1 q@c Note: -*-texinfo-*-
3 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
4 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
5 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
7 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
11 @chapter Notation manual
14 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Notation manual --->
20 * Easier music entry::
27 * Fingering instructions::
36 * Contemporary notation::
42 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
48 This chapter describes all the different types of notation supported
49 by LilyPond. It is intended as a reference for users that are already
50 somewhat familiar with using LilyPond.
56 * Chromatic alterations::
64 * Easy Notation note heads ::
72 A note is printed by specifying its pitch and then its duration.
73 @footnote{Notes constitute the most basic elements of LilyPond input,
74 but they do not form valid input on their own without a @code{\score}
75 block. However, for the sake of brevity and simplicity we will
76 generally omit @code{\score} blocks and @code{\paper} declarations in
79 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
88 @cindex Note specification
90 @cindex entering notes
92 The most common syntax for pitch entry is used in @code{\chords} and
93 @code{\notes} mode. In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated
94 by names. The notes are specified by the letters @code{a} through
95 @code{g}, while the octave is formed with notes ranging from @code{c}
96 to @code{b}. The pitch @code{c} is an octave below middle C and the
97 letters span the octave above that C.
99 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
101 a,4 b, c d e f g a b c' d' e' \clef treble f' g' a' b' c''
104 @cindex note names, Dutch
106 A sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch name and
107 a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double flats
108 are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. These
109 names are the Dutch note names. In Dutch, @code{aes} is contracted to
110 @code{as} in Dutch, but both forms are accepted. Similarly, both
111 @code{es} and @code{ees} are accepted.
113 There are predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
114 To use them, include the language specific init file. For
115 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files
116 and the note names they define are:
121 Note Names sharp flat
122 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
123 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
124 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
125 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
126 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
127 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
128 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
129 espanol.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -s -b
138 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
139 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
140 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
141 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
143 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
144 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
148 There is also a verbose syntax for pitch specification.
151 @cindex @code{\pitch}
153 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
157 where @var{scmpitch} is a Scheme object of the @code{Pitch} type.
161 Notes can be hidden and unhidden with the following commands.
163 @cindex @code{\hideNotes }
165 @cindex @code{\unHideNotes }
172 @internalsref{NoteEvent}, @internalsref{NoteHead}
174 @node Chromatic alterations
175 @subsection Chromatic alterations
177 Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also
178 print them manually. A reminder accidental
179 @cindex reminder accidental
181 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!}
182 after the pitch. A cautionary accidental
183 @cindex cautionary accidental
184 @cindex parenthesized accidental
185 (an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the
186 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
188 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
189 cis' cis' cis'! cis'?
193 The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many
194 ways. For more information, refer to @ref{Accidentals}.
199 A chord is formed by a enclosing a set of pitches in @code{<<} and
200 @code{>>}. A chord may be followed by a duration, and a set of
201 articulations, just like simple notes.
211 Rests are entered like notes, with the note name @code{r}.
213 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
217 Whole bar rests, centered in middle of the bar,
218 must be done with multi measure rests. They are discussed in
219 @ref{Multi measure rests}.
222 A rest's vertical position may be explicitly specified by entering a
223 note with the @code{\rest} keyword appended. This makes manual
224 formatting in polyphonic music easier. Rest collision testing will
225 leave these rests alone.
227 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
233 @internalsref{RestEvent}, @internalsref{Rest}
240 @cindex Invisible rest
243 An invisible rest (also called a `skip') can be entered like a note
244 with note name `@code{s}' or with @code{\skip @var{duration}}:
246 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
250 The @code{s} syntax is only available in Note mode and Chord mode. In
251 other situations, you should use the @code{\skip} command.
253 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
256 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
257 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
262 The skip command is merely an empty musical placeholder. It does not
263 produce any output, not even transparent output.
267 @internalsref{SkipEvent}
272 @subsection Durations
276 @cindex @code{\duration}
279 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations are designated by numbers
280 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For example,
281 a quarter note is entered using a @code{4} (since it is a 1/4 note), while
282 a half note is entered using a @code{2} (since it is a 1/2 note). For notes
283 longer than a whole you must use variables.
285 @c FIXME: what is an identifier? I do not think it's been introduced yet.
286 @c and if it has, I obviously skipped that part. - Graham
290 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
292 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
297 \notes \relative c'' {
299 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
301 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
306 \remove "Clef_engraver"
307 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
308 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
309 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
316 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previously entered
317 duration. The default for the first note is a quarter note. The duration
318 can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') in order to obtain dotted note
322 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
323 a' b' c''8 b' a'4 a'4. b'4.. c'8.
328 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M}
329 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
330 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
331 In the following example, the first three notes take up exactly two
333 @lilypond[fragment,relative 2,verbatim]
335 a4*2/3 gis4*2/3 a4*2/3
339 Durations can also be produced using the verbose syntax
340 @code{\duration @var{Scheme object}}.
341 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
342 c'\duration #(ly:make-duration 4 1)
349 Dots are normally moved up to avoid staff lines, except in polyphonic
350 situations. The following commands may be used to force a particular
353 @cindex @code{\dotsUp }
355 @cindex @code{\dotsDown }
357 @cindex @code{\dotsBoth}
362 @internalsref{Dots}, @internalsref{DotColumn}.
366 In dense chords, dots can overlap.
371 Whenever a note is found, a
372 @internalsref{Stem} object is created automatically. For whole notes
373 and rests, stem objects are also created, but in those cases, the stem
378 @cindex @code{\stemUp}
380 @cindex @code{\stemDown}
382 @cindex @code{\stemBoth}
393 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in
394 effect extends the length of a note. Ties should not be confused with
395 slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate
396 musical phrasing. A tie is entered using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'.
398 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
399 e' ~ e' <<c' e' g'>> ~ <<c' e' g'>>
402 When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads whose pitches match
403 are connected. When no note heads match, no ties will be created.
405 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
406 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
407 exactly the same concept.
409 @lilypond[fragment, singleline,quote]
410 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
412 If you need to tie a lot of notes over bars, it may be easier to use automatic
413 note splitting (See @ref{Automatic note splitting}).
418 @cindex @code{\tieUp }
420 @cindex @code{\tieDown }
422 @cindex @code{\tieBoth }
424 @cindex @code{\tieDotted }
426 @cindex @code{\tieSolid}
431 @internalsref{TieEvent}, @internalsref{NewTieEvent},
432 @internalsref{Tie}, @ref{Automatic note splitting}.
435 ties created for a chord, see @inputfileref{input/test,tie-sparse.ly}.
439 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a pair of chords is not
440 supported in a simple way. It can be achieved by moving the
441 tie-engraver into the @internalsref{Thread} context and turning on and
442 off ties per @internalsref{Thread}.
444 Switching staves when a tie is active, will not produce a slanted tie.
446 Formatting of ties is a difficult subject. The results are often not
456 @cindex @code{\times}
458 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all durations
461 @cindex @code{\times}
463 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
466 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
467 In the sheet music, the fraction's denominator will be printed over
468 the notes, optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the
469 triplet in which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3
470 of their written length:
472 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
473 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
476 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each
477 bracket should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while
478 typing @code{\times} only once, saving lots of typing. In the next
479 example, there are two triplets shown, while @code{\times} was only
482 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
483 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
484 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
487 The format of the number is determined by the property
488 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
489 denominator, but if it is set to the Scheme function
490 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, @var{num}:@var{den} will be printed
494 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
495 @cindex tuplet formatting
500 @cindex @code{\tupletUp }
502 @cindex @code{\tupletDown }
504 @cindex @code{\tupletBoth}
509 @internalsref{TupletBracket}, @internalsref{TimeScaledMusic}.
513 Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically. In this case, outer
514 tuplet brackets should be moved manually.
516 @node Easy Notation note heads
517 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
519 @cindex easy notation
522 The `easyplay' note head includes a note name inside the head. It is
523 used in music aimed at beginners.
525 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,26pt]
527 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
528 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
532 The @code{EasyNotation} variable overrides a @internalsref{Score}
533 context. You probably will want to print it with magnification or a
534 large font size to make it more readable. To print with
535 magnification, you must create a DVI file (with @file{ly2dvi}) and
536 then enlarge it with something like @file{dvips -x 2000 file.dvi}.
537 See the @code{dvips} documentation for more details. To print with a
538 larger font, see @ref{Font Size}.
544 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through
545 the letters. Printing the PostScript file obtained with ly2dvi does
546 produce the correct result.
549 @node Easier music entry
550 @section Easier music entry
553 When entering music it is easy to introduce errors. This section deals
554 with tricks and features of the input language that help when entering
555 music, and find and correct mistakes. Some features of the input
556 language ease entering music, but also have other applications. They
557 are not described in this section.
559 It is also possible to use external programs, for example GUI
560 interfaces, or MIDI transcription programs, to enter or edit
561 music. Refer to the website for more information. Finally, there are
562 tools make debugging easier, by linking the input file and the output
563 shown on screen. See @ref{Point and click} for more information.
569 * Skipping corrected music::
570 * Automatic note splitting ::
576 @node Relative octaves
577 @subsection Relative octaves
579 @cindex relative octave specification
581 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
582 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch
583 in the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. The relative
584 octave mode prevents these errors: a single error puts the rest of the
585 piece off by one octave.
587 @cindex @code{\relative}
589 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
592 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
593 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
594 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
595 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
596 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
599 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise
600 or lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode,
601 an absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
602 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
604 Here is the relative mode shown in action:
605 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
611 Octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
612 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
617 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
618 to determine the first note of the next chord.
620 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
627 @cindex @code{\notes}
629 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
630 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
631 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
634 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
635 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
636 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
637 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
641 @subsection Bar check
645 @cindex @code{barCheckSynchronize}
648 Bar checks help detect errors in the durations. A bar check is
649 entered using the bar symbol, `@code{|}'. Whenever it is encountered
650 during interpretation, it should fall on a measure boundary. If it
651 does not, a warning is printed. Depending on the value of
652 @code{barCheckSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
655 In the next example, the second bar check will signal an error.
657 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2 |
662 @cindex skipTypesetting
664 Failed bar checks are caused by entering incorrect
665 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
666 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the
667 score by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To
668 speed up this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting}, described
671 @node Skipping corrected music
672 @subsection Skipping corrected music
674 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
675 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
676 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
677 This can be used to skip over the parts of a score that have already
678 been checked for errors.
680 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
682 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
684 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
688 @node Automatic note splitting
689 @subsection Automatic note splitting
691 Long notes can be converted automatically to tied notes. This is done
692 by replacing the @internalsref{Note_heads_engraver} by the
693 @internalsref{Completion_heads_engraver}.
696 \paper @{ \translator @{
698 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
699 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
706 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
713 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
715 \paper { \translator {
717 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
718 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
723 This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts
724 ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are
725 not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how much each measure
730 Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be
731 represented exactly; the engraver will not insert tuplets.
737 @section Staff notation
739 This section describes music notation that occurs on staff level,
740 such as keys, clefs and time signatures.
742 @cindex Staff notation
756 @subsection Staff symbol
758 @cindex adjusting staff symbol
759 @cindex StaffSymbol, using \property
760 @cindex staff lines, setting number of
762 Notes, dynamic signs, etc. are grouped
763 with a set of horizontal lines, into a staff (plural `staves'). In our
764 system, these lines are drawn using a separate layout object called
767 This object is created whenever a @internalsref{Staff} context is
768 created. The appearance of the staff symbol cannot be changed by
769 using @code{\override} or @code{\set}. At the moment that
770 @code{\property Staff} is interpreted, a @internalsref{Staff} context
771 is made, and the @internalsref{StaffSymbol} is created before any
772 @code{\override} is effective. Properties can be changed in a
773 @code{\translator} definition, or by using @code{\outputproperty}.
777 If a staff is ended halfway a piece, the staff symbol may not end
778 exactly on the barline.
782 @subsection Key signature
783 @cindex Key signature
787 The key signature indicates the scale in which a piece is played. It
788 is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of
793 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
796 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
799 @cindex @code{\minor}
800 @cindex @code{\major}
801 @cindex @code{\minor}
802 @cindex @code{\ionian}
803 @cindex @code{\locrian}
804 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
805 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
806 @cindex @code{\lydian}
807 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
808 @cindex @code{\dorian}
810 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
811 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
812 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
813 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
814 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
816 This command sets the context property
817 @internalsref{Staff}.@code{keySignature}. Non-standard key signatures
818 can be specified by setting this property directly.
822 The ordering of a key cancellation is wrong when it is combined with
823 repeat bar lines. The cancellation is also printed after a line break.
827 @internalsref{KeyChangeEvent}, @internalsref{KeySignature}.
829 @cindex @code{keySignature}
836 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
841 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command:
842 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
843 \key f\major c''2 \clef alto g'2
846 Supported clef-names include
847 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
849 @item treble, violin, G, G2
858 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
873 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
874 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. @var{clefname} must
875 be enclosed in quotes when it contains underscores or digits. For
881 This command is equivalent to setting @code{clefGlyph},
882 @code{clefPosition} (which controls the Y position of the clef),
883 @code{centralCPosition} and @code{clefOctavation}. A clef is printed
884 when any of these properties are changed.
888 The object for this symbol is @internalsref{Clef}.
892 @node Ottava brackets
893 @subsection Ottava brackets
895 ``Ottava'' brackets introduce an extra transposition of an octave for
896 the staff. They are created by invoking the function
897 @code{set-octavation}
903 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
912 Internally the @code{set-octavation} function sets the properties
913 @code{ottavation} (eg. to @code{"8va"}) and @code{centralCPosition}.
917 @internalsref{OttavaBracket}
921 @code{set-octavation} will get confused when clef changes happen
922 during an octavation bracket.
925 @subsection Time signature
926 @cindex Time signature
930 Time signature indicates the metrum of a piece: a regular pattern of
931 strong and weak beats. It is denoted by a fraction at the start of the
936 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
938 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
939 \time 2/4 c'2 \time 3/4 c'2.
942 The symbol that is printed can be customized with the @code{style}
943 property. Setting it to @code{#'()} uses fraction style for 4/4 and
944 2/2 time. There are many more options for its layout. See
945 @inputfileref{input/test,time.ly} for more examples.
948 This command sets the property @code{timeSignatureFraction},
949 @code{beatLength} and @code{measureLength} in the @code{Timing}
950 context, which is normally aliased to @internalsref{Score}. The
951 property @code{measureLength} determines where bar lines should be
952 inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated. Changing the
953 value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes the symbol to be
956 More options are available through the Scheme function
957 @code{set-time-signature}. In combination with the
958 @internalsref{Measure_grouping_engraver}, it will create
959 @internalsref{MeasureGrouping} signs. Such signs ease reading
960 rhythmically complex modern music. In the following example, the 9/8
961 measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to
962 @code{set-time-signature} as the third argument @code{(2 2 2 3)}.
965 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
966 #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3))
967 g8-[ g-] d-[ d-] g-[ g-] a8-[-( bes g-]-) |
968 #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2))
973 \translator { \StaffContext
974 \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
980 @internalsref{TimeSignature}, @internalsref{Timing_engraver}.
985 Automatic beaming does not use measure grouping specified with
986 @code{set-time-signature}.
988 @node Partial measures
989 @subsection Partial measures
992 @cindex partial measure
993 @cindex measure, partial
994 @cindex shorten measures
995 @cindex @code{\partial}
997 Partial measures, for example in upsteps, are entered using the
998 @code{\partial} command:
999 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1000 \partial 16*5 c'16 c4 | a'2. ~ a'8. a'16 | g'1
1003 The syntax for this command is
1005 \partial @var{duration}
1007 This is internally translated into
1009 \property Timing.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
1012 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
1013 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
1015 @node Unmetered music
1016 @subsection Unmetered music
1018 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
1019 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. By setting
1020 @code{Score.timing} to false, this automatic timing can be switched
1026 @cindex @code{\cadenzaOn }
1028 @cindex @code{\cadenzaOff }
1032 @subsection Bar lines
1036 @cindex measure lines
1040 Bar lines delimit measures, but are also used to indicate repeats.
1041 Normally, tehy are inserted automatically. Line breaks may only
1047 of barlines can be forced with the @code{\bar} command:
1048 @lilypond[relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
1052 The following bar types are available
1053 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
1065 In scores with many staves, a @code{\bar} command in one staff is
1066 automatically applied to all staffs. The resulting bar lines are
1067 connected between different staves of a @internalsref{StaffGroup}:
1069 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1070 < \context StaffGroup <
1071 \context Staff = up { e'4 d'
1074 \context Staff = down { \clef bass c4 g e g } >
1075 \context Staff = pedal { \clef bass c2 c2 } >
1079 The command @code{\bar @var{bartype}} is a short cut for doing
1080 @code{\property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}} Whenever
1081 @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
1082 created. At the start of a measure it is set to
1083 @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of @code{repeatCommands} are used
1084 to override default measure bars.
1086 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
1087 @code{\bar}. These settings take precedence over the automatic
1088 @code{whichBar} settings.
1091 @cindex repeatCommands
1092 @cindex defaultBarType
1094 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
1104 The bar line objects that are created at @internalsref{Staff} level
1105 are called @internalsref{BarLine}, the bar lines that span staffs are
1106 @internalsref{SpanBar}s.
1113 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff
1114 is to split chords using the separator @code{\\}. You can use it for
1115 small, short-lived voices or for single chords:
1117 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
1118 \context Voice = VA \relative c'' {
1119 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ b, \\ f' \\ d >
1123 The separator causes @internalsref{Voice} contexts to be
1125 bear the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc. In each of these
1126 contexts, vertical direction of slurs, stems, etc. is set
1129 This can also be done by instantiating @internalsref{Voice} contexts
1130 by hand, and using @code{\voiceOne}, up to @code{\voiceFour} to assign
1131 a stem directions and horizontal shift for each part.
1134 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
1136 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
1137 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
1138 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
1141 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
1142 when the object property @code{merge-differently-dotted} is set in
1143 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} object, they are:
1144 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
1145 \relative c'' \context Voice < {
1147 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override
1148 #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
1150 } \\ { g8.-[ f16-] g8.-[ f16-] }
1154 Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting
1155 @code{merge-differently-headed}:
1156 @lilypond[fragment, relative=2,verbatim]
1159 \property Staff.NoteCollision
1160 \override #'merge-differently-headed = ##t
1161 c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >
1164 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
1167 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1168 \context Voice < c''4 \\ r4 >
1176 @cindex @code{\oneVoice }
1178 @cindex @code{\voiceOne }
1180 @cindex @code{\voiceTwo }
1182 @cindex @code{\voiceThree }
1184 @cindex @code{\voiceFour }
1187 The following commands specify in what chords of the current voice
1188 should be shifted: the outer voice has @code{\shiftOff}, and the inner
1189 voices have @code{\shiftOn}, @code{\shiftOnn}, etc.
1192 @cindex @code{\shiftOn}
1194 @cindex @code{\shiftOnn}
1196 @cindex @code{\shiftOnnn}
1198 @cindex @code{\shiftOff}
1205 The objects responsible for resolving collisions are
1206 @internalsref{NoteCollision} and @internalsref{RestCollision}. See
1207 also example files @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-dots.ly},
1208 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-head-chords.ly},
1209 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-heads.ly},
1210 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-mesh.ly}, and
1211 @inputfileref{input/regression,collisions.ly}.
1216 Resolving collisions is a intricate subject, and only a few situations
1217 are handled. When LilyPond cannot cope, the @code{force-hshift}
1218 property of the @internalsref{NoteColumn} object and pitched rests can
1219 be used to override typesetting decisions.
1221 When using @code{merge-differently-headed} with upstem 8th or shorter
1222 note, and a downstem half note, the 8th note gets the wrong offset.
1227 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
1228 the metrum. They are inserted automatically in most cases.
1230 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1231 \time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
1234 When these automatic decisions are not good enough, beaming can be
1235 entered explicitly. It is also possible to define beaming patterns
1236 that differ from the defaults.
1240 @internalsref{Beam}.
1243 @cindex Automatic beams
1244 @subsection Manual beams
1245 @cindex beams, manual
1249 In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming
1250 algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not put beams over rests
1251 or bar lines. Such beams are specified by manually: the begin and end
1252 point are marked with @code{[} and @code{]}.
1254 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1256 r4 r8-[ g' a r8-] r8 g-[ | a-] r8
1260 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1262 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1263 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1264 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount} can
1265 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If either property
1266 is set, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1268 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1271 f8-[ r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a-]
1274 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1277 The property @code{subdivideBeams} can be set in order to subdivide
1278 all 16th or shorter beams at beat positions, as defined by the
1279 @code{beatLength} property . This accomplishes the same effect as
1280 twiddling with @code{stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{stemRightBeamCount},
1281 but it take less typing.
1284 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,noindent]
1285 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1286 \property Voice.subdivideBeams = ##t
1287 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1288 \property Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
1289 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1291 @cindex subdivideBeams
1293 Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap is detected
1294 between the note heads. This behavior can be tuned through the object
1295 property @code{auto-knee-gap}.
1297 @cindex beams, kneed
1299 @cindex auto-knee-gap
1307 Automatically kneed beams cannot be used together with Hara Kiri
1312 * Setting automatic beam behavior ::
1316 @no de Beam typography
1317 @sub section Beam typography
1319 One of the strong points of LilyPond is how beams are formatted. Beams
1320 are quantized, meaning that the left and right endpoints beams start
1321 exactly on staff lines. Without quantization, small wedges of white
1322 space appear between the beam and staff line, and this looks untidy.
1324 Beams are also slope-damped: melodies that go up or down should also
1325 have beams that go up or down, but the slope of the beams should be
1326 less than the slope of the notes themselves.
1328 Some beams should be horizontal. These are so-called concave beams.
1330 [TODO: some pictures.]
1334 @node Setting automatic beam behavior
1335 @subsection Setting automatic beam behavior
1337 @cindex @code{autoBeamSettings}
1338 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
1339 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
1340 @cindex automatic beams, tuning
1341 @cindex tuning automatic beaming
1343 @c [TODO: use \applycontext]
1345 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
1346 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
1347 or at durations specified by the properties in
1348 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
1349 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
1351 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
1352 @code{\override} and restored with @code{\revert}:
1354 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
1355 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
1357 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
1358 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
1359 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
1360 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
1361 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
1364 For example, if automatic beams should end on every quarter note, use
1367 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1368 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
1370 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1371 entered as @code{(ly:make-moment 1 4)}.
1373 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1374 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
1376 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1377 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1379 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1380 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1381 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1383 Rules can also be restricted to specific time signatures. A rule that
1384 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1385 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1386 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1388 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1389 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1392 If a rule should be to applied only to certain types of beams, use the
1393 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the
1394 shortest note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies
1395 to beams with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), use @code{(end 1 32 *
1398 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1399 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1401 @cindex automatic beam generation
1403 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeaming}
1406 For melodies that have lyrics, you may want to switch off
1407 automatic beaming. This is done by setting @code{Voice.autoBeaming} to
1412 @cindex @code{\autoBeamOff }
1413 @code{\autoBeamOff},
1414 @cindex @code{\autoBeamOn }
1420 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1421 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1422 durations, i.e., you will have to specify manual beams to get:
1424 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,relative,noverbatim,quote]
1425 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1426 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1427 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c-[ c c c-] c8 c c4
1429 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1430 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1431 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1434 @section Accidentals
1437 This section describes how to change the way that accidentals are
1438 inserted automatically before the running notes.
1442 * Using the predefined accidental variables::
1443 * Customized accidental rules::
1446 @node Using the predefined accidental variables
1447 @subsection Using the predefined accidental variables
1449 The constructs for describing the accidental typesetting rules are
1450 quite hairy, so non-experts should stick to the variables
1451 defined in @file{ly/property-init.ly}.
1452 @cindex @file{property-init.ly}
1454 The variables set properties in the ``@code{Current}'' context (see
1455 @ref{Context properties}). This means that the variables should
1456 normally be added right after the creation of the context in which the
1457 accidental typesetting described by the variable is to take
1458 effect. For example, if you want to use piano-accidentals in a piano
1459 staff then issue @code{\pianoAccidentals} first thing after the
1460 creation of the piano staff:
1463 \notes \relative c'' <
1464 \context Staff = sa @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1465 \context GrandStaff <
1467 \context Staff = sb @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1468 \context Staff = sc @{ es2 c @}
1470 \context Staff = sd @{ es2 c @}
1474 @lilypond[singleline]
1476 \notes \relative c'' <
1477 \context Staff = sa { cis4 d e2 }
1478 \context GrandStaff <
1480 \context Staff = sb { cis4 d e2 }
1481 \context Staff = sc { es2 c }
1483 \context Staff = sd { es2 c }
1488 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 4.0)
1496 @item \defaultAccidentals
1497 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1498 This is the default typesetting behaviour. It should correspond
1499 to 18th century common practice: Accidentals are
1500 remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and
1501 only on their own octave.
1503 @item \voiceAccidentals
1504 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1506 The normal behaviour is to
1507 remember the accidentals on Staff-level. This variable, however,
1508 typesets accidentals individually for each voice. Apart from that the
1509 rule is similar to @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1511 This leads to some weird and often unwanted results
1512 because accidentals from one voice do not get cancelled in other
1514 @lilypond[singleline,relative,fragment,verbatim,quote]
1522 Hence you should only use @code{\voiceAccidentals} if the voices
1523 are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff is to be
1524 used by one musician (e.g., a conductor) then you use
1525 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals} or @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1528 @item \modernAccidentals
1529 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1530 This rule corresponds to the common practice in the 20th
1532 The rule is more complex than @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1533 You get all the same accidentals, but temporary
1534 accidentals also get cancelled in other octaves. Further more,
1535 in the same octave, they also get cancelled in the following measure:
1536 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1538 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1541 @item \modernCautionaries
1542 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1543 This rule is similar to @code{\modernAccidentals}, but the
1544 ``extra'' accidentals (the ones not typeset by
1545 @code{\defaultAccidentals}) are typeset as cautionary accidentals.
1546 They are printed in reduced size or with parentheses.
1547 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1549 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1552 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1553 @item \modernVoiceAccidentals
1554 is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians
1555 playing one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are
1556 typeset for each voice, but they @emph{are} cancelled across voices in
1557 the same @internalsref{Staff}.
1559 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1560 @item \modernVoiceCautionaries
1561 is the same as @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}, but with the extra
1562 accidentals (the ones not typeset by @code{\voiceAccidentals}) typeset
1563 as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset by
1564 @code{\defaultAccidentals} @emph{are} typeset by this variable then
1565 some of them are typeset as cautionaries.
1567 @item \pianoAccidentals
1568 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1569 20th century practice for piano notation. Very similar to
1570 @code{\modernAccidentals} but accidentals also get cancelled
1571 across the staves in the same @internalsref{GrandStaff} or
1572 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.
1574 @item \pianoCautionaries
1575 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1576 As @code{\pianoAccidentals} but with the extra accidentals
1577 typeset as cautionaries.
1580 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1581 Same as @code{\defaultAccidentals} but with accidentals lasting
1582 ``forever'' and not only until the next measure:
1583 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1588 @item \forgetAccidentals
1589 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1590 This is sort of the opposite of @code{\noResetKey}: Accidentals
1591 are not remembered at all - and hence all accidentals are
1592 typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what was
1593 before in the music:
1594 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1596 \key d\major c4 c cis cis d d dis dis
1600 @node Customized accidental rules
1601 @subsection Customized accidental rules
1603 This section must be considered gurus-only, and hence it must be
1604 sufficient with a short description of the system and a reference to
1605 the internal documentation.
1607 The algorithm tries several different rules, and uses the rule
1608 that gives the highest number of accidentals. Each rule consists of
1611 In which context is the rule applied. For example, if
1612 @var{context} is @internalsref{Score} then all staves share
1613 accidentals, and if @var{context} is @internalsref{Staff} then all
1614 voices in the same staff share accidentals, but staves do not.
1616 Whether the accidental changes all octaves or only the current
1619 Over how many barlines the accidental lasts.
1620 If @var{lazyness} is @code{-1} then the accidental is forget
1621 immediately, and if @var{lazyness} is @code{#t} then the accidental
1624 @c [TODO: should use +infinity for this case?]
1630 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals }
1631 @code{\defaultAccidentals},
1632 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals }
1633 @code{\voiceAccidentals},
1634 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals }
1635 @code{\modernAccidentals},
1636 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries }
1637 @code{\modernCautionaries},
1638 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals }
1639 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals},
1640 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries }
1641 @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries},
1642 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals }
1643 @code{\pianoAccidentals},
1644 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries }
1645 @code{\pianoCautionaries},
1646 @cindex @code{\noResetKey }
1648 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals }
1649 @code{\forgetAccidentals},
1653 @internalsref{Accidental_engraver}, @internalsref{Accidental},
1654 @internalsref{AccidentalPlacement}.
1659 Currently the simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in
1660 sequential mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are
1661 typeset as if the notes in the chord happened one at a time - in the
1662 order in which they appear in the input file.
1664 This is only a problem when there are simultaneous notes whose
1665 accidentals depend on each other. The problem only occurs when using
1666 non-default accidentals. In the default scheme, accidentals only
1667 depend on other accidentals with the same pitch on the same staff, so
1668 no conflicts possible.
1670 This example shows two examples of the same music giving different
1671 accidentals depending on the order in which the notes occur in the
1674 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1675 \property Staff.autoAccidentals = #'( Staff (any-octave . 0) )
1676 cis'4 <<c'' c'>> r2 | cis'4 <<c' c''>> r2
1677 | <<cis' c''>> r | <<c'' cis'>> r |
1680 This problem can be solved by manually inserting @code{!} and @code{?}
1681 for the problematic notes.
1683 @node Expressive marks
1684 @section Expressive marks
1692 * Analysis brackets::
1699 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1703 They are entered using parentheses:
1704 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1705 f'-( g'-)-( a'-) a'8-[ b'-(-] a'4 g'2 f'4-)
1706 <<c' e'>>2-( <<b d'>>2-)
1710 @c TODO: should explain that ^( and _( set directions
1711 @c should set attachments with ^ and _ ?
1713 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1714 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1715 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1716 object property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1717 @internalsref{Voice} context. Its value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1718 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1720 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1722 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1724 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1728 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1729 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1730 stems might look better:
1732 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1735 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1742 @cindex @code{\slurUp }
1744 @cindex @code{\slurDown }
1746 @cindex @code{\slurBoth }
1748 @cindex @code{\slurDotted }
1750 @cindex @code{\slurSolid }
1755 @seeinternals{Slur}, @internalsref{SlurEvent}.
1760 Producing nice slurs is a difficult problem, and LilyPond currently
1761 uses a simple, empiric method to produce slurs. In some cases, the
1762 results of this method are ugly.
1765 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1767 @node Phrasing slurs
1768 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1770 @cindex phrasing slurs
1771 @cindex phrasing marks
1773 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1774 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1777 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1778 \time 6/4 c'-\( d-( e-) f-( e-) d-\)
1781 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a
1782 normal slur. However, they are treated as different objects. A
1783 @code{\slurUp} will have no effect on a phrasing slur; instead, you
1784 should use @code{\phrasingSlurUp}, @code{\phrasingSlurDown}, and
1785 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}.
1787 The commands @code{\slurUp}, @code{\slurDown}, and @code{\slurBoth}
1788 will only affect normal slurs and not phrasing slurs.
1792 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurUp }
1793 @code{\phrasingSlurUp},
1794 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurDown }
1795 @code{\phrasingSlurDown},
1796 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurBoth }
1797 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth},
1801 See also @internalsref{PhrasingSlur},
1802 @internalsref{PhrasingSlurEvent}.
1806 Phrasing slurs have the same limitations in their formatting as normal
1807 slurs. Putting phrasing slurs over rests leads to spurious warnings.
1810 @subsection Breath marks
1812 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}.
1815 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1819 The glyph of the breath mark can be tweaked by overriding the
1820 @code{text} property of the @code{BreathingSign} layout object with the name of
1821 any glyph of @ref{The Feta font}. For example,
1822 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative]
1824 \property Voice.BreathingSign \override #'text = #"scripts-rvarcomma"
1831 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
1832 @inputfileref{input/regression,breathing-sign.ly}.
1835 @node Metronome marks
1836 @subsection Metronome marks
1839 @cindex beats per minute
1840 @cindex metronome marking
1842 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1844 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1847 In the MIDI output, they are interpreted as a tempo change, and in the
1848 paper output, a metronome marking is printed
1849 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1850 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1856 @internalsref{TempoEvent}
1861 @subsection Text spanners
1862 @cindex Text spanners
1864 Some performance indications, e.g. @i{rallentando} or @i{accelerando},
1865 are written as texts, and extended over many measures with dotted
1866 lines. You can create such texts using text spanners: attach
1867 @code{\startTextSpan} and @code{\stopTextSpan} to the
1868 start and ending note of the spanner.
1870 The string to be printed, as well as the style, is set through object
1873 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1875 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'direction = #-1
1876 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("rall " . "")
1877 c2-\startTextSpan b c-\stopTextSpan a }
1883 @internalsref{TextSpanEvent},
1884 @internalsref{TextSpanner}, @inputfileref{input/regression,text-spanner.ly}.
1887 @node Analysis brackets
1888 @subsection Analysis brackets
1890 @cindex phrasing brackets
1891 @cindex musicological analysis
1892 @cindex note grouping bracket
1894 Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical
1895 pieces. LilyPond supports a simple form of nested horizontal brackets.
1896 To use this, add the @internalsref{Horizontal_bracket_engraver} to
1897 @internalsref{Staff} context. A bracket is started with
1898 @code{\startGroup} and closed with @code{\stopGroup}.
1900 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
1901 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
1902 c4-\startGroup-\startGroup
1905 c4-\stopGroup-\stopGroup
1907 \paper { \translator {
1908 \StaffContext \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
1914 @internalsref{HorizontalBracket}, @internalsref{NoteGroupingEvent},
1915 @inputfileref{input/regression,note-group-bracket.ly}.
1919 Bracket endings should be angled/slanted. (TODO)
1926 @section Articulations
1927 @cindex Articulations
1929 @cindex articulations
1933 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1934 different characteristics of the performance. They are added to a note
1935 by adding a dash and the character signifying the
1936 articulation. They are demonstrated here.
1938 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-abbreviations.ly}
1940 The script is automatically placed, but if you need to force
1941 directions, you can use @code{_} to force them down, or @code{^} to
1943 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1950 Other symbols can be added using the syntax
1951 @var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}. Again, they can be forced up or down
1952 using @code{^} and @code{_}.
1956 @cindex staccatissimo
1965 @cindex organ pedal marks
1974 @cindex prallmordent
1978 @cindex thumb marking
1983 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-chart.ly}
1988 @cindex @code{\scriptUp }
1990 @cindex @code{\scriptDown }
1992 @cindex @code{\scriptBoth}
1997 @internalsref{ScriptEvent}, @internalsref{Script}.
2001 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
2002 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
2005 @node Fingering instructions
2006 @section Fingering instructions
2010 Fingering instructions can be entered using
2012 @var{note}-@var{digit}
2014 For finger changes, use markup texts:
2016 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
2017 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
2018 c'^\markup { \fontsize #-3 \number "2-3" }
2021 @cindex finger change
2026 You can use the thumb-script to indicate that a note should be
2027 played with your thumb (used in cello music):
2029 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragmnt]
2030 <<a' a''-3>>8-(_\thumb-[ <<b' b''-3>>-)_\thumb
2031 <<c'' c'''-3>>-(_\thumb <<d'' d'''-3>>-)_\thumb-]
2034 Fingering for chords can be notated like this:
2036 @c TODO: confusing example.
2037 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
2038 << c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >> 4
2039 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #LEFT
2040 << c-1 es-3 g-5 >> 4
2041 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #RIGHT
2042 << c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >>4
2043 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #LEFT
2044 << c_1 e-2 g-3 b^5 >>4
2049 @internalsref{FingerEvent} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
2060 @subsection Text scripts
2061 @cindex Text scripts
2063 It is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup text (see
2064 @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
2065 @code{c^"text"}. By default, these indications do not influence the
2066 note spacing, but by using the command @code{\fatText}, the widths
2067 will be taken into account.
2069 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim] \relative c' {
2070 c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
2073 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should
2074 be avoided because the exact dimensions of the string can then no
2080 @internalsref{TextScriptEvent}, @internalsref{TextScript},
2086 @subsection Grace notes
2088 @cindex @code{\grace}
2092 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out
2094 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment] c4 \grace c16 c4 \grace {
2098 In normal notation, grace notes take up no logical
2099 time in a measure. Such an idea is practical for normal notation, but
2100 is not strict enough to put it into a program. The model that LilyPond
2101 uses for grace notes internally is that all timing is done in two
2104 Every point in musical time consists of two rational numbers: one
2105 denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing. The above
2106 example is shown here with timing tuples.
2109 \score { \notes \relative c''{
2110 c4^"(0,0)" \grace c16_" "_"(1/4,-1/16)" c4^"(1/4,0)" \grace {
2111 c16_"(2/4,-1/8)"-[ d16^"(2/4,-1/16)" ] } c4_" "_"(2/4,0)"
2113 \paper { linewidth = 12.\cm }
2118 The placement of grace notes is synchronized between different staves.
2119 In the following example, there are two sixteenth graces notes for
2120 every eighth grace note.
2122 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2123 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \grace { c16-[ d e f-] } e4 }
2124 \context Staff = SB { c'4 \grace { g8-[ b-] } c4 } >
2128 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
2129 stem. This can be controlled with object property @code{stroke-style} of
2130 @internalsref{Stem}. For proper matching of override and reverts of
2131 such properties, it is necessary to use a Scheme function.
2133 The following fragment overrides the default formatting Grace style stems.
2135 #(add-to-grace-init "Voice" 'Stem 'stroke-style '())
2138 The @code{\override} is carefully matched with a @code{\revert}.
2143 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2144 \relative c'' \context Voice {
2145 \grace c8 c4 \grace { c16-[ c16-] } c4
2147 \property Voice.Stem \override #'stroke-style = #'()
2149 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'stroke-style
2154 If you want to end a note with a grace note, then the standard trick
2155 is to put the grace notes before a phantom ``space note'', e.g.
2156 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
2159 { s2 \grace { c16-[ d-] } } >
2165 By adjusting the duration of the skip note (here it is a half-note),
2166 the space between the main-note and the grace is adjusted.
2168 A @code{\grace} section has some default values, and LilyPond will
2169 use those default values unless you specify otherwise inside the
2170 @code{\grace} section. For example, if you specify \slurUp
2171 @emph{before} your @code{\grace} section, a slur which starts inside
2172 the @code{\grace} will not be forced up, even if the slur ends outside
2173 of the @code{\grace}. Note the difference between the first and
2174 second bars in this example:
2176 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2177 \relative c'' \context Voice {
2195 @internalsref{GraceMusic},
2199 Grace notes cannot be used in the smallest size (@file{paper11.ly}).
2201 A score that starts with an @code{\grace} section needs an explicit
2202 @code{\context Voice} declaration, otherwise the main note and grace
2203 note end up on different staffs.
2205 Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation,
2206 such as key signatures, barlines, etc. are also synchronized. Take
2207 care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without, for example:
2209 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2210 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
2211 \context Staff = SB { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >
2214 Grace sections should only be used within sequential music
2215 expressions. Nesting or juxtaposing grace sections is not supported,
2216 and might produce crashes or other errors.
2218 Overriding settings for grace music globally cannot be done in a
2219 modular way. A kludge (@code{add-to-grace-init}) is defined in
2220 @file{ly/grace-init.ly}.
2224 @subsection Glissando
2227 @cindex @code{\glissando}
2229 A glissando is a smooth change in pitch. It is denoted by a line or a
2230 wavy line between two notes.
2234 A glissando line can be requested by attaching a @code{\glissando} to
2237 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2243 @internalsref{Glissando}, @internalsref{GlissandoEvent}.
2248 Additional texts (such as @emph{gliss.}) is not supported.
2252 @subsection Dynamics
2265 @cindex @code{\ffff}
2275 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an variable after a
2276 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
2277 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
2278 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
2279 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
2281 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
2282 c'-\ppp c-\pp c -\p c-\mp c-\mf c-\f c-\ff c-\fff
2288 @cindex @code{\decr}
2289 @cindex @code{\rced}
2296 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\<} and terminated with
2297 @code{\!}. A decrescendo is started with @code{\>} and also terminated
2298 with @code{\!}. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you must
2299 use spacer notes if multiple marks during one note are needed.
2301 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,quote]
2302 c''-\< c''-\! d''-\decr e''-\rced
2303 < f''1 { s4 s4-\< s4-\! \> s4-\! } >
2305 This may give rise to very short hairpins. Use @code{minimum-length}
2306 in @internalsref{Voice}.@internalsref{HairPin} to lengthen them, for
2310 \property Staff.Hairpin \override #'minimum-length = #5
2313 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
2314 is an example how to do it:
2316 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
2317 c4 \cresc c4 c c c \endcresc c4
2323 You can also supply your own texts:
2324 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2326 \property Voice.crescendoText = \markup { \italic "cresc. poco" }
2327 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
2337 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp }
2339 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown }
2340 @code{\dynamicDown},
2341 @cindex @code{\dynamicBoth }
2342 @code{\dynamicBoth},
2344 @cindex direction, of dynamics
2348 @internalsref{CrescendoEvent}, @internalsref{DecrescendoEvent},
2349 @internalsref{AbsoluteDynamicEvent}.
2351 Dynamics are objects of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
2352 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is
2353 handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2355 If you want to adjust padding or vertical direction of the dynamics,
2356 you must set properties for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner}
2365 @cindex @code{\repeat}
2368 Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist
2369 for repetitions. In LilyPond, most of these notations can be captured
2370 in a uniform syntax. One of the advantages is, all these repetitions
2371 can be rendered in MIDI accurately.
2373 The following types of repetition are supported:
2377 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
2378 output, and entering repetitive music.
2381 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
2382 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
2386 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
2387 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
2388 @inputfileref{input,star-spangled-banner.ly}.
2395 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
2401 * Repeats and MIDI::
2402 * Manual repeat commands::
2404 * Tremolo subdivisions::
2409 @subsection Repeat syntax
2413 LilyPond has one syntactic construct for specifying different types of
2414 repeats. The syntax is
2417 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
2420 If you have alternative endings, you may add
2421 @cindex @code{\alternative}
2423 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
2425 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
2427 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression. If you do not
2428 give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then the first
2429 alternative is assumed to be played more than once.
2431 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
2432 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2434 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
2435 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
2438 With alternative endings:
2439 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2441 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
2442 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
2446 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2450 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
2451 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
2458 If you do a nested repeat like
2467 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the @code{\alternative}
2468 belongs. This ambiguity is resolved by always having the
2469 @code{\alternative} belong to the inner @code{\repeat}. For clarity,
2470 it is advisable to use braces in such situations.
2473 @node Repeats and MIDI
2474 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
2476 @cindex expanding repeats
2478 For instructions on how to unfold repeats for MIDI output, see the
2479 example file @inputfileref{input/test,unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
2484 Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative,
2485 so you have to reset timing information after a repeat, e.g. using a
2486 bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting @code{Score.measurePosition}
2487 or entering @code{\partial}. Similarly, slurs or ties are also not
2491 @node Manual repeat commands
2492 @subsection Manual repeat commands
2494 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
2496 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
2497 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
2505 @item (volta . @var{text})
2506 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}. The text can be specified as
2507 a text string or as a markup text, see @ref{Text markup}. Do not
2508 forget to change the font, as the default number font does not contain
2509 alphabetic characters.
2511 Stop a running volta bracket
2514 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2516 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
2518 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
2525 @internalsref{VoltaBracket}, @internalsref{RepeatedMusic},
2526 @internalsref{VoltaRepeatedMusic},
2527 @internalsref{UnfoldedRepeatedMusic}
2528 @internalsref{FoldedRepeatedMusic}.
2530 @node Tremolo repeats
2531 @subsection Tremolo repeats
2532 @cindex tremolo beams
2534 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
2536 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2538 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
2539 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
2540 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
2541 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
2542 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
2549 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} objects. Single stem tremolos are
2550 @internalsref{StemTremolo}. @internalsref{TremoloEvent}.
2555 The single stem tremolo @emph{must} be entered without @code{@{} and
2558 @node Tremolo subdivisions
2559 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
2560 @cindex tremolo marks
2561 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
2563 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
2564 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
2565 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
2566 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
2567 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
2569 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
2570 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
2573 @c [TODO : stok is te kort bij 32en]
2577 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
2580 @node Measure repeats
2581 @subsection Measure repeats
2583 @cindex percent repeats
2584 @cindex measure repeats
2586 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
2587 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
2588 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
2589 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
2591 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2592 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
2593 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
2599 @internalsref{RepeatSlash}, @internalsref{PercentRepeat},
2600 @internalsref{PercentRepeatedMusic}, and
2601 @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
2606 Single measure and double measure percent-repeats cannot be nested.
2608 @node Rhythmic music
2609 @section Rhythmic music
2611 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This
2612 can be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a
2613 staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single line:
2615 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2616 \context RhythmicStaff {
2618 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
2623 * Percussion staves::
2624 * Percussion midi output::
2627 @node Percussion staves
2628 @subsection Percussion staves
2632 To typeset more than one piece of percussion to be played by the same
2633 musician one typically uses a multiline staff where each staff
2634 position refers to a specific piece of percussion.
2638 Percussion staves are typeset with help of a set of Scheme
2639 functions. The system is based on the general MIDI drum-pitches.
2640 Include @file{ly/drumpitch-init.ly} to use drum pitches. This file
2641 defines the pitches from the Scheme variable @code{drum-pitch-names},
2642 the definition of which can be read in @file{scm/drums.scm}. Each
2643 piece of percussion has a full name and an abbreviated name, and both
2644 the full name or the abbreviation may be used in input files.
2646 To typeset the music on a staff apply the function @code{drums->paper}
2647 to the percussion music. This function takes a list of percussion
2648 instrument names, notehead scripts and staff positions (that is:
2649 pitches relative to the C-clef) and transforms the input
2650 music by moving the pitch, changing the notehead and (optionally)
2653 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,quote]
2654 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2655 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2656 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2658 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2660 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2661 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2666 In the above example the music was transformed using the list @code{'drums}.
2667 Currently the following lists are defined in @file{scm/drums.scm}:
2670 To typeset a typical drum kit on a five-line staff.
2673 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2674 nam = \lyrics { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2675 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
2676 mus = \notes { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2677 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
2680 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2684 \context Lyrics \nam
2687 linewidth = 100.0\mm
2690 \remove Bar_engraver
2691 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2692 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
2696 \remove Stem_engraver
2702 The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there fewer toms, simply
2703 select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e., to get toms on
2704 the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml} and
2707 Because general MIDI does not contain rimshots the sidestick is used
2708 for this purpose instead.
2710 To typeset timbales on a two line staff.
2712 @lilypond[singleline]
2713 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2714 nam = \lyrics { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
2715 mus = \notes { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
2718 \apply #(drums->paper 'timbales) \context Staff <
2722 \context Lyrics \nam
2727 \remove Bar_engraver
2728 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2729 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2730 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2731 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2735 \remove Stem_engraver
2742 To typeset congas on a two line staff.
2744 @lilypond[singleline]
2745 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2746 nam = \lyrics { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
2747 mus = \notes { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
2750 \apply #(drums->paper 'congas) \context Staff <
2754 \context Lyrics \nam
2759 \remove Bar_engraver
2760 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2761 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2762 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2763 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2767 \remove Stem_engraver
2773 To typeset bongos on a two line staff.
2775 @lilypond[singleline]
2776 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2777 nam = \lyrics { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
2778 mus = \notes { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
2781 \apply #(drums->paper 'bongos) \context Staff <
2785 \context Lyrics \nam
2790 \remove Bar_engraver
2791 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2792 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2793 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2794 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2798 \remove Stem_engraver
2804 To typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves.
2805 @lilypond[singleline]
2806 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2807 nam = \lyrics { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
2808 mus = \notes { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
2811 \apply #(drums->paper 'percussion) \context Staff <
2815 \context Lyrics \nam
2820 \remove Bar_engraver
2821 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2822 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #1
2823 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-2.0 . 3.0)
2827 \remove Stem_engraver
2834 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
2835 list at the top of your file:
2837 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
2838 #(set-drum-kit 'mydrums `(
2839 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2840 (snare default #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 1 0))
2841 (hihat cross #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2842 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2843 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2845 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2846 up = \notes { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
2847 down = \notes { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
2849 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2851 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2852 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2857 To use a modified existing list, one can prepend modifications to the
2861 #(define mydrums (append `(
2862 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2863 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2867 The file @file{drumpitch-init.ly} replaces the normal pitch names, so
2868 you have to reinclude @file{nederlands.ly} after the
2869 drum-pattern-definitions to enter normal notes.
2871 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2872 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2873 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2874 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2875 \include "nederlands.ly"
2876 bass = \notes \transpose c c,, { a4. e8 r e g e }
2879 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff = drums <
2881 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2882 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2884 \context Staff = bass { \clef "F_8" \bass }
2889 @node Percussion midi output
2890 @subsection Percussion midi output
2892 In order to produce correct midi output you need to produce two score
2893 blocks---one for the paper and one for the midi output. To use the
2894 percussion channel you set the property @code{instrument} to
2895 @code{'drums}. Because the drum-pitches themself are similar to the
2896 general midi pitches all you have to do is to insert the voices with
2897 none of the scheme functions to get the correct midi output:
2901 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2910 \property Staff.instrument = #'drums
2919 This scheme is to be considered a temporary implementation.
2923 @section Piano music
2925 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
2926 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
2927 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
2928 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
2929 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
2930 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
2934 * Automatic staff changes::
2935 * Manual staff switches::
2938 * Staff switch lines::
2943 There is no support for putting chords across staves. You can get
2944 this result by increasing the length of the stem in the lower stave so
2945 it reaches the stem in the upper stave, or vice versa. An example is
2946 included with the distribution as @inputfileref{input/test,stem-cross-staff.ly}.
2948 Dynamics are not centered, but kludges do exist. See
2949 @inputfileref{input/templates,piano-dynamics.ly}.
2951 @cindex cross staff stem
2952 @cindex stem, cross staff
2955 @c fixme: should have hyperlinks as well.
2961 @node Automatic staff changes
2962 @subsection Automatic staff changes
2963 @cindex Automatic staff changes
2965 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
2966 staff. The syntax for this is
2968 \autochange Staff \context Voice @{ @dots{}@var{music}@dots{} @}
2970 The autochanger switches on basis of pitch (central C is the turning
2971 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch rests in
2972 advance. Here is a practical example:
2974 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,quote]
2975 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
2976 \context Staff = "up" {
2977 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
2978 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
2979 \context Staff = "down" {
2984 Spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
2985 terminating too soon.
2990 The staff switches often do not end up in optimal places. For high
2991 quality output staff switches should be specified manually.
2995 @node Manual staff switches
2996 @subsection Manual staff switches
2998 @cindex manual staff switches
2999 @cindex staff switch, manual
3001 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
3003 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
3005 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
3006 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
3007 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
3015 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound are produced. Generally, a
3016 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
3020 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
3021 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
3022 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
3025 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
3026 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal types:
3027 Sustain, Sostenuto or UnaCorda. Refer to the generated documentation
3028 of @internalsref{SustainPedal} for more information.
3030 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
3031 @code{pedal-type} property of @internalsref{SustainPedal} objects:
3033 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3034 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'bracket
3035 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
3036 a'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
3037 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
3040 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
3041 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
3043 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3044 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'mixed
3045 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
3046 c'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
3047 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
3050 The default `*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
3051 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
3052 for a sostenuto pedal:
3054 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3055 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
3058 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
3059 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
3060 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (see the detailed documentation of
3061 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket}) can be modified. For example, the bracket
3062 may be extended to the end of the note head.
3064 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3065 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override
3066 #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
3067 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4
3068 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
3072 @subsection Arpeggio
3075 @cindex broken arpeggio
3076 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
3078 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
3079 @code{\arpeggio} to a chord.
3082 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3083 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
3086 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
3087 to the chords in both staves, and set
3088 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@code{connectArpeggios}.
3090 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3091 \context PianoStaff <
3092 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
3093 \context Voice = one { <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio }
3094 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <<c,, e g>>-\arpeggio }
3098 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} objects. Cross staff
3099 arpeggios are @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@internalsref{Arpeggio}.
3101 The direction of the arpeggio is sometimes denoted by adding an
3102 arrowhead to the wiggly line. This can be typeset by setting
3103 @code{arpeggio-direction}.
3105 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3107 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #1
3108 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
3109 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
3110 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
3114 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
3115 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
3116 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
3117 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} objects to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
3118 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before.
3120 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3121 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override
3122 #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
3123 <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio
3128 @cindex @code{\arpeggioBracket }
3129 @code{\arpeggioBracket},
3130 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
3135 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected
3136 arpeggios in one @internalsref{PianoStaff} at the same time.
3138 @node Staff switch lines
3139 @subsection Staff switch lines
3142 @cindex follow voice
3143 @cindex staff switching
3146 @cindex @code{followVoice}
3148 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
3149 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
3150 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
3152 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3153 \context PianoStaff <
3154 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
3155 \context Staff \context Voice {
3157 \translator Staff=two
3160 \context Staff=two { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
3164 The associated object is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
3168 @cindex @code{\showStaffSwitch }
3169 @code{\showStaffSwitch},
3170 @cindex @code{\hideStaffSwitch }
3171 @code{\hideStaffSwitch},
3175 @section Vocal music
3177 This section discusses how to enter, and print lyrics.
3181 * The Lyrics context::
3186 @node Entering lyrics
3187 @subsection Entering lyrics
3191 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
3194 Lyrics are entered in a special input mode. This mode is is introduced
3195 by the keyword @code{\lyrics}. In this mode you can enter lyrics, with
3196 punctuation and accents without any hassle. Syllables are entered like
3197 notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example,
3199 \lyrics @{ Twin-4 kle4 twin- kle litt- le star2 @}
3202 A word in Lyrics mode begins with: an alphabetic character, @code{_},
3203 @code{?}, @code{!}, @code{:}, @code{'}, the control characters @code{^A}
3204 through @code{^F}, @code{^Q} through @code{^W}, @code{^Y}, @code{^^},
3205 any 8-bit character with ASCII code over 127, or a two-character
3206 combination of a backslash followed by one of @code{`}, @code{'},
3207 @code{"}, or @code{^}.
3209 Subsequent characters of a word can be any character that is not a digit
3210 and not white space. One important consequence of this is that a word
3211 can end with @code{@}}. The following example is usually a bug. The
3212 syllable includes a @code{@}}, and hence the opening brace is not balanced.
3214 \lyrics @{ twinkle@}
3216 which may be confusing.
3218 @cindex @code{\property}, in @code{\lyrics}
3219 Similarly, a period following a alphabetic sequence, is included in the
3220 resulting string. As a consequence, spaces must be inserted around
3221 @code{\property} commands:
3223 \property Lyrics . LyricText \set #'font-shape = #'italic
3227 @cindex spaces, in lyrics
3228 @cindex quotes, in lyrics
3230 Any @code{_} character which appears in an unquoted word is converted
3231 to a space. This provides a mechanism for introducing spaces into words
3232 without using quotes. Quoted words can also be used in Lyrics mode to
3233 specify words that cannot be written with the above rules:
3236 \lyrics @{ He said: "\"Let" my peo ple "go\"" @}
3240 Hyphens can be entered as ordinary hyphens at the end of a syllable, i.e.
3245 These will be attached to the end of the first syllable.
3247 Centered hyphens are entered using the special `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric
3248 as a separate word between syllables. The hyphen will have variable
3249 length depending on the space between the syllables and it will be
3250 centered between the syllables.
3255 When a lyric is sung over many notes (this is called a melisma), this is
3256 indicated with a horizontal line centered between a syllable and the
3257 next one. Such a line is called an extender line, and it is entered as
3262 @internalsref{LyricEvent}, @internalsref{HyphenEvent},
3263 @internalsref{ExtenderEvent}.
3267 The definition of lyrics mode is too complex.
3269 @node The Lyrics context
3270 @subsection The Lyrics context
3272 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in @internalsref{Lyrics}
3275 \context Lyrics \lyrics @dots{}
3278 @cindex automatic syllable durations
3279 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
3280 @cindex lyrics and melodies
3282 This will place the lyrics according to the durations that were
3283 entered. The lyrics can also be aligned under a given melody
3284 automatically. In this case, it is no longer necessary to enter the
3285 correct duration for each syllable. This is achieved by combining the
3286 melody and the lyrics with the @code{\addlyrics} expression
3290 \context Lyrics @dots{}
3293 @cindex staff order, with @code{\addlyrics}
3295 Normally, this will put the lyrics below the staff. For different or
3296 more complex orderings, the best way is to setup the hierarchy of
3297 staffs and lyrics first, e.g.
3299 \context ChoirStaff \notes <
3300 \context Lyrics = LA @{ s1 @}
3301 \context Staff = SA @{ s1 @}
3302 \context Lyrics = LB @{ s1 @}
3303 \context Staff = SB @{ s1 @}
3306 and then combine the appropriate melodies and lyric lines:
3309 \context Staff = SA @emph{the music}
3310 \context Lyrics = LA @emph{the lyrics}
3313 putting both together, you would get
3315 \context ChoirStaff \notes <
3316 \context Lyrics = LA @dots{}
3317 \context Staff = SB @dots{}
3323 @cindex choral score
3325 An example of a SATB score setup is in the file
3326 @inputfileref{input/template,satb}.
3330 @internalsref{LyricCombineMusic}, @internalsref{Lyrics},
3331 @inputfileref{input/template,satb}.
3335 @code{\addlyrics} is not automatic enough: melismata are not detected
3336 automatically, and melismata are not stopped when they hit a rest. A
3337 melisma on the last note in a melody is not printed.
3341 @subsection More stanzas
3344 @cindex phrasing, in lyrics
3346 When multiple stanzas are printed underneath each other, the vertical
3347 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. This can be
3348 done automatically when corresponding lyric lines and melodies are
3351 To this end, give the @internalsref{Voice} context an identity,
3353 \context Voice = duet @{
3358 Then set the @internalsref{LyricsVoice} contexts to names starting with
3359 that identity followed by a dash. In the preceding example, the
3360 @internalsref{Voice} identity is @code{duet}, so the identities of the
3361 @internalsref{LyricsVoices} are marked @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
3363 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" @{
3364 Hi, my name is bert. @}
3365 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" @{
3366 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. @}
3368 The convention for naming @internalsref{LyricsVoice} and
3369 @internalsref{Voice} must also be used to get melismata on rests
3372 The complete example is shown here.
3373 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3376 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
3378 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
3379 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
3380 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3381 Hi, my name is bert. }
3382 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
3383 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3384 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
3389 Stanza numbers, or the names of the singers can be added by setting
3390 @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the first system) and
3391 @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following systems. Notice how dots are
3392 surrounded with spaces in @code{\lyrics} mode.
3395 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3397 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3400 You can use empty syllables, e.g. @code{_4} or @code{" "4} to enter
3401 lyrics. This can confuse the LilyPond -- for example, this might put
3402 (empty) lyrics under rests. To remedy this, use @code{\skip} instead.
3410 Input for lyrics introduces a syntactical ambiguity:
3417 is interpreted as assigning a string identifier @code{\foo} such that
3418 it contains @code{"bar"}. However, it could also be interpreted as
3419 making or a music identifier @code{\foo} containing the syllable
3420 `bar'. The force the latter interpretation, use
3430 The term @emph{ambitus} denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in
3431 a part of music. It also may denote the pitch range that a musical
3432 instrument is capable of playing. Most musical instruments have their
3433 ambitus standardized (or at least there is agreement upon the minimal
3434 ambitus of a particular type of instrument), such that a composer or
3435 arranger of a piece of music can easily meet the ambitus constraints of
3436 the targeted instrument. However, the ambitus of the human voice
3437 depends on individual physiological state, including education and
3438 training of the voice. Therefore, a singer potentially has to check for
3439 each piece of music if the ambitus of that piece meets his individual
3440 capabilities. This is why the ambitus of a piece may be of particular
3441 value to vocal performers.
3443 The ambitus is typically notated on a per-voice basis at the very
3444 beginning of a piece, e.g. nearby the initial clef or time signature of
3445 each staff. The range is graphically specified by two noteheads, that
3446 represent the minimum and maximum pitch. Some publishers use a textual
3447 notation: they put the range in words in front of the corresponding
3448 staff. Lilypond currently only supports the graphical ambitus notation.
3450 To apply, add the @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the
3451 @internalsref{Voice} context, i.e.
3454 \paper @{ \translator @{
3456 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3462 @lilypond[singleline]
3463 upper = \notes \relative c {
3466 as'' c e2 bes f cis d4 e f2 g
3468 lower = \notes \relative c {
3471 e'4 b g a c es fis a cis b a g f e d2
3474 \context ChoirStaff {
3476 \context Staff = one { \upper }
3477 \context Staff = three { \lower }
3483 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3492 @internalsref{Ambitus}, @inputfileref{input/regression,ambitus.ly}.
3497 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
3498 instruments. It notates pitches not by using note heads, but by
3499 indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
3500 offers limited support for tablature.
3503 * Tablatures basic::
3504 * Non-guitar tablatures::
3507 @node Tablatures basic
3508 @subsection Tablatures basic
3509 @cindex Tablatures basic
3511 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
3512 followed by a number, e.g. @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
3513 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
3514 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
3515 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
3516 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts.
3518 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3519 \notes \context TabStaff {
3525 If you do not specify a string number then one is selected
3526 automatically: the first string that does not give a fret number less
3527 than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default value for
3528 @code{minimumFret} is 0.
3532 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3533 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3534 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3539 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3540 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3541 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3544 \context StaffGroup <
3545 \context Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
3546 \context TabStaff { \frag }
3553 @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}, and
3554 @internalsref{StringNumberEvent}.
3558 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
3559 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
3563 @node Non-guitar tablatures
3564 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
3565 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
3567 You can change the number of strings, by setting the number of lines
3568 in the @internalsref{TabStaff} (the @code{line-count} property of
3569 @internalsref{TabStaff} can only be changed using
3570 @code{\outputproperty}, for more information, see @ref{Tuning objects}.
3572 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
3573 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
3574 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to central C) of an
3575 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
3576 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
3577 by default middle C, in string order: thus the notes are e, a, d, and
3580 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3583 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface)
3585 \property TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
3588 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
3593 It is possible to change the Scheme function to format the tablature
3594 note text. The default is @code{fret-number-tablature-format}, which
3595 uses the fret number. For instruments that do not use this notation,
3596 you can create a special tablature formatting function. This function
3597 takes three argument: the string number, the string tuning and the
3602 As tablature is a recent feature, most of the guitar special effects
3603 such as bend are not yet supported.
3607 @section Chord names
3610 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing named chords.
3611 These chords are internally represented as a set of pitches. Therefore
3612 they can be entered by name and printed as notes, entered as notes and
3613 printed as chord names, or (the most common case) entered them by
3614 name, and print them as name. The following fragment shows these
3617 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3618 twoWays = \notes \transpose c c' {
3628 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
3629 \context Voice \twoWays > }
3632 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
3633 be intelligent. The chord @code{f bes d}, is not interpreted as an
3639 * Printing chord names::
3644 @subsection Chords mode
3647 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
3648 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}.
3649 In chords mode, a chord is entered by the root, which is entered
3650 like a common pitch, for example,
3651 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote, relative=1]
3652 \chords { es4. d8 c2 }
3657 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon, and introducing a
3658 modifier, and optionally, a number, for example
3660 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote]
3661 \chords { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
3663 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
3664 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
3665 number, for example.
3666 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3667 \chords { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
3670 @cindex root of chord
3671 @cindex additions, in chords
3672 @cindex removals, in chords
3674 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
3675 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
3676 the colon, and are separated by dots. For example
3678 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3679 \chords { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
3681 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
3682 to the number, for example:
3683 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3684 \chords { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
3686 Removals are specified similarly, and are introduced by a caret. They
3687 must come after the additions.
3688 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3689 \chords { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
3692 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
3696 is the minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
3698 is the diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
3701 is the augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
3703 is the major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
3705 is the suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
3706 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
3709 Modifiers can be mixed with additions.
3710 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3711 \chords { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
3714 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
3721 Since the unaltered 11 does sound well when combined with the
3722 unaltered 3, the 11 is removed in this case, unless it is added
3723 explicitly). For example,
3724 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3725 \chords { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
3730 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
3731 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
3732 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord.
3733 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3734 \chords { c1 c/g c/f }
3737 If you do not want to remove the bass note from the chord, but rather
3738 add the note, then you can use @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
3740 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3741 \chords { c1 c/+g c/+f }
3744 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyrics}, @code{\notes} etc. Most
3745 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
3746 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and
3747 @code{\property} may be used to change various settings.
3753 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
3754 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
3757 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3758 \chords { c:5.5-.5+ }
3761 In chord mode, dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions
3762 and subtractions, so articulation scripts cannot be entered.
3765 @node Printing chord names
3766 @subsection Printing chord names
3768 @cindex printing chord names
3772 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames}
3773 context. The chords may be entered either using the notation
3774 described above, or directly using @code{<<} and @code{>>}.
3776 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3778 \chords {a1 b c} <<d' f' g'>> <<e' g' b'>>
3782 \context ChordNames \scheme
3783 \context Staff \scheme
3788 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
3789 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
3790 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
3791 the start of a new line.
3795 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
3799 \context ChordNames {
3800 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
3802 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
3804 \paper{linewidth= 9.\cm}
3808 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
3809 Klaus Ignatzek (See @ref{Literature}).
3811 The Ignatzek chord name formatting can be tuned in a number of ways
3812 through the following properties:
3815 @cindex chordNameExceptions
3816 @item chordNameExceptions
3817 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
3819 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly}.
3820 @cindex exceptions, chord names.
3823 @cindex majorSevenSymbol
3824 @item majorSevenSymbol
3825 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
3826 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup} and
3827 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
3828 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly} for an example.
3830 @cindex chordNameSeparator
3831 @item chordNameSeparator
3832 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
3833 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
3835 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3836 \context ChordNames \chords {
3838 \property ChordNames.chordNameSeparator
3843 @cindex chordRootNamer
3844 @item chordRootNamer
3845 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
3846 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
3847 function. Special note names (for example, the German ``H'' for a
3848 B-chord) can be produced by storing a new function in this property.
3850 @cindex chordNoteNamer
3851 @item chordNoteNamer
3852 The default is to print single notes (as for instance the bass note)
3853 using the @code{chordRootNamer}. However, by setting this function to a non-null
3854 value you can specify a different function. I.e. you could use letters
3855 in lower case for the base note.
3860 There are also two other chord name schemes implemented: an alternate
3861 Jazz chord notation, and a systematic scheme called Banter chords. The
3862 alternate jazz notation is also shown on the chart in @ref{Chord name
3863 chart}. Turning on these styles is described in the input file
3864 @inputfileref{input/test/,chord-names-jazz.ly}.
3868 @cindex chords, jazz
3873 @cindex @code{\germanChords }
3874 @code{\germanChords},
3875 @cindex @code{\semiGermanChords }
3876 @code{\semiGermanChords},
3883 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly},
3884 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly},
3885 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-jazz.ly},
3886 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-german.ly},
3887 @file{scm/chords-ignatzek.scm}, @file{scm/chord-entry.scm}
3892 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
3893 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
3894 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
3895 @code{<< .. >>} syntax.
3900 @node Orchestral music
3901 @section Orchestral music
3903 @cindex Writing parts
3905 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full
3906 score and the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle
3907 some common problems in orchestral music.
3912 * Multiple staff contexts::
3915 * Instrument names::
3917 * Multi measure rests::
3918 * Automatic part combining::
3920 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
3923 @node Multiple staff contexts
3924 @subsection Multiple staff contexts
3926 Polyphonic scores consist of many staffs. These staffs can be
3927 constructed in three different ways:
3929 @item The group is started with a brace at the left. This is done with the
3930 @internalsref{GrandStaff} context.
3931 @item The group is started with a bracket. This is done with the
3932 @internalsref{StaffGroup} context
3933 @item The group is started with a vertical line. This is the default
3937 @cindex Staff, multiple
3938 @cindex bracket, vertical
3939 @cindex brace, vertical
3946 @node Rehearsal marks
3947 @subsection Rehearsal marks
3948 @cindex Rehearsal marks
3950 @cindex @code{\mark}
3952 To print a rehearsal mark, use the @code{\mark} command.
3953 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3963 The mark is incremented automatically if you use @code{\mark
3964 \default}. The value to use is stored in the property
3965 @code{rehearsalMark} is used and automatically incremented.
3967 The @code{\mark} command can also be used to put signs like coda,
3968 segno and fermatas on a barline. Use @code{\markup} to
3969 to access the appropriate symbol.
3971 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
3972 c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts-ufermata" }
3976 In this case, during line breaks,
3977 marks must also be printed at the end of the line, and not at the
3978 beginning. Use the following to force that behavior
3980 \property Score.RehearsalMark \override
3981 #'break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible
3984 See @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}. for putting boxes
3990 @cindex barlines, putting symbols on
3994 @internalsref{MarkEvent}, @internalsref{RehearsalMark},
3995 @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}.
3999 @subsection Bar numbers
4003 @cindex measure numbers
4004 @cindex currentBarNumber
4006 Bar numbers are printed by default at the start of the line. The
4007 number itself is stored in the
4008 @code{currentBarNumber} property,
4009 which is normally updated automatically for every measure.
4011 Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of at the
4012 beginning of each line. This is illustrated in the following example,
4013 whose source is available as
4014 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
4016 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
4018 The start of that numbering can also be reset, as demonstrated in
4019 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-five-reset.ly}.
4021 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-every-five-reset.ly}
4026 @internalsref{BarNumber}.
4027 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-five-reset.ly}.
4028 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
4032 Bar numbers can collide with the @internalsref{StaffGroup} bracket, if
4033 there is one at the top. To solve this, You have to twiddle with the
4034 @internalsref{padding} property of @internalsref{BarNumber} if your
4035 score starts with a @internalsref{StaffGroup}.
4037 @node Instrument names
4038 @subsection Instrument names
4040 In an orchestral score, instrument names are printed left of the
4043 This can be achieved by setting @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instrument}
4044 and @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instr}. This will print a string before
4045 the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
4046 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
4048 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4049 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
4052 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
4055 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
4056 \notes \context Staff = treble {
4057 \property Staff.instrument = \markup {
4058 \column << "Clarinetti"
4060 \smaller \musicglyph #"accidentals--1"
4071 @internalsref{InstrumentName}
4075 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
4076 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
4077 the name to avoid a collision.
4080 @subsection Transpose
4082 @cindex transposition of pitches
4083 @cindex @code{\transpose}
4085 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
4088 \transpose @var{from} @var{to} @var{musicexpr}
4091 This means that @var{musicexpr} is transposed by the interval
4092 between @var{from} and @var{to}.
4094 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
4095 @code{\transpose c cis} or @code{\transpose c des} will transpose up
4096 half a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second
4097 version will print flats.
4099 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
4100 mus =\notes { \key d \major cis d fis g }
4101 \score { \notes \context Staff {
4104 \transpose c g' \mus
4105 \transpose c f' \mus
4111 @internalsref{TransposedMusic}, @internalsref{UntransposableMusic}.
4115 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
4116 you must put @code{\transpose} outside of @code{\relative}, since
4117 @code{\relative} will have no effect music that appears inside a
4123 @node Multi measure rests
4124 @subsection Multi measure rests
4125 @cindex multi measure rests
4126 @cindex Rests, multi measure
4130 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
4131 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
4132 fill a score with rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure
4133 rest. This expansion is controlled by the property
4134 @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true, Lily will not expand
4135 empty measures, and the appropriate number is added automatically.
4137 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4138 \time 4/4 r1 | R1 | R1*2
4139 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R1*17 R1*4
4142 The @code{1} in @code{R1} is similar to the duration notation used for
4143 notes. Hence, for time signatures other than 4/4, you must enter other
4144 durations. This can be done with augmentation dots or fractions:
4146 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4147 \property Score.skipBars = ##t
4155 A @code{R} spanning a single measure is printed as a whole rest
4156 centered in the measure (or a breve when the measure lasts longer than
4157 two whole notes), regardless of the time signature.
4161 @cindex text on multi-measure rest
4162 @cindex script on multi-measure rest
4163 @cindex fermata on multi-measure rest
4165 Texts can be added to multi-measure rests by using the
4166 @var{note}-@code{markup} syntax (see @ref{Text markup}). In this case, the number is
4167 replaced. If you need both texts and the number, you must add the
4168 number by hand. A variable (@code{\fermataMarkup}) is provided for
4172 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
4174 R2._\markup { "Ad lib" }
4179 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
4183 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestEvent},
4184 @internalsref{MultiMeasureTextEvent},
4185 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestMusicGroup},
4186 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest},
4188 The layout object @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestNumber} is for the
4189 default number, and @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestText} for user
4194 It is not possible to use fingerings (e.g. @code{R1-4}) to put numbers
4195 over multi-measure rests.
4197 @cindex condensing rests
4199 There is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into a single
4200 multimeasure rest. Multi measure rests do not take part in rest
4203 Be careful when entering multimeasure rests followed by whole notes,
4207 will enter two notes lasting four measures each. When @code{skipBars}
4208 is set, then the result will look OK6, but the bar numbering will be
4211 @node Automatic part combining
4212 @subsection Automatic part combining
4213 @cindex automatic part combining
4214 @cindex part combiner
4217 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
4218 staff. It is aimed at typesetting orchestral scores. When the two
4219 parts are identical for a period of time, only one is shown. In
4220 places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate
4221 voices, and stem directions are set automatically. Also, solo and
4222 @emph{a due} parts are identified and can be marked.
4226 The syntax for part combining is
4229 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
4231 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
4232 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
4233 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
4236 The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part
4237 combiner: putting parts on one staff, and setting stem directions and
4240 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
4242 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4243 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4246 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4252 The first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
4253 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
4254 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
4255 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
4256 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
4259 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
4260 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
4262 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
4264 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
4265 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4266 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4269 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4277 @internalsref{PartCombineMusic},
4278 @internalsref{Thread_devnull_engraver},
4279 @internalsref{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @internalsref{A2_engraver}.
4283 The syntax for naming contexts in inconsistent with the syntax for
4286 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
4287 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
4290 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
4292 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4293 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4296 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4302 The part combiner is slated to be rewritten [TODO: explain why].
4304 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
4305 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
4306 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
4308 @node Frenched scores
4309 @subsection Frenched scores
4311 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
4312 This saves some space. This style is called `French Score'.
4316 This is supported through the @code{RemoveEmptyStaff}. This staff is
4317 removed when it turns out empty (or containing multimeasure rests)
4318 after the line-breaking process.
4320 For @internalsref{Lyrics}, @internalsref{LyricsVoice},
4321 @internalsref{ChordNames} and @internalsref{FiguredBass}, this is
4322 switched on by default. For normal staffs, it is available as a
4323 specialized @internalsref{Staff} context, with the name variable
4324 @code{\RemoveEmptyStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
4325 example disappears in the second line.
4329 \notes \relative c' <
4330 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
4331 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
4335 \translator { \RemoveEmptyStaffContext }
4341 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
4342 @subsection Sound output for transposing instruments
4344 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed
4345 and untransposed instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch
4346 offset (in semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done
4347 using the @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed
4350 @cindex @code{transposing}
4353 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
4354 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
4358 @node Ancient notation
4359 @section Ancient notation
4361 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
4362 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
4367 @c [TODO: write introduction on ancient notation]
4370 * Ancient note heads::
4379 @node Ancient note heads
4380 @subsection Ancient note heads
4382 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
4383 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
4384 NoteHead object to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
4385 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
4386 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
4388 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4389 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
4394 @subsection Ancient clefs
4396 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
4398 For modern clefs, see section @ref{Clef}. For the percussion clef, see
4399 section @ref{Percussion staves}. For the @code{TAB} clef, see section
4402 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
4403 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but
4404 differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such
4405 cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs.
4406 Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an
4407 arbitrary line, as described in section @ref{Clef}. The note printed
4408 to the right side of each clef in the example column denotes the
4409 @code{c'} with respect to that clef.
4411 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .3 .1
4415 @b{Description} @tab
4416 @b{Supported Clefs} @tab
4420 @code{clefs-neo_mensural_c} @tab
4421 modern style mensural C clef @tab
4422 @code{neo_mensural_c1}, @code{neo_mensural_c2},
4423 @code{neo_mensural_c3}, @code{neo_mensural_c4} @tab
4424 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4425 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4426 \clef "neo_mensural_c2" c
4430 @code{clefs-petrucci_c1}
4431 @code{clefs-petrucci_c2}
4432 @code{clefs-petrucci_c3}
4433 @code{clefs-petrucci_c4}
4434 @code{clefs-petrucci_c5}
4437 petrucci style mensural C clefs, for use on different stafflines
4438 (the examples shows the 2nd staffline C clef).
4448 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4449 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4450 \clef "petrucci_c2" c
4454 @code{clefs-petrucci_f} @tab
4455 petrucci style mensural F clef @tab
4456 @code{petrucci_f} @tab
4457 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4458 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4459 \clef "petrucci_f" c
4463 @code{clefs-petrucci_g} @tab
4464 petrucci style mensural G clef @tab
4465 @code{petrucci_g} @tab
4466 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4467 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4468 \clef "petrucci_g" c
4472 @code{clefs-mensural_c'} @tab
4473 historic style mensural C clef @tab
4474 @code{mensural_c1}, @code{mensural_c2}, @code{mensural_c3},
4475 @code{mensural_c4} @tab
4476 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4477 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4478 \clef "mensural_c2" c
4482 @code{clefs-mensural_f} @tab
4483 historic style mensural F clef @tab
4484 @code{mensural_f} @tab
4485 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4486 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4487 \clef "mensural_f" c
4491 @code{clefs-mensural_g} @tab
4492 historic style mensural G clef @tab
4493 @code{mensural_g} @tab
4494 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4495 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4496 \clef "mensural_g" c
4500 @code{clefs-vaticana_do} @tab
4501 Editio Vaticana style do clef @tab
4502 @code{vaticana_do1}, @code{vaticana_do2}, @code{vaticana_do3} @tab
4503 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4505 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4506 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4507 \clef "vaticana_do2" c
4511 @code{clefs-vaticana_fa} @tab
4512 Editio Vaticana style fa clef @tab
4513 @code{vaticana_fa1}, @code{vaticana_fa2} @tab
4514 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4516 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4517 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4518 \clef "vaticana_fa2" c
4522 @code{clefs-medicaea_do} @tab
4523 Editio Medicaea style do clef @tab
4524 @code{medicaea_do1}, @code{medicaea_do2}, @code{medicaea_do3} @tab
4525 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4527 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4528 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4529 \clef "medicaea_do2" c
4533 @code{clefs-medicaea_fa} @tab
4534 Editio Medicaea style fa clef @tab
4535 @code{medicaea_fa1}, @code{medicaea_fa2} @tab
4536 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4538 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4539 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4540 \clef "medicaea_fa2" c
4544 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do} @tab
4545 historic style hufnagel do clef @tab
4546 @code{hufnagel_do1}, @code{hufnagel_do2}, @code{hufnagel_do3} @tab
4547 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4549 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4550 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4551 \clef "hufnagel_do2" c
4555 @code{clefs-hufnagel_fa} @tab
4556 historic style hufnagel fa clef @tab
4557 @code{hufnagel_fa1}, @code{hufnagel_fa2} @tab
4558 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4560 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4561 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4562 \clef "hufnagel_fa2" c
4566 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4567 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef @tab
4568 @code{hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4569 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4570 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4571 \clef "hufnagel_do_fa" c
4576 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
4577 @c @item modern style percussion clef (glyph: @code{clefs-percussion})
4580 @c @code{percussion}
4582 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "percussion" c'}
4584 @c @item modern style tab clef (glyph: @code{clefs-tab})
4589 @c @lilypond{\context Staff \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #6 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "tab" c'}
4591 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
4592 transcribed mensural music''.
4594 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
4595 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
4597 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
4598 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
4600 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
4602 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
4603 beams, depending on which staffline it is printed.
4607 @subsection Custodes
4612 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
4613 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
4614 of the first note(s) of the following line and thus helps the player
4615 or singer to manage line breaks during performance, thus enhancing
4616 readability of a score.
4618 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th
4619 century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms
4620 of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant
4621 like the @emph{editio vaticana}. There are different custos glyphs
4622 used in different flavours of notational style.
4624 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
4625 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block,
4626 as shown in the following example.
4632 \consists Custos_engraver
4633 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
4638 The result looks like this:
4644 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
4651 \consists Custos_engraver
4658 The custos glyph is selected by the @code{style} property. The styles
4659 supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
4660 @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the following fragment:
4670 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-vaticana-u0" }
4674 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-medicaea-u0" }
4678 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-hufnagel-u0" }
4682 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-mensural-u0" }
4691 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4695 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4696 \remove "Key_engraver"
4697 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4698 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4699 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4705 If the boolean property @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} is set to
4706 @code{#t} (which it is by default), lily typesets slightly different
4707 variants of the custos glyph, depending on whether the custos, is
4708 typeset on or between stafflines. The glyph will
4709 optically fit well into the staff, with the appendage on the right of
4710 the custos always ending at the same vertical position between two
4711 stafflines regardless of the pitch. If you set
4712 @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} to @code{#f}, then
4713 a compromise between both forms is used.
4715 Just like stems can be attached to noteheads in two directions
4716 @emph{up} and @emph{down}, each custos glyph is available with its
4717 appendage pointing either up or down. If the pitch of a custos is
4718 above a selectable position, the appendage will point downwards; if
4719 the pitch is below this position, the appendage will point upwards.
4720 Use property @code{neutral-position} to select this position. By
4721 default, it is set to @code{0}, such that the neutral position is the
4722 center of the staff. Use property @code{neutral-direction} to control
4723 what happens if a custos is typeset on the neutral position itself.
4724 By default, this property is set to @code{-1}, such that the appendage
4725 will point downwards. If set to @code{1}, the appendage will point
4726 upwards. Other values such as @code{0} are reserved for future
4727 extensions and should not be used.
4732 @internalsref{Custos}, @inputfileref{input/test,custos-style.ly} and
4733 @inputfileref{input/regression,custos.ly}.
4737 @subsection Divisiones
4743 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; latin word for
4744 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
4745 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
4746 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior} and @emph{divisio maxima}
4747 can be characterized as short, medium and long pause, somewhat like
4748 @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not only marks the end of
4749 a chant, but is also frequently used within a single
4750 antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
4754 To use divisiones, include the file @code{gregorian-init.ly}. It
4755 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
4756 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
4757 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
4758 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
4759 Therefore, @code{gregorian-init.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
4763 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{divisiones.ly}
4767 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
4768 @inputfileref{input/test,divisiones.ly}, @ref{Breath marks}.
4771 @subsection Ligatures
4775 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
4776 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
4778 In musical terminology, a ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that
4779 represents at least two different notes. Ligatures originally appeared
4780 in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th
4781 century as an allusion to the accent symbols of greek lyric poetry to
4782 denote ascending or descending sequences of notes. Both, the shape and
4783 the exact meaning of ligatures changed tremendously during the following
4784 centuries: In early notation, ligatures where used for monophonic tunes
4785 (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way of performance in
4786 the sense of articulation. With upcoming multiphony, the need for a
4787 metric system arised, since multiple voices of a piece have to be
4788 synchronized some way. New notation systems were invented that used
4789 the manifold shapes of ligatures to now denote rhythmical patterns
4790 (e.g. black mensural notation, mannered notation, ars nova). With the
4791 invention of the metric system of the white mensural notation, the need
4792 for ligatures to denote such patterns disappeared. Nevertheless,
4793 ligatures were still in use in the mensural system for a couple of
4794 decades until they finally disappeared during the late 16th / early 17th
4795 century. Still, ligatures have survived in contemporary editions of
4796 Gregorian chant such as the Editio Vaticana from 1905/08.
4800 Syntactically, ligatures are simply enclosed by @code{\[} and
4801 @code{\]}. Some ligature styles (such as Editio Vaticana) may need
4802 additional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature.
4803 By default, the @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a
4804 square bracket above the ligature.
4806 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
4808 \notes \transpose c c' {
4816 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver
4817 has to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in
4818 the following subsections. Currently, only white mensural ligatures
4819 are supported with certain limitations. Support for Editio Vaticana
4820 will be added in the future.
4823 * White mensural ligatures::
4824 * Gregorian square neumes ligatures::
4827 @node White mensural ligatures
4828 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
4830 @cindex Mensural ligatures
4831 @cindex White mensural ligatures
4833 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures. The
4834 implementation is still experimental; it currently may output strange
4835 warnings or even crash in some cases or produce weird results on more
4836 complex ligatures. To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the paper
4837 block the @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} has to be put into
4838 the @internalsref{Voice} context, and remove the
4839 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}:
4845 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4846 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
4851 There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a
4852 white mensural ligature. The shape is rather determined solely from
4853 the pitch and duration of the enclosed notes. While this approach may
4854 take a new user a while to get accustomed, it has the great advantage
4855 that the full musical information of the ligature is known internally.
4856 This is not only required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for
4857 automatic transcription of the ligatures.
4862 \property Score.timing = ##f
4863 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4864 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4865 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4867 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4869 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4871 @lilypond[singleline]
4873 \notes \transpose c c' {
4874 \property Score.timing = ##f
4875 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4876 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4877 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4879 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4881 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4886 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4887 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
4893 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
4894 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
4897 @lilypond[singleline]
4899 \notes \transpose c c' {
4900 \property Score.timing = ##f
4901 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4902 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4903 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4905 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4907 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4912 @node Gregorian square neumes ligatures
4913 @subsubsection Gregorian square neumes ligatures
4915 @cindex Square neumes ligatures
4916 @cindex Gregorian square neumes ligatures
4918 Gregorian square neumes notation (following the style of the Editio
4919 Vaticana) is under heavy development, but not yet really usable for
4920 production purposes. Core ligatures can already be typeset, but
4921 essential issues for serious typesetting are still under development,
4922 such as (among others) horizontal alignment of multiple ligatures,
4923 lyrics alignment and proper accidentals handling. Still, this section
4924 gives a sneak preview of what Gregorian chant may look like once it
4927 The following table contains the extended neumes table of the 2nd
4928 volume of the Antiphonale Romanum (@emph{Liber Hymnarius}), published
4929 1983 by the monks of Solesmes.
4931 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .2 .2 .2
4934 @b{Neuma aut@*Neumarum Elementa} @tab
4935 @b{Figurae@*Rectae} @tab
4936 @b{Figurae@*Liquescentes Auctae} @tab
4937 @b{Figurae@*Liquescentes Deminutae}
4939 @c TODO: \paper block is identical in all of the below examples.
4940 @c Therefore, it should somehow be included rather than duplicated all
4943 @c why not make identifiers in ly/engraver-init.ly? --hwn
4945 @c Because it's just used to typeset plain notes without
4946 @c a staff for demonstration purposes rather than something
4947 @c special of Gregorian chant notation. --jr
4952 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.5cm]
4953 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
4955 \notes \transpose c c' {
4958 \noBreak s^\markup {"a"} \noBreak
4960 % Punctum Inclinatum
4962 \noBreak s^\markup {"b"}
4968 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4972 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4973 \remove "Key_engraver"
4974 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
4975 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4976 \remove "Bar_engraver"
4977 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4981 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4982 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
4983 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
4984 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
4990 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.5cm]
4991 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
4993 \notes \transpose c c' {
4994 % Punctum Auctum Ascendens
4995 \[ \auctum \ascendens b \]
4996 \noBreak s^\markup {"c"} \noBreak
4998 % Punctum Auctum Descendens
4999 \[ \auctum \descendens b \]
5000 \noBreak s^\markup {"d"} \noBreak
5002 % Punctum Inclinatum Auctum
5003 \[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]
5004 \noBreak s^\markup {"e"}
5010 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5014 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5015 \remove "Key_engraver"
5016 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5017 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5018 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5019 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5023 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5024 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5025 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5026 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5032 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5033 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5035 \notes \transpose c c' {
5036 % Punctum Inclinatum Parvum
5037 \[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]
5038 \noBreak s^\markup {"f"}
5044 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5048 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5049 \remove "Key_engraver"
5050 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5051 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5052 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5053 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5057 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5058 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5059 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5060 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5069 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5070 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5072 \notes \transpose c c' {
5075 \noBreak s^\markup {"g"}
5081 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5085 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5086 \remove "Key_engraver"
5087 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5088 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5089 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5090 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5094 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5095 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5096 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5097 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5106 @code{3. Apostropha vel Stropha}
5108 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5109 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5111 \notes \transpose c c' {
5114 \noBreak s^\markup {"h"}
5120 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5124 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5125 \remove "Key_engraver"
5126 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5127 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5128 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5129 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5133 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5134 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5135 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5136 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5142 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5143 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5145 \notes \transpose c c' {
5147 \[ \stropha \auctum b \]
5148 \noBreak s^\markup {"i"}
5154 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5158 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5159 \remove "Key_engraver"
5160 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5161 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5162 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5163 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5167 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5168 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5169 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5170 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5180 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5181 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5183 \notes \transpose c c' {
5186 \noBreak s^\markup {"j"}
5192 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5196 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5197 \remove "Key_engraver"
5198 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5199 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5200 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5201 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5205 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5206 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5207 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5208 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5217 @code{5. Clivis vel Flexa}
5219 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5220 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5222 \notes \transpose c c' {
5231 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5235 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5236 \remove "Key_engraver"
5237 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5238 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5239 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5240 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5244 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5245 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5246 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5247 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5253 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.0cm]
5254 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5256 \notes \transpose c c' {
5257 % Clivis Aucta Descendens
5258 \[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
5259 \noBreak s^\markup {"l"} \noBreak
5261 % Clivis Aucta Ascendens
5262 \[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]
5263 \noBreak s^\markup {"m"}
5269 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5273 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5274 \remove "Key_engraver"
5275 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5276 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5277 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5278 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5282 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5283 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5284 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5285 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5291 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5292 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5294 \notes \transpose c c' {
5296 \[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]
5303 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5307 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5308 \remove "Key_engraver"
5309 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5310 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5311 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5312 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5316 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5317 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5318 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5319 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5326 @code{6. Podatus vel Pes}
5328 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5329 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5331 \notes \transpose c c' {
5340 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5344 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5345 \remove "Key_engraver"
5346 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5347 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5348 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5349 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5353 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5354 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5355 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5356 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5362 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.0cm]
5363 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5365 \notes \transpose c c' {
5366 % Pes Auctus Descendens
5367 \[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5368 \noBreak s^\markup {"p"} \noBreak
5370 % Pes Auctus Ascendens
5371 \[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]
5372 \noBreak s^\markup {"q"}
5378 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5382 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5383 \remove "Key_engraver"
5384 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5385 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5386 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5387 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5391 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5392 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5393 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5394 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5400 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5401 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5403 \notes \transpose c c' {
5405 \[ g \pes \deminutum b \]
5412 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5416 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5417 \remove "Key_engraver"
5418 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5419 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5420 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5421 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5425 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5426 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5427 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5428 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5435 @code{7. Pes Quassus}
5437 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5438 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5440 \notes \transpose c c' {
5442 \[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]
5449 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5453 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5454 \remove "Key_engraver"
5455 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5456 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5457 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5458 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5462 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5463 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5464 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5465 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5471 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5472 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5474 \notes \transpose c c' {
5475 % Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens
5476 \[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5483 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5487 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5488 \remove "Key_engraver"
5489 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5490 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5491 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5492 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5496 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5497 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5498 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5499 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5507 @code{8. Quilisma Pes}
5509 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5510 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5512 \notes \transpose c c' {
5514 \[ \quilisma g \pes b \]
5521 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5525 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5526 \remove "Key_engraver"
5527 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5528 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5529 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5530 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5534 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5535 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5536 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5537 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5543 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5544 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5546 \notes \transpose c c' {
5547 % Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens
5548 \[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5555 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5559 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5560 \remove "Key_engraver"
5561 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5562 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5563 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5564 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5568 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5569 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5570 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5571 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5579 @code{9. Podatus Initio Debilis}
5581 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5582 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5584 \notes \transpose c c' {
5585 % Pes Initio Debilis
5586 \[ \deminutum g \pes b \]
5593 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5597 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5598 \remove "Key_engraver"
5599 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5600 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5601 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5602 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5606 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5607 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5608 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5609 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5615 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5616 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5618 \notes \transpose c c' {
5619 % Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
5620 \[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5627 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5631 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5632 \remove "Key_engraver"
5633 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5634 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5635 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5636 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5640 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5641 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5642 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5643 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5653 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5654 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5656 \notes \transpose c c' {
5658 \[ a \pes b \flexa g \]
5665 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5669 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5670 \remove "Key_engraver"
5671 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5672 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5673 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5674 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5678 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5679 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5680 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5681 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5687 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5688 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5690 \notes \transpose c c' {
5691 % Torculus Auctus Descendens
5692 \[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
5699 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5703 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5704 \remove "Key_engraver"
5705 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5706 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5707 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5708 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5712 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5713 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5714 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5715 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5721 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5722 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5724 \notes \transpose c c' {
5725 % Torculus Deminutus
5726 \[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
5733 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5737 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5738 \remove "Key_engraver"
5739 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5740 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5741 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5742 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5746 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5747 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5748 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5749 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5756 @code{11. Torculus Initio Debilis}
5758 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5759 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5761 \notes \transpose c c' {
5762 % Torculus Initio Debilis
5763 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]
5770 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5774 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5775 \remove "Key_engraver"
5776 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5777 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5778 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5779 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5783 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5784 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5785 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5786 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5792 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5793 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5795 \notes \transpose c c' {
5796 % Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
5797 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
5804 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5808 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5809 \remove "Key_engraver"
5810 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5811 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5812 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5813 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5817 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5818 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5819 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5820 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5826 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5827 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5829 \notes \transpose c c' {
5830 % Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis
5831 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
5838 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5842 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5843 \remove "Key_engraver"
5844 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5845 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5846 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5847 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5851 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5852 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5853 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5854 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5861 @code{12. Porrectus}
5863 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5864 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5866 \notes \transpose c c' {
5868 \[ a \flexa g \pes b \]
5875 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5879 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5880 \remove "Key_engraver"
5881 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5882 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5883 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5884 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5888 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5889 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5890 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5891 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5897 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5898 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5900 \notes \transpose c c' {
5901 % Porrectus Auctus Descendens
5902 \[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5909 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5913 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5914 \remove "Key_engraver"
5915 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5916 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5917 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5918 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5922 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5923 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5924 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5925 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5931 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5932 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5934 \notes \transpose c c' {
5935 % Porrectus Deminutus
5936 \[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]
5943 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5947 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5948 \remove "Key_engraver"
5949 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5950 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5951 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5952 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5956 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5957 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5958 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5959 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5968 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5969 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5971 \notes \transpose c c' {
5973 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]
5980 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5984 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5985 \remove "Key_engraver"
5986 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5987 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5988 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5989 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5993 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5994 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5995 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5996 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6002 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6003 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6005 \notes \transpose c c' {
6007 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]
6014 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6018 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6019 \remove "Key_engraver"
6020 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6021 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6022 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6023 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6027 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6028 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6029 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6030 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6036 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6037 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6039 \notes \transpose c c' {
6040 % Climacus Deminutus
6041 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]
6048 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6052 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6053 \remove "Key_engraver"
6054 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6055 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6056 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6057 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6061 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6062 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6063 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6064 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6071 @code{14. Scandicus}
6073 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6074 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6076 \notes \transpose c c' {
6078 \[ g \pes a \virga b \]
6085 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6089 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6090 \remove "Key_engraver"
6091 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6092 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6093 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6094 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6098 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6099 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6100 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6101 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6107 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6108 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6110 \notes \transpose c c' {
6111 % Scandicus Auctus Descendens
6112 \[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6119 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6123 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6124 \remove "Key_engraver"
6125 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6126 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6127 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6128 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6132 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6133 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6134 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6135 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6141 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6142 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6144 \notes \transpose c c' {
6145 % Scandicus Deminutus
6146 \[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]
6153 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6157 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6158 \remove "Key_engraver"
6159 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6160 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6161 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6162 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6166 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6167 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6168 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6169 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6178 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6179 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6181 \notes \transpose c c' {
6183 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]
6190 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6194 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6195 \remove "Key_engraver"
6196 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6197 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6198 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6199 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6203 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6204 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6205 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6206 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6212 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6213 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6215 \notes \transpose c c' {
6216 % Salicus Auctus Descendens
6217 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6224 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6228 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6229 \remove "Key_engraver"
6230 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6231 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6232 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6233 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6237 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6238 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6239 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6240 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6250 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6251 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6253 \notes \transpose c c' {
6255 \[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]
6262 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6266 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6267 \remove "Key_engraver"
6268 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6269 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6270 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6271 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6275 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6276 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6277 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6278 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6289 Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the input language for
6290 neumes does not necessarily reflect directly the typographical
6291 appearance, but is designed to solely focuse on musical meaning. For
6292 example, @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]} produces a Torculus consisting
6293 of three Punctum heads, while @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]} produces
6294 a torculus with a curved flexa shape and only a single Punctum head.
6295 There is no command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa shape; the
6296 decision of when to typeset a curved flexa shape is purely taken from
6297 the musical input. The idea of this approach is to separate the
6298 musical aspects of the input from the notation style of the output.
6299 This way, the same input can be reused to typeset the same music in a
6300 different style of Gregorian chant notation such as Hufnagel (also
6301 known as German gothic neumes) or Medicaea (kind of a very simple
6302 forerunner of the Editio Vaticana). As soon as Hufnagel ligature
6303 engraver and Medicaea ligature engraver will have been implemented, it
6304 will be as simple as replacing the ligature engraver in the
6305 VoiceContext to get the desired notation style from the same input.
6307 The following table shows the code fragments that produce the
6308 ligatures in the above neumes table. The letter in the first column
6309 in each line of the below table indicates to which ligature in the
6310 above table it refers. The second column gives the name of the
6311 ligature. The third column shows the code fragment that produces this
6312 ligature, using @code{g}, @code{a} and @code{b} as example pitches.
6314 @multitable @columnfractions .1 .4 .5
6328 Punctum Inclinatum @tab
6329 @code{\[ \inclinatum b \]}
6333 Punctum Auctum Ascendens @tab
6334 @code{\[ \auctum \ascendens b \]}
6338 Punctum Auctum Descendens @tab
6339 @code{\[ \auctum \descendens b \]}
6343 Punctum Inclinatum Auctum @tab
6344 @code{\[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]}
6348 Punctum Inclinatum Parvum @tab
6349 @code{\[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]}
6354 @code{\[ \virga b \]}
6359 @code{\[ \stropha b \]}
6364 @code{\[ \stropha \auctum b \]}
6369 @code{\[ \oriscus b \]}
6373 Clivis vel Flexa @tab
6374 @code{\[ b \flexa g \]}
6378 Clivis Aucta Descendens @tab
6379 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
6383 Clivis Aucta Ascendens @tab
6384 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]}
6389 @code{\[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
6393 Podatus vel Pes @tab
6394 @code{\[ g \pes b \]}
6398 Pes Auctus Descendens @tab
6399 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6403 Pes Auctus Ascendens @tab
6404 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]}
6409 @code{\[ g \pes \deminutum b \]}
6414 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]}
6418 Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens @tab
6419 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6424 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes b \]}
6428 Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens @tab
6429 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6433 Pes Initio Debilis @tab
6434 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes b \]}
6438 Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis @tab
6439 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6444 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]}
6448 Torculus Auctus Descendens @tab
6449 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
6453 Torculus Deminutus @tab
6454 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
6458 Torculus Initio Debilis @tab
6459 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]}
6463 Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis @tab
6464 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
6468 Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis @tab
6469 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
6474 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]}
6478 Porrectus Auctus Descendens @tab
6479 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6483 Porrectus Deminutus @tab
6484 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]}
6489 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]}
6493 Climacus Auctus @tab
6494 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]}
6498 Climacus Deminutus @tab
6499 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]}
6504 @code{\[ g \pes a \virga b \]}
6508 Scandicus Auctus Descendens @tab
6509 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6513 Scandicus Deminutus @tab
6514 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]}
6519 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]}
6523 Salicus Auctus Descendens @tab
6524 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6529 @code{\[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]}
6535 Scandicus Deminutus: Punctum Auctum Ascendens overlaps with
6536 Semivocalis head; this looks awful.
6538 Trigonus: apply equal spacing, regardless of pitch.
6541 @subsection Figured bass
6543 @cindex Basso continuo
6545 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
6549 LilyPond has limited support for figured bass:
6551 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
6553 \context Voice \notes { \clef bass dis4 c d ais}
6554 \context FiguredBass
6556 < 6 >4 < 7 >8 < 6+ [_!] >
6562 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
6563 mode, introduced by @code{\figures}, where you can enter bass figures
6564 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass}
6565 that takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
6567 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
6568 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>}.
6573 \context FiguredBass
6577 Accidentals are added when you append @code{-}, @code{!} and @code{+}
6584 \context FiguredBass
6585 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> }
6588 Spaces or dashes may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
6589 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}.
6595 \context FiguredBass
6596 \figures { < [4 6] 8 [_ 12]> }
6599 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
6600 support, it works much simpler. The @code{\figures} mode simply
6601 stores the numbers , and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints
6602 them as entered. There is no conversion to pitches, and no
6603 realizations of the bass are played in the MIDI file.
6605 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
6606 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
6607 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
6611 @internalsref{BassFigureEvent} music, @internalsref{BassFigure} object,
6612 @internalsref{FiguredBass} context
6616 Slash notation for alterations is not supported.
6619 @node Contemporary notation
6620 @section Contemporary notation
6622 In the 20th century, composers have greatly expanded the musical
6623 vocabulary. With this expansion, many innovations in musical notation
6624 have been tried. For a comprehensive overview, refer to @cite{Stone
6625 1980} (see @ref{Literature}). In general, the use of new, innovative
6626 notation makes a piece harder to understand and perform and its use
6627 should therefore be avoided if possible. For this reason, support for
6628 contemporary notation in LilyPond is limited.
6637 @subsection Clusters
6641 In musical terminology, a @emph{cluster} denotes a range of
6642 simultaneously sounding pitches that may change over time. The set of
6643 available pitches to apply usually depends on the accoustic source.
6644 Thus, in piano music, a cluster typically consists of a continous range
6645 of the semitones as provided by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic
6646 scale. In choral music, each singer of the choir typically may sing an
6647 arbitrary pitch within the cluster's range that is not bound to any
6648 diatonic, chromatic or other scale. In electronic music, a cluster
6649 (theoretically) may even cover a continuous range of pitches, thus
6650 resulting in coloured noise, such as pink noise.
6652 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
6653 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
6654 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
6655 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by the
6656 shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical extent of
6657 the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster geometrically
6658 describes the development of a range of pitches (vertical extent) over
6659 time (horizontal extent). Still, the geometrical shape of a cluster
6660 covers the area in wich any single pitch contained in the cluster would
6661 be notated as an ordinary note. From this point of view, it is
6662 reasonable to specify a cluster as the envelope of a set of notes.
6666 A cluster is engraved as the envelope of a set of
6667 cluster-notes. Cluster notes are created by applying the function
6668 @code{notes-to-clusters} to a sequence of chords, eg.
6670 @lilypond[relative 2]
6671 \apply #notes-to-clusters { << c e >> <<b f'>> }
6674 The following example (from
6675 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly}) shows what the result
6678 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{cluster.ly}
6680 By default, @internalsref{Cluster_engraver} is in the
6681 @internalsref{Voice} context. This allows putting ordinary notes and
6682 clusters together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In such a
6683 case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between
6684 ordinary notes and clusters.
6688 @internalsref{ClusterSpanner}, @internalsref{ClusterSpannerBeacon},
6689 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly},
6690 @internalsref{Cluster_engraver}, @internalsref{ClusterNoteEvent}.
6694 Music expressions like @code{< @{ g8 e8 @} a4 >} are not printed
6695 accurately. Use @code{<<g a>>8 <<e a>>8} instead.
6700 @subsection Fermatas
6706 Contemporary music notation frequently uses special fermata symbols to
6707 indicate fermatas of differing lengths.
6711 The following are supported
6713 @lilypond[singleline]
6736 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
6737 "shortfermata" "fermata" "longfermata" "verylongfermata"
6742 See @ref{Articulations} for general instructions how to apply scripts
6743 such as fermatas to a @code{\notes@{@}} block.
6746 @section Tuning output
6748 There are situations where default layout decisions are not
6749 sufficient. In this section we discuss ways to override these
6752 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called objects (graphic
6753 objects). Each object carries with it a set of properties (object
6754 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem object has
6755 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
6757 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
6758 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
6759 temporarily change the definition of one type of object, thus
6760 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
6761 object, and set a object property in that object.
6765 * Constructing a tweak::
6774 @node Tuning objects
6775 @subsection Tuning objects
6777 @cindex object description
6779 The definition of an object is actually a list of default object
6780 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem object (available
6781 in @file{scm/define-grobs.scm}), includes the following definitions for
6786 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
6787 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
6792 By adding variables on top of these existing definitions, the system
6793 default is overridden, and the appearance of a layout objects is
6799 Changing a variable for only one object is commonly achieved with
6803 \once \property @var{context}.@var{objectname}
6804 \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
6806 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
6807 and @var{objectname} is a string and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
6808 This command applies a setting only during one moment in the score.
6810 In the following example, only one @internalsref{Stem} object is
6811 changed from its original setting:
6813 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment, relative=1]
6815 \once \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4
6819 @cindex @code{\once}
6821 For changing more objects, the same command, without @code{\once} can
6824 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
6826 This command adds @code{@var{symbol} = @var{value}} to the definition
6827 of @var{objectname} in the context @var{context}, and this definition
6828 stays in place until it is removed.
6830 An existing definition may be removed by the following command
6833 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \revert @var{symbol}
6836 All @code{\override} and @code{\revert} commands should be balanced.
6837 The @code{\set} shorthand, performs a revert followed by an override,
6838 and is often more convenient to use
6841 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
6845 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
6846 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
6848 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
6852 The following example gives exactly the same result as the previous
6853 one (assuming the system default for stem thickness is 1.3).
6855 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
6856 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
6858 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #1.3
6862 Reverting a setting which was not set in the first place has no
6863 effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, this may
6864 remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
6865 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and
6866 @code{\revert} must be carefully balanced.
6868 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
6871 A clumsy but correct form:
6873 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
6876 Shorter version of the same:
6878 \override \set \set \revert
6881 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
6884 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
6887 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the object property is unset),
6890 \set \set \set \revert
6893 For the digirati, the object description is an Scheme association
6894 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as
6895 a stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are push and pop
6896 operations. The association list is stored in a normal context
6899 \property Voice.NoteHead = #'()
6901 will effectively erase @internalsref{NoteHead}s from the current
6902 @internalsref{Voice}. However, this mechanism is not guaranteed to
6903 work, and may cause crashes or other anomalous behavior.
6907 @internalsref{OverrideProperty}, @internalsref{RevertProperty},
6908 @internalsref{PropertySet}, @internalsref{backend properties},
6909 @internalsref{All layout objects}.
6914 The backend is not very strict in type-checking object properties.
6915 Cyclic references in @var{value} cause hangs and/or crashes.
6916 Similarly, reverting properties that are system defaults may also lead
6919 @node Constructing a tweak
6920 @subsection Constructing a tweak
6923 @cindex internal documentation
6924 @cindex finding graphical objects
6925 @cindex graphical object descriptions
6927 @cindex @code{\override}
6929 @cindex internal documentation
6933 Using @code{\override} and @code{\set}, requires three pieces of
6934 information: the name of the layout object, the context and the name
6935 of the property. We demonstrate how to glean this information from
6936 the notation manual and the generated documentation.
6938 The generated documentation is a set of HTML pages which should be
6939 included if you installed a binary distribution, typically in
6940 @file{/usr/share/doc/lilypond}. They are also available on the web:
6941 go to the @uref{LilyPond website,http://lilypond.org}, click
6942 ``Documentation: Index'' on the side bar, look in the ``Information
6943 for users'' section, and click on ``Documentation of internals.'' It
6944 is advisable to bookmark either the local HTML files if possilbe. They
6945 will load faster than the ones on the web. If you use the version
6946 from the web, you must check whether the documentation matches the
6947 program version: the documentation is generated from the definitions
6948 that the program uses, and therefore it is strongly tied to the
6952 @c [TODO: revise for new site.]
6954 Suppose we want to move the fingering indication in the fragment below
6956 @lilypond[relative=2]
6962 If you visit the documentation of @code{Fingering} (in @ref{Fingering
6963 instructions}), you will notice that it says
6968 @internalsref{FingerEvent} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
6971 This implies that the fingerings, once entered, are internally stored
6972 as @code{FingerEvent} music objects. When printed, a @code{Fingering}
6973 layout object is created for every @code{FingerEvent}.
6976 When we follow the link of @internalsref{Fingering},
6979 When we look up @internalsref{Fingering} in the generated
6982 we see a list of interfaces. The Fingering object has a number of
6983 different functions, and each of those is captured in an interface.
6985 The @code{Fingering} object has a fixed size
6986 (@internalsref{item-interface}), the symbol is a piece of text
6987 (@internalsref{text-interface}), whose font can be set
6988 (@internalsref{font-interface}). It is centered horizontally
6989 (@internalsref{self-alignment-interface}), it is placed next to other
6990 objects (@internalsref{side-position-interface}) vertically, and its
6991 placement is coordinated with other scripts
6992 (@internalsref{text-script-interface}). It also has the standard
6993 @internalsref{grob-interface} (grob stands for Graphical object)
6995 @cindex graphical object
6996 @cindex layout object
6997 @cindex object, layout
6998 with all the variables that come with
6999 it. Finally, it denotes a fingering instruction, so it has
7000 @internalsref{finger-interface}.
7002 For the vertical placement, we have to look under
7003 @code{side-position-interface}.
7005 side-position-interface
7007 Position a victim object (this one) next to other objects (the
7008 support). In this case, the direction signifies where to put the
7009 victim object relative to the support (left or right, up or down?)
7011 below this description, the variable @code{padding} is described as
7015 (dimension, in staff space)
7017 add this much extra space between objects that are next to each
7018 other. Default value: @code{0.6}
7022 By increasing the value of @code{padding}, we can move away the
7023 fingering. The following command inserts 3 staff spaces of white
7024 between the note and the fingering
7026 \once \property Voice.Fingering \set #'padding = #3
7029 Before the object is created, we get
7030 @lilypond[relative=2,fragment]
7031 \once \property Voice.Fingering
7038 The context name @code{Voice} in the example above can be determined
7039 as follows. In the documentation for @internalsref{Fingering}, it says
7041 Fingering grobs are created by: @internalsref{Fingering_engraver}
7044 Clicking @code{Fingering_engraver} shows the documentation of
7045 the module responsible for interpreting the fingering instructions and
7046 translating them to a @code{Fingering} object. Such a module is called
7047 an @emph{engraver}. The documentation of the @code{Fingering_engraver}
7050 Fingering_engraver is part of contexts: Voice and TabVoice
7052 so tuning the settings for Fingering should be done using either
7054 \property Voice.Fingering \set @dots{}
7058 \property TabVoice.Fingering \set @dots{}
7061 Since the @code{TabVoice} is only used for tab notation, we see that
7062 the first guess @code{Voice} was indeed correct.
7064 Of course, the tweak may also done in a larger context than
7065 @code{Voice}, for example, @internalsref{Staff} or
7066 @internalsref{Score}.
7068 The internals document also contains alphabetical lists of
7069 @internalsref{All contexts}, @internalsref{All layout objects} and
7070 @internalsref{All music types}, so you can also find which objects to
7071 tweak by browsing the internals document.
7075 @subsection Applyoutput
7077 The most versatile way of tuning object is @code{\applyoutput}. Its
7080 \applyoutput @var{proc}
7082 where @var{proc} is a Scheme function, taking four arguments.
7084 When interpreted, the function @var{proc} is called for every layout object found
7085 in the context, with the following arguments:
7087 @item the layout object itself
7088 @item the context where the layout object was created
7089 @item the context where @code{\applyoutput} is processed.
7092 In addition, the cause of the layout object, i.e. the music
7093 expression or object that was responsible for creating it, is in the
7094 object property @code{cause}. For example, for a note head, this is a
7095 @internalsref{NoteHead} event, and for a @internalsref{Stem} object,
7096 this is a @internalsref{NoteHead} object.
7099 @node Outputproperty
7100 @subsection Outputproperty
7102 @cindex @code{\outputproperty}
7104 Another way of tuning objects is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
7105 feature. The syntax is as follows:
7107 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
7109 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking an object argument, and
7110 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
7111 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
7112 objects that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
7113 true, the object property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
7115 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
7116 the appropriate context to apply this to.
7117 @inputfileref{input/regression,output-property.ly} shows an example of
7118 the use of @code{\outputproperty}.
7122 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
7123 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
7126 @node Font selection
7127 @subsection Font selection
7129 The most common thing to change about the appearance of fonts is
7130 their size. The font size of any context can be easily
7131 changed by setting the @code{fontSize} property for that context:
7133 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,verbatim,quote]
7134 c4 c4 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
7137 This command will set @code{font-relative-size} (see below),
7138 and does not change the size of variable symbols, such as
7139 beams or slurs. You can use this command to get smaller symbol for
7140 cue notes, but that involves some more subtleties. An elaborate
7141 example of those is in @inputfileref{input/test,cue-notes.ly}.
7143 @cindex magnification
7145 The size of the font may be scaled with the object property
7146 @code{font-magnification}. For example, @code{2.0} blows up all
7147 letters by a factor 2 in both directions.
7156 The font used for printing a object can be selected by setting
7157 @code{font-name}, e.g.
7159 \property Staff.TimeSignature
7160 \set #'font-name = #"cmr17"
7162 You may use any font which is available to @TeX{}, such as foreign
7163 fonts or fonts that do not belong to the Computer Modern font family.
7165 Font selection for the standard fonts, @TeX{}'s Computer Modern fonts,
7166 can also be adjusted with a more fine-grained mechanism. By setting
7167 the object properties described below, you can select a different font.
7168 All three mechanisms work for every object that supports
7169 @code{font-interface}.
7173 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
7174 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff
7175 braces), @code{music} (the standard music font, including ancient
7176 glyphs), @code{dynamic} (for dynamic signs) and @code{typewriter}.
7179 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
7180 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
7181 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
7184 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
7185 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
7188 @item font-relative-size
7189 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
7190 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
7191 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
7193 There are small differences in design between fonts designed for
7194 different sizes, hence @code{font-relative-size} is preferred over
7195 @code{font-magnification} for changing font sizes.
7198 @item font-design-size
7199 A number indicating the design size of the font.
7201 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
7202 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
7203 which enhances readability.
7206 For any of these properties, the value @code{*} (i.e. the symbol
7207 @code{*}, entered as @code{#'*}), acts as a wildcard. This can be used
7208 to override default setting, which are always present. For example:
7210 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
7211 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-family = #'typewriter
7212 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
7215 @cindex @code{font-style}
7219 The following commands set @code{fontSize} for the current voice.
7221 @cindex @code{\tiny}
7223 @cindex @code{\small}
7225 @cindex @code{\normalsize}
7230 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
7232 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
7233 family, and the style sheet cannot be modified easily.
7235 @cindex font selection
7236 @cindex font magnification
7237 @cindex @code{font-interface}
7241 @subsection Text markup
7246 @cindex typeset text
7248 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can access it
7249 with the keyword @code{\markup}. Within markup mode, you can enter texts
7250 similar to lyrics: simply enter them, surrounded by spaces.
7253 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
7254 c1^\markup { hello }
7255 c1_\markup { hi there }
7256 c1^\markup { hi \bold there, is \italic anyone home? }
7259 @cindex font switching
7261 The line of the example demonstrates font switching commands. The
7262 command only apply to the first following word; enclose a set of texts
7263 with braces to apply a command to more words.
7265 \markup @{ \bold @{ hi there @} @}
7267 For clarity, you can also do this for single arguments, e.g.
7269 \markup @{ is \italic @{ anyone @} home @}
7272 @cindex font size, texts
7274 The following size commands set abolute sizes
7276 @cindex @code{\teeny}
7277 @cindex @code{\tiny}
7278 @cindex @code{\small}
7279 @cindex @code{\large}
7280 @cindex @code{\huge}
7290 You can also make letter larger or smaller relative to their neighbors,
7291 with the commands @code{\larger} and @code{\smaller}.
7295 @cindex font style, for texts
7296 @cindex @code{\bold}
7297 @cindex @code{\dynamic}
7298 @cindex @code{\number}
7299 @cindex @code{\italic}
7301 The following font change commands are defined:
7304 This changes to the font used for dynamic signs. This font does not
7305 contain all characters of the alphabet, so when producing ``piu f'',
7306 the ``piu'' should be done in a different font.
7310 This changes to the font used for time signatures. It only contains
7311 numbers and a few punctuation marks.
7313 Changes @code{font-shape} to @code{italic}
7315 Changes @code{font-series} to @code{bold}
7318 @cindex raising text
7319 @cindex lowering text
7321 @cindex translating text
7324 @cindex @code{\super}
7326 Raising and lowering texts can be done with @code{\super} and
7329 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
7330 c1^\markup { E "=" mc \super "2" }
7333 @cindex @code{\raise}
7335 If you want to give an explicit amount for lowering or raising, use
7336 @code{\raise}. This command takes a Scheme valued first argument, and
7337 a markup object as second argument
7339 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1,quote]
7340 c1^\markup { C \small \raise #1.0 \bold { "9/7+" }}
7342 The argument to @code{\raise} is the vertical displacement amount,
7343 measured in (global) staff spaces.
7345 Other commands taking single arguments include
7348 @item \bracket, \hbracket
7349 Bracket the argument markup with normal and horizontal brackets
7353 @cindex @code{\musicglyph}
7354 This is converted to a musical symbol, e.g. @code{\musicglyph
7355 #"accidentals-0"} will select the natural sign from the music font.
7356 See @ref{The Feta font} for a complete listing of the possible glyphs.
7358 This produces a single character, e.g. @code{\char #65} produces the
7362 @cindex @code{\note @var{log} @var{dots} @var{dir}}
7364 This produces a note with a stem pointing in @var{dir} direction, with
7365 duration log @var{log} and @var{dots} augmentation dots.
7367 @item \hspace #@var{amount}
7368 @cindex @code{\hspace}
7369 This produces a invisible object taking horizontal space.
7371 \markup @{ A \hspace #2.0 B @}
7373 will put extra space between A and B, on top of the space that is
7374 normally inserted before elements on a line.
7376 @item \fontsize #@var{size}
7377 @cindex @code{\fontsize}
7378 This sets the relative font size, eg.
7380 A \fontsize #2 @{ B C @} D
7384 This will enlarge the B and the C by two steps.
7385 @item \translate #(cons @var{x} @var{y})
7387 This translates an object. Its first argument is a cons of numbers
7389 A \translate #(cons 2 -3) @{ B C @} D
7391 This moves `B C' 2 spaces to the right, and 3 down.
7393 @item \magnify #@var{mag}
7394 @cindex @code{\magnify}
7395 This sets the font magnification for the its argument. In the following
7396 example, the middle A will be 10% larger.
7398 A \magnify #1.1 @{ A @} A
7402 @item \override #(@var{key} . @var{value})
7403 @cindex @code{\override}
7404 This overrides a formatting property for its argument. The argument
7405 should be a key/value pair, e.g.
7407 m \override #'(font-family . math) m m
7411 In markup mode you can compose expressions, similar to mathematical
7412 expressions, XML documents and music expressions. The braces group
7413 notes into horizontal lines. Other types of lists also exist: you can
7414 stack expressions grouped with @code{<<}, and @code{>>} vertically with
7415 the command @code{\column}. Similarly, @code{\center} aligns texts by
7418 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
7419 c1^\markup { \column << a bbbb c >> }
7420 c1^\markup { \center << a bbbb c >> }
7421 c1^\markup { \line << a b c >> }
7424 The markup mechanism is extensible. Refer to
7425 @file{scm/new-markup.scm} for more information on extending the markup
7432 @internalsref{Markup functions}, @file{scm/new-markup.scm}
7439 Text layout is ultimately done by @TeX{}, which does kerning of
7440 letters. LilyPond does not account for kerning, so texts will be
7441 spaced slightly too wide.
7443 Syntax errors for markup mode are confusing.
7447 @section Global layout
7449 The global layout determined by three factors: the page layout, the
7450 line breaks and the spacing. These all influence each other. The
7451 choice of spacing determines how densely each system of music is set,
7452 which influences where line breaks breaks are chosen, and thus
7453 ultimately how many pages a piece of music takes. In this section, the
7454 algorithm for spacing music is explained, and how spacing can be
7457 Globally spoken, this procedure happens in three steps: first,
7458 flexible distances (``springs'') are chosen, based on durations. All
7459 possible line breaking combination are tried, and the one with the
7460 best results---a layout that has uniform density and requires as
7461 little stretching or cramping as possible---is chosen. When the score
7462 is processed by @TeX{}, each page is filled with systems, and page breaks
7463 are chosen whenever the page gets full.
7468 * Vertical spacing::
7469 * Horizontal spacing::
7476 @node Vertical spacing
7477 @subsection Vertical spacing
7479 @cindex vertical spacing
7480 @cindex distance between staves
7481 @cindex staff distance
7482 @cindex between staves, distance
7483 @cindex staffs per page
7486 The height of each system is determined automatically by lilypond, to
7487 keep systems from bumping into each other, some minimum distances are
7488 set. By changing these, you can put staves closer together, and thus
7489 put more systems onto one page.
7491 Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make
7492 staves maintain a distance, their vertical size is padded. This is
7493 done with the property @code{minimumVerticalExtent}. It takes a pair
7494 of numbers, so if you want to make it smaller from its, then you could
7497 \property Staff.minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4 . 4)
7499 This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 4 staff-space on
7500 either side of the center staff line. The argument of
7501 @code{minimumVerticalExtent} is interpreted as an interval, where the
7502 center line is the 0, so the first number is generally negative. The
7503 staff can be made larger at the bottom by setting it to @code{(-6
7506 The piano staves are handled a little differently: to make cross-staff
7507 beaming work correctly, it necessary that the distance between staves
7508 is fixed beforehand. This is also done with a
7509 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object, created in
7510 @internalsref{PianoStaff}. In this object the distance between the
7511 staves is fixed by setting @code{forced-distance}. If you want to
7512 override this, use a @code{\translator} block as follows:
7516 VerticalAlignment \override #'forced-distance = #9
7519 This would bring the staves together at a distance of 9 staff spaces,
7520 measured from the center line of each staff.
7524 Vertical aligment of staves is handled by the
7525 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object.
7529 @node Horizontal spacing
7530 @subsection Horizontal Spacing
7532 The spacing engine translates differences in durations into
7533 stretchable distances (``springs'') of differing lengths. Longer
7534 durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest
7535 durations get a fixed amount of space (which is controlled by
7536 @code{shortest-duration-space} in the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}
7537 object). The longer the duration, the more space it gets: doubling a
7538 duration adds a fixed amount (this amount is controlled by
7539 @code{spacing-increment}) of space to the note.
7541 For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter and
7542 8th notes, the eighth note is followed by 1 note head width (NHW).
7543 The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by 3 NHW, etc.
7544 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=1] c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8
7548 Normally, @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to 1.2, which is the
7549 width of a note head, and @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to
7550 2.0, meaning that the shortest note gets 2 NHW (2 times
7551 @code{shortest-duration-space}) of space. For normal notes, this space
7552 is always counted from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest
7553 notes are generally followed by one NHW of space.
7555 If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single
7556 32th note to a score that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the
7557 entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a 16th, but a 32nd,
7558 thus adding 2 noteheads of space to every note. To prevent this, the
7559 shortest duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score,
7560 but the most commonly found shortest note. Notes that are even
7561 shorter this are followed by a space that is proportonial to their
7562 duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add
7563 only a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by
7566 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=2]
7567 c2 c4. c8 c4. c16-[ c-] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
7570 The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every
7571 measure, the shortest duration is determined. The most common short
7572 duration, is taken as the basis for the spacing, with the stipulation
7573 that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than
7574 1/8th note. The shortest duration is printed when you run lilypond
7575 with @code{--verbose}. These durations may also be customized. If you
7576 set the @code{common-shortest-duration} in
7577 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, then this sets the base duration for
7578 spacing. The maximum duration for this base (normally 1/8th), is set
7579 through @code{base-shortest-duration}.
7581 @cindex @code{common-shortest-duration}
7582 @cindex @code{base-shortest-duration}
7583 @cindex @code{stem-spacing-correction}
7584 @cindex @code{spacing}
7586 In the introduction it was explained that stem directions influence
7587 spacing. This is controlled with @code{stem-spacing-correction}
7588 property in @internalsref{NoteSpacing}, which are generated for every
7589 @internalsref{Voice} context. The @code{StaffSpacing} object
7590 (generated at @internalsref{Staff} context) contains the same property
7591 for controlling the stem/barline spacing. The following example
7592 shows these corrections, once with default settings, and once with
7593 exaggerated corrections.
7599 \property Staff.NoteSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
7601 \property Staff.StaffSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
7606 \paper { raggedright = ##t } }
7609 @cindex SpacingSpanner, overriding properties
7611 Properties of the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} must be overridden
7612 from the @code{\paper} block, since the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}
7613 is created before any @code{\property} statements are interpreted.
7615 \paper @{ \translator @{
7617 SpacingSpanner \override #'spacing-increment = #3.0
7624 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, @internalsref{NoteSpacing},
7625 @internalsref{StaffSpacing}, @internalsref{SeparationItem},
7626 @internalsref{SeparatingGroupSpanner}.
7630 Spacing is determined on a score wide basis. If you have a score that
7631 changes its character (measured in durations) halfway during the
7632 score, the part containing the longer durations will be spaced too
7635 There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing.
7640 @subsection Font size
7641 @cindex font size, setting
7642 @cindex staff size, setting
7643 @cindex @code{paper} file
7645 The Feta font provides musical symbols at seven different sizes.
7646 These fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point, 23 point, and
7647 26 point. The point size of a font is the height of the corresponding
7648 staff (excluding line thicknesses).
7650 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
7651 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any
7652 of these files, the variables @code{paperEleven},
7653 @code{paperThirteen}, @code{paperSixteen},
7654 @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and @code{paperTwentysix}
7655 are defined respectively. The default @code{\paper} block is also
7656 set. These files should be imported at toplevel, i.e.
7658 \include "paper26.ly"
7662 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
7663 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
7668 @subsection Line breaking
7671 @cindex breaking lines
7673 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
7674 that lines look neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines
7675 have similar density.
7677 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can
7678 do this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at
7679 this point. Line breaks can only occur at places where there are bar
7680 lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line,
7681 you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
7682 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a
7686 @cindex regular line breaks
7687 @cindex four bar music.
7689 If you want linebreaks at regular intervals, you can use the following:
7691 < \repeat unfold 7 @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
7692 @emph{the real music}
7695 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
7700 @internalsref{BreakEvent}
7704 @subsection Page layout
7707 @cindex breaking pages
7709 @cindex @code{indent}
7710 @cindex @code{linewidth}
7712 The most basic settings influencing the spacing are @code{indent} and
7713 @code{linewidth}. They are set in the @code{\paper} block. They
7714 control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of
7717 If @code{raggedright} is set to true in the @code{\paper}
7718 block, then the lines are justified at their natural length. This
7719 useful for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural
7723 @cindex vertical spacing
7725 The page layout process happens outside the LilyPond formatting
7726 engine: variables controlling page layout are passed to the output,
7727 and are further interpreted by @code{ly2dvi}. @code{ly2dvi} responds
7728 to the following variables in the @code{\paper} block. The variable
7729 @code{textheight} sets the total height of the music on each page.
7730 The spacing between systems is controlled with @code{interscoreline},
7731 its default is 16pt. The distance between the score lines will
7732 stretch in order to fill the full page @code{interscorelinefill} is
7733 set to a positive number. In that case @code{interscoreline}
7734 specifies the minimum spacing.
7736 @cindex @code{textheight}
7737 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
7738 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
7740 If the variable @code{lastpagefill} is defined,
7741 @c fixme: this should only be done if lastpagefill == #t
7742 systems are evenly distributed vertically on the last page. This
7743 might produce ugly results in case there are not enough systems on the
7744 last page. The @command{lilypond-book} command ignores
7745 @code{lastpagefill}. See @ref{lilypond-book manual} for more
7748 @cindex @code{lastpagefill}
7750 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
7751 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into
7752 the @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages. This
7753 is done by setting the @code{between-systems-strings} on the
7754 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn} where the system is broken.
7755 An example is shown in @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}.
7756 The predefined command @code{\newpage} also does this.
7760 @cindex @code{papersize}
7762 To change the paper size, you must first set the
7763 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
7764 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
7765 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
7766 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
7769 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
7770 \include "paper16.ly"
7773 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
7774 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
7775 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
7780 @cindex @code{\newpage}
7786 @ref{Invoking ly2dvi},
7787 @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly},
7788 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn}.
7792 There is no concept of page breaking, which makes it difficult to
7793 choose sensible page breaks in multi-page pieces.
7802 Entered music can also be converted to MIDI output. The performance
7803 is good enough for proof-hearing the music for errors.
7805 Ties, dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted. Dynamic marks,
7806 crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume levels. Dynamic
7807 marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI volume
7808 range, crescendi and decrescendi make the volume vary linearly between
7809 their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
7810 @code{dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction} in @internalsref{Voice} context.
7811 For each type of MIDI instrument, a volume range can be defined. This
7812 gives you basic equalizer control, which can enhance the quality of
7813 the MIDI output remarkably. The equalizer can be controlled by
7814 setting @code{instrumentEqualizer}.
7818 Many musically interesting effects, such as swing, articulation,
7819 slurring, etc., are not translated to MIDI.
7824 * MIDI instrument names::
7829 @subsection MIDI block
7833 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
7834 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
7838 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
7839 @item context definitions
7842 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
7846 @cindex context definition
7848 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
7849 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
7850 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer-init.ly}.
7853 @node MIDI instrument names
7854 @subsection MIDI instrument names
7856 @cindex instrument names
7857 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
7858 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
7860 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
7861 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
7862 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
7863 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
7867 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
7868 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by