3 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
4 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
5 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
7 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
16 @c .{Reference Manual}
18 @node Reference Manual
19 @chapter Reference Manual
22 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
25 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
26 revision of this document was made for LilyPond 1.4.1. It supposes a
27 passing familiarity with how LilyPond input works. New users are
28 encouraged to study the tutorial first.
33 * Easier music entry::
52 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
58 The most basic forms of music are notes. Notes on their own don't
59 form valid input, but for the sake of brevity we omit @code{\score}
60 blocks and @code{\paper} declarations.
66 * Chromatic alterations::
71 * Automatic note splitting ::
73 * Easy Notation note heads ::
81 A note is printed by specifying its pitch, and then its duration.
82 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
91 @cindex Note specification
93 @cindex entering notes
95 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
102 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object.
104 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
105 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
106 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
107 from @code{c} to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
108 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
110 @cindex note names, Dutch
112 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
113 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
114 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
115 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
116 both forms are accepted.
118 LilyPond has predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
119 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
120 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
121 the names they define are:
124 Note Names sharp flat
125 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
126 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
127 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
128 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
129 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
130 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
131 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
132 espanol.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -s -b
141 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
142 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
143 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
144 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
146 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
147 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
150 @node Chromatic alterations
151 @subsection Chromatic alterations
153 Normally, accidentals are printed automatically, but you may force
154 accidentals in the following ways: A reminder accidental
155 @cindex reminder accidental
157 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
158 cautionary accidental,
159 @cindex cautionary accidental
160 @cindex parenthesized accidental
161 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
162 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
164 The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many
165 ways. Refer to @ref{Accidentals} for more information.
172 A rest is entered like a note, with note name `@code{r}':
174 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
178 Whole bar rests centered in the bar are specified using @code{R}, see
179 @ref{Multi measure rests}. See also @seeinternals{Rest}.
181 For polyphonic music, it can be convenient to specify the rest position
182 directly. You can do that by entering a note, with the keyword
183 @code{\rest} appended, e.g. Rest collisions will leave these rests alone.
185 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
195 @cindex Invisible rest
198 An invisible rest, or skip, can be entered like a note with note name
199 @code{s}, or with @code{\skip @var{duration}}:
201 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
205 The @code{s} syntax is only available in Note mode and Chord mode.
206 In other situations, you should use the @code{\skip} command, and it is
207 only available in Note mode and Chord mode.
209 @c FIXME: in lyrics mode, we have " " and _
211 In Lyrics mode, you can use `@code{" "}' and `@code{_}':
212 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
214 \context Lyrics \lyrics { lah2 di4 " " dah2 _4 di }
215 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a4 a a2 a4 a }
219 The unabbreviated `@code{\skip} @var{duration}' also works outside of
222 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
225 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
226 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
231 The skip command is merely a empty musical placeholder. It does not
232 produce any output, not even transparent output.
237 @subsection Durations
241 @cindex @code{\duration}
244 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
245 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
246 longer than a whole you must use identifiers.
250 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
252 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
258 \notes \relative c'' {
260 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
262 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
267 \remove "Clef_engraver"
268 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
269 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
270 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
277 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
278 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
279 duration can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
283 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
289 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M} by
290 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
291 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
293 Durations can also be produced through GUILE extension mechanism.
294 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
295 c\duration #(make-duration 2 1)
301 Dot placement for chords is not perfect. In some cases, dots overlap:
303 \context Voice { <f,4. c'' d e f> }
314 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in
315 effect extends the length of a note. A tie is entered with @code{~}.
317 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
318 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
321 When ties are used with chords, all note heads whose pitches match are
322 connected. Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'. If
323 you try to tie together chords which have no common pitches then no
324 ties will be created.
326 If you want less ties created for a chord, you can set
327 @code{Voice.sparseTies} to true. In this case, a single tie is used
328 for every tied chord.
329 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
330 \property Voice.sparseTies = ##t
331 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
334 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
335 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
336 exactly the same concept.
338 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
339 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
341 Ties should not be confused with slurs, which indicate articulation,
342 and phrasing slurs, which indicate musical phrasing.
344 See also @seeinternals{Tie}.
349 At present, the tie is represented as a separate event, temporally
350 located in between the notes. Tieing only a subset of the note heads
351 of a chord is not supported in a simple way. It can be achieved by
352 moving the tie-engraver into the Thread context and turning on and off
355 Switching staffs when a tie is active will not work.
357 @node Automatic note splitting
358 @subsection Automatic note splitting
359 @c FIXME: This subsection doesn't belong in @ref{Note entry}.
361 There is a facility for automatically converting long notes to tied
362 notes. This is done by replacing the @code{Note_heads_engraver} by the
363 @code{Completion_heads_engraver}.
365 @lilypond[verbatim,center]
367 \notes\relative c'{ \time 2/4
368 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
372 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
373 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
377 This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts
378 ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are
379 not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how much each measure
384 Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be
385 represented exactly; the engraver will not insert tuplets.
392 @cindex @code{\times}
394 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all duration
397 @cindex @code{\times}
399 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
402 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
403 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
404 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
405 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
406 their written length:
408 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
409 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
412 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
413 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
414 @code{\times} only once, thus saving typing work.
416 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
417 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
418 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
421 The format of the number is determined by the property
422 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
423 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
424 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
428 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
429 @cindex tuplet formatting
431 See also @seeinternals{TupletBracket}.
435 Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically. In this case, outer
436 tuplet brackets should be moved automatically.
438 @node Easy Notation note heads
439 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
441 @cindex easy notation
444 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
445 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
446 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
448 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,26pt]
450 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
451 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
455 Note that @code{EasyNotation} overrides a @internalsref{Score} context. You
456 probably will want to print it with magnification or a large font size to make it more
463 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through
464 the letters. Printing the PostScript file obtained with ly2dvi does
465 produce the correct result.
468 @node Easier music entry
469 @section Easier music entry
472 * Graphical interfaces::
476 * Skipping corrected music::
479 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce errors. This
480 section deals with tricks and features that help you enter music, and
481 find and correct mistakes.
483 @node Graphical interfaces
484 @subsection Graphical interfaces
487 @cindex graphical interface
494 One way to avoid entering notes using the keyboard is to use a
495 graphical user interface. The following programs are known to have
496 a lilypond export option:
500 @uref{http://denemo.sourceforge.net/, Denemo} was once intended as
501 a LilyPond graphical user interface. It run on Gnome/GTK.
503 @uref{http://rnvs.informatik.tu-chemnitz.de/~jan/noteedit/noteedit.html, Noteedit}
504 is a graphical score editor that runs under KDE/Qt.
506 @uref{http://rosegarden.sf.net/, RoseGarden}
507 was the inspiration for naming LilyPond. Nowadays it has been
508 rewritten from scratch and supports LilyPond export as of version
512 Another option is to enter the music using your favorite MIDI
513 sequencer, and then import it using midi2ly. midi2ly is described in
514 @ref{Invoking midi2ly}.
518 @node Relative octaves
519 @subsection Relative octaves
521 @cindex relative octave specification
523 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
524 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
525 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
526 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
528 @cindex @code{\relative}
530 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
533 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
534 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
535 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
536 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
537 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
540 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
541 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
542 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
543 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
545 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
546 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
552 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
553 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
558 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
559 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
560 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
563 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
570 @cindex @code{\notes}
572 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
573 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
574 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
577 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
578 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
579 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
580 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
585 @subsection Bar check
589 @cindex @code{barCheckSynchronize}
593 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
594 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
595 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
596 @code{barCheckSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
597 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
599 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}:
601 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
606 @cindex skipTypesetting
608 Failed bar checks are most often caused by entering incorrect
609 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
610 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the score
611 by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To speed up
612 this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting} (See @ref{Skipping
615 @c . {Point and click}
616 @node Point and click
617 @subsection Point and click
618 @cindex poind and click
620 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
621 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
622 error in the sheet music.
624 To use it, you need the following software
626 @item A dvi viewer that supports src specials.
628 @item Xdvi, version 22.36 or newer. Available from
629 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,ftp.math.berkeley.edu}.
631 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is always
632 a few versions behind the official Xdvi. To find out which xdvi you
633 are running, try @code{xdvi -version} or @code{xdvi.bin -version}.
634 @item KDVI. A dvi viewer for KDE. You need KDVI from KDE 3.0 or
635 newer. Enable option @emph{Inverse search} in the menu @emph{Settings}.
644 @item An editor with a client/server interface (or a lightweight GUI
650 @item Emacs. Emacs is an extensible text-editor. It is available from
651 @uref{http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/}. You need version 21 to use
654 @c move this elsewhere?
656 LilyPond also comes with support files for emacs: lilypond-mode for
657 emacs provides indentation, syntax coloring and handy compile
658 short-cuts. If lilypond-mode is not installed on your platform, then
659 refer to the installation instructions for more information
663 @cindex lilypond-mode for emacs
664 @cindex syntax coloring
666 @item XEmacs. Xemacs is very similar to emacs.
670 @item NEdit. NEdit runs under Windows, and Unix.
671 It is available from @uref{http://www.nedit.org}.
675 @item GVim. GVim is a GUI variant of VIM, the popular VI
676 clone. It is available from @uref{http://www.vim.org}.
685 Xdvi must be configured to find the @TeX{} fonts and music
686 fonts. Refer to the Xdvi documentation for more information.
688 To use point-and-click, add one of these lines to the top of your .ly
691 #(set-point-and-click! 'line)
693 @cindex line-location
695 When viewing, Control-Mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
696 spot in the @file{.ly} file. Control-Mousebutton 2 will show all
699 If you correct large files with point-and-click, be sure to start
700 correcting at the end of the file. When you start at the top, and
701 insert one line, all following locations will be off by a line.
704 For using point-and-click with emacs, add the following
705 In your emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}),
710 Make sure that the environment variable @var{XEDITOR} is set to
712 emacsclient --no-wait +%l %f
714 @cindex @var{XEDITOR}
715 If you use xemacs instead of emacs, you use @code{(gnuserve-start)} in
716 your @file{.emacs}, and set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{gnuclient -q +%l %f}
718 For using Vim, set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{gvim --remote +%l %f}, or use this
719 argument with xdvi's @code{-editor} option.
721 For using NEdit, set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{nc -noask +%l %f}, or
722 use this argument with xdvi's @code{-editor} option.
724 If can also make your editor jump to the exact location of the note
725 you clicked. This is only supported on Emacs. Users of version 20 must
726 apply the patch @file{emacsclient.patch}. Users of version 21 must
727 apply @file{server.el.patch} (version 21.2 and earlier). At the top
728 of the @code{ly} file, replace the @code{set!} line with the following
731 #(set-point-and-click! 'line-column)
733 @cindex line-colomn-location
734 and set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{emacsclient --no-wait +%l:%c %f}.
738 When you convert the @TeX{} file to PostScript using @code{dvips}, it
739 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. These complaints
740 are harmless, and can be ignored.
742 @node Skipping corrected music
743 @subsection Skipping corrected music
745 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
746 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
747 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
748 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
751 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
753 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
755 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
763 @section Staff notation
765 This section deals with music notation that occurs on staff level,
766 such as keys, clefs and time signatures.
768 @cindex Staff notation
780 @subsection Staff symbol
783 @cindex adjusting staff symbol
784 @cindex StaffSymbol, using \property
785 @cindex staff lines, setting number of
788 The lines of the staff symbol are formed by the
789 @internalsref{StaffSymbol} grob. This grob is created at the moment
790 that their context is created. You can not change the appearance of
791 the staff symbol by using @code{\override} or @code{\set}. At the
792 moment that @code{\property Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is
793 made, and the StaffSymbol is created before any @code{\override} is
794 effective. You can deal with this either overriding properties in a
795 @code{\translator} definition, or by using @code{\outputproperty}.
800 If you end a staff half way a piece, the staff symbol may not end
801 exactly on the barline.
806 @subsection Key signature
811 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
814 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
817 @cindex @code{\minor}
818 @cindex @code{\major}
819 @cindex @code{\minor}
820 @cindex @code{\ionian}
821 @cindex @code{\locrian}
822 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
823 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
824 @cindex @code{\lydian}
825 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
826 @cindex @code{\dorian}
828 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
829 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
830 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
831 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
832 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
834 This command sets the context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
835 Non-standard key signatures can be specified by setting this property
838 The printed signature is a @internalsref{KeySignature} grob, typically
839 created in @internalsref{Staff} context.
841 @cindex @code{keySignature}
848 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command:
849 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
850 \key f\major c''2 \clef alto g'2
853 Supported clef-names include
854 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
856 @item treble, violin, G, G2
865 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
880 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
881 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. Note that you have to
882 enclose @var{clefname} in quotes if you use underscores or digits in the
888 The grob for this symbol is @internalsref{Clef}.
891 This command is equivalent to setting @code{clefGlyph},
892 @code{clefPosition} (which controls the Y position of the clef),
893 @code{centralCPosition} and @code{clefOctavation}. A clef is created
894 when any of these properties are changed.
897 @c . {Time signature}
899 @subsection Time signature
900 @cindex Time signature
904 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
906 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
907 \time 2/4 c'2 \time 3/4 c'2.
910 The actual symbol that's printed can be customized with the @code{style}
911 property. Setting it to @code{#'()} uses fraction style for 4/4 and
915 The grob for this symbol is @internalsref{TimeSignature}. There are
916 many more options for its layout. They are selected through the
917 @code{style} grob property. See @file{input/test/time.ly} for more
920 This command sets the property @code{timeSignatureFraction},
921 @code{beatLength} and @code{measureLength}. The property
922 @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines should be
923 inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated. Changing the
924 value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a time signature
925 symbol to be printed.
932 @cindex partial measure
933 @cindex measure, partial
934 @cindex shorten measures
935 @cindex @code{\partial}
937 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
938 @code{\partial} command:
939 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
940 \partial 4* 5/16 c'16 c4 f16 a'2. ~ a'8. a'16 | g'1
943 The syntax for this command is
945 \partial @var{duration}
947 This is internally translated into
949 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
952 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
953 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
956 @node Unmetered music
957 @subsection Unmetered music
959 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
960 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. The commands
961 @code{\cadenzaOn} and @code{\cadenzaOff} can be used to switch off the
964 @lilypond[fragment,relative,singleline,verbatim]
972 The property @code{Score.timing} can be used to switch off this
977 @subsection Bar lines
981 @cindex measure lines
984 Bar lines are inserted automatically, but if you need a special type
985 of barline, you can force one using the @code{\bar} command:
986 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim] c4 \bar "|:" c4
989 The following bar types are available
990 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
1002 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
1005 In scores with many staffs, the barlines are automatically placed at
1006 top level, and they are connected between different staffs of a
1007 @internalsref{StaffGroup}:
1008 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1009 < \context StaffGroup <
1010 \context Staff = up { e'4 d'
1013 \context Staff = down { \clef bass c4 g e g } >
1014 \context Staff = pedal { \clef bass c2 c2 } >
1017 The grobs that are created at @internalsref{Staff} level. The name is
1018 @internalsref{BarLine}.
1020 The command @code{\bar @var{bartype}} is a short cut for
1021 doing @code{\property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}}
1022 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
1023 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
1024 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
1025 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
1027 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
1028 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
1029 @code{whichBar} settings.
1032 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
1034 @cindex repeatCommands
1035 @cindex defaultBarType
1044 The easiest way to enter such fragments with more than one voice on a
1045 staff is to split chords using the separator @code{\\}. You can use
1046 it for small, short-lived voices (make a chord of voices) or for
1049 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
1050 \context Voice = VA \relative c'' {
1051 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ b, \\ f \\ d >
1055 The separator causes @internalsref{Voice} contexts to be instantiated,
1056 bearing the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.
1058 Sometimes, it is necessary to instantiate these contexts by hand: For
1059 Instantiate a separate Voice context for each part, and use
1060 @code{\voiceOne}, up to @code{\voiceFour} to assign a stem directions
1061 and horizontal shift for each part.
1064 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
1066 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
1067 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
1068 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
1071 The identifiers @code{\voiceOne} to @code{\voiceFour} set directions
1072 ties, slurs and stems, and set shift directions.
1074 If you want more than four voices, you can also manually set
1075 horizontal shifts and stem directions, as is shown in the following example:
1076 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1077 \context Staff \notes\relative c''<
1078 \context Voice=one {
1079 \shiftOff \stemUp e4
1081 \context Voice=two {
1082 \shiftOn \stemUp cis
1084 \context Voice=three {
1085 \shiftOnn \stemUp ais
1087 \context Voice=four {
1088 \shiftOnnn \stemUp fis
1094 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
1095 if you set the grob property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
1096 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
1099 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override
1100 #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
1102 } \\ { [g'8. f16] [g'8. f'16] }
1106 Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting
1107 @code{merge-differently-headed}:
1108 @lilypond[fragment, relative=2,verbatim]
1111 \property Staff.NoteCollision
1112 \override #'merge-differently-headed = ##t
1113 c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >
1116 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
1118 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1119 \context Voice < c''4 \\ r4 >
1122 See also @internalsref{NoteCollision} and @internalsref{RestCollision}
1126 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
1127 handles a few situations. When it can not cope, you are advised to use
1128 @code{force-hshift} of the @internalsref{NoteColumn} grob and pitched
1129 rests to override typesetting decisions.
1134 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
1135 the metrum. They are inserted automatically in most cases.
1137 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1138 \time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
1141 If you're not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can enter the
1142 beams explicitly. If you have beaming patterns that differ from the
1143 defaults, you can also set the patterns for automatic beamer.
1145 See also @internalsref{Beam}.
1148 @cindex Automatic beams
1149 @subsection Manual beams
1150 @cindex beams, manual
1154 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
1155 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
1156 rests or bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point
1157 manually using a @code{[} before the first beamed note and a @code{]}
1158 after the last note:
1160 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1162 r4 [r8 g' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
1166 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1168 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1169 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1170 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount} can
1171 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
1172 property, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1174 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1177 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
1180 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1183 The property @code{subdivideBeams} can be set in order to subdivide
1184 all 16th or shorter beams at beat positions. This accomplishes the
1185 same effect as twiddling with @code{stemLeftBeamCount} and
1186 @code{stemRightBeamCount}, but it take less typing.
1191 \property Voice.subdivideBeams = ##t
1193 [c32 c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c]
1194 \property Score.beatLength = #(make-moment 1 8)
1195 [c32 c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c]
1199 \notes \relative c' {
1201 \property Voice.subdivideBeams = ##t
1203 [c32 c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c]
1204 \property Score.beatLength = #(make-moment 1 8)
1205 [c32 c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c]
1209 @cindex subdivideBeams
1211 Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap between two
1212 adjacent beamed notes is detected. This behavior can be tuned through
1213 the grob property @code{auto-knee-gap}.
1215 @cindex beams, kneed
1217 @cindex auto-knee-gap
1221 @c TODO -> why this ref? Document?
1222 @cindex @code{neutral-direction}
1226 Auto knee beams can not be used together with hara kiri staffs.
1230 The Automatic beamer does not put @strong{unfinished} beams on the
1231 last notes of a score.
1233 Formatting of ties is a difficult subject. LilyPond often does not
1234 give optimal results.
1237 * Setting automatic beam behavior ::
1241 @no de Beam typography
1242 @sub section Beam typography
1244 One of the strong points of LilyPond is how beams are formatted. Beams
1245 are quantized, meaning that the left and right endpoints beams start
1246 exactly on staff lines. Without quantization, small wedges of white
1247 space appear between the beam and staff line, and this looks untidy.
1249 Beams are also slope-damped: melodies that go up or down should also
1250 have beams that go up or down, but the slope of the beams should be
1251 less than the slope of the notes themselves.
1253 Some beams should be horizontal. These are so-called concave beams.
1255 [TODO: some pictures.]
1258 @c . {Automatic beams}
1259 @node Setting automatic beam behavior
1260 @subsection Setting automatic beam behavior
1262 @cindex @code{autoBeamSettings}
1263 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
1264 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
1265 @cindex automatic beams, tuning
1266 @cindex tuning automatic beaming
1268 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
1269 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
1270 or at durations specified by the properties in
1271 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
1272 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
1274 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
1275 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
1277 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
1278 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
1280 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
1281 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
1282 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
1283 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
1284 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
1287 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
1288 you can use the following:
1290 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1291 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
1293 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1294 entered as @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
1296 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1297 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
1299 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1300 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1302 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1303 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1304 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1306 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
1307 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1308 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1309 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1311 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1312 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1315 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
1316 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
1317 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
1318 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
1322 @c Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
1324 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1325 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1327 @cindex automatic beam generation
1329 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeaming}
1332 For melodies that have lyrics, you may want to switch off
1333 automatic beaming. This is done by setting @code{Voice.autoBeaming} to
1339 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1340 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1341 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
1342 @c FIXME: lily wants symbol for no good reason.
1343 @c lilypond: music.cc:189: void Music::internal_set_mus_property(scm_unused_struct *, scm_unused_struct *): Assertion `type_check_assignment (s, v, ly_symbol2scm ("music-type?"))' failed.
1344 @c @lily pond[fragment,singleline,relative]
1345 @c \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1346 @c \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1347 @c \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
1351 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1352 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1353 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
1356 @lilypond[singleline,relative,noverbatim]
1357 #(ly-set-option 'internal-type-checking #f)
1360 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1361 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1362 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
1365 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1366 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1367 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1370 @section Accidentals
1372 This section describes how to change the way that LilyPond automatically
1373 inserts accidentals before the running notes.
1376 * Using the predefined accidental macros::
1377 * Defining your own accidental typesettings::
1380 @node Using the predefined accidental macros
1381 @subsection Using the predefined accidental macros
1382 The constructs for describing the accidental typesetting rules are
1383 quite hairy, so non-experts should stick to the macros defined in
1384 @file{ly/property-init.ly}.
1385 @cindex @file{property-init.ly}
1387 The macros operate on the ``Current'' context (see @ref{Context properties}). This
1388 means that the macros shuold normally be invoked right after the
1389 creation of the context in which the accidental typesetting described
1390 by the macro is to take effect. I.e. if you want to use
1391 piano-accidentals in a pianostaff then you issue
1392 @code{\pianoAccidentals} first thing after the creation of the piano
1396 \notes \relative c'' <
1397 \context Staff = sa @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1398 \context GrandStaff <
1400 \context Staff = sb @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1401 \context Staff = sc @{ es2 c @}
1403 \context Staff = sd @{ es2 c @}
1407 @lilypond[singleline]
1409 \notes \relative c'' <
1410 \context Staff = sa { cis4 d e2 }
1411 \context GrandStaff <
1413 \context Staff = sb { cis4 d e2 }
1414 \context Staff = sc { es2 c }
1416 \context Staff = sd { es2 c }
1421 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 4.0)
1429 @item \defaultAccidentals
1430 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1431 This is the default typesetting behaviour. It should correspond
1432 to 18th century common practice: Accidentals are
1433 remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and
1434 only on their own octave.
1436 @item \voiceAccidentals
1437 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1438 The normal behaviour is to remember the accidentals on
1440 This macro, however, typesets accidentals individually for each
1442 Apart from that the rule is similar to
1443 @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1445 Warning: This leads to some weird and often unwanted results
1446 because accidentals from one voice DO NOT get cancelled in other
1448 @lilypond[singleline,relative,fragment,verbatim]
1451 \context Voice=va { \voiceOne es g }
1452 \context Voice=vb { \voiceTwo c, e }
1455 Hence you should only use @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1456 if the voices are to be read solely by
1457 individual musicians. if the staff should be readable also
1458 by one musician/conductor then you should use
1459 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals} or @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1462 @item \modernAccidentals
1463 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1464 This rule should correspond to the common practice in the 20th
1466 The rule is a bit more complex than @code{\defaultAccidentals}:
1467 You get all the same accidentals, but temporary
1468 accidentals also get cancelled in other octaves. Further more,
1469 in the same octave, they also get cancelled in the following measure:
1470 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1472 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1475 @item \modernCautionaries
1476 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1477 This rule is similar to @code{\modernAccidentals}, but the
1478 ``extra'' accidentals (the ones not typeset by
1479 @code{\defaultAccidentals}) are typeset as cautionary accidentals
1480 (i.e. in reduced size):
1481 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1483 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1486 @item \modernVoiceAccidentals
1487 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1488 Multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians playing one voice
1489 and musicians playing all voices.
1491 Accidentals are typeset for each voice, but they ARE cancelled
1492 across voices in the same @internalsref{Staff}.
1494 @item \modernVoiceCautionaries
1495 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1496 The same as @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}, but with the
1497 extra accidentals (the ones not typeset by
1498 @code{\voiceAccidentals}) typeset as cautionaries.
1499 Notice that even though all accidentals typeset by
1500 @code{\defaultAccidentals} ARE typeset by this macro then some
1501 of them are typeset as cautionaries.
1503 @item \pianoAccidentals
1504 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1505 20th century practice for piano notation. Very similar to
1506 @code{\modernAccidentals} but accidentals also get cancelled
1507 across the staves in the same @internalsref{GrandStaff} or
1508 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.
1510 @item \pianoCautionaries
1511 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1512 As @code{\pianoAccidentals} but with the extra accidentals
1513 typeset as cationaries.
1516 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1517 Same as @code{\defaultAccidentals} but with accidentals lasting
1518 ``forever'' and not only until the next measure:
1519 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1524 @item \forgetAccidentals
1525 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1526 This is sort of the opposite of @code{\noResetKey}: Accidentals
1527 are not remembered at all - and hence all accidentals are
1528 typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what was
1529 before in the music:
1530 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1532 \key d\major c4 c cis cis d d dis dis
1536 @node Defining your own accidental typesettings
1537 @subsection Defining your own accidental typesettings
1539 This section must be considered gurus-only, and hence it must be
1540 sufficient with a short description of the system and a reference to
1541 the internal documentation.
1543 The idea of the algorithm is to try several different rules and then
1544 use the rule that gives the highest number of accidentals.
1545 Each rule cosists of
1548 In which context is the rule applied. I.e. if context is
1549 @internalsref{Score} then all staves share accidentals, and if
1550 context is @internalsref{Staff} then all voices in the same
1551 staff share accidentals, but staves don't - like normally.
1553 Whether the accidental changes all octaves or only the current
1556 Over how many barlines the accidental lasts.
1557 If lazyness is @code{-1} then the accidental is forget
1558 immidiately, and if lazyness is @code{#t} then the accidental
1562 As described in the internal documentation of
1563 @reng{Accidental_engraver}, the properties @code{autoAccidentals} and
1564 @code{autoCautionaries} contain lists of rule descriptions. Notice
1565 that the contexts must be listed from in to out - that is
1566 @internalsref{Thread} before @internalsref{Voice},
1567 @internalsref{Voice} before @internalsref{Staff}, etc.
1568 see the macros in @file{ly/property-init.ly} for examples of how the
1573 Currently the simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in
1574 sequential mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are
1575 typeset as if the notes in the chord happened one at a time - in the
1576 order in which they appear in the input file.
1578 Of course this is only a problem when you have simultainous notes
1579 which accidentals should depend on each other.
1580 Notice that the problem only occurs when using non-default accidentals
1581 - as the default accidentals only depend on other accidentals on the
1582 same staff and same pitch and hence cannot depend on other
1585 This example shows two examples of the same music giving different
1586 accidentals depending on the order in which the notes occur in the
1589 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1590 \property Staff.autoAccidentals = #'( Staff (any-octave . 0) )
1591 cis'4 <c'' c'> r2 | cis'4 <c' c''> r2 | <cis' c''> r | <c'' cis'> r |
1594 The only solution is to manually insert the problematic
1595 accidentals using @code{!} and @code{?}.
1597 @node Expressive marks
1598 @section Expressive marks
1613 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1614 They are entered using parentheses:
1615 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1616 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
1619 See also @seeinternals{Slur}.
1621 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1622 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1623 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1624 grob-property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1625 @internalsref{Voice} context It's value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1626 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1628 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1630 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1632 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1636 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1637 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1638 stems might look better:
1640 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1643 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1648 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
1649 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
1650 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this
1651 decision is in @internalsref{Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}.
1652 It is loosely related to the enclosed area between the slur and the
1653 notes. Usually, the default setting works well, but in some cases you
1654 may prefer a curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved
1655 one. You can indicate this preference by increasing the
1656 @code{beautiful} value:
1658 @lilyp ond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
1660 c16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
1661 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1662 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
1663 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1669 Producing nice slurs is a difficult problem, and LilyPond currently
1670 uses a simple, empiric method to produce slurs. In some cases, the
1671 results of this method are ugly.
1674 This is reflected by the
1675 @code{beautiful} property, which it is an arbitrary parameter in the
1676 slur formatter. Useful values can only be determined by trial and
1680 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1682 @node Phrasing slurs
1683 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1685 @cindex phrasing slurs
1686 @cindex phrasing marks
1688 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1689 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1692 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1693 \time 6/4 c' \( d () e f () e \) d
1696 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
1697 slur. See also @seeinternals{PhrasingSlur}.
1701 @subsection Breath marks
1703 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}. See also
1704 @seeinternals{BreathingSign}.
1706 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1715 @cindex beats per minute
1716 @cindex metronome marking
1718 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1720 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1722 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1725 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1730 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1731 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1732 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1737 @subsection Text spanners
1738 @cindex Text spanners
1740 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando or accelerando, often extend
1741 over many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1742 dotted line. You can create such texts using text spanners. The syntax
1745 \spanrequest \start "text"
1746 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1748 LilyPond will respond by creating a @internalsref{TextSpanner} grob (typically
1749 in @internalsref{Voice} context). The string to be printed, as well as the
1750 style is set through grob properties.
1752 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1753 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1754 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1755 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1756 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1757 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1758 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1759 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1777 @subsection Articulations
1778 @cindex Articulations
1780 @cindex articulations
1784 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1785 different characteristics of the performance. They are added to a note
1786 by adding a dash and the the character signifying the
1787 articulation. They are demonstrated here.
1788 @lilypond[singleline]
1790 \notes \context Voice {
1791 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1792 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1798 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1804 The script is automatically placed, but if you need to force
1805 directions, you can use @code{_} to force them down, or @code{^} to
1807 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1812 Other symbols can be added using the syntax
1813 @var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}. Again, they can be forced up or down
1814 using @code{^} and @code{_}.
1818 @cindex staccatissimo
1827 @cindex organ pedal marks
1836 @cindex prallmordent
1840 @cindex thumb marking
1847 \property Score.LyricText \override #'font-family =#'typewriter
1848 \property Score.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1849 \context Staff \notes {
1850 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''^\fermata
1851 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\portato
1853 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1854 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1855 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1856 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1857 c''-\upmordent c''-\downmordent c''-\pralldown c''-\prallup
1858 c''-\lineprall c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1860 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1861 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1862 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ portato
1864 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1865 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1866 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1867 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1868 upmordent__ downmordent__ pralldown__ prallup__
1869 lineprall__ thumb__ segno__ coda
1873 linewidth = 5.875\in
1882 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand. For
1883 finger changes, use markup texts:
1885 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1886 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1891 @cindex @code{\script}
1896 See also @seeinternals{Script} and @seeinternals{Fingering}.
1900 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1901 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1903 Unfortunately, there is no support for adding fingering instructions or
1904 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1905 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1910 @subsection Text scripts
1911 @cindex Text scripts
1913 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1914 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1917 By default, these indications do not influence the note spacing, but
1918 by using the command @code{\fatText}, the widths will be taken into
1921 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim] \relative c' {
1922 c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1925 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
1926 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
1927 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
1928 commands won't work with direct PostScript output.
1929 @c (see @ref{PostScript output}).
1931 Text scripts are created in form of @internalsref{TextScript} grobs, in
1932 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1934 @ref{Text markup} describes how to change the font or access
1935 special symbols in text scripts.
1940 @subsection Grace notes
1944 @cindex @code{\grace}
1948 Grace notes are ornaments are written out ornaments
1949 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,ifragment]
1950 c4 \grace c16 c4 \grace { [c16 d16] } c4
1953 In normal notation, grace notes are supposed to take up no logical
1954 time in a measure. Such an idea is practical for normal notation, but
1955 is not strict enough to put it into a program. The model that LilyPond
1956 uses for grace notes internally is that all timing is done in two
1959 Every point in musical time consists of two rational numbers: one
1960 denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing. The above
1961 example is shown here with timing tuples.
1964 \score { \notes \relative c''{
1965 c4^"(0,0)" \grace c16_" "_"(1/4,-1/16)" c4^"(1/4,0)" \grace {
1966 [c16_"(2/4,-1/8)" d16^"(2/4,-1/16)" ] } c4_" "_"(2/4,0)"
1968 \paper { linewidth = 8.\cm }
1972 The advantage of this approach is that you can use almost any lilypond
1973 construction together with grace notes, for example slurs and clef
1974 changes may appear halfway in between grace notes:
1976 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
1977 c4 \grace { [ c16 c, \clef bass c, b(] } )c4
1980 The placement of these grace notes is synchronized between different
1981 staffs, using this grace timing.
1983 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
1984 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \grace { c16 d e f } e4 }
1985 \context Staff = SB { c4 \grace { g8 b } c4 } >
1989 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1990 stem. This can be controlled with grob property @code{flag-style} of
1991 @internalsref{Stem}. The change in formatting is accomplished by
1992 inserting @code{\startGraceMusic} before handling the grace notes, and
1993 @code{\stopGraceMusic} after finishing the grace notes. You can add to
1994 these definitions to globally change grace note formatting. The
1995 standard definitions are in @file{ly/grace-init.ly}.
1998 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1999 \relative c'' \context Voice {
2000 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
2002 \property Voice.Stem \override #'flag-style = #'()
2004 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'flag-style
2009 If you want to end a note with a grace note, then the standard trick
2010 is to put the grace notes before a phantom ``space note'', e.g.
2011 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
2014 { s2 \grace { [c16 d] } } >
2022 Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation,
2023 such as key signatures, barlines, etc. are also synchronized. Take
2024 care when you mix staffs with grace notes and staffs without.
2026 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2027 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
2028 \context Staff = SB { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >
2031 Grace sections should only be used within sequential music
2032 expressions. Nesting, juxtaposing, or ending sequential music with a
2033 grace section is not supported, and might produce crashes or other
2045 @subsection Glissando
2048 @cindex @code{\glissando}
2050 A glissando line can be requested by attaching a @code{\glissando} to
2053 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2059 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
2060 manually. See also @seeinternals{Glissando}.
2066 @subsection Dynamics
2079 @cindex @code{\ffff}
2089 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an identifier after a
2090 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
2091 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
2092 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
2093 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
2095 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
2096 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
2102 @cindex @code{\decr}
2103 @cindex @code{\rced}
2109 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
2110 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
2111 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
2112 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
2113 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
2114 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
2115 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
2116 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
2117 want several marks during one note, you have to use spacer notes.
2119 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2120 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
2121 < f''1 { s4 s4 \< \! s4 \> \! s4 } >
2124 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
2125 is an example how to do it:
2127 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
2128 c4 \cresc c4 \endcresc c4
2135 You can also supply your own texts:
2136 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2138 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc. poco"
2139 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
2146 Dynamics are grobs of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
2147 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is
2148 handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. If you want to
2149 adjust padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you must set
2150 properties for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} grob. Predefined
2151 identifiers to set the vertical direction are \dynamicUp and
2154 @cindex direction, of dynamics
2155 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
2156 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
2164 @cindex @code{\repeat}
2166 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
2167 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
2168 different variants of repeats.
2172 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
2173 output, and entering repetitive music.
2176 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
2177 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
2180 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
2181 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
2182 @file{input/star-spangled-banner.ly}.
2188 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
2194 * Repeats and MIDI::
2195 * Manual repeat commands::
2197 * Tremolo subdivisions::
2202 @subsection Repeat syntax
2204 The syntax for repeats is
2207 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
2210 If you have alternative endings, you may add
2211 @cindex @code{\alternative}
2213 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
2215 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
2217 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
2219 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
2220 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2222 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
2223 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
2226 With alternative endings:
2227 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2229 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
2230 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
2233 Folded repeats look like this:
2236 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2238 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
2239 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
2243 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
2244 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
2245 the specified number of repeats.
2247 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2251 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
2252 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
2257 @node Repeats and MIDI
2258 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
2260 @cindex expanding repeats
2262 For instructions on how to unfoldi repeats for MIDI output, see
2263 the example file @file{input/test/unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
2268 Notice that timing information is not remembered at the start of an
2269 alternative, so you have to reset timing information after a repeat,
2270 e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting
2271 @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties
2272 are also not repeated.
2274 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}s, although this probably is only
2275 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
2277 Folded repeats offer little more over simultaneous music.
2279 @node Manual repeat commands
2280 @subsection Manual repeat commands
2282 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
2284 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
2285 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
2293 @item (volta . @var{text})
2294 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
2296 Stop a running volta bracket
2299 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2301 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
2303 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
2308 Repeats brackets are @internalsref{VoltaBracket} grobs.
2310 @node Tremolo repeats
2311 @subsection Tremolo repeats
2312 @cindex tremolo beams
2314 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
2316 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2318 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
2319 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
2320 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
2321 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
2322 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
2327 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} grobs. Single stem tremolos are
2328 @internalsref{StemTremolo}. The single stem tremolo @emph{must} be
2329 entered without @code{@{} and @code{@}}.
2333 Only powers of two and undotted notes are supported repeat counts.
2335 @node Tremolo subdivisions
2336 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
2337 @cindex tremolo marks
2338 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
2340 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
2341 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
2342 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
2343 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
2344 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
2346 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
2347 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
2353 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
2356 @node Measure repeats
2357 @subsection Measure repeats
2359 @cindex percent repeats
2360 @cindex measure repeats
2362 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
2363 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
2364 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
2365 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
2367 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2368 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
2369 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
2373 The signs are represented by these grobs: @internalsref{RepeatSlash} and
2374 @internalsref{PercentRepeat} and @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
2378 You can not nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
2379 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
2381 @node Rhythmic music
2382 @section Rhythmic music
2384 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
2385 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
2386 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
2388 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2389 \context RhythmicStaff {
2391 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
2396 * Percussion staves::
2399 @node Percussion staves
2400 @subsection Percussion staves
2403 To typeset more than one piece of percussion to be played by the same
2404 musician one typically uses a multiline staff where each staff
2405 position refers to a specific piece of percussion.
2407 LilyPond is shipped with a bunch of scheme functions which allows you
2408 to do this fairly easily.
2410 The system is based on the general midi drum-pitches.
2411 In order to use the drum pitches you include
2412 @file{ly/drumpitch-init.ly}. This file defines the pitches from the scheme
2413 variable @code{drum-pitch-names} - which definition can be read in
2414 @file{scm/drums.scm}. You see that each piece of percussion has a full
2415 name and an abbreviated name - and you may freely select whether to
2416 refer to the full name or the abbreviation in your music definition.
2418 To typeset the music on a staff you apply the scheme function
2419 @code{drums->paper} to the percussion music. This function takes a
2420 list of percussion instrument names, notehead scripts and staff
2421 positions (that is: pitches relative to the C-clef) and uses this to
2422 transform the input music by moving the pitch, changing the notehead
2423 and (optionally) adding a script:
2424 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2425 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2426 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2427 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2429 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2431 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2432 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2437 In the above example the music was transformed using the list @code{'drums}.
2438 Currently the following lists are defined in @file{scm/drums.scm}:
2441 To typeset a typical drum kit on a five line staff.
2443 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2444 nam = \lyrics { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2445 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
2446 mus = \notes { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2447 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
2450 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2454 \context Lyrics \nam
2459 \remove Bar_engraver
2460 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2461 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
2465 \remove Stem_engraver
2470 Notice that the scheme supports six different toms.
2471 If you are using fewer toms then you simply select the toms that produce
2472 the desired result - i.e. to get toms on the three middle lines you
2473 use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml} and @code{tomfh}.
2475 Because the general midi contain no rimshots we use the sidestick for
2476 this purpose instead.
2478 To typeset timbales on a two line staff.
2479 @lilypond[singleline]
2480 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2481 nam = \lyrics { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
2482 mus = \notes { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
2485 \apply #(drums->paper 'timbales) \context Staff <
2489 \context Lyrics \nam
2494 \remove Bar_engraver
2495 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2496 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2497 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2498 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2502 \remove Stem_engraver
2509 To typeset congas on a two line staff.
2510 @lilypond[singleline]
2511 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2512 nam = \lyrics { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
2513 mus = \notes { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
2516 \apply #(drums->paper 'congas) \context Staff <
2520 \context Lyrics \nam
2525 \remove Bar_engraver
2526 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2527 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2528 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2529 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2533 \remove Stem_engraver
2539 To typeset bongos on a two line staff.
2540 @lilypond[singleline]
2541 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2542 nam = \lyrics { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
2543 mus = \notes { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
2546 \apply #(drums->paper 'bongos) \context Staff <
2550 \context Lyrics \nam
2555 \remove Bar_engraver
2556 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2557 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2558 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2559 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2563 \remove Stem_engraver
2569 To typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves.
2570 @lilypond[singleline]
2571 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2572 nam = \lyrics { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
2573 mus = \notes { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
2576 \apply #(drums->paper 'percussion) \context Staff <
2580 \context Lyrics \nam
2585 \remove Bar_engraver
2586 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2587 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #1
2588 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-2.0 . 3.0)
2592 \remove Stem_engraver
2599 If you don't like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
2600 list at the top of your file:
2602 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
2604 (bassdrum default #f ,(make-pitch -1 2 0))
2605 (snare default #f ,(make-pitch 0 1 0))
2606 (hihat cross #f ,(make-pitch 0 5 0))
2607 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" ,(make-pitch 0 5 0))
2608 (lowtom diamond #f ,(make-pitch -1 6 0))
2610 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2611 up = \notes { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
2612 down = \notes { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
2614 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2616 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2617 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2622 To use a modified existing list instead of building your own from
2623 scratch you can append your modifications to the start of the existing
2627 #(define mydrums (append `(
2628 (bassdrum default #f ,(make-pitch -1 2 0))
2629 (lowtom diamond #f ,(make-pitch -1 6 0))
2633 @c FIXME: Too many levels of headers when using subsubsections.
2634 @c Perhaps junk subsection ``Percussion staves''
2635 @subsubsection Percussion staves with normal staves
2636 When you include @file{drumpitch-init.ly} then the default pitches
2637 are overridden so that you after the inclusion cannot use the common
2638 dutch pitch names anymore. Hence you might wan't to reinclude
2639 @file{nederlands.ly} after the drum-pattern-definitions:
2640 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2641 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2642 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2643 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2644 \include "nederlands.ly"
2645 bass = \notes \transpose c, { a4. e8 r e g e }
2648 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff = drums <
2650 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2651 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2653 \context Staff = bass { \clef "F_8" \bass }
2658 @subsubsection Percussion midi output
2659 In order to produce correct midi output you need to produce two score
2660 blocks - one for the paper and one for the midi.
2661 To use the percussion channel you set the property @code{instrument}
2662 to @code{'drums}. Because the drum-pitches themself are similar to the
2663 general midi pitches all you have to do is to insert the voices with
2664 none of the scheme functions to get the correct midi output:
2668 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2670 \context Voice = up @{ \voiceOne \up @}
2671 \context Voice = down @{ \voiceTwo \down @}
2677 \property Staff.instrument = #'drums
2686 This scheme is to be considered a temporary implementation. Even
2687 though the scheme will probably keep on working then the future might
2688 bring some other way of typesetting drums, and probably
2689 there will be made no great efforts in keeping things downwards
2694 @section Piano music
2696 Piano music is an odd type of notation. Piano staves are two normal
2697 staves coupled with a brace. The staves are largely independent, but
2698 sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. The
2699 @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
2700 behavior. In this section we discuss the @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some
2701 other pianistic peculiarities.
2704 * Automatic staff changes::
2705 * Manual staff switches::
2708 * Voice follower lines::
2712 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
2713 @node Automatic staff changes
2714 @subsection Automatic staff changes
2715 @cindex Automatic staff changes
2717 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
2718 staff. The syntax for this is
2720 \autochange Staff \context Voice @{ @dots{}@var{music}@dots{} @}
2722 The autochanger switches on basis of pitch (central C is the turning
2723 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch rests in
2724 advance. Here is a practical example:
2726 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2727 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
2728 \context Staff = "up" {
2729 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
2730 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
2731 \context Staff = "down" {
2736 Spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
2737 terminating too soon.
2740 @node Manual staff switches
2741 @subsection Manual staff switches
2743 @cindex manual staff switches
2744 @cindex staff switch, manual
2746 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
2748 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
2750 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
2751 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
2752 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
2760 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
2761 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
2762 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
2764 These identifiers are shorthands for spanner commands of the types
2765 @internalsref{Sustain}, @internalsref{UnaCorda} and @internalsref{Sostenuto}:
2767 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2768 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4
2769 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
2772 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
2773 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal types:
2774 Sustain, Sostenuto or UnaCorda. Refer to the generated documentation of
2775 @rgrob{SustainPedal}, for example, for more information.
2777 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
2778 @code{pedal-type} property of SustainPedal grobs:
2780 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2781 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'bracket
2782 c''4 \sustainDown d''4 e''4 a'4
2783 \sustainUp \sustainDown
2784 f'4 g'4 a'4 \sustainUp
2787 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
2788 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
2790 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2791 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'mixed
2792 c''4 \sustainDown d''4 e''4 c'4
2793 \sustainUp \sustainDown
2794 f'4 g'4 a'4 \sustainUp
2797 The default '*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
2798 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
2799 for a sostenuto pedal:
2801 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2802 c''4 \sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4 \sostenutoUp
2805 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
2806 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
2807 @code{PianoPedalBracket} grobs (see the detailed documentation of
2808 @rgrob{PianoPedalBracket}) can be modified. For example, the bracket
2809 may be extended to the end of the note head.
2811 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2812 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override
2813 #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
2814 c''4 \sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4
2815 f'4 g'4 a'4 \sostenutoUp
2822 @subsection Arpeggio
2825 @cindex broken arpeggio
2826 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
2828 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
2829 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
2832 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2833 \context Voice <c\arpeggio e g c>
2836 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
2837 to the chords in both staves, and set
2838 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
2840 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2841 \context PianoStaff <
2842 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2843 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2844 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2848 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} grobs. Cross staff arpeggios
2849 are @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio}.
2851 To add an arrow head to explicitly specify the direction of the
2852 arpeggio, you should set the arpeggio grob property
2853 @code{arpeggio-direction}.
2855 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2857 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #1
2859 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
2864 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
2865 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
2866 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
2867 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} grobs to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
2868 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before.
2870 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2871 \context PianoStaff <
2872 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2873 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override
2874 #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
2875 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
2876 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
2883 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected
2884 arpeggios in one PianoStaff at the same time.
2888 @node Voice follower lines
2889 @subsection Voice follower lines
2891 @cindex follow voice
2892 @cindex staff switching
2895 @cindex @code{followVoice}
2897 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
2898 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
2899 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
2901 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2902 \context PianoStaff <
2903 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2904 \context Staff \context Voice {
2906 \translator Staff=two
2909 \context Staff=two {\clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2913 The associated grob is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2919 Tablature notation is used music for plucked string instruments. It
2920 notates pitches not by using note heads, but by indicating on which
2921 string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond offers limited
2922 support for tablature, by abusing the fingering system.
2925 * Tablatures basic::
2926 * Non-guitar tablatures::
2927 * Tablature in addition to normal staff::
2930 @node Tablatures basic
2931 @subsection Tablatures basic
2932 @cindex Tablatures basic
2934 Tablature can be typeset with Lilypond by using the
2935 @internalsref{TabStaff} and @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts. As
2936 tablature is a recent feature in Lilypond, most of the guitar special
2937 effects such as hammer, pull, bend are not yet supported.
2939 With the @internalsref{TabStaff}, the string number associated to a note
2940 is given though the fingering mechanism, e.g. @code{c4-3} for a C
2941 quarter on the third string. The string 1 is the lowest one, and the
2942 tuning defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings).
2944 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2947 \property Staff.Stem \override #'direction = #1
2956 @node Non-guitar tablatures
2957 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
2958 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
2960 There are many ways to customize Lilypond tablatures.
2962 First you can change the number of strings, by setting the number of
2963 lines in the @internalsref{TabStaff}. You can change the strings
2964 tuning. A string tuning is given as a Scheme list with one integer
2965 number for each string, the number being the pitch of an open string.
2967 Finally, it is possible to change the Scheme function to format the
2968 tablature note text. The default is @var{fret-number-tablature-format},
2969 which uses the fret number, but for some instruments that may not use
2970 this notation, just create your own tablature-format function. This
2971 function takes three argument: the string number, the string tuning and
2975 @node Tablature in addition to normal staff
2976 @subsection Tablature in addition to normal staff
2977 @cindex Tablature in addition to normal staff
2979 It is possible to typeset both tablature and a "normal" staff, as
2980 commonly done in many parts.
2982 A common trick for that is to put the notes in a variables, and to hide
2983 the fingering information (which correspond to the string number) for
2992 \context StaffGroup <
2994 % Hide fingering number
2995 \property Staff.Fingering \override #'transparent = ##t
3000 \property Staff.Stem \override #'direction = #1
3014 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords.
3015 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3016 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
3026 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
3027 \context Voice \twoWays > }
3030 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
3031 be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not interpret
3032 this as an inversion.
3034 As you can see chords really are a set of pitches. They are internally
3035 stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can enter
3036 chords by name and print them as notes, enter them as notes and print
3037 them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by name, and
3042 * Printing named chords::
3047 @subsection Chords mode
3050 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
3051 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
3052 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
3053 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc). Dashes and carets are used
3054 to indicate chord additions and subtractions, so articulation scripts
3055 can not be entered in Chord mode.
3057 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
3058 using @code{\transpose}.
3060 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3064 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5-
3074 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
3075 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
3076 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
3077 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
3078 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
3079 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
3080 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
3082 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3085 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
3091 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
3092 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
3095 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3104 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
3105 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
3106 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the note
3107 is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
3109 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3119 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
3120 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
3121 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
3122 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
3124 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3133 The formal syntax for named chords is as follows:
3135 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
3138 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration} is
3139 the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
3140 modifiers. One type is formed by @emph{chord additions}. Additions are
3141 obtained by listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written
3142 by its number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising
3143 or lowering by half a step. Chord additions have two effects: they adds
3144 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
3145 chord, and they may lower or raise the specified interval.
3150 Implementation details are gory. For example @code{c:4} not only adds
3151 a fourth, but also removes the third.
3154 @c . {Printing named chords}
3155 @node Printing named chords
3156 @subsection Printing named chords
3158 @cindex printing chord names
3162 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
3163 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
3164 directly using simultaneous music.
3166 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3168 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
3172 \context ChordNames \scheme
3173 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
3178 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
3179 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
3180 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of a
3185 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
3189 \context ChordNames {
3190 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
3192 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
3194 \paper{linewidth= 9.\cm}
3198 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
3199 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
3200 an added bass note, which may result in strange chord names when chords
3201 are entered as a list of pitches:
3203 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
3212 \context ChordNames \scheme
3213 \context Staff \scheme
3219 By default, a chord name system proposed by Harald Banter (See
3220 @ref{Literature}) is used. The system is very regular and predictable.
3221 Typical American style chord names may be selected by setting the
3222 @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName} grob to
3223 @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz chordnames.
3225 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
3226 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
3227 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}. Here's an example showing the differences in
3231 @c maybe just junk verbatim option?
3232 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3242 \context ChordNames = banter \scheme
3243 \context ChordNames = american {
3244 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
3245 #'style = #'american \scheme }
3246 \context ChordNames = jazz {
3247 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
3248 #'style = #'jazz \scheme }
3249 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
3256 @section Writing parts
3258 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
3259 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
3260 problems in orchestral music.
3267 * Instrument names::
3269 * Multi measure rests::
3270 * Automatic part combining::
3271 * Hara kiri staves::
3272 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
3275 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
3276 @node Rehearsal marks
3277 @subsection Rehearsal marks
3278 @cindex Rehearsal marks
3280 @cindex @code{\mark}
3282 To print a rehearsal mark, use the @code{\mark} command.
3283 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3294 As you can see, the mark is incremented automatically if you use
3295 @code{\mark \default}. The value to use is stored in the property
3296 @code{rehearsalMark} is used and automatically incremented. The grob
3297 is @internalsref{RehearsalMark} in @internalsref{Score} context. See
3298 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} if you need boxes around the
3301 The @code{\mark} command can also be used to put signs like coda,
3302 segno and fermatas on a barline. The trick is to use the text markup
3303 mechanism to access the fermata symbol.
3304 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
3305 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-ufermata")
3309 The problem is that marks that occur at a line break are typeset only
3310 at the beginning of the next line, opposite to what you want for the
3311 fermata. This can be corrected by the following property setting
3313 \property Score.RehearsalMark \override
3314 #'visibility-lambda = #begin-of-line-invisible
3320 @cindex barlines, putting symbols on
3324 @subsection Bar numbers
3328 @cindex measure numbers
3329 @cindex currentBarNumber
3331 Bar numbers are printed by default at the start of the line. The
3332 number itself is a property that can be set by modifying the
3333 @code{currentBarNumber} property, i.e.
3335 \property Score.currentBarNumber = #217
3338 If you want boxed bar numbers, see the example file
3339 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly}.
3341 See also @seeinternals{BarNumber}.
3345 Printing bar numbers at regular intervals is not implemented.
3346 Barnumbers can collide with the StaffGroup, if there is one at the
3347 top. To solve this, You have to twiddle with the
3348 @internalsref{padding} property of @internalsref{BarNumber} if your
3349 score starts with a @internalsref{StaffGroup}.
3351 @node Instrument names
3352 @subsection Instrument names
3354 In scores, the instrument name is printed before the staff. This can
3355 be done by setting @code{Staff.instrument} and
3356 @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string before the start of the
3357 staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is used, for the next
3358 ones @code{instr} is used.
3360 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3361 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
3364 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
3368 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3370 '((font-relative-size . -2 ) (music "accidentals--1")))
3373 \property Staff.instrument = #`((kern . 0.5) (lines
3374 "2 Clarinetti" (columns " (B" ,text-flat ")")))
3382 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
3383 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
3384 the name to avoid a collision.
3387 @subsection Transpose
3389 @cindex transposition of pitches
3390 @cindex @code{\transpose}
3392 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
3395 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
3398 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
3401 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
3402 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
3403 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
3406 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
3407 mus =\notes { \key d \major cis d fis g }
3408 \score { \notes \context Staff {
3416 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
3417 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
3418 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
3420 @c . {Multi measure rests}
3421 @node Multi measure rests
3422 @subsection Multi measure rests
3423 @cindex Multi measure rests
3427 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
3428 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
3430 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
3431 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
3432 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
3435 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3436 \time 3/4 r2. | R2. | R2.*2
3437 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
3440 Notice that the @code{R2.} is printed as a whole rest, centered in the
3443 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
3445 The grob for this object is @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
3449 Currently, there is no way to automatically condense multiple rests
3450 into a single multimeasure rest. Multi measure rests do not take part
3453 @cindex condensing rests
3455 @node Automatic part combining
3456 @subsection Automatic part combining
3457 @cindex automatic part combining
3458 @cindex part combiner
3461 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
3462 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting
3463 orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
3464 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they
3465 are typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set
3466 automatically. Also, solo and @emph{a due} parts can be identified
3469 The syntax for part combining is
3472 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
3474 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
3475 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
3476 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
3479 The most useful function of the part combiner is to combine parts into
3480 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
3482 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
3484 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3485 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3488 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3494 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
3495 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
3496 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
3497 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
3498 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
3501 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
3502 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
3504 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
3506 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
3507 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3508 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3511 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3517 There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak the
3518 behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
3519 documentation of @reng{Thread_devnull_engraver} and
3520 @reng{Voice_devnull_engraver}. Look at the documentation of the
3521 responsible engravers, @code{Thread_devnull_engraver},
3522 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
3526 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
3527 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
3530 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
3532 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3533 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3536 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3542 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
3543 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
3544 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
3546 @node Hara kiri staves
3547 @subsection Hara kiri staves
3549 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
3550 This saves some space. LilyPond also supports this through the hara
3551 kiri@footnote{Hara kiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
3552 the Japanese Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when
3553 it finds itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will
3554 not disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
3557 The hara kiri staff is specialized version of the @internalsref{Staff}
3558 context. It is available as the context identifier
3559 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
3560 example disappears in the second line.
3564 \notes \relative c' <
3565 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
3566 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
3570 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
3576 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
3577 @subsection Sound output for transposing instruments
3579 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed
3580 and untransposed instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch
3581 offset (in semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done
3582 using the @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed
3585 @cindex @code{transposing}
3588 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
3589 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
3595 @node Ancient notation
3596 @section Ancient notation
3599 * Ancient note heads::
3606 @node Ancient note heads
3607 @subsection Ancient note heads
3609 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
3610 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
3611 NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
3612 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
3613 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
3615 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
3616 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
3617 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'font-family = #'ancient
3622 @subsection Custodes
3627 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
3628 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
3629 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
3630 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
3631 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
3636 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
3641 \consists Custos_engraver
3647 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century.
3648 There were different appearances for different notation styles.
3649 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
3650 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
3653 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
3654 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
3655 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
3656 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
3657 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
3664 \consists Custos_engraver
3665 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
3670 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
3675 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
3676 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
3681 @subsection Ancient clefs
3683 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient. These can
3684 be selected from the @code{ancient} font family, by setting
3685 @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) to one of the following values
3694 @item clefs-vaticana_do
3695 Editio Vaticana style do clef
3696 @item clefs-vaticana_fa
3697 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
3698 @item clefs-medicaea_do
3699 Editio Medicaea style do clef
3700 @item clefs-medicaea_fa
3701 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
3702 @item clefs-mensural1_c
3703 modern style mensural C clef
3704 @item clefs-mensural2_c
3705 historic style small mensural C clef
3706 @item clefs-mensural3_c
3707 historic style big mensural C clef
3708 @item clefs-mensural1_f
3709 historic style traditional mensural F clef
3710 @item clefs-mensural2_f
3711 historic style new mensural F clef
3712 @item clefs-mensural_g
3713 historic style mensural G clef
3714 @item clefs-hufnagel_do
3715 historic style hufnagel do clef
3716 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa
3717 historic style hufnagel fa clef
3718 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa
3719 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
3720 @item clefs-percussion
3721 modern style percussion clef
3724 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
3725 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
3726 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
3729 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
3730 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
3731 @cindex hufnagel clefs
3735 @subsection Figured bass
3737 @cindex Basso continuo
3739 LilyPond has limited support for figured bass:
3741 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3743 \context FiguredBass
3748 \context Voice { c4 g8 }
3752 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
3753 mode, introduced by @code{\figures}, where you can enter bass figures
3754 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass}
3755 that takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} grobs.
3757 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
3758 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>}.
3763 \context FiguredBass
3767 Accidentals are added to the numbers if you alterate them by
3768 appending @code{-}, @code{!} and @code{+}.
3774 \context FiguredBass
3775 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> }
3778 Spaces or dashes may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
3779 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}.
3785 \context FiguredBass
3786 \figures { < [4 6] 8 [_ 12]> }
3789 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
3790 support, it works much simpler: in figured bass simply stores the
3791 numbers, and then prints the numbers you entered. There is no
3792 conversion to pitches, and no realizations of the bass are played in
3796 @c . {Tuning output}
3798 @section Tuning output
3800 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
3801 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
3802 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
3803 ways to do just that.
3805 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called grobs (graphic
3806 objects). Each grob carries with it a set of properties (grob
3807 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem grob has
3808 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
3810 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
3811 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
3812 temporarily change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus
3813 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
3814 object, and set a grob property in that object.
3817 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
3818 * Tuning per grob ::
3823 @node Tuning groups of grobs
3824 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
3826 @cindex grob description
3830 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a
3831 context property. By assigning to that property (using plain
3832 @code{\property}), you can change the resulting grobs.
3834 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
3835 c'4 \property Voice.Stem = #'()
3838 The @code{\property} assignment effectively empties the definition of
3839 the Stem object. One of the effects is that the recipe of how it should be
3840 printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible. The above
3841 assignment is available as a standard identifier, for the case that you
3845 \property Voice.Stem = \turnOff
3852 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
3853 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
3856 The definition of a grob is actually a list of default grob
3857 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem grob (available in
3858 @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), defines the following values for
3863 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
3864 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
3868 You can add a property on top of the existing definition, or remove a
3869 property, thus overriding the system defaults:
3871 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
3872 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
3875 You should balance @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. If that's too
3876 much work, you can use the @code{\set} shorthand. It performs a revert
3877 followed by an override. The following example gives exactly the same
3878 result as the previous one.
3880 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
3881 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
3884 If you use @code{\set}, you must explicitly restore the default.
3887 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
3889 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3890 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3891 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
3893 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
3894 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
3897 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
3898 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
3899 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
3900 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and @code{\revert},
3901 must be carefully balanced.
3903 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
3906 A clumsy but correct form:
3908 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
3911 Shorter version of the same:
3913 \override \set \set \revert
3916 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
3919 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
3922 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the grob property is unset),
3925 \set \set \set \revert
3928 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
3929 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a
3930 stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
3931 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding
3932 automatic beaming settings.
3936 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
3937 The backend is not very strict in type-checking grob properties. If you
3938 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
3944 @node Tuning per grob
3945 @subsection Tuning per grob
3947 @cindex \outputproperty
3949 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
3950 feature. The syntax is as follows:
3952 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
3954 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
3955 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
3956 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
3957 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
3958 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
3960 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
3961 the appropriate context to apply this to.
3963 Here are some random examples.
3966 In the following example, all note heads occurring at current staff
3967 level, are shifted up and right by setting their @code{extra-offset}
3970 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3972 \context Staff \outputproperty
3973 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
3974 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
3978 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
3980 In this example, the predicate checks the @code{text} grob property, to
3981 shift only the `m.d.' text, but not the fingering instruction "2".
3982 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3983 #(define (make-text-checker text)
3984 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
3987 \notes\relative c''' {
3988 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
3989 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
3990 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
3998 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
3999 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
4004 @node Font selection
4005 @subsection Font selection
4007 The most common thing to change about the appearance of fonts is
4008 their size. The font size of a @internalsref{Voice},
4009 @internalsref{Staff} or @internalsref{Thread} context, can be easily
4010 changed by setting the @code{fontSize} property for that context:
4011 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1]
4012 c4 c4 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
4015 This command will not change the size of variable symbols, such as
4016 beams or slurs. You can use this command to get smaller symbol for
4017 cue notes, but that involves some more subtleties. An elaborate
4018 example of those is in @file{input/test/cue-notes.ly}.
4024 The font used for printing a grob can be selected by setting
4025 @code{font-name}, e.g.
4027 \property Staff.TimeSignature
4028 \set #'font-name = #"cmr17"
4030 You may use any font which is available to @TeX{}, such as foreign
4031 fonts or fonts that do not belong to the Computer Modern font family.
4032 Font selection for the standard fonts, @TeX{}'s Computer Modern fonts,
4033 can also be adjusted with a more fine-grained mechanism. By setting
4034 the grob properties described below, you can select a different font.
4035 All three mechanisms work for every grob that supports
4036 @code{font-interface}.
4040 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
4041 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff
4042 braces), @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{ancient} (the
4043 ancient notation font) @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic signs) and
4047 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
4048 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
4049 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
4052 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
4053 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
4056 @item font-relative-size
4057 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
4058 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
4059 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
4061 @item font-design-size
4062 A number indicating the design size of the font.
4064 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
4065 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
4066 which enhances readability.
4069 For any of these properties, the value @code{*} (i.e. the @emph{symbol},
4070 @code{*}, entered as @code{#'*}), acts as a wildcard. This can be used
4071 to override default setting, which are always present. For example:
4073 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
4074 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-family = #'typewriter
4075 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
4078 @cindex @code{font-style}
4080 There are also pre-cooked font selection qualifiers. These are
4081 selected through the grob property @code{font-style}. For example,
4082 the style @code{finger} selects family @code{number} and relative size
4083 @code{-3}. Styles available include @code{volta}, @code{finger},
4084 @code{tuplet}, @code{timesig}, @code{mmrest}, @code{script},
4085 @code{large}, @code{Large} and @code{dynamic}. The style sheets and
4086 tables for selecting fonts are located in @file{scm/font.scm}. Refer
4087 to this file for more information.
4089 @cindex magnification
4091 The size of the font may be scaled with the grob property
4092 @code{font-magnification}. For example, @code{2.0} blows up all
4093 letters by a factor 2 in both directions.
4097 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
4099 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
4100 family, and the style sheet can not be modified easiyl.
4102 @cindex font selection
4103 @cindex font magnification
4104 @cindex @code{font-interface}
4108 @subsection Text markup
4112 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
4113 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
4114 in the following way.
4116 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4121 c^#'(italic "italic")
4122 d_#'((bold italic) "ff")
4124 f_#'(lines "one" (bold "two"))
4125 g^#'(music "noteheads-2" ((raise . 2.4) "flags-u3"))
4129 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
4130 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
4133 text: string | (head? text+)
4134 head: markup | (markup+)
4135 markup-item: property | abbrev
4136 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
4137 abbrev: @code{columns lines roman music bold italic named super sub}
4138 @code{overstrike text finger volta timesig mmrest mark script}
4139 @code{large Large dynamic}
4142 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
4143 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
4144 pair is a grob property. A list of properties available is included in
4145 the generated documentation for @internalsref{text-interface}.
4147 The following abbreviations are defined:
4150 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
4152 vertical mode: set every text on a new line
4156 selects the Feta font (the standard font for music notation glyphs),
4157 and uses named lookup
4164 lookup by character name
4166 plain text lookup (by character value)
4172 the next text or character overstrikes this one
4174 select fingering number fontstyle
4176 select volta number fontstyle
4178 select time signature number fontstyle
4180 select multi measure rest number fontstyle
4182 select mark number fontstyle
4184 select scriptsize roman fontstyle
4186 select large roman fontstyle
4188 select Large roman fontstyle
4190 select dynamics fontstyle
4194 @cindex metronome mark
4196 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
4200 #(define note '(columns
4201 (music "noteheads-2" ((kern . -0.1) "flags-stem"))))
4202 #(define eight-note `(columns ,note ((kern . -0.1)
4203 (music ((raise . 3.5) "flags-u3")))))
4204 #(define dotted-eight-note
4205 `(columns ,eight-note (music "dots-dot")))
4208 \notes\relative c'' {
4209 a1^#`((columns (font-relative-size . -1)) ,dotted-eight-note " = 64")
4215 TextScript \override #'font-shape = #'upright
4223 The syntax and semantics of markup texts are not clean, and both
4224 syntax and semantics are slated for a rewrite.
4226 LilyPond does not do kerning, and there generally spaces texts
4232 @section Global layout
4234 The global layout determined by three factors: the page layout, the
4235 iline breaks and the spacing. These all influence each other: The
4236 choice of spacing determines how densely each system of music is set,
4237 whree line breaks breaks are chosen, and thus ultimately how many
4238 pages a piece of music takes. In this section we will explain how the
4239 lilypond spacing engine works, and how you can tune its results.
4241 Globally spoken, this procedure happens in three steps: first,
4242 flexible distances (``springs'') are chosen, based on durations. All
4243 possible line breaking combination are tried, and the one with the
4244 best results---a layout that has uniform density and requires as
4245 little stretching or cramping as possible---is chosen. When the score
4246 is processed by @TeX{}, page are filled with systems, and page breaks
4247 are chosen whenever the page gets full.
4250 * Vertical spacing::
4251 * Horizontal spacing::
4258 @node Vertical spacing
4259 @subsection Vertical spacing
4261 @cindex vertical spacing
4262 @cindex distance between staffs
4263 @cindex staff distance
4264 @cindex between staves, distance
4266 The height of each system is determined automatically by lilypond, to
4267 keep systems from bumping into each other, some minimum distances are
4268 set. By changing these, you can put staffs closer together, and thus
4269 put more systems onto one page.
4271 Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make
4272 staves maintain a distance, their vertical size is padded. This is
4273 done with the property @code{minimumVerticalExtent}. It takes a pair
4274 of numbers, so if you want to make it smaller from its, then you could
4277 \property Staff.minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4 . 4)
4279 This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 4 staff-space on
4280 either side of the center staff line. The argument of
4281 @code{minimumVerticalExtent} is interpreted as an interval, where the
4282 center line is the 0, so the first number is generally negative. you
4283 could also make the staff larger at the bottom by setting it to
4284 @code{(-6 . 4)}. The default value is @code{(-6 . 6)}.
4286 Vertical aligment of staves is handled by the
4287 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} grob, which lives at
4288 @internalsref{Score} level.
4290 The piano staffs are handled a little differently: to make cross-staff
4291 beaming work correctly, it necessary that the distance between staves
4292 is fixed. This is also done with a @internalsref{VerticalAlignment}
4293 grob, created in @internalsref{PianoStaff}, but a forced distance is
4294 set. This is done with the grob property #'forced-distance. If you
4295 want to override this, use a @code{\translator} block as follows:
4299 VerticalAlignment \override #'forced-distance = #9
4302 This would bring the staffs together at a distance of 9 staff spaces,
4303 and again this is measured from the center line of each staff.
4307 @node Horizontal spacing
4308 @subsection Horizontal Spacing
4310 The spacing engine translates differences in durations into
4311 stretchable distances (``springs'') of differing lengths. Longer
4312 durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The basis for
4313 assigning spaces to durations, is that the shortest durations get a
4314 fixed amount of space, and the longer durations get more: doubling a
4315 duration adds a fixed amount of space to the note.
4317 For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter and
4318 8th notes, the eighth note is followed by 1 note head width. The The
4319 quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by 3 NHW, etc.
4320 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=1]
4321 c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
4324 These two amounts of space are @code{shortest-duration-space}
4325 @code{spacing-increment}, grob properties of
4326 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}. Normally @code{spacing-increment} is
4327 set to 1.2, which is the width of a note head, and
4328 @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to 2.0, meaning that the
4329 shortest note gets 2 noteheads of space. For normal notes, this space
4330 is always counted from the left edge of the symbol, so the short notes
4331 in a score is generally followed by one note head width of space.
4333 If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single
4334 32th note to a score that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the
4335 entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a 16th, but a 64th,
4336 thus adding 2 noteheads of space to every note. To prevent this, the
4337 shortest duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score,
4338 but the most commonly found shortest note. Notes that are even
4339 shorter this are followed by a space that is proportonial to their
4340 duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add
4341 only a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by
4344 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=1]
4345 c2 c4. c8 c4. [c16 c] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
4348 The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every
4349 measure, the shortest duration is determined. The most common short
4350 duration, is taken as the basis for the spacing, with the stipulation
4351 that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than
4352 1/8th note. The shortest duration is printed when you run lilypond
4353 with @code{--verbose}. These durations may also be customized. If you
4354 set the @code{common-shortest-duration} in
4355 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, then this sets the base duration for
4356 spacing. The maximum duration for this base (normally 1/8th), is set
4357 through @code{base-shortest-duration}.
4359 @cindex @code{common-shortest-duration}
4360 @cindex @code{base-shortest-duration}
4361 @cindex @code{stem-spacing-correction}
4362 @cindex @code{spacing}
4364 In the introduction it was explained that stem directions influence
4365 spacing. This is controlled with @code{stem-spacing-correction} in
4366 @internalsref{NoteSpacing}. The @code{StaffSpacing} grob contains the
4367 same property for controlling the stem/barline spacing. In the
4368 following example shows these corrections, once with default settings,
4369 and once with exaggerated corrections.
4375 \property Staff.NoteSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
4377 \property Staff.StaffSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
4382 \paper { linewidth = -1. } }
4389 Spacing is determined on a score wide basis. If you have a score that
4390 changes its character (measured in durations) half way during the
4391 score, the part containing the longer durations will be spaced too
4394 Generating optically pleasing spacing is black magic. LilyPond tries
4395 to deal with a number of frequent cases. Here is an example that is
4396 not handled correctly, due to the combination of chord collisions and
4401 \context PianoStaff \notes \transpose c''' <
4402 \context Staff = up { s1 }
4403 \context Staff = down { [c8 c \translator Staff=up <c d> c
4404 \translator Staff=down c c c] }
4406 \paper { linewidth = -1 }
4413 @subsection Font size
4414 @cindex font size, setting
4415 @cindex staff size, setting
4416 @cindex @code{paper} file
4418 The Feta font provides musical symbols at seven different sizes.
4419 These fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 19 pt, 20 point, 23
4420 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the height of the
4421 five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
4423 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
4424 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 19, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any
4425 of these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven},
4426 @code{paperThirteen}, @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperNineteen},
4427 @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and @code{paperTwentysix}
4428 are defined respectively. The default @code{\paper} block is also
4429 set. These files should be imported at toplevel, i.e.
4431 \include "paper26.ly"
4435 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
4436 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
4441 @subsection Line breaking
4444 @cindex breaking lines
4446 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
4447 that it looks neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines have
4450 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can
4451 do this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at
4452 this point. Line breaks can only occur at places where there are bar
4453 lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line,
4454 you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
4455 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain
4459 @cindex regular line breaks
4460 @cindex four bar music.
4462 If you want linebreaks at regular intervals, you can use the following:
4464 < \repeat 7 unfold @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
4468 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
4472 @subsection Page layout
4475 @cindex breaking pages
4477 @cindex @code{indent}
4478 @cindex @code{linewidth}
4480 The most basic settings influencing the spacing are @code{linewidth}
4481 and @code{indent}, both set in the @code{\paper} block. They control
4482 the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of the
4483 lines. If @code{linewidth} set to a negative value, a single
4484 unjustified line is produced. A similar effect for scores that are
4485 longer than one line, can be produced by setting @code{raggedright} to
4486 true in the @code{\paper} block.
4490 The page layout process happens outside lilypond. Ly2dvi sets page
4491 layout instructions. Ly2dvi responds to the following variables in the
4492 @code{\paper} block. The variable @code{textheight} sets the total
4493 height of the music on each page. The spacing between systems is
4494 controlled with @code{interscoreline}, its default is 16pt.
4495 The distance between the score lines will stretch in order to fill the
4496 full page @code{interscorelinefill} is set to a positive number. In
4497 that case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
4499 @cindex @code{textheight}
4500 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
4501 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
4503 If the variable @code{lastpagefill} is defined (that is, it gets any
4504 value assigned in the @code{\paper} block), systems are evenly
4505 distributed vertically on the last page. This might produce ugly
4506 results in case there are not enough systems on the last page. Note
4507 that @command{lilypond-book} ignores @code{lastpagefill}. See
4508 @ref{Insert music snippets into your texts using lilypond-book} for
4511 @cindex @code{lastpagefill}
4513 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
4514 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into
4515 the @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages. You
4516 can insert a @code{\newpage} from within lilypond. This is done by
4517 setting the @code{between-systems-strings} on the
4518 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn} where the system is broken.
4522 @cindex @code{papersize}
4524 To change the paper size, you must first set the
4525 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
4526 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
4527 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
4528 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
4531 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
4532 \include "paper16.ly"
4535 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
4536 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
4537 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
4547 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
4548 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, etc., but it
4549 is good enough for proof-hearing the music you have entered. Ties,
4550 dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
4552 Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume
4553 levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available
4554 MIDI volume range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary
4555 linearly between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
4556 overriding the @code{absolute-volume-alist} defined in
4557 @file{scm/midi.scm}.
4559 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
4560 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
4561 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. You can add
4562 instruments and ranges or change the default settings by overriding the
4563 @code{instrument-equalizer-alist} defined in @file{scm/midi.scm}.
4565 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
4571 * MIDI instrument names::
4576 @subsection MIDI block
4580 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
4581 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
4585 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
4586 @item context definitions
4589 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
4593 @cindex context definition
4595 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
4596 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
4597 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer-init.ly}.
4600 @node MIDI instrument names
4601 @subsection MIDI instrument names
4603 @cindex instrument names
4604 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
4605 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
4607 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
4608 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
4609 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
4610 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
4614 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
4615 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by