3 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
4 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
5 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
7 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
10 @node Reference Manual
11 @chapter Reference Manual
14 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
18 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
19 revision of this document was made for LilyPond 1.7.11. It assumes
20 that you already know a little bit about LilyPond input (how to make
21 an input file, how to create sheet music from that input file, etc).
22 New users are encouraged to study the tutorial before reading this
27 * Easier music entry::
42 * Contemporary notation::
48 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
54 Notes constitute the most basic elements of LilyPond input, but they do
55 not form valid input on their own without a @code{\score} block. However,
56 for the sake of brevity and simplicity we will generally omit
57 @code{\score} blocks and @code{\paper} declarations in this manual.
63 * Chromatic alterations::
68 * Automatic note splitting ::
70 * Easy Notation note heads ::
78 A note is printed by specifying its pitch and then its duration.
79 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
88 @cindex Note specification
90 @cindex entering notes
92 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
99 where @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object.
101 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The
102 default names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by
103 the letters @code{a} through @code{g}, while the octave is formed with
104 notes ranging from @code{c} to @code{b}. The pitch @code{c} is an
105 octave below middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
107 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
109 a,4 b, c d e f g a b c' d' e' \clef treble f' g' a' b' c''
112 @cindex note names, Dutch
114 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
115 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and
116 double flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}.
117 @code{aes} is contracted to @code{as} in Dutch, but both forms are
118 accepted. Similarly, both @code{es} and @code{ees} are accepted.
120 There are predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
121 To use them, include the language specific init file. For
122 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files
123 and the note names they define are:
128 Note Names sharp flat
129 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
130 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
131 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
132 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
133 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
134 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
135 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
136 espanol.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -s -b
145 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
146 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
147 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
148 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
150 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
151 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
157 @internalsref{NoteEvent}, @internalsref{NoteHead}
159 @node Chromatic alterations
160 @subsection Chromatic alterations
162 Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also
163 print them manually. A reminder accidental
164 @cindex reminder accidental
166 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!}
167 after the pitch. A cautionary accidental
168 @cindex cautionary accidental
169 @cindex parenthesized accidental
170 (an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the
171 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
173 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
174 cis' cis' cis'! cis'?
178 The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many
179 ways. For more information, refer to @ref{Accidentals}.
186 Rests are entered like notes, with the note name @code{r}.
188 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
192 Whole bar rests, centered in middle of the bar, are specified using
193 @code{R} (capital R); see @ref{Multi measure rests}. See also
196 For some music, you may wish to explicitly specify the rest's vertical
197 position. This can be achieved by entering a note with the @code{\rest}
198 keyword appended. Rest collision testing will leave these rests alone.
200 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
204 @internalsref{RestEvent}, @internalsref{Rest}
211 @cindex Invisible rest
214 An invisible rest (also called a `skip') can be entered like a note
215 with note name `@code{s}' or with @code{\skip @var{duration}}:
217 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
221 The @code{s} syntax is only available in Note mode and Chord
222 mode. In other situations, you should use the @code{\skip} command,
223 which will work outside of those two modes:
225 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
228 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
229 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
234 The skip command is merely an empty musical placeholder. It does not
235 produce any output, not even transparent output.
239 @internalsref{SkipEvent}
244 @subsection Durations
248 @cindex @code{\duration}
251 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations are designated by numbers
252 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For example,
253 a quarter note is entered using a @code{4} (since it is a 1/4 note), while
254 a half note is entered using a @code{2} (since it is a 1/2 note). For notes
255 longer than a whole you must use identifiers.
256 @c FIXME: what is an identifier? I do not think it's been introduced yet.
257 @c and if it has, I obviously skipped that part. - Graham
261 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
263 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
268 \notes \relative c'' {
270 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
272 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
277 \remove "Clef_engraver"
278 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
279 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
280 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
287 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previously entered
288 duration. Default for the first note is a quarter note. The duration
289 can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') in order to obtain dotted note
293 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
294 a' b' c''8 b' a'4 a'4. b'4.. c'8.
299 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M}
300 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
301 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
303 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
304 a'2*2 b'4*2 a'8*4 a'4*3/2 gis'4*3/2 a'4*3/2 a'4
307 Durations can also be produced through GUILE extension mechanism.
308 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
309 c'\duration #(ly:make-duration 2 1)
315 Dot placement for chords is not perfect. In some cases, dots overlap:
328 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in
329 effect extends the length of a note. Ties should not be confused with
330 slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate
331 musical phrasing. A tie is entered using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'.
333 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
334 e' ~ e' <<c' e' g'>> ~ <<c' e' g'>>
337 When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads (whose pitches match) are
338 connected. If you try to tie together chords that have no common pitches,
339 no ties will be created.
341 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
342 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
343 exactly the same concept.
345 @lilypond[fragment, singleline,quote]
346 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
348 If you need to tie notes over bars, it may be easier to use automatic
349 note splitting (See @ref{Automatic note splitting}).
354 @internalsref{TieEvent}, @internalsref{NewTieEvent},
355 @internalsref{Tie}, @ref{Automatic note splitting}.
358 ties created for a chord, see @inputfileref{input/test,tie-sparse.ly}.
362 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a pair of chords is not
363 supported in a simple way. It can be achieved by moving the
364 tie-engraver into the @internalsref{Thread} context and turning on and
365 off ties per @internalsref{Thread}.
367 Switching staves when a tie is active, will produce a horizontal tie
371 Formatting of ties is a difficult subject. LilyPond often does not
372 give optimal results.
376 @node Automatic note splitting
377 @subsection Automatic note splitting
378 @c FIXME: This subsection does not belong in @ref{Note entry}.
380 LilyPond can automatically converting long notes to tied notes. This
381 is done by replacing the @internalsref{Note_heads_engraver} by the
382 @internalsref{Completion_heads_engraver}.
384 @lilypond[verbatim,noindent]
386 \notes\relative c'{ \time 2/4
387 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
391 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
392 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
396 This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts
397 ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are
398 not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how much each measure
403 Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be
404 represented exactly; the engraver will not insert tuplets.
411 @cindex @code{\times}
413 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all durations
416 @cindex @code{\times}
418 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
421 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
422 In the sheet music, the fraction's denominator will be printed over
423 the notes, optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the
424 triplet in which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3
425 of their written length:
427 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
428 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
431 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
432 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
433 @code{\times} only once, saving you lots of typing.
435 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
436 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
437 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
440 The format of the number is determined by the property
441 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
442 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
443 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
447 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
448 @cindex tuplet formatting
450 See also @seeinternals{TupletBracket}.
454 Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically. In this case, outer
455 tuplet brackets should be moved manually.
457 @node Easy Notation note heads
458 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
460 @cindex easy notation
463 The "easyplay" note head includes a note name inside the head. It is
464 used in music aimed at beginners.
466 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,26pt]
468 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
469 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
473 The @code{EasyNotation} identifier overrides a @internalsref{Score}
474 context. You probably will want to print it with magnification or a
475 large font size to make it more readable. To print with
476 magnification, you must create a DVI file (with @file{ly2dvi}) and
477 then enlarge it with something like @file{dvips -x 2000 file.dvi}.
478 See @file{man dvips} for details. To print with a larger font, see
485 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through
486 the letters. Printing the PostScript file obtained with ly2dvi does
487 produce the correct result.
490 @node Easier music entry
491 @section Easier music entry
496 * Skipping corrected music::
499 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce
500 errors. This section deals with tricks and features that help you
501 enter music, and find and correct mistakes. It is also possible to
502 use external programs to enter or edit music. Refer to the website for
507 @node Relative octaves
508 @subsection Relative octaves
510 @cindex relative octave specification
512 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
513 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
514 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
515 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
517 @cindex @code{\relative}
519 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
522 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
523 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
524 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
525 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
526 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
529 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
530 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
531 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
532 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
534 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
535 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
541 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
542 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
547 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
548 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
549 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
552 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
559 @cindex @code{\notes}
561 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
562 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
563 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
566 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
567 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
568 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
569 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
573 @subsection Bar check
577 @cindex @code{barCheckSynchronize}
581 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
582 message is issued if it does not fall at a measure boundary. This can
583 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
584 @code{barCheckSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
585 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
587 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, `@code{|}'.
589 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
594 @cindex skipTypesetting
596 Failed bar checks are caused by entering incorrect
597 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
598 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the
599 score by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To
600 speed up this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting}, described
603 @node Skipping corrected music
604 @subsection Skipping corrected music
606 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
607 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
608 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
609 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
612 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
614 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
616 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
624 @section Staff notation
626 This section deals with music notation that occurs on staff level,
627 such as keys, clefs and time signatures.
629 @cindex Staff notation
641 @subsection Staff symbol
643 @cindex adjusting staff symbol
644 @cindex StaffSymbol, using \property
645 @cindex staff lines, setting number of
647 Staff is a the general name for Notes, dynamic signs, etc. are grouped
648 with a set of horizontal lines, into a staff (plural `staves'). In our
649 system, these lines are drawn using a separate graphical object called
652 This object is created whenever a @internalsref{Staff} context is
653 created. You can not change the appearance of the staff symbol by
654 using @code{\override} or @code{\set}. At the moment that
655 @code{\property Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and
656 the @internalsref{StaffSymbol} is created before any @code{\override} is
657 effective. You can deal with this either overriding properties in a
658 @code{\translator} definition, or by using @code{\outputproperty}.
662 If you end a staff halfway a piece, the staff symbol may not end
663 exactly on the barline.
667 @subsection Key signature
672 The key signature indicates the scale in which a piece is played. It
673 is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of
678 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
681 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
684 @cindex @code{\minor}
685 @cindex @code{\major}
686 @cindex @code{\minor}
687 @cindex @code{\ionian}
688 @cindex @code{\locrian}
689 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
690 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
691 @cindex @code{\lydian}
692 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
693 @cindex @code{\dorian}
695 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
696 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
697 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
698 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
699 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
701 This command sets the context property
702 @internalsref{Staff}.@code{keySignature}. Non-standard key signatures
703 can be specified by setting this property directly.
708 @internalsref{KeyChangeEvent}, @internalsref{KeySignature},
710 @cindex @code{keySignature}
717 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
722 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command:
723 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
724 \key f\major c''2 \clef alto g'2
727 Supported clef-names include
728 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
730 @item treble, violin, G, G2
739 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
754 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
755 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. You have to
756 enclose @var{clefname} in quotes if you use underscores or digits in the
762 This command is equivalent to setting @code{clefGlyph},
763 @code{clefPosition} (which controls the Y position of the clef),
764 @code{centralCPosition} and @code{clefOctavation}. A clef is printed
765 when any of these properties are changed.
769 The object for this symbol is @internalsref{Clef}.
775 @subsection Time signature
776 @cindex Time signature
780 Time signature indicates the metrum of a piece: a regular pattern of
781 strong and weak beats. It is denoted by a fraction at the start of the
786 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
788 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
789 \time 2/4 c'2 \time 3/4 c'2.
792 The actual symbol that is printed can be customized with the
793 @code{style} property. Setting it to @code{#'()} uses fraction style
794 for 4/4 and 2/2 time. There are many more options for its layout.
795 See @inputfileref{input/test,time.ly} for more examples.
798 This command sets the property @code{timeSignatureFraction},
799 @code{beatLength} and @code{measureLength} in the @code{Timing}
800 context, which is normally aliased to @internalsref{Score}. The property
801 @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines should be
802 inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated. Changing the
803 value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a time signature
804 symbol to be printed.
806 More options are available through the Scheme function
807 @code{set-time-signature}. In combination with the
808 @internalsref{Measure_grouping_engraver}, it will create
809 @internalsref{MeasureGrouping} signs. Such signs ease reading
810 rhythmically complex modern music. In the following example, the 9/8
811 measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to
812 @code{set-time-signature} as the third argument @code{(2 2 2 3)}.
815 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
816 #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3))
817 g8-[ g-] d-[ d-] g-[ g-] a8-[-( bes g-]-) |
818 #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2))
823 \translator { \StaffContext
824 \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
830 @internalsref{TimeSignature}, @internalsref{Timing_engraver}.
835 Automatic beaming does not use measure grouping specified with
836 @code{set-time-signature}.
843 @cindex partial measure
844 @cindex measure, partial
845 @cindex shorten measures
846 @cindex @code{\partial}
848 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
849 @code{\partial} command:
850 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
851 \partial 16*5 c'16 c4 f16 a'2. ~ a'8. a'16 | g'1
854 The syntax for this command is
856 \partial @var{duration}
858 This is internally translated into
860 \property Timing.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
863 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
864 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
866 @node Unmetered music
867 @subsection Unmetered music
869 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
870 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. By setting
871 @code{Score.timing} to false, this automatic timing can be switched
875 @subsection Bar lines
879 @cindex measure lines
883 Bar lines delimit measures, but are also used to indicate
884 repeats. Line breaks may only happen on barlines.
888 Bar lines are inserted automatically, but if you need a special type
889 of barline, you can force one using the @code{\bar} command:
890 @lilypond[relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
894 The following bar types are available
895 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
907 In scores with many staves, the barlines are automatically placed at
908 top level, and they are connected between different staves of a
909 @internalsref{StaffGroup}:
910 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
911 < \context StaffGroup <
912 \context Staff = up { e'4 d'
915 \context Staff = down { \clef bass c4 g e g } >
916 \context Staff = pedal { \clef bass c2 c2 } >
920 The command @code{\bar @var{bartype}} is a short cut for
921 doing @code{\property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}}
922 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
923 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
924 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
925 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
927 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
928 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
929 @code{whichBar} settings.
932 @cindex repeatCommands
933 @cindex defaultBarType
935 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
945 The bar line objects that are created at @internalsref{Staff} level
946 are called @internalsref{BarLine}, the bar lines that span staffs are
947 @internalsref{SpanBar}s.
954 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff
955 is to split chords using the separator @code{\\}. You can use it for
956 small, short-lived voices (make a chord of voices) or for single
959 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
960 \context Voice = VA \relative c'' {
961 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ b, \\ f' \\ d' >
965 The separator causes @internalsref{Voice} contexts to be instantiated,
966 bearing the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc. In each of these
967 contexts, vertical direction of slurs, stems, etc. are set
970 This can also be done by instantiating @internalsref{Voice} contexts
971 by hand, and using @code{\voiceOne}, up to @code{\voiceFour} to assign
972 a stem directions and horizontal shift for each part.
975 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
977 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
978 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
979 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
982 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
983 if you set the object property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
984 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
985 \relative c' \context Voice < {
987 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override
988 #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
990 } \\ { [g8. f16] [g8. f16] }
994 Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting
995 @code{merge-differently-headed}:
996 @lilypond[fragment, relative=2,verbatim]
999 \property Staff.NoteCollision
1000 \override #'merge-differently-headed = ##t
1001 c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >
1004 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
1006 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1007 \context Voice < c''4 \\ r4 >
1012 The objects responsible for resolving collisions are
1013 @internalsref{NoteCollision} and @internalsref{RestCollision}. See
1014 also example files @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-dots.ly},
1015 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-head-chords.ly},
1016 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-heads.ly},
1017 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-mesh.ly}, and
1018 @inputfileref{input/regression,collisions.ly}.
1023 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
1024 handles a few situations. When it can not cope, you are advised to use
1025 @code{force-hshift} of the @internalsref{NoteColumn} object and pitched
1026 rests to override typesetting decisions.
1031 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
1032 the metrum. They are inserted automatically in most cases.
1034 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1035 \time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
1038 If you are not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can enter the
1039 beams explicitly. If you have beaming patterns that differ from the
1040 defaults, you can also set your own.
1042 See also @internalsref{Beam}.
1045 @cindex Automatic beams
1046 @subsection Manual beams
1047 @cindex beams, manual
1051 In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming
1052 algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over rests or
1053 bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point manually
1054 using @code{[} and @code{]}.
1056 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1058 r4 r8-[ g' a r8-] r8 g-[ | a-] r8
1062 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1064 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1065 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1066 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount} can
1067 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
1068 property, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1070 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1073 f8-[ r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a-]
1076 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1079 The property @code{subdivideBeams} can be set in order to subdivide
1080 all 16th or shorter beams at beat positions. This accomplishes the
1081 same effect as twiddling with @code{stemLeftBeamCount} and
1082 @code{stemRightBeamCount}, but it take less typing.
1085 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,noindent]
1086 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1087 \property Voice.subdivideBeams = ##t
1088 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1089 c32-[ c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c-]
1090 \property Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
1091 c32-[ c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c-]
1093 @cindex subdivideBeams
1095 Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap is detected
1096 between the note heads. This behavior can be tuned through the object
1097 property @code{auto-knee-gap}.
1099 @cindex beams, kneed
1101 @cindex auto-knee-gap
1109 Automatically kneed beams can not be used together with Hara Kiri
1114 * Setting automatic beam behavior ::
1118 @no de Beam typography
1119 @sub section Beam typography
1121 One of the strong points of LilyPond is how beams are formatted. Beams
1122 are quantized, meaning that the left and right endpoints beams start
1123 exactly on staff lines. Without quantization, small wedges of white
1124 space appear between the beam and staff line, and this looks untidy.
1126 Beams are also slope-damped: melodies that go up or down should also
1127 have beams that go up or down, but the slope of the beams should be
1128 less than the slope of the notes themselves.
1130 Some beams should be horizontal. These are so-called concave beams.
1132 [TODO: some pictures.]
1136 @node Setting automatic beam behavior
1137 @subsection Setting automatic beam behavior
1139 @cindex @code{autoBeamSettings}
1140 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
1141 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
1142 @cindex automatic beams, tuning
1143 @cindex tuning automatic beaming
1145 [TODO: use \applycontext]
1147 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
1148 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
1149 or at durations specified by the properties in
1150 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
1151 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
1153 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
1154 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
1156 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
1157 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
1159 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
1160 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
1161 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
1162 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
1163 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
1166 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
1167 you can use the following:
1169 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1170 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
1172 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1173 entered as @code{(ly:make-moment 1 4)}.
1175 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1176 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
1178 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1179 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1181 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1182 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1183 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1185 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
1186 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1187 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1188 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1190 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1191 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1194 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
1195 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
1196 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
1197 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
1200 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1201 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1203 @cindex automatic beam generation
1205 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeaming}
1208 For melodies that have lyrics, you may want to switch off
1209 automatic beaming. This is done by setting @code{Voice.autoBeaming} to
1215 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1216 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1217 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
1219 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,relative,noverbatim,quote]
1220 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1221 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1222 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c-[ c c c-] c8 c c4
1224 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1225 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1226 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1229 @section Accidentals
1232 This section describes how to change the way that LilyPond automatically
1233 inserts accidentals before the running notes.
1235 [TODO: identifier vs. macro]
1238 * Using the predefined accidental macros::
1239 * Defining your own accidental typesettings::
1242 @node Using the predefined accidental macros
1243 @subsection Using the predefined accidental macros
1244 The constructs for describing the accidental typesetting rules are
1245 quite hairy, so non-experts should stick to the macros defined in
1246 @file{ly/property-init.ly}.
1247 @cindex @file{property-init.ly}
1249 The macros operate on the ``Current'' context (see @ref{Context properties}). This
1250 means that the macros shuold normally be invoked right after the
1251 creation of the context in which the accidental typesetting described
1252 by the macro is to take effect. I.e. if you want to use
1253 piano-accidentals in a pianostaff then you issue
1254 @code{\pianoAccidentals} first thing after the creation of the piano
1258 \notes \relative c'' <
1259 \context Staff = sa @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1260 \context GrandStaff <
1262 \context Staff = sb @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1263 \context Staff = sc @{ es2 c @}
1265 \context Staff = sd @{ es2 c @}
1269 @lilypond[singleline]
1271 \notes \relative c'' <
1272 \context Staff = sa { cis4 d e2 }
1273 \context GrandStaff <
1275 \context Staff = sb { cis4 d e2 }
1276 \context Staff = sc { es2 c }
1278 \context Staff = sd { es2 c }
1283 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 4.0)
1291 @item \defaultAccidentals
1292 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1293 This is the default typesetting behaviour. It should correspond
1294 to 18th century common practice: Accidentals are
1295 remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and
1296 only on their own octave.
1298 @item \voiceAccidentals
1299 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1300 The normal behaviour is to remember the accidentals on
1302 This macro, however, typesets accidentals individually for each
1304 Apart from that the rule is similar to
1305 @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1307 This leads to some weird and often unwanted results
1308 because accidentals from one voice do not get cancelled in other
1310 @lilypond[singleline,relative,fragment,verbatim,quote]
1318 Hence you should only use @code{\voiceAccidentals} if the voices
1319 are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff is to be
1320 used by one musician (e.g., a conductor) then you use
1321 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals} or @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1324 @item \modernAccidentals
1325 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1326 This rule corresponds to the common practice in the 20th
1328 The rule is more complex than @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1329 You get all the same accidentals, but temporary
1330 accidentals also get cancelled in other octaves. Further more,
1331 in the same octave, they also get cancelled in the following measure:
1332 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1334 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1337 @item \modernCautionaries
1338 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1339 This rule is similar to @code{\modernAccidentals}, but the
1340 ``extra'' accidentals (the ones not typeset by
1341 @code{\defaultAccidentals}) are typeset as cautionary accidentals
1342 (i.e. in reduced size):
1343 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1345 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1348 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1349 @item \modernVoiceAccidentals
1350 is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians
1351 playing one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are
1352 typeset for each voice, but they @emph{are} cancelled across voices in
1353 the same @internalsref{Staff}.
1355 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1356 @item \modernVoiceCautionaries
1358 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}, but with the extra accidentals (the
1359 ones not typeset by @code{\voiceAccidentals}) typeset as cautionaries.
1360 Even though all accidentals typeset by @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1361 @emph{are} typeset by this macro then some of them are typeset as
1364 @item \pianoAccidentals
1365 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1366 20th century practice for piano notation. Very similar to
1367 @code{\modernAccidentals} but accidentals also get cancelled
1368 across the staves in the same @internalsref{GrandStaff} or
1369 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.
1371 @item \pianoCautionaries
1372 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1373 As @code{\pianoAccidentals} but with the extra accidentals
1374 typeset as cautionaries.
1377 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1378 Same as @code{\defaultAccidentals} but with accidentals lasting
1379 ``forever'' and not only until the next measure:
1380 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1385 @item \forgetAccidentals
1386 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1387 This is sort of the opposite of @code{\noResetKey}: Accidentals
1388 are not remembered at all - and hence all accidentals are
1389 typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what was
1390 before in the music:
1391 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1393 \key d\major c4 c cis cis d d dis dis
1397 @node Defining your own accidental typesettings
1398 @subsection Defining your own accidental typesettings
1400 This section must be considered gurus-only, and hence it must be
1401 sufficient with a short description of the system and a reference to
1402 the internal documentation.
1404 The algorithm tries several different rules, and uses the rule
1405 that gives the highest number of accidentals. Each rule consists of
1408 In which context is the rule applied. For example, if
1409 @var{context} is @internalsref{Score} then all staves share
1410 accidentals, and if @var{context} is @internalsref{Staff} then all
1411 voices in the same staff share accidentals, but staves do not.
1413 Whether the accidental changes all octaves or only the current
1416 Over how many barlines the accidental lasts.
1417 If @var{lazyness} is @code{-1} then the accidental is forget
1418 immediately, and if @var{lazyness} is @code{#t} then the accidental
1421 [TODO: should use +infinity for this case?]
1427 @internalsref{Accidental_engraver}, @internalsref{Accidental},
1428 @internalsref{AccidentalPlacement}.
1433 Currently the simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in
1434 sequential mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are
1435 typeset as if the notes in the chord happened one at a time - in the
1436 order in which they appear in the input file.
1438 This is only a problem when there are simultaneous notes whose
1439 accidentals depend on each other. The problem only occurs when using
1440 non-default accidentals. In the default scheme, accidentals only
1441 depend on other accidentals with the same pitch on the same staff, so
1442 no conflicts possible.
1444 This example shows two examples of the same music giving different
1445 accidentals depending on the order in which the notes occur in the
1448 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1449 \property Staff.autoAccidentals = #'( Staff (any-octave . 0) )
1450 cis'4 <<c'' c'>> r2 | cis'4 <<c' c''>> r2
1451 | <<cis' c''>> r | <<c'' cis'>> r |
1454 This problem can be solved by manually inserting @code{!} and @code{?}
1455 for the problematic notes.
1457 @node Expressive marks
1458 @section Expressive marks
1467 * Analysis brackets::
1474 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1478 They are entered using parentheses:
1479 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1480 f'-( g'-)-( a'-) [a'8 b'-(-] a'4 g'2 f'4-)
1481 <<c' e'>>2-( <<b d'>>2-)
1485 @c TODO: should explain that ^( and _( set directions
1486 @c should set attachments with ^ and _ ?
1488 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1489 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1490 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1491 object property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1492 @internalsref{Voice} context. Its value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1493 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1495 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1497 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1499 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1503 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1504 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1505 stems might look better:
1507 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1510 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1516 @seeinternals{Slur}, @internalsref{SlurEvent}.
1521 Producing nice slurs is a difficult problem, and LilyPond currently
1522 uses a simple, empiric method to produce slurs. In some cases, the
1523 results of this method are ugly.
1526 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1528 @node Phrasing slurs
1529 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1531 @cindex phrasing slurs
1532 @cindex phrasing marks
1534 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1535 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1538 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1539 \time 6/4 c'-\( d-( e-) f-( e-) d-\)
1542 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a
1543 normal slur. Although they behave similar to normal slurs, phrasing
1544 slurs count as different objects. A @code{\slurUp} will have no
1545 effect on a phrasing slur; instead, you should use
1546 @code{\phrasingSlurUp}, @code{\phrasingSlurDown}, and
1547 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}.
1549 The commands @code{\slurUp}, @code{\slurDown}, and @code{\slurBoth}
1550 will only affect normal slurs and not phrasing slurs.
1554 See also @internalsref{PhrasingSlur},
1555 @internalsref{PhrasingSlurEvent}.
1559 Phrasing slurs have the same limitations in their formatting as normal
1563 @subsection Breath marks
1565 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}.
1568 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1572 The glyph of the breath mark can be tweaked by overriding the
1573 @code{text} property of the @code{BreathingSign} grob with the name of
1574 any glyph of @ref{The Feta font}. For example,
1575 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative]
1577 \property Voice.BreathingSign \override #'text = #"scripts-rvarcomma"
1584 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
1585 @inputfileref{input/regression,breathing-sign.ly}.
1591 @cindex beats per minute
1592 @cindex metronome marking
1594 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1596 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1598 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1601 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1606 @internalsref{TempoEvent}
1610 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1611 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1612 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1614 [TODO: make note markup.]
1618 @subsection Text spanners
1619 @cindex Text spanners
1621 Some textual indications, e.g. @i{rallentando} or @i{accelerando}, are
1622 often extended over many measures. This is indicated by following the
1623 text with a dotted line. You can create such texts using text
1624 spanners. The syntax is as follows:
1629 The string to be printed, as well as the style, is set through object
1632 An application is to fake octavation indications.
1634 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1635 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1636 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1637 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1638 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1639 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1640 a-\startTextSpan b c a-\stopTextSpan }
1646 @internalsref{TextSpanEvent},
1647 @internalsref{TextSpanner}, @inputfileref{input/regression,text-spanner.ly}.
1650 @node Analysis brackets
1651 @subsection Analysis brackets
1653 @cindex phrasing brackets
1654 @cindex musicological analysis
1655 @cindex note grouping bracket
1657 Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical
1658 pieces. LilyPond supports a simple form of nested horizontal brackets.
1659 To use this, add the @internalsref{Horizontal_bracket_engraver} to
1660 @internalsref{Staff} context. A bracket is started with
1661 @code{\groupOpen} and closed with @code{\groupClose}.
1663 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
1664 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
1665 c4-\groupOpen-\groupOpen
1668 c4-\groupClose-\groupClose
1670 \paper { \translator {
1671 \StaffContext \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
1677 @internalsref{HorizontalBracket}, @internalsref{NoteGroupingEvent},
1678 @inputfileref{input/regression,note-group-bracket.ly}.
1682 Bracket endings should be angled/slanted. (TODO)
1690 [TODO: ornaments vs. expressive marks]
1702 @subsection Articulations
1703 @cindex Articulations
1705 @cindex articulations
1709 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1710 different characteristics of the performance. They are added to a note
1711 by adding a dash and the the character signifying the
1712 articulation. They are demonstrated here.
1714 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-abbreviations.ly}
1716 The script is automatically placed, but if you need to force
1717 directions, you can use @code{_} to force them down, or @code{^} to
1719 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1724 Other symbols can be added using the syntax
1725 @var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}. Again, they can be forced up or down
1726 using @code{^} and @code{_}.
1730 @cindex staccatissimo
1739 @cindex organ pedal marks
1748 @cindex prallmordent
1752 @cindex thumb marking
1757 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-chart.ly}
1762 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand. For
1763 finger changes, use markup texts:
1765 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1766 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1767 c'^\markup { \fontsize #-3 \number "2-3" }
1770 @cindex finger change
1775 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
1776 << c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >> 4
1777 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #LEFT
1778 << c-1 es-3 g-5 >> 4
1779 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #RIGHT
1780 << c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >> 4-\arpeggio
1781 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #LEFT
1782 << c_1 e-2 g-3 b^5 >> 4
1787 @internalsref{ScriptEvent},
1788 @internalsref{Script}, @internalsref{FingerEvent} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
1792 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1793 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1797 @subsection Text scripts
1798 @cindex Text scripts
1800 It is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup text (see
1801 @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1802 @code{c^"text"}. By default, these indications do not influence the
1803 note spacing, but by using the command @code{\fatText}, the widths
1804 will be taken into account.
1806 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim] \relative c' {
1807 c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1810 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
1811 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
1812 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
1813 commands will not work with direct PostScript output.
1818 @internalsref{TextScriptEvent}, @internalsref{TextScript},
1824 @subsection Grace notes
1828 @cindex @code{\grace}
1832 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out
1834 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,ifragment] c4 \grace c16 c4 \grace {
1838 In normal notation, grace notes take up no logical
1839 time in a measure. Such an idea is practical for normal notation, but
1840 is not strict enough to put it into a program. The model that LilyPond
1841 uses for grace notes internally is that all timing is done in two
1844 Every point in musical time consists of two rational numbers: one
1845 denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing. The above
1846 example is shown here with timing tuples.
1849 \score { \notes \relative c''{
1850 c4^"(0,0)" \grace c16_" "_"(1/4,-1/16)" c4^"(1/4,0)" \grace {
1851 [c16_"(2/4,-1/8)" d16^"(2/4,-1/16)" ] } c4_" "_"(2/4,0)"
1853 \paper { linewidth = 8.\cm }
1858 The placement of these grace notes is synchronized between different
1861 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
1862 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \grace { c16-[ d e f-] } e4 }
1863 \context Staff = SB { c'4 \grace { g8 b } c4 } >
1867 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1868 stem. This can be controlled with object property @code{stroke-style} of
1869 @internalsref{Stem}. The change in formatting is accomplished by
1870 inserting @code{\startGraceMusic} before handling the grace notes, and
1871 @code{\stopGraceMusic} after finishing the grace notes.
1872 You can add to these definitions to globally change grace note
1873 formatting. The standard definitions are in @file{ly/grace-init.ly}.
1875 [TODO discuss Scheme functionality.]
1878 The @code{\override} is carefully matched with a @code{\revert}.
1883 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1884 \relative c'' \context Voice {
1885 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1887 \property Voice.Stem \override #'stroke-style = #'()
1889 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'stroke-style
1896 If you want to end a note with a grace note, then the standard trick
1897 is to put the grace notes before a phantom ``space note'', e.g.
1898 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1901 { s2 \grace { [c16 d] } } >
1906 A @code{\grace} section has some default values, and LilyPond will
1907 use those default values unless you specify otherwise inside the
1908 @code{\grace} section. For example, if you specify \slurUp
1909 @emph{before} your @code{\grace} section, a slur which starts inside
1910 the @code{\grace} will not be forced up, even if the slur ends outside
1911 of the @code{\grace}. Note the difference between the first and
1912 second bars in this example:
1914 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1915 \relative c'' \context Voice {
1934 @internalsref{GraceMusic}.
1938 Grace notes can not be used in the smallest size (@file{paper11.ly}).
1940 Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation,
1941 such as key signatures, barlines, etc. are also synchronized. Take
1942 care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without.
1944 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
1945 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
1946 \context Staff = SB { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >
1949 Grace sections should only be used within sequential music
1950 expressions. Nesting, juxtaposing, or ending sequential music with a
1951 grace section is not supported, and might produce crashes or other
1956 @subsection Glissando
1959 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1961 A glissando is a smooth change in pitch. It is denoted by a line or a
1962 wavy line between two notes.
1966 A glissando line can be requested by attaching a @code{\glissando} to
1969 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1975 @internalsref{Glissando}, @internalsref{GlissandoEvent}.
1980 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1985 @subsection Dynamics
1998 @cindex @code{\ffff}
2008 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an identifier after a
2009 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
2010 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
2011 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
2012 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
2014 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
2015 c'-\ppp c-\pp c -\p c-\mp c-\mf c-\f c-\ff c-\fff
2021 @cindex @code{\decr}
2022 @cindex @code{\rced}
2029 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
2030 @code{\endcr}, and decrescendi similarly with @code{\decr} and
2031 @code{\enddecr}. There are also shorthands for these marks. A
2032 crescendo can be started with @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be
2033 started with @code{\>}. Either one can be terminated with @code{\!}.
2034 Because these marks are bound to notes, if you must use spacer notes
2035 if marks during one note are needed.
2037 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,quote]
2038 c''-\< c''-\! d''-\decr e''-\rced
2039 < f''1 { s4 s4-\< s4-\! \> s4-\! } >
2041 This may give rise to very short hairpins. Use @code{minimum-length}
2042 in @internalsref{Voice}.@internalsref{HairPin} to lengthen these, e.g.
2045 \property Staff.Hairpin \override #'minimum-length = #5
2048 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
2049 is an example how to do it:
2051 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
2052 c4 \cresc c4 \endcresc c4
2059 You can also supply your own texts:
2060 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2062 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc. poco"
2063 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
2072 @internalsref{CrescendoEvent}, @internalsref{DecrescendoEvent},
2073 @internalsref{AbsoluteDynamicEvent}.
2075 Dynamics are objects of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
2076 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is
2077 handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2079 If you want to adjust padding or vertical direction of the dynamics,
2080 you must set properties for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner}
2081 object. Predefined identifiers to set the vertical direction are
2082 \dynamicUp and \dynamicDown.
2084 @cindex direction, of dynamics
2085 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
2086 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
2094 @cindex @code{\repeat}
2096 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
2097 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
2098 different variants of repeats.
2102 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
2103 output, and entering repetitive music.
2106 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
2107 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
2111 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
2112 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
2113 @inputfileref{input,star-spangled-banner.ly}.
2120 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
2126 * Repeats and MIDI::
2127 * Manual repeat commands::
2129 * Tremolo subdivisions::
2134 @subsection Repeat syntax
2137 Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist
2142 LilyPond has one syntactic construct for specifying different types of
2143 repeats. The syntax is
2146 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
2149 If you have alternative endings, you may add
2150 @cindex @code{\alternative}
2152 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
2154 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
2156 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression. If you do not
2157 give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then the first
2158 alternative is assumed to be played more than once.
2160 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
2161 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2163 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
2164 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
2167 With alternative endings:
2168 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2170 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
2171 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
2175 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2179 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
2180 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
2187 If you do a nested repeat like
2196 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the @code{\alternative}
2197 belongs. This ambiguity is resolved by always having the
2198 @code{\alternative} belong to the inner @code{\repeat}. This
2199 ambiguity may also be resolved by using braces.
2202 @node Repeats and MIDI
2203 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
2205 @cindex expanding repeats
2207 For instructions on how to unfold repeats for MIDI output, see the
2208 example file @inputfileref{input/test,unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
2213 Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative,
2214 so you have to reset timing information after a repeat, e.g. using a
2215 bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting @code{Score.measurePosition}
2216 or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties are also not repeated.
2219 @node Manual repeat commands
2220 @subsection Manual repeat commands
2222 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
2224 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
2225 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
2233 @item (volta . @var{text})
2234 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}. The text can be specified as
2235 a text string or as a markup text, see @ref{Text markup}. Do not
2236 forget to change the font, as the default number font does not contain
2237 alphabetic characters.
2239 Stop a running volta bracket
2242 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2244 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
2246 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
2253 @internalsref{VoltaBracket}, @internalsref{RepeatedMusic},
2254 @internalsref{VoltaRepeatedMusic},
2255 @internalsref{UnfoldedRepeatedMusic}
2256 @internalsref{FoldedRepeatedMusic}.
2258 @node Tremolo repeats
2259 @subsection Tremolo repeats
2260 @cindex tremolo beams
2262 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
2264 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2266 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
2267 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
2268 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
2269 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
2270 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
2277 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} objects. Single stem tremolos are
2278 @internalsref{StemTremolo}. @internalsref{TremoloEvent}.
2283 The single stem tremolo @emph{must} be entered without @code{@{} and
2286 @node Tremolo subdivisions
2287 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
2288 @cindex tremolo marks
2289 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
2291 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
2292 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
2293 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
2294 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
2295 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
2297 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
2298 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
2301 [TODO : stok is te kort bij 32en]
2305 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
2308 @node Measure repeats
2309 @subsection Measure repeats
2311 @cindex percent repeats
2312 @cindex measure repeats
2314 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
2315 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
2316 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
2317 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
2319 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2320 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
2321 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
2327 @internalsref{RepeatSlash}, @internalsref{PercentRepeat},
2328 @internalsref{PercentRepeatedMusic}, and
2329 @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
2334 You can not nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
2335 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
2337 @node Rhythmic music
2338 @section Rhythmic music
2340 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
2341 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
2342 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
2344 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2345 \context RhythmicStaff {
2347 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
2352 * Percussion staves::
2353 * Percussion midi output::
2356 @node Percussion staves
2357 @subsection Percussion staves
2361 To typeset more than one piece of percussion to be played by the same
2362 musician one typically uses a multiline staff where each staff
2363 position refers to a specific piece of percussion.
2367 LilyPond is has a set of Scheme functions that can be used to typeset
2368 percussion staves. The system is based on the general MIDI
2369 drum-pitches. Include @file{ly/drumpitch-init.ly} to use drum
2370 pitches. This file defines the pitches from the Scheme variable
2371 @code{drum-pitch-names}, the definition of which can be read in
2372 @file{scm/drums.scm}. Each piece of percussion has a full name and an
2373 abbreviated name, and both the full name or the abbreviation may be
2374 used in input files.
2376 To typeset the music on a staff apply the function @code{drums->paper}
2377 to the percussion music. This function takes a list of percussion
2378 instrument names, notehead scripts and staff positions (that is:
2379 pitches relative to the C-clef) and transforms the input
2380 music by moving the pitch, changing the notehead and (optionally)
2383 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,quote]
2384 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2385 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2386 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2388 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2390 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2391 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2396 In the above example the music was transformed using the list @code{'drums}.
2397 Currently the following lists are defined in @file{scm/drums.scm}:
2400 To typeset a typical drum kit on a five-line staff.
2403 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2404 nam = \lyrics { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2405 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
2406 mus = \notes { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2407 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
2410 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2414 \context Lyrics \nam
2417 linewidth = 100.0\mm
2420 \remove Bar_engraver
2421 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2422 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
2426 \remove Stem_engraver
2432 Scheme supports six different toms. When there fewer toms, simply
2433 select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e., to get toms on
2434 the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml} and
2437 Because general MIDI does not contain rimshots the sidestick is used
2438 for this purpose instead.
2440 To typeset timbales on a two line staff.
2441 @lilypond[singleline]
2442 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2443 nam = \lyrics { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
2444 mus = \notes { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
2447 \apply #(drums->paper 'timbales) \context Staff <
2451 \context Lyrics \nam
2456 \remove Bar_engraver
2457 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2458 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2459 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2460 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2464 \remove Stem_engraver
2471 To typeset congas on a two line staff.
2472 @lilypond[singleline]
2473 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2474 nam = \lyrics { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
2475 mus = \notes { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
2478 \apply #(drums->paper 'congas) \context Staff <
2482 \context Lyrics \nam
2487 \remove Bar_engraver
2488 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2489 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2490 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2491 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2495 \remove Stem_engraver
2501 To typeset bongos on a two line staff.
2502 @lilypond[singleline]
2503 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2504 nam = \lyrics { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
2505 mus = \notes { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
2508 \apply #(drums->paper 'bongos) \context Staff <
2512 \context Lyrics \nam
2517 \remove Bar_engraver
2518 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2519 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2520 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2521 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2525 \remove Stem_engraver
2531 To typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves.
2532 @lilypond[singleline]
2533 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2534 nam = \lyrics { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
2535 mus = \notes { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
2538 \apply #(drums->paper 'percussion) \context Staff <
2542 \context Lyrics \nam
2547 \remove Bar_engraver
2548 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2549 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #1
2550 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-2.0 . 3.0)
2554 \remove Stem_engraver
2561 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
2562 list at the top of your file:
2564 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
2566 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2567 (snare default #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 1 0))
2568 (hihat cross #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2569 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2570 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2572 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2573 up = \notes { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
2574 down = \notes { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
2576 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2578 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2579 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2584 To use a modified existing list, one can prepend modifications to the
2588 #(define mydrums (append `(
2589 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2590 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2594 The file @file{drumpitch-init.ly} replaces the normal pitch names, so
2595 you have to reinclude @file{nederlands.ly} after the
2596 drum-pattern-definitions to enter normal notes.
2598 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2599 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2600 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2601 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2602 \include "nederlands.ly"
2603 bass = \notes \transpose c c,, { a4. e8 r e g e }
2606 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff = drums <
2608 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2609 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2611 \context Staff = bass { \clef "F_8" \bass }
2616 @node Percussion midi output
2617 @subsection Percussion midi output
2619 In order to produce correct midi output you need to produce two score
2620 blocks---one for the paper and one for the midi output. To use the
2621 percussion channel you set the property @code{instrument} to
2622 @code{'drums}. Because the drum-pitches themself are similar to the
2623 general midi pitches all you have to do is to insert the voices with
2624 none of the scheme functions to get the correct midi output:
2628 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2637 \property Staff.instrument = #'drums
2646 This scheme is to be considered a temporary implementation.
2650 @section Piano music
2652 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
2653 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
2654 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
2655 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
2656 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
2657 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
2661 * Automatic staff changes::
2662 * Manual staff switches::
2665 * Voice follower lines::
2670 There is no support for putting chords across staves. You can get
2671 this result by increasing the length of the stem in the lower stave so
2672 it reaches the stem in the upper stave, or vice versa. An example is
2673 included with the distribution as @inputfileref{input/test,stem-cross-staff.ly}.
2675 Dynamics are not centered, but kludges do exist. See
2676 @inputfileref{input/templates,piano-dynamics.ly}.
2678 @cindex cross staff stem
2679 @cindex stem, cross staff
2682 @c fixme: should have hyperlinks as well.
2688 @node Automatic staff changes
2689 @subsection Automatic staff changes
2690 @cindex Automatic staff changes
2692 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
2693 staff. The syntax for this is
2695 \autochange Staff \context Voice @{ @dots{}@var{music}@dots{} @}
2697 The autochanger switches on basis of pitch (central C is the turning
2698 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch rests in
2699 advance. Here is a practical example:
2701 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,quote]
2702 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
2703 \context Staff = "up" {
2704 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
2705 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
2706 \context Staff = "down" {
2711 Spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
2712 terminating too soon.
2717 The staff switches often do not end up in optimal places. For high
2718 quality output staff switches should be specified manually.
2722 @node Manual staff switches
2723 @subsection Manual staff switches
2725 @cindex manual staff switches
2726 @cindex staff switch, manual
2728 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
2730 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
2732 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
2733 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
2734 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
2742 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound are produced. Generally, a
2743 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
2747 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
2748 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
2749 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
2752 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
2753 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal types:
2754 Sustain, Sostenuto or UnaCorda. Refer to the generated documentation
2755 of @internalsref{SustainPedal} for more information.
2757 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
2758 @code{pedal-type} property of @internalsref{SustainPedal} objects:
2760 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2761 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'bracket
2762 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
2763 a'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
2764 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
2767 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
2768 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
2770 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2771 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'mixed
2772 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
2773 c'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
2774 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
2777 The default '*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
2778 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
2779 for a sostenuto pedal:
2781 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2782 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
2785 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
2786 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
2787 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (see the detailed documentation of
2788 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket}) can be modified. For example, the bracket
2789 may be extended to the end of the note head.
2791 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2792 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override
2793 #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
2794 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4
2795 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
2799 @subsection Arpeggio
2802 @cindex broken arpeggio
2803 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
2805 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
2806 @code{\arpeggio} to a chord.
2809 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2810 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
2813 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
2814 to the chords in both staves, and set
2815 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@code{connectArpeggios}.
2817 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2818 \context PianoStaff <
2819 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2820 \context Voice = one { <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio }
2821 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <<c,, e g>>-\arpeggio }
2825 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} objects. Cross staff
2826 arpeggios are @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@internalsref{Arpeggio}.
2828 The direction of the arpeggio is sometimes denoted by adding an
2829 arrowhead to the wiggly line. This can be typeset by setting
2830 @code{arpeggio-direction}.
2832 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2834 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #1
2835 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
2836 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
2837 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
2841 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
2842 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
2843 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
2844 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} objects to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
2845 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before.
2847 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2848 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override
2849 #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
2850 <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio
2856 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected
2857 arpeggios in one @internalsref{PianoStaff} at the same time.
2859 @node Voice follower lines
2860 @subsection Voice follower lines
2863 [TODO: invent better name]
2865 @cindex follow voice
2866 @cindex staff switching
2869 @cindex @code{followVoice}
2871 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
2872 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
2873 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
2875 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2876 \context PianoStaff <
2877 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2878 \context Staff \context Voice {
2880 \translator Staff=two
2883 \context Staff=two { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2887 The associated object is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2891 @section Vocal music
2893 For a discussion of how to put lyrics into a score, see section
2894 @code{Printing lyrics} in the tutorial.
2896 [TODO: Move lyrics section from tutorial to here?]
2898 See also the sections on @ref{Slurs} and @ref{Breath marks}.
2900 [TODO: Move slurs / breath marks section to here?]
2902 [TODO: Write subsection upon usage of ChoirStaff.]
2904 For entering quotes in Lyrics mode, use the following
2906 "\"God\"" is "`King'"
2909 You can use empty syllables, e.g. @code{_4} or @code{" "4} to enter
2910 lyrics. This can confuse the LilyPond -- for example, this might put
2911 (empty) lyrics under rests. To remedy this, use @code{\skip}.
2918 Input for lyrics introduces a syntactical ambiguity:
2925 is interpreted as the string identifier assignment. However,
2926 it can also be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
2927 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo} containing
2928 the syllable `bar'. The former interpretation is chosen. The latter
2929 can be specified using
2943 The term @emph{ambitus} denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in
2944 a part of music. It also may denote the pitch range that a musical
2945 instrument is capable of playing. Most musical instruments have their
2946 ambitus standardized (or at least there is agreement upon the minimal
2947 ambitus of a particular type of instrument), such that a composer or
2948 arranger of a piece of music can easily meet the ambitus constraints of
2949 the targeted instrument. However, the ambitus of the human voice
2950 depends on individual physiological state, including education and
2951 training of the voice. Therefore, a singer potentially has to check for
2952 each piece of music if the ambitus of that piece meets his individual
2953 capabilities. This is why the ambitus of a piece may be of particular
2954 value to vocal performers.
2956 The ambitus is typically notated on a per-voice basis at the very
2957 beginning of a piece, e.g. nearby the initial clef or time signature of
2958 each staff. The range is graphically specified by two noteheads, that
2959 represent the minimum and maximum pitch. Some publishers use a textual
2960 notation: they put the range in words in front of the corresponding
2961 staff. Lilypond currently only supports the graphical ambitus notation.
2963 To apply, add the @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the
2964 @internalsref{Voice} context, i.e.
2967 \paper @{ \translator @{
2969 \consists Ambitus_engraver
2975 @lilypond[singleline]
2976 upper = \notes \relative c {
2979 as'' c e2 bes f cis d4 e f2 g
2981 lower = \notes \relative c {
2984 e'4 b g a c es fis a cis b a g f e d2
2987 \context ChoirStaff {
2989 \context Staff = one { \upper }
2990 \context Staff = three { \lower }
2996 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3005 @internalsref{Ambitus}, @inputfileref{input/regression,ambitus.ly}.
3010 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
3011 instruments. It notates pitches not by using note heads, but by
3012 indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
3013 offers limited support for tablature.
3016 * Tablatures basic::
3017 * Non-guitar tablatures::
3020 @node Tablatures basic
3021 @subsection Tablatures basic
3022 @cindex Tablatures basic
3024 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
3025 followed by a number, e.g. @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
3026 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
3027 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
3028 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
3029 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts.
3031 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3032 \notes \context TabStaff {
3038 If you do not specify a string number then one is selected
3039 automatically: the first string that does not give a fret number less
3040 than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default value for
3041 @code{minimumFret} is 0.
3045 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3046 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3047 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3052 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3053 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3054 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3057 \context StaffGroup <
3058 \context Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
3059 \context TabStaff { \frag }
3066 @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}, and
3067 @internalsref{StringNumberEvent}.
3071 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
3072 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
3076 @node Non-guitar tablatures
3077 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
3078 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
3080 You can change the number of strings, by setting the number of lines
3081 in the @internalsref{TabStaff} (the @code{line-count} property of
3082 @internalsref{TabStaff} can only be changed using
3083 @code{\outputproperty}, for more information, see @ref{Tuning objects}.
3085 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
3086 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
3087 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to central C) of an
3088 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
3089 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
3090 by default middle C, in string order: thus the notes are e, a, d, and
3093 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3096 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface)
3098 \property TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
3101 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
3106 Finally, it is possible to change the Scheme function to format the
3107 tablature note text. The default is
3108 @var{fret-number-tablature-format}, which uses the fret number. For
3109 some instruments that do not use this notation, you can create a
3110 special tablature formatting function. This function takes three
3111 argument: the string number, the string tuning and the note pitch.
3115 As tablature is a recent feature, most of the guitar special effects
3116 such as bend are not yet supported.
3123 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords.
3124 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3125 twoWays = \notes \transpose c c' {
3135 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
3136 \context Voice \twoWays > }
3139 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
3140 be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not interpret
3141 this as an inversion.
3143 Chords are represented as a set of pitches. They are internally
3144 stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can enter
3145 chords by name and print them as notes, enter them as notes and print
3146 them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by name, and
3151 * Printing chord names::
3156 @subsection Chords mode
3159 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
3160 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}.
3161 In chords mode, a chord is entered by the root, which is entered
3162 like a common pitch, for example,
3163 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote, relative=1]
3164 \chords { es4. d8 c2 }
3169 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon, and introducing a
3170 modifier, and optionally, a number, for example
3172 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote]
3173 \chords { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
3175 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
3176 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
3177 number, for example.
3178 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3179 \chords { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
3182 @cindex root of chord
3183 @cindex additions, in chords
3184 @cindex removals, in chords
3186 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
3187 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
3188 the colon, and are separated by dots. For example
3190 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3191 \chords { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
3193 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
3194 to the number, for example:
3195 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3196 \chords { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
3198 Removals are specified similarly, and are introduced by a caret. They
3199 must come after the additions.
3200 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3201 \chords { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
3204 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
3208 is the minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
3210 is the diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
3213 is the augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
3215 is the major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
3217 is the suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
3218 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
3221 Modifiers can be mixed with additions.
3222 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3223 \chords { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
3226 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
3233 Since the unaltered 11 does sound well when combined with the
3234 unaltered 3, the 11 is removed in this case, unless it is added
3235 explicitly). For example,
3236 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3237 \chords { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
3242 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
3243 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
3244 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord.
3245 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3246 \chords { c1 c/g c/f }
3249 If you do not want to remove the bass note from the chord, but rather
3250 add the note, then you can use @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
3252 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3253 \chords { c1 c/+g c/+f }
3256 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyrics}, @code{\notes} etc. Most
3257 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
3258 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and
3259 @code{\property} may be used to change various settings.
3265 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
3266 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
3269 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3270 \chords { c:5.5-.5+ }
3273 In chord mode, dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions
3274 and subtractions, so articulation scripts can not be entered.
3277 @node Printing chord names
3278 @subsection Printing chord names
3280 @cindex printing chord names
3284 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
3285 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
3286 directly using simultaneous music.
3288 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3290 \chords {a1 b c} <<d f g>> <<e g b>>
3294 \context ChordNames \scheme
3295 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
3300 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
3301 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
3302 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
3303 the start of a new line.
3307 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
3311 \context ChordNames {
3312 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
3314 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
3316 \paper{linewidth= 9.\cm}
3320 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
3321 Klaus Ignatzek (See @ref{Literature}).
3323 [TODO: add description for banter other jazz.]
3325 The Ignatzek chord name formatting can be tuned in a number of ways
3326 through the following properties:
3328 @item chordNameExceptions
3329 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
3331 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly}.
3333 @item majorSevenSymbol
3334 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
3335 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup},
3336 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
3337 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly} for an example.
3339 @item chordNameSeparator
3340 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
3341 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
3343 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3344 \context ChordNames \chords {
3346 \property ChordNames.chordNameSeparator
3351 @item chordRootNamer
3352 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
3353 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
3354 function. An application of setting this function, is providing chord
3355 names with german notation for the root.
3357 @item chordNoteNamer
3358 The default is to print single notes (as for instance the bass note)
3359 using the chordRootNamer. However, by setting this function to a non-null
3360 value you can specify a different function. I.e. you could use letters
3361 in lower case for the base note.
3367 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly},
3368 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly},
3369 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-german.ly},
3370 @file{scm/chords-ignatzek.scm}, @file{scm/chord-entry.scm}
3375 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
3376 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
3377 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
3378 @code{<< .. >>} syntax.
3384 @section Writing parts
3386 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
3387 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
3388 problems in orchestral music.
3395 * Instrument names::
3397 * Multi measure rests::
3398 * Automatic part combining::
3399 * Hara kiri staves::
3400 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
3404 @node Rehearsal marks
3405 @subsection Rehearsal marks
3406 @cindex Rehearsal marks
3408 @cindex @code{\mark}
3410 To print a rehearsal mark, use the @code{\mark} command.
3411 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3421 The mark is incremented automatically if you use @code{\mark
3422 \default}. The value to use is stored in the property
3423 @code{rehearsalMark} is used and automatically incremented.
3425 The @code{\mark} command can also be used to put signs like coda,
3426 segno and fermatas on a barline. Use @code{\markup} to
3427 to access the appropriate symbol.
3429 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
3430 c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts-ufermata" }
3434 In this case, during line breaks,
3435 marks must also be printed at the end of the line, and not at the
3436 beginning. Use the following to force that behavior
3438 \property Score.RehearsalMark \override
3439 #'break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible
3442 See @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}. for putting boxes
3448 @cindex barlines, putting symbols on
3452 @internalsref{MarkEvent}, @internalsref{RehearsalMark},
3453 @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}.
3457 @subsection Bar numbers
3461 @cindex measure numbers
3462 @cindex currentBarNumber
3464 Bar numbers are printed by default at the start of the line. The
3465 number itself is stored in the
3466 @code{currentBarNumber} property,
3467 which is normally updated automatically for every measure.
3469 Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of at the
3470 beginning of each line. This is illustrated in the following example,
3471 whose source is available as
3472 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
3474 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
3476 The start of that numbering can also be reset, as demonstrated in
3477 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-5-reset.ly}.
3479 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-every-5-reset.ly}
3484 @internalsref{BarNumber}.
3485 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-5-reset.ly}.
3486 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
3490 Bar numbers can collide with the @internalsref{StaffGroup} bracket, if
3491 there is one at the top. To solve this, You have to twiddle with the
3492 @internalsref{padding} property of @internalsref{BarNumber} if your
3493 score starts with a @internalsref{StaffGroup}.
3495 @node Instrument names
3496 @subsection Instrument names
3498 In an orchestral score, instrument names are printed left of the
3501 This can be achieved by setting @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instrument}
3502 and @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instr}. This will print a string before
3503 the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
3504 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
3506 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3507 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
3510 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
3513 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3514 \notes \context Staff = treble {
3515 \property Staff.instrument = \markup {
3516 \column << "Clarinetti"
3518 \smaller \musicglyph #"accidentals--1"
3529 @internalsref{InstrumentName}
3533 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
3534 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
3535 the name to avoid a collision.
3538 @subsection Transpose
3540 @cindex transposition of pitches
3541 @cindex @code{\transpose}
3543 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
3546 \transpose @var{from} @var{to} @var{musicexpr}
3549 This means that @var{musicexpr} is transposed by the interval
3550 between @var{from} and @var{to}.
3552 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
3553 @code{\transpose c cis} or @code{\transpose c des} will transpose up
3554 half a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second
3555 version will print flats.
3557 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
3558 mus =\notes { \key d \major cis d fis g }
3559 \score { \notes \context Staff {
3562 \transpose c g' \mus
3563 \transpose c f' \mus
3569 @internalsref{TransposedMusic}, @internalsref{UntransposableMusic}.
3573 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
3574 you must put @code{\transpose} outside of @code{\relative}, since
3575 @code{\relative} will have no effect music that appears inside a
3579 @node Multi measure rests
3580 @subsection Multi measure rests
3581 @cindex Multi measure rests
3585 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
3586 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
3587 fill a score with rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure
3588 rest. This expansion is controlled by the property
3589 @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true, Lily will not expand
3590 empty measures, and the appropriate number is added automatically.
3592 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3593 \time 4/4 r1 | R1 | R1*2
3594 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R1*17 R1*4
3597 The @code{1} in @code{R1} is similar to the duration notation used for
3598 notes. Hence, for time signatures other than 4/4, you must enter other
3599 durations. This can be done with augmentation dots or fractions:
3601 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3602 \property Score.skipBars = ##t
3610 A @code{R} spanning a single measure is printed as a whole rest
3611 centered in the measure (or a breve when the measure lasts longer than
3612 two whole notes), regardless of the time signature.
3616 @cindex text on multi-measure rest
3617 @cindex script on multi-measure rest
3618 @cindex fermata on multi-measure rest
3620 Texts can be added to multi-measure rests by using the
3621 @var{note}-@code{markup} syntax. In this case, the number is
3622 replaced. If you need both texts and the number, you must add the
3623 number by hand. An identifier (@code{fermataMarkup}) is provided for
3627 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3629 R2._\markup { "Ad lib" }
3634 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
3638 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestEvent},
3639 @internalsref{MultiMeasureTextEvent},
3640 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestMusicGroup},
3641 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
3643 The graphical object @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestNumber} is for the
3644 default number, and @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestText} for user
3649 It is not possible to use fingerings (e.g. @code{R1-4}) to put numbers
3650 over multi-measure rests.
3652 @cindex condensing rests
3654 There is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into a single
3655 multimeasure rest. Multi measure rests do not take part in rest
3658 Be careful when entering multimeasure rests followed by whole notes,
3662 will enter two notes lasting four measures each. The result will look
3663 ok, but the bar numbering will be off.
3665 @node Automatic part combining
3666 @subsection Automatic part combining
3667 @cindex automatic part combining
3668 @cindex part combiner
3671 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
3672 staff. It is aimed at typesetting orchestral scores. When the two
3673 parts are identical for a period of time, only one is shown. In
3674 places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate
3675 voices, and stem directions are set automatically. Also, solo and
3676 @emph{a due} parts are identified and can be marked.
3680 The syntax for part combining is
3683 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
3685 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
3686 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
3687 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
3690 The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part
3691 combiner: putting parts on one staff, and setting stem directions and
3694 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
3696 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3697 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3700 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3706 The first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
3707 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
3708 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
3709 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
3710 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
3713 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
3714 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
3716 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
3718 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
3719 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3720 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3723 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3731 @internalsref{PartCombineMusic},
3732 @internalsref{Thread_devnull_engraver},
3733 @internalsref{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @internalsref{A2_engraver}.
3737 The syntax for naming contexts in inconsistent with the syntax for
3740 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
3741 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
3744 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
3746 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3747 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3750 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3756 The part combiner is slated to be rewritten [TODO: explain why] .
3758 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
3759 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
3760 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
3762 @node Hara kiri staves
3763 @subsection Hara kiri staves
3765 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
3766 This saves some space. This style is called `French Score'.
3770 This is supported through the hara kiri@footnote{Hara kiri is the
3771 vulgar name for Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of the Japanese
3772 Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when it finds
3773 itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will not
3774 disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
3777 For @internalsref{Lyrics}, @internalsref{LyricsVoice},
3778 @internalsref{ChordNames} and @internalsref{FiguredBass}, hara-kiri is
3779 switched on by default. For normal staffs, hara kiri is available as a
3780 specialized @internalsref{Staff} context, with the name identifier
3781 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
3782 example disappears in the second line.
3786 \notes \relative c' <
3787 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
3788 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
3792 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
3798 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
3799 @subsection Sound output for transposing instruments
3801 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed
3802 and untransposed instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch
3803 offset (in semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done
3804 using the @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed
3807 @cindex @code{transposing}
3810 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
3811 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
3815 @node Ancient notation
3816 @section Ancient notation
3818 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
3819 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
3824 [TODO: write introduction on ancient notation]
3827 * Ancient note heads::
3836 @node Ancient note heads
3837 @subsection Ancient note heads
3839 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
3840 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
3841 NoteHead object to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
3842 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
3843 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
3845 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
3846 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
3851 @subsection Ancient clefs
3853 [TODO: condense clef lists in a convenient chart]
3855 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
3857 For modern clefs, see section @ref{Clef}. For the percussion clef, see
3858 section @ref{Percussion staves}. For the @code{TAB} clef, see section
3861 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
3862 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but differ
3863 only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such cases, a
3864 trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs. Still,
3865 you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an arbitrary line,
3866 as described in section @ref{Clef}. The note printed to the right side
3867 of each clef denotes the @code{c'} with respect to the clef.
3869 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
3870 @c @item modern style G clef (glyph: @code{clefs-G})
3873 @c @code{treble}, @code{violin}, @code{G}, @code{G2}, @code{french}
3875 @c @lilypond[26pt]{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "G" c'}
3877 @c @item modern style F clef (glyph: @code{clefs-F})
3880 @c @code{varbaritone}, @code{bass}, @code{F}, @code{subbass}
3882 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "F" c'}
3884 @c @item modern style C clef (glyph: @code{clefs-C})
3887 @c @code{soprano}, @code{mezzosoprano}, @code{alto}, @code{C},
3888 @c @code{tenor}, @code{baritone}
3890 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "C" c'}
3892 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .3 .1
3896 @b{Description} @tab
3897 @b{Supported Clefs} @tab
3901 @code{clefs-neo_mensural_c} @tab
3902 modern style mensural C clef @tab
3903 @code{neo_mensural_c1}, @code{neo_mensural_c2},
3904 @code{neo_mensural_c3}, @code{neo_mensural_c4} @tab
3905 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
3906 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
3907 \clef "neo_mensural_c2" c
3911 @code{clefs-petrucci_c1} @tab
3912 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 1st staffline) @tab
3913 @code{petrucci_c1} @tab
3914 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
3915 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
3916 \clef "petrucci_c1" c
3920 @code{clefs-petrucci_c2} @tab
3921 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 2nd staffline) @tab
3922 @code{petrucci_c2} @tab
3923 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
3924 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
3925 \clef "petrucci_c2" c
3929 @code{clefs-petrucci_c3} @tab
3930 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 3rd staffline) @tab
3931 @code{petrucci_c3} @tab
3932 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
3933 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
3934 \clef "petrucci_c3" c
3938 @code{clefs-petrucci_c4} @tab
3939 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 4th staffline) @tab
3940 @code{petrucci_c4} @tab
3941 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
3942 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
3943 \clef "petrucci_c4" c
3947 @code{clefs-petrucci_c5} @tab
3948 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 5th staffline) @tab
3949 @code{petrucci_c5} @tab
3950 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
3951 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
3952 \clef "petrucci_c5" c
3956 @code{clefs-petrucci_f} @tab
3957 petrucci style mensural F clef @tab
3958 @code{petrucci_f} @tab
3959 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
3960 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
3961 \clef "petrucci_f" c
3965 @code{clefs-petrucci_g} @tab
3966 petrucci style mensural G clef @tab
3967 @code{petrucci_g} @tab
3968 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
3969 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
3970 \clef "petrucci_g" c
3974 @code{clefs-mensural_c'} @tab
3975 historic style mensural C clef @tab
3976 @code{mensural_c1}, @code{mensural_c2}, @code{mensural_c3},
3977 @code{mensural_c4} @tab
3978 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
3979 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
3980 \clef "mensural_c2" c
3984 @code{clefs-mensural_f} @tab
3985 historic style mensural F clef @tab
3986 @code{mensural_f} @tab
3987 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
3988 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
3989 \clef "mensural_f" c
3993 @code{clefs-mensural_g} @tab
3994 historic style mensural G clef @tab
3995 @code{mensural_g} @tab
3996 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
3997 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
3998 \clef "mensural_g" c
4002 @code{clefs-vaticana_do} @tab
4003 Editio Vaticana style do clef @tab
4004 @code{vaticana_do1}, @code{vaticana_do2}, @code{vaticana_do3} @tab
4005 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4007 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4008 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4009 \clef "vaticana_do2" c
4013 @code{clefs-vaticana_fa} @tab
4014 Editio Vaticana style fa clef @tab
4015 @code{vaticana_fa1}, @code{vaticana_fa2} @tab
4016 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4018 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4019 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4020 \clef "vaticana_fa2" c
4024 @code{clefs-medicaea_do} @tab
4025 Editio Medicaea style do clef @tab
4026 @code{medicaea_do1}, @code{medicaea_do2}, @code{medicaea_do3} @tab
4027 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4029 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4030 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4031 \clef "medicaea_do2" c
4035 @code{clefs-medicaea_fa} @tab
4036 Editio Medicaea style fa clef @tab
4037 @code{medicaea_fa1}, @code{medicaea_fa2} @tab
4038 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4040 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4041 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4042 \clef "medicaea_fa2" c
4046 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do} @tab
4047 historic style hufnagel do clef @tab
4048 @code{hufnagel_do1}, @code{hufnagel_do2}, @code{hufnagel_do3} @tab
4049 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4051 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4052 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4053 \clef "hufnagel_do2" c
4057 @code{clefs-hufnagel_fa} @tab
4058 historic style hufnagel fa clef @tab
4059 @code{hufnagel_fa1}, @code{hufnagel_fa2} @tab
4060 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4062 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4063 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4064 \clef "hufnagel_fa2" c
4068 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4069 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef @tab
4070 @code{hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4071 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4072 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4073 \clef "hufnagel_do_fa" c
4078 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
4079 @c @item modern style percussion clef (glyph: @code{clefs-percussion})
4082 @c @code{percussion}
4084 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "percussion" c'}
4086 @c @item modern style tab clef (glyph: @code{clefs-tab})
4091 @c @lilypond{\context Staff \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #6 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "tab" c'}
4093 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
4094 transcribed mensural music''.
4096 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
4097 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
4099 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
4100 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
4102 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
4104 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
4105 beams, depending on which staffline it is printed.
4109 @subsection Custodes
4114 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
4115 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
4116 of the first note(s) of the following line and thus helps the player
4117 or singer to manage line breaks during performance, thus enhancing
4118 readability of a score.
4120 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century.
4121 There were different appearances for different notation styles.
4122 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
4123 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
4128 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
4129 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block,
4130 as shown in the following example.
4135 \consists Custos_engraver
4136 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
4140 The result looks like this:
4144 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
4149 \consists Custos_engraver
4156 The appearance of the custos symbol is controlled by it @code{style}
4157 property. The styles supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea},
4158 @code{hufnagel} and @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the
4166 ^\markup { \column << "vaticana"
4167 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-vaticana-u0" } >>
4168 \column << "medicaea"
4169 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-medicaea-u0" } >>
4170 \column << "hufnagel"
4171 { " "\musicglyph #"custodes-hufnagel-u0" } >>
4172 \column << "mensural"
4173 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-mensural-u0" } >>
4181 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4185 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4186 \remove "Key_engraver"
4187 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4188 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4189 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4195 If the boolean property @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} is set to
4196 @code{#t} (which it is by default), lily typesets slightly different
4197 variants of the custos glyph, depending on whether the custos, is
4198 typeset on or between stafflines. The idea is that the glyph will
4199 optically fit well into the staff, with the appendage on the right of
4200 the custos always ending at the same vertical position between two
4201 stafflines regardless of the pitch. If you set
4202 @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} to @code{#f}, then lily takes regardless
4203 of the pitch always a glyph that is a compromise of the former two
4206 Just like stems can be attached to noteheads in two directions
4207 @emph{up} and @emph{down}, each custos glyph is available with its
4208 appendage pointing either up or down. If the pitch of a custos is
4209 above a selectable position, the appendage will point downwards; if
4210 the pitch is below this position, the appendage will point upwards.
4211 Use property @code{neutral-position} to select this position. By
4212 default, it is set to @code{0}, such that the neutral position is the
4213 center of the staff. Use property @code{neutral-direction} to control
4214 what happens if a custos is typeset on the neutral position itself.
4215 By default, this property is set to @code{-1}, such that the appendage
4216 will point downwards. If set to @code{1}, the appendage will point
4217 upwards. Other values such as @code{0} are reserved for future
4218 extensions and should not be used.
4223 @internalsref{Custos}, @inputfileref{input/test,custos-style.ly} and
4224 @inputfileref{input/regression,custos.ly}.
4228 @subsection Divisiones
4234 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; latin word for
4235 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
4236 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
4237 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior} and @emph{divisio maxima}
4238 can be characterized as short, medium and long pause, somewhat like
4239 @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not only marks the end of
4240 a chant, but is also frequently used within a single
4241 antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
4245 To use divisiones, include the file @code{gregorian-init.ly}. It
4246 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
4247 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
4248 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
4249 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
4250 Therefore, @code{gregorian-init.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
4254 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{divisiones.ly}
4258 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
4259 @inputfileref{input/test,divisiones.ly}, @ref{Breath marks}.
4262 @subsection Ligatures
4266 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
4267 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
4269 In musical terminology, a ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that
4270 represents at least two different notes. Ligatures originally appeared
4271 in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th
4272 century as an allusion to the accent symbols of greek lyric poetry to
4273 denote ascending or descending sequences of notes. Both, the shape and
4274 the exact meaning of ligatures changed tremendously during the following
4275 centuries: In early notation, ligatures where used for monophonic tunes
4276 (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way of performance in
4277 the sense of articulation. With upcoming multiphony, the need for a
4278 metric system arised, since multiple voices of a piece have to be
4279 synchronized some way. New notation systems were invented that used
4280 the manifold shapes of ligatures to now denote rhythmical patterns
4281 (e.g. black mensural notation, mannered notation, ars nova). With the
4282 invention of the metric system of the white mensural notation, the need
4283 for ligatures to denote such patterns disappeared. Nevertheless,
4284 ligatures were still in use in the mensural system for a couple of
4285 decades until they finally disappeared during the late 16th / early 17th
4286 century. Still, ligatures have survived in contemporary editions of
4287 Gregorian chant such as the Editio Vaticana from 1905/08.
4291 Syntactically, ligatures are simply enclosed by @code{\[} and
4292 @code{\]}. Some ligature styles (such as Editio Vaticana) may need
4293 additional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature.
4294 By default, the @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a
4295 square bracket above the ligature.
4297 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
4299 \notes \transpose c c' {
4307 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver has
4308 to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in the
4309 following subsections. Currently, Lilypond only supports white mensural
4310 ligatures with certain limitations. Support for Editio Vaticana will be
4311 added in the future.
4314 * White mensural ligatures::
4317 @node White mensural ligatures
4318 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
4320 @cindex Mensural ligatures
4321 @cindex White mensural ligatures
4323 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures. The
4324 implementation is still experimental; it currently may output strange
4325 warnings or even crash in some cases or produce weird results on more
4326 complex ligatures. To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the paper
4327 block the @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} has to be put into
4328 the @internalsref{Voice} context (and you probably want to remove the
4329 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}). There is no additional
4330 input language to describe the shape of a white mensural ligature.
4331 The shape is rather determined solely from the pitch and duration of
4332 the enclosed notes. While this approach may take a new user a while
4333 to get accustomed, it has the great advantage that the full musical
4334 information of the ligature is known internally. This is not only
4335 required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for automatic
4336 transcription of the ligatures.
4340 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
4342 \notes \transpose c c' {
4343 \property Score.timing = ##f
4344 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4345 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4346 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4348 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4350 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4355 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4356 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
4362 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
4363 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
4366 @lilypond[singleline]
4368 \notes \transpose c c' {
4369 \property Score.timing = ##f
4370 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4371 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4372 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4374 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4376 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4382 @subsection Figured bass
4384 @cindex Basso continuo
4386 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
4390 LilyPond has limited support for figured bass:
4392 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
4394 \context Voice \notes { \clef bass dis4 c d ais}
4395 \context FiguredBass
4397 < 6 >4 < 7 >8 < 6+ [_!] >
4403 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
4404 mode, introduced by @code{\figures}, where you can enter bass figures
4405 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass}
4406 that takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
4408 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
4409 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>}.
4414 \context FiguredBass
4418 Accidentals are added to the numbers if you alterate them by
4419 appending @code{-}, @code{!} and @code{+}.
4425 \context FiguredBass
4426 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> }
4429 Spaces or dashes may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
4430 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}.
4436 \context FiguredBass
4437 \figures { < [4 6] 8 [_ 12]> }
4440 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
4441 support, it works much simpler. The @code{\figures} mode simply
4442 stores the numbers , and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints
4443 them as entered. There is no conversion to pitches, and no
4444 realizations of the bass are played in the MIDI file.
4446 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
4447 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
4448 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
4452 @internalsref{BassFigureEvent} music, @internalsref{BassFigure} grob,
4453 @internalsref{FiguredBass} context
4457 Slash notation for alterations is not supported.
4460 @node Contemporary notation
4461 @section Contemporary notation
4463 In the 20th century, composers have greatly expanded the musical
4464 vocabulary. With this expansion, many innovations in musical notation
4465 have been tried. For a comprehensive overview, refer to @cite{Stone
4466 1980} (see @ref{Literature}). In general, the use of new, innovative
4467 notation makes a piece harder to understand and perform and its use
4468 should be avoided if possible. For this reason, support for
4469 contemporary notation in LilyPond is limited.
4478 @subsection Clusters
4482 In musical terminology, a @emph{cluster} denotes a range of
4483 simultaneously sounding pitches that may change over time. The set of
4484 available pitches to apply usually depends on the accoustic source.
4485 Thus, in piano music, a cluster typically consists of a continous range
4486 of the semitones as provided by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic
4487 scale. In choral music, each singer of the choir typically may sing an
4488 arbitrary pitch within the cluster's range that is not bound to any
4489 diatonic, chromatic or other scale. In electronic music, a cluster
4490 (theoretically) may even cover a continuous range of pitches, thus
4491 resulting in coloured noise, such as pink noise.
4493 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
4494 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
4495 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
4496 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by the
4497 shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical extent of
4498 the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster geometrically
4499 describes the development of a range of pitches (vertical extent) over
4500 time (horizontal extent). Still, the geometrical shape of a cluster
4501 covers the area in wich any single pitch contained in the cluster would
4502 be notated as an ordinary note. From this point of view, it is
4503 reasonable to specify a cluster as the envelope of a set of notes.
4507 A cluster is engraved as the envelope of a set of notes. The starting
4508 note is marked with @code{\startCluster}, and the ending note with
4509 @code{\stopCluster}, e.g.,
4517 The following example (from
4518 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly}) shows what the result
4521 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{cluster.ly}
4523 By default, @internalsref{Cluster_engraver} is in the
4524 @internalsref{Voice} context. This allows putting ordinary notes and
4525 clusters together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In such a
4526 case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between
4527 ordinary notes and clusters.
4531 @internalsref{Cluster}, @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly},
4532 @internalsref{Cluster_engraver}, @internalsref{ClusterEvent}.
4536 When a cluster is active, note heads must be switched off manually using
4539 Music expressions like @code{< @{ g8 e8 @} a4 >} are not printed
4540 accurately. Use @code{<<g a>>8 <<e a>>8} instead.
4545 @subsection Fermatas
4551 Contemporary music notation frequently uses special fermata symbols to
4552 indicate fermatas of differing lengths.
4556 The following are supported
4558 @lilypond[singleline]
4581 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
4582 "shortfermata" "fermata" "longfermata" "verylongfermata"
4587 See @ref{Articulations} for general instructions how to apply scripts
4588 such as fermatas to a @code{\notes@{@}} block.
4591 @section Tuning output
4593 As much formatting as possible is performed
4594 automatically. Nevertheless, there are situations where LilyPond needs
4595 some help, or where you want to override its decisions. In this
4596 section we discuss ways to do just that.
4598 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called objects (graphic
4599 objects). Each object carries with it a set of properties (object
4600 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem object has
4601 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
4603 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
4604 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
4605 temporarily change the definition of one type of object, thus
4606 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
4607 object, and set a object property in that object.
4616 @node Tuning objects
4617 @subsection Tuning objects
4619 @cindex object description
4621 The definition of an object is actually a list of default object
4622 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem object (available
4623 in @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), includes the following definitions for
4628 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
4629 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
4634 By adding variables on top of these existing definitions, the system
4635 defaults is overriden, and the appearance of a graphical objects is
4641 Changing a variable for only one object is commonly achieved with
4645 \once \property @var{context}.@var{grobname}
4646 \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4648 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
4649 and @var{grobname} is a string and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
4650 This command applies a setting only during one moment in the score.
4652 In the following example, only one @internalsref{Stem} object is
4653 changed from its original setting:
4655 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment, relative=1]
4657 \once \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4
4661 @cindex @code{\once}
4663 For changing more objects, the same command, without @code{\once} can
4666 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4668 This command adds @code{@var{symbol} = @var{value}} to the definition
4669 of @var{grobname} in the context @var{context}, and this definition
4670 stays in place until it is removed.
4672 An existing definition may be removed by the following command
4675 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
4678 All @code{\override} and @code{\revert} commands should be balanced.
4679 The @code{\set} shorthand, performs a revert followed by an override,
4680 and is often more convenient to use
4683 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4687 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
4688 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
4690 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
4694 The following example gives exactly the same result as the previous
4695 one (assuming the system default for stem thickness is 0.8).
4697 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
4698 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
4700 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
4704 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
4705 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
4706 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
4707 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and
4708 @code{\revert}, must be carefully balanced.
4710 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
4713 A clumsy but correct form:
4715 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
4718 Shorter version of the same:
4720 \override \set \set \revert
4723 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
4726 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
4729 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the object property is unset),
4732 \set \set \set \revert
4735 For the digirati, the object description is an Scheme association
4736 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as
4737 a stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are push and pop
4738 operations. The association list is stored in a normal context
4741 \property Voice.NoteHead = #'()
4743 will effectively erase @internalsref{NoteHead}s from the current
4744 @internalsref{Voice}. However, this mechanism is not guaranteed to
4745 work, and may cause crashes or other anomalous behavior.
4749 @internalsref{OverrideProperty}, @internalsref{RevertProperty},
4750 @internalsref{PropertySet}, @internalsref{backend properties},
4751 @internalsref{All Graphical Objects}.
4756 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
4757 The backend is not very strict in type-checking object properties. If you
4758 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
4762 @node Outputproperty
4763 @subsection Outputproperty
4765 @cindex \outputproperty
4767 A second way of tuning objects is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
4768 feature. The syntax is as follows:
4770 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4772 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking an object argument, and
4773 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
4774 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
4775 objects that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
4776 true, the object property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
4778 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
4779 the appropriate context to apply this to.
4780 @inputfileref{input/regression,output-property.ly} shows an example of
4781 the use of @code{\outputproperty}.
4785 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
4786 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
4789 @node Font selection
4790 @subsection Font selection
4792 The most common thing to change about the appearance of fonts is
4793 their size. The font size of any context can be easily
4794 changed by setting the @code{fontSize} property for that context:
4796 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,verbatim,quote]
4797 c4 c4 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
4800 This command will set @code{font-relative-size} (see below),
4801 and does not change the size of variable symbols, such as
4802 beams or slurs. You can use this command to get smaller symbol for
4803 cue notes, but that involves some more subtleties. An elaborate
4804 example of those is in @inputfileref{input/test,cue-notes.ly}.
4806 @cindex magnification
4808 The size of the font may be scaled with the object property
4809 @code{font-magnification}. For example, @code{2.0} blows up all
4810 letters by a factor 2 in both directions.
4819 The font used for printing a object can be selected by setting
4820 @code{font-name}, e.g.
4822 \property Staff.TimeSignature
4823 \set #'font-name = #"cmr17"
4825 You may use any font which is available to @TeX{}, such as foreign
4826 fonts or fonts that do not belong to the Computer Modern font family.
4828 Font selection for the standard fonts, @TeX{}'s Computer Modern fonts,
4829 can also be adjusted with a more fine-grained mechanism. By setting
4830 the object properties described below, you can select a different font.
4831 All three mechanisms work for every object that supports
4832 @code{font-interface}.
4836 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
4837 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff
4838 braces), @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{ancient} (the
4839 ancient notation font) @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic signs) and
4843 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
4844 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
4845 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
4848 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
4849 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
4852 @item font-relative-size
4853 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
4854 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
4855 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
4857 There are small differences in design between fonts designed for
4858 different sizes, hence font-relative-size is the preferred way to
4862 @item font-design-size
4863 A number indicating the design size of the font.
4865 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
4866 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
4867 which enhances readability.
4870 For any of these properties, the value @code{*} (i.e. the symbol
4871 @code{*}, entered as @code{#'*}), acts as a wildcard. This can be used
4872 to override default setting, which are always present. For example:
4874 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
4875 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-family = #'typewriter
4876 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
4879 @cindex @code{font-style}
4885 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
4887 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
4888 family, and the style sheet can not be modified easily.
4890 @cindex font selection
4891 @cindex font magnification
4892 @cindex @code{font-interface}
4896 @subsection Text markup
4901 @cindex typeset text
4903 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can access it
4904 with the keyword @code{\markup}. Within markup mode, you can enter texts
4905 similar to lyrics: simply enter them, surrounded by spaces.
4908 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
4909 c1^\markup { hello }
4910 c1_\markup { hi there }
4911 c1^\markup { hi \bold there, is \italic anyone home? }
4914 @cindex font switching
4916 The line of the example demonstrates font switching commands. The
4917 command only apply to the first following word; enclose a set of texts
4918 with braces to apply a command to more words.
4920 \markup @{ \bold @{ hi there @} @}
4922 For clarity, you can also do this for single arguments, e.g.
4924 \markup @{ is \italic @{ anyone @} home @}
4927 @cindex font size, texts
4929 The following size commands set abolute sizes
4945 You can also make letter larger or smaller relative to their neighbors,
4946 with the commands @code{\larger} and @code{\smaller}.
4950 @cindex font style, for texts
4956 The following font change commands are defined:
4959 This changes to the font used for dynamic signs. Note that this font
4960 does not contain all characters of the alphabet.
4962 This changes to the font used for time signatures. It only contains
4963 numbers and a few punctuation marks.
4965 Changes @code{font-shape} to @code{italic}
4967 Changes @code{font-series} to @code{bold}
4970 @cindex raising text
4971 @cindex lowering text
4973 @cindex translating text
4978 Raising and lowering texts can be done with @code{\super} and
4981 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
4982 c1^\markup { E "=" mc \super "2" }
4987 If you want to give an explicit amount for lowering or raising, use
4988 @code{\raise}. This command takes a Scheme valued first argument, and
4989 a markup object as second argument
4991 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1,quote]
4992 c1^\markup { C \small \raise #1.0 \bold { "9/7+" }}
4994 The argument to @code{\raise} is the vertical displacement amount,
4995 measured in (global) staff spaces.
4997 Other commands taking single arguments include
5000 @item \bracket, \hbracket
5001 Bracket the argument markup with normal and horizontal brackets
5006 This is converted to a musical symbol, e.g. @code{\musicglyph
5007 #"accidentals-0"} will select the natural sign from the music font.
5008 See @ref{The Feta font} for a complete listing of the possible glyphs.
5010 This produces a single character, e.g. @code{\char #65} produces the
5013 @item \hspace #@var{amount}
5015 This produces a invisible object taking horizontal space.
5017 \markup @{ A \hspace #2.0 B @}
5019 will put extra space between A and B. Note that lilypond
5020 inserts space before and after @code{\hspace}.
5022 @item \fontsize #@var{size}
5024 This sets the relative font size, eg.
5026 A \fontsize #2 @{ B C @} D
5030 This will enlarge the B and the C by two steps.
5031 @item \translate #(cons @var{x} @var{y})
5033 This translates an object. Its first argument is a cons of numbers
5035 A \translate #(cons 2 -3) @{ B C @} D
5037 This moves `B C' 2 spaces to the right, and 3 down.
5039 @item \magnify #@var{mag}
5041 This sets the font magnification for the its argument. In the following
5042 example, the middle A will be 10% larger.
5044 A \magnify #1.1 @{ A @} A
5048 @item \override #(@var{key} . @var{value})
5050 This overrides a formatting property for its argument. The argument
5051 should be a key/value pair, e.g.
5053 m \override #'(font-family . math) m m
5057 In markup mode you can compose expressions, similar to mathematical
5058 expressions, XML documents and music expressions. The braces group
5059 notes into horizontal lines. Other types of lists also exist: you can
5060 stack expressions grouped with @code{<<}, and @code{>>} vertically with
5061 the command @code{\column}. Similarly, @code{\center} aligns texts by
5064 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
5065 c1^\markup { \column << a bbbb c >> }
5066 c1^\markup { \center << a bbbb c >> }
5067 c1^\markup { \line << a b c >> }
5070 The markup mechanism is very flexible and extensible. Refer to
5071 @file{scm/new-markup.scm} for more information on extending the markup
5074 @cindex metronome mark
5076 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
5080 eighthStem = \markup \combine
5081 \musicglyph #"flags-stem"
5082 \translate #'(0.0 . 3.5) \musicglyph #"flags-u3"
5083 eighthNote = \markup
5084 \override #'(word-space . 0.0)
5085 { \musicglyph #"noteheads-2"
5086 \translate #'(-0.05 . 0.1) \eighthStem }
5089 \notes\relative c'' {
5090 a1^\markup { \magnify #0.9 \eighthNote " = 64" }
5097 @internalsref{Markup functions}, @file{scm/new-markup.scm}
5104 Text layout is ultimately done by @TeX{}, which does kerning of
5105 letters. LilyPond does not account for kerning, so texts will be
5106 spaced slightly too wide.
5108 Syntax errors for markup mode are confusing.
5112 @section Global layout
5114 The global layout determined by three factors: the page layout, the
5115 line breaks and the spacing. These all influence each other. The
5116 choice of spacing determines how densely each system of music is set,
5117 which influences where line breaks breaks are chosen, and thus
5118 ultimately how many pages a piece of music takes. In this section we
5119 will explain how the lilypond spacing engine works, and how you can
5122 Globally spoken, this procedure happens in three steps: first,
5123 flexible distances (``springs'') are chosen, based on durations. All
5124 possible line breaking combination are tried, and the one with the
5125 best results---a layout that has uniform density and requires as
5126 little stretching or cramping as possible---is chosen. When the score
5127 is processed by @TeX{}, page are filled with systems, and page breaks
5128 are chosen whenever the page gets full.
5133 * Vertical spacing::
5134 * Horizontal spacing::
5141 @node Vertical spacing
5142 @subsection Vertical spacing
5144 @cindex vertical spacing
5145 @cindex distance between staves
5146 @cindex staff distance
5147 @cindex between staves, distance
5148 @cindex staffs per page
5151 The height of each system is determined automatically by lilypond, to
5152 keep systems from bumping into each other, some minimum distances are
5153 set. By changing these, you can put staves closer together, and thus
5154 put more systems onto one page.
5156 Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make
5157 staves maintain a distance, their vertical size is padded. This is
5158 done with the property @code{minimumVerticalExtent}. It takes a pair
5159 of numbers, so if you want to make it smaller from its, then you could
5162 \property Staff.minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4 . 4)
5164 This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 4 staff-space on
5165 either side of the center staff line. The argument of
5166 @code{minimumVerticalExtent} is interpreted as an interval, where the
5167 center line is the 0, so the first number is generally negative. The
5168 staff can be made larger at the bottom by setting it to @code{(-6
5171 The piano staves are handled a little differently: to make cross-staff
5172 beaming work correctly, it necessary that the distance between staves
5173 is fixed. This is also done with a @internalsref{VerticalAlignment}
5174 object, created in @internalsref{PianoStaff}. In this object the
5175 distance between the staves is fixed by setting
5176 @code{forced-distance}. If you want to override this, use a
5177 @code{\translator} block as follows:
5181 VerticalAlignment \override #'forced-distance = #9
5184 This would bring the staves together at a distance of 9 staff spaces,
5185 measured from the center line of each staff.
5189 Vertical aligment of staves is handled by the
5190 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object.
5194 @node Horizontal spacing
5195 @subsection Horizontal Spacing
5197 The spacing engine translates differences in durations into
5198 stretchable distances (``springs'') of differing lengths. Longer
5199 durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest
5200 durations get a fixed amount of space (which is controlled by
5201 @code{shortest-duration-space} in the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}
5202 object). The longer the duration, the more space it gets: doubling a
5203 duration adds a fixed amount (this amount is controlled by
5204 @code{spacing-increment}) of space to the note.
5206 For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter and
5207 8th notes, the eighth note is followed by 1 note head width (NHW). The
5208 The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by 3 NHW, etc.
5209 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=1] c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8
5213 Normally, @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to 1.2, which is the
5214 width of a note head, and @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to
5215 2.0, meaning that the shortest note gets 2 NHW (2 times
5216 @code{shortest-duration-space}) of space. For normal notes, this space
5217 is always counted from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest
5218 notes are generally followed by one NHW of space.
5220 If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single
5221 32th note to a score that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the
5222 entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a 16th, but a 32nd,
5223 thus adding 2 noteheads of space to every note. To prevent this, the
5224 shortest duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score,
5225 but the most commonly found shortest note. Notes that are even
5226 shorter this are followed by a space that is proportonial to their
5227 duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add
5228 only a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by
5231 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=2]
5232 c2 c4. c8 c4. [c16 c] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
5235 The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every
5236 measure, the shortest duration is determined. The most common short
5237 duration, is taken as the basis for the spacing, with the stipulation
5238 that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than
5239 1/8th note. The shortest duration is printed when you run lilypond
5240 with @code{--verbose}. These durations may also be customized. If you
5241 set the @code{common-shortest-duration} in
5242 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, then this sets the base duration for
5243 spacing. The maximum duration for this base (normally 1/8th), is set
5244 through @code{base-shortest-duration}.
5246 @cindex @code{common-shortest-duration}
5247 @cindex @code{base-shortest-duration}
5248 @cindex @code{stem-spacing-correction}
5249 @cindex @code{spacing}
5251 In the introduction it was explained that stem directions influence
5252 spacing. This is controlled with @code{stem-spacing-correction}
5253 property in @internalsref{NoteSpacing}, which are generated for every
5254 @internalsref{Voice} context. The @code{StaffSpacing} object
5255 (generated at @internalsref{Staff} context) contains the same property
5256 for controlling the stem/barline spacing. In the following example
5257 shows these corrections, once with default settings, and once with
5258 exaggerated corrections.
5264 \property Staff.NoteSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
5266 \property Staff.StaffSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
5271 \paper { raggedright = ##t } }
5274 @cindex SpacingSpanner, overriding properties
5276 Properties of the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} must be overriden
5277 from the @code{\paper} block, since the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}
5278 is created before any @code{\property} statements are interpreted.
5280 \paper @{ \translator @{
5282 SpacingSpanner \override #'spacing-increment = #3.0
5289 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, @internalsref{NoteSpacing},
5290 @internalsref{StaffSpacing}, @internalsref{SeparationItem},
5291 @internalsref{SeparatingGroupSpanner}.
5295 Spacing is determined on a score wide basis. If you have a score that
5296 changes its character (measured in durations) halfway during the
5297 score, the part containing the longer durations will be spaced too
5300 There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing.
5305 @subsection Font size
5306 @cindex font size, setting
5307 @cindex staff size, setting
5308 @cindex @code{paper} file
5310 The Feta font provides musical symbols at seven different sizes.
5311 These fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 19 pt, 20 point, 23
5312 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the height of the
5313 five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
5315 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
5316 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 19, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any
5317 of these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven},
5318 @code{paperThirteen}, @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperNineteen},
5319 @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and @code{paperTwentysix}
5320 are defined respectively. The default @code{\paper} block is also
5321 set. These files should be imported at toplevel, i.e.
5323 \include "paper26.ly"
5327 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
5328 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
5333 @subsection Line breaking
5336 @cindex breaking lines
5338 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
5339 that lines look neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines
5340 have similar density.
5342 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can
5343 do this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at
5344 this point. Line breaks can only occur at places where there are bar
5345 lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line,
5346 you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
5347 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a
5351 @cindex regular line breaks
5352 @cindex four bar music.
5354 If you want linebreaks at regular intervals, you can use the following:
5356 < \repeat 7 unfold @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
5357 @emph{the real music}
5360 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
5365 @internalsref{BreakEvent}
5369 @subsection Page layout
5372 @cindex breaking pages
5374 @cindex @code{indent}
5375 @cindex @code{linewidth}
5377 The most basic settings influencing the spacing are @code{indent} and
5378 @code{linewidth}. They are set in the @code{\paper} block. They
5379 control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of
5382 If @code{raggedright} is set to true in the @code{\paper}
5383 block, then the lines are justified at their natural length. This
5384 useful for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural
5388 @cindex vertical spacing
5390 The page layout process happens outside lilypond: variables
5391 controlling page layout are passed to the output, and are further
5392 interpreted by @code{ly2dvi}. @code{ly2dvi} responds to the following
5393 variables in the @code{\paper} block. The variable @code{textheight}
5394 sets the total height of the music on each page. The spacing between
5395 systems is controlled with @code{interscoreline}, its default is 16pt.
5396 The distance between the score lines will stretch in order to fill the
5397 full page @code{interscorelinefill} is set to a positive number. In
5398 that case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
5400 @cindex @code{textheight}
5401 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
5402 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
5404 If the variable @code{lastpagefill} is defined,
5405 @c fixme: this should only be done if lastpagefill == #t
5406 systems are evenly distributed vertically on the last page. This
5407 might produce ugly results in case there are not enough systems on the
5408 last page. Note that @command{lilypond-book} ignores
5409 @code{lastpagefill}. See @ref{Integrating text and music with
5410 lilypond-book} for more information.
5412 @cindex @code{lastpagefill}
5414 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
5415 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into
5416 the @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages. This
5417 is done by setting the @code{between-systems-strings} on the
5418 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn} where the system is broken.
5419 An example is shown in @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}.
5423 @cindex @code{papersize}
5425 To change the paper size, you must first set the
5426 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
5427 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
5428 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
5429 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
5432 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
5433 \include "paper16.ly"
5436 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
5437 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
5438 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
5443 @ref{Invoking ly2dvi},
5444 @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly},
5445 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn}.
5449 There is no concept of page breaking, which makes it difficult to
5450 choose sensible page breaks in multi-page pieces.
5459 Entered music can also be converted to MIDI output. The performance
5460 is good enough for proof-hearing the music for errors.
5463 Ties, dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted. Dynamic marks,
5464 crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume levels. Dynamic
5465 marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI volume
5466 range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary linearly
5467 between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
5468 @code{dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction} in @internalsref{Voice} context.
5470 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
5471 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
5472 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. The equalizer
5473 can be controlled by setting @code{instrumentEqualizer}.
5475 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
5479 Many musically interesting effects, such as swing, articulation,
5480 slurring, etc., are translated to MIDI.
5485 * MIDI instrument names::
5490 @subsection MIDI block
5494 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
5495 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
5499 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
5500 @item context definitions
5503 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
5507 @cindex context definition
5509 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
5510 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
5511 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer-init.ly}.
5514 @node MIDI instrument names
5515 @subsection MIDI instrument names
5517 @cindex instrument names
5518 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
5519 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
5521 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
5522 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
5523 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
5524 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
5528 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
5529 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by