver"
5015 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5016 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5017 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5018 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5022 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5023 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5024 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5025 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5031 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5032 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5034 \notes \transpose c c' {
5035 % Punctum Inclinatum Parvum
5036 \[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]
5037 \noBreak s^\markup {"f"}
5043 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5047 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5048 \remove "Key_engraver"
5049 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5050 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5051 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5052 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5056 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5057 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5058 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5059 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5068 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5069 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5071 \notes \transpose c c' {
5074 \noBreak s^\markup {"g"}
5080 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5084 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5085 \remove "Key_engraver"
5086 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5087 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5088 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5089 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5093 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5094 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5095 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5096 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5105 @code{3. Apostropha vel Stropha}
5107 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5108 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5110 \notes \transpose c c' {
5113 \noBreak s^\markup {"h"}
5119 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5123 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5124 \remove "Key_engraver"
5125 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5126 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5127 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5128 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5132 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5133 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5134 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5135 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5141 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5142 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5144 \notes \transpose c c' {
5146 \[ \stropha \auctum b \]
5147 \noBreak s^\markup {"i"}
5153 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5157 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5158 \remove "Key_engraver"
5159 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5160 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5161 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5162 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5166 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5167 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5168 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5169 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5179 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5180 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5182 \notes \transpose c c' {
5185 \noBreak s^\markup {"j"}
5191 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5195 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5196 \remove "Key_engraver"
5197 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5198 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5199 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5200 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5204 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5205 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5206 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5207 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5216 @code{5. Clivis vel Flexa}
5218 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5219 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5221 \notes \transpose c c' {
5230 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5234 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5235 \remove "Key_engraver"
5236 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5237 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5238 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5239 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5243 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5244 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5245 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5246 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5252 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.0cm]
5253 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5255 \notes \transpose c c' {
5256 % Clivis Aucta Descendens
5257 \[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
5258 \noBreak s^\markup {"l"} \noBreak
5260 % Clivis Aucta Ascendens
5261 \[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]
5262 \noBreak s^\markup {"m"}
5268 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5272 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5273 \remove "Key_engraver"
5274 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5275 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5276 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5277 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5281 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5282 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5283 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5284 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5290 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5291 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5293 \notes \transpose c c' {
5295 \[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]
5302 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5306 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5307 \remove "Key_engraver"
5308 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5309 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5310 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5311 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5315 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5316 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5317 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5318 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5325 @code{6. Podatus vel Pes}
5327 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5328 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5330 \notes \transpose c c' {
5339 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5343 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5344 \remove "Key_engraver"
5345 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5346 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5347 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5348 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5352 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5353 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5354 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5355 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5361 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.0cm]
5362 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5364 \notes \transpose c c' {
5365 % Pes Auctus Descendens
5366 \[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5367 \noBreak s^\markup {"p"} \noBreak
5369 % Pes Auctus Ascendens
5370 \[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]
5371 \noBreak s^\markup {"q"}
5377 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5381 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5382 \remove "Key_engraver"
5383 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5384 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5385 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5386 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5390 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5391 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5392 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5393 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5399 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5400 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5402 \notes \transpose c c' {
5404 \[ g \pes \deminutum b \]
5411 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5415 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5416 \remove "Key_engraver"
5417 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5418 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5419 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5420 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5424 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5425 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5426 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5427 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5434 @code{7. Pes Quassus}
5436 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5437 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5439 \notes \transpose c c' {
5441 \[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]
5448 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5452 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5453 \remove "Key_engraver"
5454 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5455 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5456 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5457 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5461 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5462 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5463 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5464 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5470 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5471 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5473 \notes \transpose c c' {
5474 % Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens
5475 \[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5482 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5486 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5487 \remove "Key_engraver"
5488 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5489 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5490 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5491 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5495 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5496 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5497 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5498 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5506 @code{8. Quilisma Pes}
5508 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5509 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5511 \notes \transpose c c' {
5513 \[ \quilisma g \pes b \]
5520 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5524 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5525 \remove "Key_engraver"
5526 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5527 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5528 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5529 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5533 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5534 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5535 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5536 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5542 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5543 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5545 \notes \transpose c c' {
5546 % Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens
5547 \[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5554 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5558 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5559 \remove "Key_engraver"
5560 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5561 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5562 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5563 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5567 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5568 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5569 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5570 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5578 @code{9. Podatus Initio Debilis}
5580 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5581 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5583 \notes \transpose c c' {
5584 % Pes Initio Debilis
5585 \[ \deminutum g \pes b \]
5592 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5596 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5597 \remove "Key_engraver"
5598 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5599 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5600 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5601 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5605 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5606 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5607 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5608 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5614 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5615 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5617 \notes \transpose c c' {
5618 % Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
5619 \[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5626 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5630 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5631 \remove "Key_engraver"
5632 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5633 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5634 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5635 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5639 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5640 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5641 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5642 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5652 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5653 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5655 \notes \transpose c c' {
5657 \[ a \pes b \flexa g \]
5664 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5668 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5669 \remove "Key_engraver"
5670 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5671 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5672 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5673 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5677 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5678 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5679 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5680 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5686 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5687 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5689 \notes \transpose c c' {
5690 % Torculus Auctus Descendens
5691 \[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
5698 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5702 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5703 \remove "Key_engraver"
5704 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5705 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5706 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5707 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5711 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5712 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5713 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5714 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5720 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5721 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5723 \notes \transpose c c' {
5724 % Torculus Deminutus
5725 \[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
5732 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5736 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5737 \remove "Key_engraver"
5738 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5739 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5740 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5741 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5745 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5746 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5747 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5748 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5755 @code{11. Torculus Initio Debilis}
5757 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5758 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5760 \notes \transpose c c' {
5761 % Torculus Initio Debilis
5762 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]
5769 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5773 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5774 \remove "Key_engraver"
5775 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5776 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5777 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5778 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5782 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5783 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5784 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5785 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5791 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5792 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5794 \notes \transpose c c' {
5795 % Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
5796 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
5803 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5807 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5808 \remove "Key_engraver"
5809 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5810 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5811 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5812 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5816 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5817 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5818 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5819 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5825 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5826 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5828 \notes \transpose c c' {
5829 % Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis
5830 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
5837 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5841 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5842 \remove "Key_engraver"
5843 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5844 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5845 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5846 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5850 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5851 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5852 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5853 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5860 @code{12. Porrectus}
5862 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5863 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5865 \notes \transpose c c' {
5867 \[ a \flexa g \pes b \]
5874 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5878 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5879 \remove "Key_engraver"
5880 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5881 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5882 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5883 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5887 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5888 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5889 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5890 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5896 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5897 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5899 \notes \transpose c c' {
5900 % Porrectus Auctus Descendens
5901 \[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5908 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5912 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5913 \remove "Key_engraver"
5914 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5915 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5916 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5917 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5921 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5922 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5923 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5924 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5930 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5931 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5933 \notes \transpose c c' {
5934 % Porrectus Deminutus
5935 \[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]
5942 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5946 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5947 \remove "Key_engraver"
5948 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5949 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5950 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5951 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5955 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5956 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5957 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5958 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5967 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5968 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5970 \notes \transpose c c' {
5972 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]
5979 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5983 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5984 \remove "Key_engraver"
5985 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5986 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5987 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5988 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5992 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5993 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5994 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5995 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6001 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6002 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6004 \notes \transpose c c' {
6006 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]
6013 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6017 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6018 \remove "Key_engraver"
6019 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6020 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6021 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6022 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6026 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6027 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6028 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6029 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6035 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6036 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6038 \notes \transpose c c' {
6039 % Climacus Deminutus
6040 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]
6047 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6051 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6052 \remove "Key_engraver"
6053 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6054 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6055 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6056 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6060 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6061 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6062 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6063 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6070 @code{14. Scandicus}
6072 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6073 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6075 \notes \transpose c c' {
6077 \[ g \pes a \virga b \]
6084 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6088 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6089 \remove "Key_engraver"
6090 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6091 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6092 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6093 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6097 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6098 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6099 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6100 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6106 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6107 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6109 \notes \transpose c c' {
6110 % Scandicus Auctus Descendens
6111 \[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6118 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6122 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6123 \remove "Key_engraver"
6124 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6125 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6126 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6127 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6131 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6132 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6133 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6134 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6140 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6141 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6143 \notes \transpose c c' {
6144 % Scandicus Deminutus
6145 \[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]
6152 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6156 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6157 \remove "Key_engraver"
6158 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6159 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6160 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6161 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6165 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6166 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6167 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6168 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6177 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6178 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6180 \notes \transpose c c' {
6182 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]
6189 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6193 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6194 \remove "Key_engraver"
6195 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6196 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6197 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6198 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6202 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6203 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6204 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6205 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6211 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6212 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6214 \notes \transpose c c' {
6215 % Salicus Auctus Descendens
6216 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6223 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6227 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6228 \remove "Key_engraver"
6229 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6230 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6231 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6232 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6236 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6237 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6238 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6239 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6249 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6250 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6252 \notes \transpose c c' {
6254 \[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]
6261 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6265 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6266 \remove "Key_engraver"
6267 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6268 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6269 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6270 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6274 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6275 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6276 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6277 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6288 Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the input language for
6289 neumes does not necessarily reflect directly the typographical
6290 appearance, but is designed to solely focuse on musical meaning. For
6291 example, @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]} produces a Torculus consisting
6292 of three Punctum heads, while @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]} produces
6293 a Porrectus with a curved flexa shape and only a single Punctum head.
6294 There is no command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa shape; the
6295 decision of when to typeset a curved flexa shape is purely taken from
6296 the musical input. The idea of this approach is to separate the
6297 musical aspects of the input from the notation style of the output.
6298 This way, the same input can be reused to typeset the same music in a
6299 different style of Gregorian chant notation such as Hufnagel (also
6300 known as German gothic neumes) or Medicaea (kind of a very simple
6301 forerunner of the Editio Vaticana). As soon as Hufnagel ligature
6302 engraver and Medicaea ligature engraver will have been implemented, it
6303 will be as simple as replacing the ligature engraver in the
6304 @internalsref{Voice} context to get the desired notation style from
6307 The following table shows the code fragments that produce the
6308 ligatures in the above neumes table. The letter in the first column
6309 in each line of the below table indicates to which ligature in the
6310 above table it refers. The second column gives the name of the
6311 ligature. The third column shows the code fragment that produces this
6312 ligature, using @code{g}, @code{a} and @code{b} as example pitches.
6314 @multitable @columnfractions .1 .4 .5
6328 Punctum Inclinatum @tab
6329 @code{\[ \inclinatum b \]}
6333 Punctum Auctum Ascendens @tab
6334 @code{\[ \auctum \ascendens b \]}
6338 Punctum Auctum Descendens @tab
6339 @code{\[ \auctum \descendens b \]}
6343 Punctum Inclinatum Auctum @tab
6344 @code{\[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]}
6348 Punctum Inclinatum Parvum @tab
6349 @code{\[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]}
6354 @code{\[ \virga b \]}
6359 @code{\[ \stropha b \]}
6364 @code{\[ \stropha \auctum b \]}
6369 @code{\[ \oriscus b \]}
6373 Clivis vel Flexa @tab
6374 @code{\[ b \flexa g \]}
6378 Clivis Aucta Descendens @tab
6379 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
6383 Clivis Aucta Ascendens @tab
6384 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]}
6389 @code{\[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
6393 Podatus vel Pes @tab
6394 @code{\[ g \pes b \]}
6398 Pes Auctus Descendens @tab
6399 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6403 Pes Auctus Ascendens @tab
6404 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]}
6409 @code{\[ g \pes \deminutum b \]}
6414 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]}
6418 Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens @tab
6419 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6424 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes b \]}
6428 Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens @tab
6429 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6433 Pes Initio Debilis @tab
6434 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes b \]}
6438 Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis @tab
6439 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6444 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]}
6448 Torculus Auctus Descendens @tab
6449 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
6453 Torculus Deminutus @tab
6454 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
6458 Torculus Initio Debilis @tab
6459 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]}
6463 Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis @tab
6464 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
6468 Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis @tab
6469 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
6474 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]}
6478 Porrectus Auctus Descendens @tab
6479 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6483 Porrectus Deminutus @tab
6484 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]}
6489 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]}
6493 Climacus Auctus @tab
6494 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]}
6498 Climacus Deminutus @tab
6499 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]}
6504 @code{\[ g \pes a \virga b \]}
6508 Scandicus Auctus Descendens @tab
6509 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6513 Scandicus Deminutus @tab
6514 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]}
6519 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]}
6523 Salicus Auctus Descendens @tab
6524 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6529 @code{\[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]}
6535 Scandicus Deminutus: Punctum Auctum Ascendens overlaps with
6536 Semivocalis head; this looks awful.
6538 Trigonus: apply equal spacing, regardless of pitch.
6541 @subsection Figured bass
6543 @cindex Basso continuo
6545 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
6549 LilyPond has limited support for figured bass:
6551 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
6553 \context Voice \notes { \clef bass dis4 c d ais}
6554 \context FiguredBass
6556 < 6 >4 < 7 >8 < 6+ [_!] >
6562 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
6563 mode, introduced by @code{\figures}, where you can enter bass figures
6564 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass} that
6565 takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
6567 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
6568 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>}:
6573 \context FiguredBass
6577 Accidentals are added when you append @code{-}, @code{!} and @code{+}
6584 \context FiguredBass
6585 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> }
6588 Spaces or dashes may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
6589 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}:
6595 \context FiguredBass
6596 \figures { < [4 6] 8 [_! 12]> }
6599 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
6600 support, it works much simpler. The @code{\figures} mode simply
6601 stores the numbers , and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints
6602 them as entered. There is no conversion to pitches, and no
6603 realizations of the bass are played in the MIDI file.
6605 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
6606 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
6607 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
6611 @internalsref{BassFigureEvent} music, @internalsref{BassFigure} object,
6612 and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context.
6616 Slash notation for alterations is not supported.
6619 @node Contemporary notation
6620 @section Contemporary notation
6622 In the 20th century, composers have greatly expanded the musical
6623 vocabulary. With this expansion, many innovations in musical notation
6624 have been tried. For a comprehensive overview, refer to @cite{Stone
6625 1980} (see @ref{Literature}). In general, the use of new, innovative
6626 notation makes a piece harder to understand and perform and its use
6627 should therefore be avoided if possible. For this reason, support for
6628 contemporary notation in LilyPond is limited.
6637 @subsection Clusters
6641 In musical terminology, a @emph{cluster} denotes a range of
6642 simultaneously sounding pitches that may change over time. The set of
6643 available pitches to apply usually depends on the accoustic source.
6644 Thus, in piano music, a cluster typically consists of a continous range
6645 of the semitones as provided by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic
6646 scale. In choral music, each singer of the choir typically may sing an
6647 arbitrary pitch within the cluster's range that is not bound to any
6648 diatonic, chromatic or other scale. In electronic music, a cluster
6649 (theoretically) may even cover a continuous range of pitches, thus
6650 resulting in coloured noise, such as pink noise.
6652 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
6653 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
6654 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
6655 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by the
6656 shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical extent of
6657 the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster geometrically
6658 describes the development of a range of pitches (vertical extent) over
6659 time (horizontal extent). Still, the geometrical shape of a cluster
6660 covers the area in wich any single pitch contained in the cluster would
6661 be notated as an ordinary note. From this point of view, it is
6662 reasonable to specify a cluster as the envelope of a set of notes.
6666 A cluster is engraved as the envelope of a set of
6667 cluster-notes. Cluster notes are created by applying the function
6668 @code{notes-to-clusters} to a sequence of chords, e.g.
6670 @lilypond[relative 1,verbatim]
6671 \apply #notes-to-clusters { <<c e >> <<b f'>> }
6674 The following example (from
6675 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly}) shows what the result
6678 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{cluster.ly}
6680 By default, @internalsref{Cluster_engraver} is in the
6681 @internalsref{Voice} context. This allows putting ordinary notes and
6682 clusters together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In such a
6683 case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between
6684 ordinary notes and clusters.
6688 @internalsref{ClusterSpanner}, @internalsref{ClusterSpannerBeacon},
6689 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly},
6690 @internalsref{Cluster_engraver}, and @internalsref{ClusterNoteEvent}.
6694 Music expressions like @code{< @{ g8 e8 @} a4 >} are not printed
6695 accurately. Use @code{<<g a>>8 <<e a>>8} instead.
6700 @subsection Fermatas
6706 Contemporary music notation frequently uses special fermata symbols to
6707 indicate fermatas of differing lengths.
6711 The following are supported
6713 @lilypond[singleline]
6715 < \addlyrics \notes {
6735 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
6736 "shortfermata" "fermata" "longfermata" "verylongfermata"
6741 See @ref{Articulations} for general instructions how to apply scripts
6742 such as fermatas to a @code{\notes@{@}} block.
6745 @section Tuning output
6747 There are situations where default layout decisions are not
6748 sufficient. In this section we discuss ways to override these
6751 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called objects
6752 (graphic objects). Each object carries with it a set of properties
6753 (object or layout properties) specific to that object. For example, a
6754 stem object has properties that specify its direction, length and
6757 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
6758 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
6759 temporarily change the definition of one type of object, thus
6760 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
6761 object, and set a layout property in that object.
6763 Do not confuse layout properties with translation
6764 properties. Translation properties always use a mixed caps style
6765 naming, and are manipulated using @code{\property}:
6767 \property Context.propertyName = @var{value}
6769 Layout properties are use Scheme style variable naming, i.e. lower
6770 case words separated with dashes. They are symbols, and should always
6771 be quoted using @code{#'}. For example, this could be an imaginary
6772 layout property name:
6774 #'layout-property-name
6779 * Constructing a tweak::
6788 @node Tuning objects
6789 @subsection Tuning objects
6791 @cindex object description
6793 The definition of an object is a list of default object
6794 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem object (available
6795 in @file{scm/define-grobs.scm}), includes the following definitions
6796 for @internalsref{Stem}:
6800 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
6801 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
6806 Adding variables on top of this existing definition overrides the
6807 system default, and alters the resulting appearance of the layout
6813 Changing a variable for only one object is commonly achieved with
6817 \once \property @var{context}.@var{objectname}
6818 \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
6820 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
6821 and @var{objectname} is a string and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
6822 This command applies a setting only during one moment in the score.
6824 In the following example, only one @internalsref{Stem} object is
6825 changed from its original setting:
6827 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment, relative=1]
6829 \once \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4
6833 @cindex @code{\once}
6835 For changing more objects, the same command, without @code{\once} can
6838 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
6840 This command adds @code{@var{symbol} = @var{value}} to the definition
6841 of @var{objectname} in the context @var{context}, and this definition
6842 stays in place until it is removed.
6844 An existing definition may be removed by the following command:
6847 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \revert @var{symbol}
6850 All @code{\override} and @code{\revert} commands should be balanced.
6851 The @code{\set} shorthand performs a revert followed by an override,
6852 and is often more convenient to use
6855 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
6859 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
6860 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
6862 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
6866 The following example gives exactly the same result as the previous
6867 one (assuming the system default for stem thickness is 1.3):
6869 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
6870 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
6872 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #1.3
6876 Reverting a setting which was not set in the first place has no
6877 effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, this may
6878 remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
6879 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and
6880 @code{\revert} must be carefully balanced. The following are examples
6881 of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set}, @code{\revert}:
6885 a clumsy but correct form:
6887 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
6891 shorter version of the same:
6893 \override \set \set \revert
6897 a short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
6900 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
6904 if there is no default (i.e. by default, the object property is unset),
6907 \set \set \set \revert
6911 For the digirati, the object description is an Scheme association
6912 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as
6913 a stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are push and pop
6914 operations. The association list is stored in a normal context
6917 \property Voice.NoteHead = #'()
6919 will effectively erase @internalsref{NoteHead}s from the current
6920 @internalsref{Voice}. However, this mechanism is not guaranteed to
6921 work, and may cause crashes or other anomalous behavior.
6925 @internalsref{OverrideProperty}, @internalsref{RevertProperty},
6926 @internalsref{PropertySet}, @internalsref{All-backend-properties}, and
6927 @internalsref{All-layout-objects}.
6932 The backend is not very strict in type-checking object properties.
6933 Cyclic references in @var{value} cause hangs and/or crashes.
6934 Similarly, reverting properties that are system defaults may also lead
6937 @node Constructing a tweak
6938 @subsection Constructing a tweak
6941 @cindex internal documentation
6942 @cindex finding graphical objects
6943 @cindex graphical object descriptions
6945 @cindex @code{\override}
6947 @cindex internal documentation
6951 Three pieces of information are required to use @code{\override} and
6952 @code{\set}: the name of the layout object, the context and the name
6953 of the property. We demonstrate how to glean this information from
6954 the notation manual and the generated documentation.
6956 The generated documentation is a set of HTML pages which should be
6957 included if you installed a binary distribution, typically in
6958 @file{/usr/share/doc/lilypond}. They are also available on the web:
6959 go to the @uref{http://lilypond.org,LilyPond website}, click
6960 ``Documentation'', and then ``Program reference'' on the side bar. It
6961 is advisable to bookmark either the local HTML files if possible. They
6962 will load faster than the ones on the web. If you use the version
6963 from the web, you must check whether the documentation matches the
6964 program version: the documentation is generated from the definitions
6965 that the program uses, and therefore it is strongly tied to the
6969 @c [TODO: revise for new site.]
6971 Suppose we want to move the fingering indication in the fragment below:
6973 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim]
6979 If you visit the documentation of @code{Fingering} (in @ref{Fingering
6980 instructions}), you will notice that there is written:
6985 @internalsref{FingerEvent} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
6989 In other words, the fingerings once entered, are internally stored as
6990 @code{FingerEvent} music objects. When printed, a @code{Fingering}
6991 layout object is created for every @code{FingerEvent}.
6993 The Fingering object has a number of different functions, and each of
6994 those is captured in an interface, when we look up
6995 @internalsref{Fingering} in the generated documentation.
6999 The @code{Fingering} object has a fixed size
7000 (@internalsref{item-interface}), the symbol is a piece of text
7001 (@internalsref{text-interface}), whose font can be set
7002 (@internalsref{font-interface}). It is centered horizontally
7003 (@internalsref{self-alignment-interface}), it is placed next to other
7004 objects (@internalsref{side-position-interface}) vertically, and its
7005 placement is coordinated with other scripts
7006 (@internalsref{text-script-interface}). It also has the standard
7007 @internalsref{grob-interface} (grob stands for Graphical object)
7009 @cindex graphical object
7010 @cindex layout object
7011 @cindex object, layout
7012 with all the variables that come with
7013 it. Finally, it denotes a fingering instruction, so it has
7014 @internalsref{finger-interface}.
7016 For the vertical placement, we have to look under
7017 @code{side-position-interface}:
7019 @code{side-position-interface}
7021 Position a victim object (this one) next to other objects (the
7022 support). In this case, the direction signifies where to put the
7023 victim object relative to the support (left or right, up or down?)
7028 below this description, the variable @code{padding} is described as
7032 (dimension, in staff space)
7034 add this much extra space between objects that are next to each
7035 other. Default value: @code{0.6}
7039 By increasing the value of @code{padding}, we can move away the
7040 fingering. The following command inserts 3 staff spaces of white
7041 between the note and the fingering:
7043 \once \property Voice.Fingering \set #'padding = #3
7046 Inserting this command before the Fingering object is created,
7047 i.e. before @code{c2}, yields the following result:
7049 @lilypond[relative=2,fragment,verbatim]
7050 \once \property Voice.Fingering
7057 The context name @code{Voice} in the example above can be determined
7058 as follows. In the documentation for @internalsref{Fingering}, it says
7060 Fingering grobs are created by: @internalsref{Fingering_engraver}
7063 Clicking @code{Fingering_engraver} shows the documentation of
7064 the module responsible for interpreting the fingering instructions and
7065 translating them to a @code{Fingering} object. Such a module is called
7066 an @emph{engraver}. The documentation of the @code{Fingering_engraver}
7069 Fingering_engraver is part of contexts: Voice
7071 so tuning the settings for Fingering should be done with
7073 \property Voice.Fingering \set @dots{}
7076 Of course, the tweak may also done in a larger context than
7077 @code{Voice}, for example, @internalsref{Staff} or
7078 @internalsref{Score}.
7080 The internals document also contains alphabetical lists of
7081 @internalsref{Contexts}, @internalsref{All-layout-objects} and
7082 @internalsref{Music-expressions}, so you can also find which objects to
7083 tweak by browsing the internals document.
7087 @subsection Applyoutput
7089 The most versatile way of tuning an object is @code{\applyoutput}. Its
7092 \applyoutput @var{proc}
7096 where @var{proc} is a Scheme function, taking four arguments.
7098 When interpreted, the function @var{proc} is called for every layout object found
7099 in the context, with the following arguments:
7101 @item the layout object itself,
7102 @item the context where the layout object was created, and
7103 @item the context where @code{\applyoutput} is processed.
7106 In addition, the cause of the layout object, i.e. the music
7107 expression or object that was responsible for creating it, is in the
7108 object property @code{cause}. For example, for a note head, this is a
7109 @internalsref{NoteHead} event, and for a @internalsref{Stem} object,
7110 this is a @internalsref{NoteHead} object.
7113 @node Outputproperty
7114 @subsection Outputproperty
7116 @cindex @code{\outputproperty}
7118 Another way of tuning objects is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
7119 feature. The syntax is as follows:
7121 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
7123 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking an object argument, and
7124 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
7125 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
7126 objects that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
7127 true, the object property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
7129 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
7130 the appropriate context to apply this to.
7131 @inputfileref{input/regression,output-property.ly} shows an example of
7132 the use of @code{\outputproperty}.
7136 This command is slated for removal. Please use the
7137 @code{\applyoutput} command, see @ref{Applyoutput}.
7140 @node Font selection
7141 @subsection Font selection
7143 The most common thing to change about the appearance of fonts is their
7144 size. The font size of any context can be easily changed by setting
7145 the @code{fontSize} property for that context. Its value is an
7146 integer: negative numbers make the font smaller, positive numbers
7147 larger. An example is given below:
7149 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,verbatim,quote]
7150 c4 c4 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
7153 This command will set @code{font-relative-size} (see below), and does
7154 not change the size of variable symbols, such as beams or slurs.
7157 One of the uses of @code{fontSize} is to get smaller symbol for cue
7158 notes. An elaborate example of those is in
7159 @inputfileref{input/test,cue-notes.ly}.
7161 @cindex magnification
7163 The size of the font may be scaled with the object property
7164 @code{font-magnification}. For example, @code{2.0} blows up all
7165 letters by a factor 2 in both directions.
7174 The font used for printing a object can be selected by setting
7175 @code{font-name}, e.g.
7177 \property Staff.TimeSignature
7178 \set #'font-name = #"cmr17"
7182 Any font can be used, as long as it is available to @TeX{}. Possible
7183 fonts include foreign fonts or fonts that do not belong to the
7184 Computer Modern font family.
7186 Font selection for the standard fonts, @TeX{}'s Computer Modern fonts,
7187 can also be adjusted with a more fine-grained mechanism. By setting
7188 the object properties described below, you can select a different font;
7189 all three mechanisms work for every object that supports
7190 @code{font-interface}:
7194 is a symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
7195 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff
7196 braces), @code{music} (the standard music font, including ancient
7197 glyphs), @code{dynamic} (for dynamic signs) and @code{typewriter}.
7200 is a symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
7201 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
7202 @code{caps} and @code{upright}.
7205 is a symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
7206 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
7209 @item font-relative-size
7210 is a number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
7211 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
7212 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
7214 There are small differences in design between fonts designed for
7215 different sizes, hence @code{font-relative-size} is preferred over
7216 @code{font-magnification} for changing font sizes.
7219 @item font-design-size
7220 is a number indicating the design size of the font.
7222 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
7223 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
7224 which enhances readability.
7227 For any of these properties, the value @code{*} (i.e. the symbol
7228 @code{*}, entered as @code{#'*}), acts as a wildcard. This can be used
7229 to override default setting, which are always present. For example:
7231 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
7232 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-family = #'typewriter
7233 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
7236 @cindex @code{font-style}
7240 The following commands set @code{fontSize} for the current voice.
7242 @cindex @code{\tiny}
7244 @cindex @code{\small}
7246 @cindex @code{\normalsize}
7251 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
7253 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
7254 family, and the style sheet cannot be modified easily.
7256 @cindex font selection
7257 @cindex font magnification
7258 @cindex @code{font-interface}
7262 @subsection Text markup
7267 @cindex typeset text
7269 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can access it
7270 with the keyword @code{\markup}. Within markup mode, you can enter texts
7271 similar to lyrics: simply enter them, surrounded by spaces:
7274 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
7275 c1^\markup { hello }
7276 c1_\markup { hi there }
7277 c1^\markup { hi \bold there, is \italic anyone home? }
7280 @cindex font switching
7282 The markup in the example demonstrates font switching commands. The
7283 command @code{\bold} and @code{\italic} only apply to the first
7284 following word; enclose a set of texts with braces to apply a command
7287 \markup @{ \bold @{ hi there @} @}
7291 For clarity, you can also do this for single arguments, e.g.
7293 \markup @{ is \italic @{ anyone @} home @}
7296 @cindex font size, texts
7298 The following size commands set absolute sizes:
7300 @cindex @code{\teeny}
7301 @cindex @code{\tiny}
7302 @cindex @code{\small}
7303 @cindex @code{\large}
7304 @cindex @code{\huge}
7314 You can also make letter larger or smaller relative to their neighbors,
7315 with the commands @code{\larger} and @code{\smaller}.
7319 @cindex font style, for texts
7320 @cindex @code{\bold}
7321 @cindex @code{\dynamic}
7322 @cindex @code{\number}
7323 @cindex @code{\italic}
7325 The following font change commands are defined:
7328 changes to the font used in dynamic signs. This font does not
7329 contain all characters of the alphabet, so when producing ``piu f'',
7330 the ``piu'' should be done in a different font.
7334 changes to the font used in time signatures. It only contains
7335 numbers and a few punctuation marks.
7337 changes @code{font-shape} to @code{italic}.
7339 changes @code{font-series} to @code{bold}.
7342 @cindex raising text
7343 @cindex lowering text
7345 @cindex translating text
7348 @cindex @code{\super}
7350 Raising and lowering texts can be done with @code{\super} and
7353 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
7354 c1^\markup { E "=" mc \super "2" }
7357 @cindex @code{\raise}
7359 If you want to give an explicit amount for lowering or raising, use
7360 @code{\raise}. This command takes a Scheme valued first argument, and
7361 a markup object as second argument:
7363 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1,quote]
7364 c1^\markup { C \small \raise #1.0 \bold { "9/7+" }}
7366 The argument to @code{\raise} is the vertical displacement amount,
7367 measured in (global) staff spaces. @code{\raise} and @code{\super}
7368 raise objects in relation to their surrounding markups. They cannot be
7369 used to move a single text up or down, when it is above or below a
7370 note, since the mechanism that positions it next to the note cancels
7371 any vertical shift. For vertical positioning, use the @code{padding}
7372 and/or @code{extra-offset} properties.
7374 Other commands taking single arguments include
7377 @item \bracket, \hbracket
7378 Bracket the argument markup with normal and horizontal brackets
7382 @cindex @code{\musicglyph}
7383 This is converted to a musical symbol, e.g. @code{\musicglyph
7384 #"accidentals-0"} will select the natural sign from the music font.
7385 See @ref{The Feta font} for a complete listing of the possible glyphs.
7387 This produces a single character, e.g. @code{\char #65} produces the
7390 @item \note @var{log} @var{dots} @var{dir}
7391 @cindex @code{\note}
7393 This produces a note with a stem pointing in @var{dir} direction, with
7394 duration log @var{log} and @var{dots} augmentation dots. The duration
7395 log is the negative 2-logarithm of the duration denominator. For
7396 example, a quarter note has log 2, an eighth note 3 and a breve has
7399 @item \hspace #@var{amount}
7400 @cindex @code{\hspace}
7401 This produces a invisible object taking horizontal space.
7403 \markup @{ A \hspace #2.0 B @}
7405 will put extra space between A and B, on top of the space that is
7406 normally inserted before elements on a line.
7408 @item \fontsize #@var{size}
7409 @cindex @code{\fontsize}
7410 This sets the relative font size, eg.
7412 A \fontsize #2 @{ B C @} D
7416 This will enlarge the B and the C by two steps.
7417 @item \translate #(cons @var{x} @var{y})
7419 This translates an object. Its first argument is a cons of numbers
7421 A \translate #(cons 2 -3) @{ B C @} D
7423 This moves `B C' 2 spaces to the right, and 3 down.
7425 @item \magnify #@var{mag}
7426 @cindex @code{\magnify}
7427 This sets the font magnification for the its argument. In the following
7428 example, the middle A will be 10% larger:
7430 A \magnify #1.1 @{ A @} A
7434 @item \override #(@var{key} . @var{value})
7435 @cindex @code{\override}
7436 This overrides a formatting property for its argument. The argument
7437 should be a key/value pair, e.g.
7439 m \override #'(font-family . math) m m
7443 In markup mode you can compose expressions, similar to mathematical
7444 expressions, XML documents and music expressions. The braces group
7445 notes into horizontal lines. Other types of lists also exist: you can
7446 stack expressions grouped with @code{<<}, and @code{>>} vertically with
7447 the command @code{\column}. Similarly, @code{\center} aligns texts by
7450 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
7451 c1^\markup { \column << a bbbb c >> }
7452 c1^\markup { \center << a bbbb c >> }
7453 c1^\markup { \line << a b c >> }
7456 The markup mechanism is extensible. Refer to
7457 @file{scm/new-markup.scm} for more information.
7463 @internalsref{Markup-functions}, and @file{scm/new-markup.scm}.
7470 Text layout is ultimately done by @TeX{}, which does kerning of
7471 letters. LilyPond does not account for kerning, so texts will be
7472 spaced slightly too wide.
7474 Syntax errors for markup mode are confusing.
7480 @section Global layout
7482 The global layout determined by three factors: the page layout, the
7483 line breaks and the spacing. These all influence each other. The
7484 choice of spacing determines how densely each system of music is set,
7485 which influences where line breaks breaks are chosen, and thus
7486 ultimately how many pages a piece of music takes. In this section, the
7487 algorithm for spacing music is explained, and how spacing can be
7490 Globally spoken, this procedure happens in three steps: first,
7491 flexible distances (``springs'') are chosen, based on durations. All
7492 possible line breaking combination are tried, and the one with the
7493 best results---a layout that has uniform density and requires as
7494 little stretching or cramping as possible---is chosen. When the score
7495 is processed by @TeX{}, each page is filled with systems, and page breaks
7496 are chosen whenever the page gets full.
7501 * Vertical spacing::
7502 * Horizontal spacing::
7509 @node Vertical spacing
7510 @subsection Vertical spacing
7512 @cindex vertical spacing
7513 @cindex distance between staves
7514 @cindex staff distance
7515 @cindex between staves, distance
7516 @cindex staffs per page
7519 The height of each system is determined automatically by LilyPond, to
7520 keep systems from bumping into each other, some minimum distances are
7521 set. By changing these, you can put staves closer together, and thus
7522 put more systems onto one page.
7524 Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make
7525 staves maintain a distance, their vertical size is padded. This is
7526 done with the property @code{minimumVerticalExtent}. It takes a pair
7527 of numbers, so if you want to make it smaller from its, then you could
7530 \property Staff.minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4 . 4)
7532 This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 4 staff-space on
7533 either side of the center staff line. The argument of
7534 @code{minimumVerticalExtent} is interpreted as an interval, where the
7535 center line is the 0, so the first number is generally negative. The
7536 staff can be made larger at the bottom by setting it to @code{(-6
7539 The piano staves are handled a little differently: to make cross-staff
7540 beaming work correctly, it is necessary that the distance between staves
7541 is fixed beforehand. This is also done with a
7542 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object, created in
7543 @internalsref{PianoStaff}. In this object the distance between the
7544 staves is fixed by setting @code{forced-distance}. If you want to
7545 override this, use a @code{\translator} block as follows:
7549 VerticalAlignment \override #'forced-distance = #9
7552 This would bring the staves together at a distance of 9 staff spaces,
7553 measured from the center line of each staff.
7557 Vertical alignment of staves is handled by the
7558 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object.
7562 @node Horizontal spacing
7563 @subsection Horizontal Spacing
7565 The spacing engine translates differences in durations into
7566 stretchable distances (``springs'') of differing lengths. Longer
7567 durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest
7568 durations get a fixed amount of space (which is controlled by
7569 @code{shortest-duration-space} in the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} object).
7570 /The longer the duration, the more space it gets: doubling a
7571 duration adds a fixed amount (this amount is controlled by
7572 @code{spacing-increment}) of space to the note.
7574 For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter and
7575 8th notes, the eighth note is followed by 1 note head width (NHW).
7576 The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by 3 NHW, etc.
7577 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=1] c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8
7581 Normally, @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to 1.2, which is the
7582 width of a note head, and @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to
7583 2.0, meaning that the shortest note gets 2 NHW (2 times
7584 @code{shortest-duration-space}) of space. For normal notes, this space
7585 is always counted from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest
7586 notes are generally followed by one NHW of space.
7588 If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single
7589 32th note to a score that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the
7590 entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a 16th, but a 32nd,
7591 thus adding 2 noteheads of space to every note. To prevent this, the
7592 shortest duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score,
7593 but the most commonly found shortest note. Notes that are even
7594 shorter this are followed by a space that is proportonial to their
7595 duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add
7596 only a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by
7599 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=2]
7600 c2 c4. c8 c4. c16-[ c-] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
7603 The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every
7604 measure, the shortest duration is determined. The most common short
7605 duration, is taken as the basis for the spacing, with the stipulation
7606 that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than
7607 1/8th note. The shortest duration is printed when you run lilypond
7608 with @code{--verbose}. These durations may also be customized. If you
7609 set the @code{common-shortest-duration} in
7610 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, then this sets the base duration for
7611 spacing. The maximum duration for this base (normally 1/8th), is set
7612 through @code{base-shortest-duration}.
7614 @cindex @code{common-shortest-duration}
7615 @cindex @code{base-shortest-duration}
7616 @cindex @code{stem-spacing-correction}
7617 @cindex @code{spacing}
7619 In the introduction it was explained that stem directions influence
7620 spacing. This is controlled with @code{stem-spacing-correction}
7621 property in @internalsref{NoteSpacing}, which are generated for every
7622 @internalsref{Voice} context. The @code{StaffSpacing} object
7623 (generated at @internalsref{Staff} context) contains the same property
7624 for controlling the stem/barline spacing. The following example
7625 shows these corrections, once with default settings, and once with
7626 exaggerated corrections:
7632 \property Staff.NoteSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
7634 \property Staff.StaffSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
7639 \paper { raggedright = ##t } }
7642 @cindex SpacingSpanner, overriding properties
7644 Properties of the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} must be overridden
7645 from the @code{\paper} block, since the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} is
7646 created before any @code{\property} statements are interpreted.
7648 \paper @{ \translator @{
7650 SpacingSpanner \override #'spacing-increment = #3.0
7657 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, @internalsref{NoteSpacing},
7658 @internalsref{StaffSpacing}, @internalsref{SeparationItem}, and
7659 @internalsref{SeparatingGroupSpanner}.
7663 Spacing is determined on a score wide basis. If you have a score that
7664 changes its character (measured in durations) halfway during the
7665 score, the part containing the longer durations will be spaced too
7668 There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing.
7673 @subsection Font size
7674 @cindex font size, setting
7675 @cindex staff size, setting
7676 @cindex @code{paper} file
7678 The Feta font provides musical symbols at seven different sizes.
7679 These fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point, 23 point, and
7680 26 point. The point size of a font is the height of the corresponding
7681 staff (excluding line thicknesses).
7683 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
7684 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any
7685 of these files, the variables @code{paperEleven},
7686 @code{paperThirteen}, @code{paperSixteen},
7687 @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and @code{paperTwentysix}
7688 are defined respectively. The default @code{\paper} block is also
7689 set. These files should be imported at toplevel, i.e.
7691 \include "paper26.ly"
7695 The default font size settings for each staff heights are generated
7696 from the 20pt style sheet. For more details, see the file
7697 @file{scm/font.scm}.
7701 @subsection Line breaking
7704 @cindex breaking lines
7706 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
7707 that lines look neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines
7708 have similar density.
7710 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can
7711 do this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at
7712 this point. Line breaks can only occur at places where there are bar
7713 lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line,
7714 you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
7715 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a
7719 @cindex regular line breaks
7720 @cindex four bar music.
7722 For linebreaks at regular intervals use @code{\break} separated by
7723 skips and repeated with @code{\repeat}:
7725 < \repeat unfold 7 @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
7726 @emph{the real music}
7731 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
7736 @internalsref{BreakEvent}.
7740 @subsection Page layout
7743 @cindex breaking pages
7745 @cindex @code{indent}
7746 @cindex @code{linewidth}
7748 The most basic settings influencing the spacing are @code{indent} and
7749 @code{linewidth}. They are set in the @code{\paper} block. They
7750 control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of
7753 If @code{raggedright} is set to true in the @code{\paper}
7754 block, then the lines are justified at their natural length. This
7755 useful for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural
7759 @cindex vertical spacing
7761 The page layout process happens outside the LilyPond formatting
7762 engine: variables controlling page layout are passed to the output,
7763 and are further interpreted by @code{ly2dvi}. @code{ly2dvi} responds
7764 to the following variables in the @code{\paper} block. The variable
7765 @code{textheight} sets the total height of the music on each page.
7766 The spacing between systems is controlled with @code{interscoreline},
7767 its default is 16pt. The distance between the score lines will
7768 stretch in order to fill the full page @code{interscorelinefill} is
7769 set to a positive number. In that case @code{interscoreline}
7770 specifies the minimum spacing.
7772 @cindex @code{textheight}
7773 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
7774 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
7776 If the variable @code{lastpagefill} is defined,
7777 @c fixme: this should only be done if lastpagefill == #t
7778 systems are evenly distributed vertically on the last page. This
7779 might produce ugly results in case there are not enough systems on the
7780 last page. The @command{lilypond-book} command ignores
7781 @code{lastpagefill}. See @ref{lilypond-book manual} for more
7784 @cindex @code{lastpagefill}
7786 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
7787 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into
7788 the @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages. This
7789 is done by setting the @code{between-systems-strings} on the
7790 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn} where the system is broken.
7791 An example is shown in @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}.
7792 The predefined command @code{\newpage} also does this.
7796 @cindex @code{papersize}
7798 To change the paper size, you must first set the @code{papersize} paper
7799 variable variable as in the example below. Set it to
7800 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
7801 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
7802 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
7805 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
7806 \include "paper16.ly"
7809 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
7810 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
7811 @code{lilypond} and @code{ly2dvi}).
7816 @cindex @code{\newpage}
7822 @ref{Invoking ly2dvi},
7823 @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}, and
7824 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn}.
7828 LilyPond has no concept of page layout, which makes it difficult to
7829 reliably choose page breaks in longer pieces.
7838 Entered music can also be converted to MIDI output. The performance
7839 is good enough for proof-hearing the music for errors.
7841 Ties, dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted. Dynamic marks,
7842 crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume levels. Dynamic
7843 marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI volume
7844 range, crescendi and decrescendi make the volume vary linearly between
7845 their two extremities. The fractions can be adjusted by
7846 @code{dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction} in @internalsref{Voice} context.
7847 For each type of MIDI instrument, a volume range can be defined. This
7848 gives a basic equalizer control, which can enhance the quality of
7849 the MIDI output remarkably. The equalizer can be controlled by
7850 setting @code{instrumentEqualizer}.
7854 Many musically interesting effects, such as swing, articulation,
7855 slurring, etc., are not translated to MIDI.
7860 * MIDI instrument names::
7865 @subsection MIDI block
7869 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
7870 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
7874 @item a @code{\tempo} definition, and
7875 @item context definitions.
7878 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
7882 @cindex context definition
7884 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
7885 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
7886 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer-init.ly}.
7889 @node MIDI instrument names
7890 @subsection MIDI instrument names
7892 @cindex instrument names
7893 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
7894 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
7896 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
7897 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
7898 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
7899 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
7903 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
7904 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by