3 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
4 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
5 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
7 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
11 @chapter Notation manual
14 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
20 * Easier music entry::
36 * Contemporary notation::
42 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
53 * Chromatic alterations::
59 * Automatic note splitting ::
61 * Easy Notation note heads ::
69 A note is printed by specifying its pitch and then its duration.
70 @footnote{Notes constitute the most basic elements of LilyPond input,
71 but they do not form valid input on their own without a @code{\score}
72 block. However, for the sake of brevity and simplicity we will
73 generally omit @code{\score} blocks and @code{\paper} declarations in
76 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
85 @cindex Note specification
87 @cindex entering notes
89 The commonest syntax for pitch entry is used in @code{\chords} and
90 @code{\notes} mode. In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated
91 by names. The notes are specified by the letters @code{a} through
92 @code{g}, while the octave is formed with notes ranging from @code{c}
93 to @code{b}. The pitch @code{c} is an octave below middle C and the
94 letters span the octave above that C.
96 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
98 a,4 b, c d e f g a b c' d' e' \clef treble f' g' a' b' c''
101 @cindex note names, Dutch
103 A sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
104 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and
105 double flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}.
107 These default names are the Dutch note names. In Dutch, @code{aes} is
108 contracted to @code{as} in Dutch, but both forms are
109 accepted. Similarly, both @code{es} and @code{ees} are accepted.
111 There are predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
112 To use them, include the language specific init file. For
113 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files
114 and the note names they define are:
119 Note Names sharp flat
120 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
121 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
122 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
123 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
124 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
125 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
126 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
127 espanol.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -s -b
136 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
137 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
138 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
139 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
141 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
142 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
146 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
148 @cindex @code{\pitch}
150 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
153 where @var{scmpitch} is a Scheme object of the @code{Pitch} type.
158 @internalsref{NoteEvent}, @internalsref{NoteHead}
160 @node Chromatic alterations
161 @subsection Chromatic alterations
163 Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also
164 print them manually. A reminder accidental
165 @cindex reminder accidental
167 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!}
168 after the pitch. A cautionary accidental
169 @cindex cautionary accidental
170 @cindex parenthesized accidental
171 (an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the
172 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
174 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
175 cis' cis' cis'! cis'?
179 The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many
180 ways. For more information, refer to @ref{Accidentals}.
185 A chord is formed by a enclosing a set of pitches in @code{<<} and
188 TODO: accidental overides?
197 Rests are entered like notes, with the note name @code{r}.
199 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
203 Whole bar rests, centered in middle of the bar, are specified using
204 @code{R} (capital R); see @ref{Multi measure rests}. See also
207 For some music, you may wish to explicitly specify the rest's vertical
208 position. This can be achieved by entering a note with the @code{\rest}
209 keyword appended. Rest collision testing will leave these rests alone.
211 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
217 @internalsref{RestEvent}, @internalsref{Rest}
224 @cindex Invisible rest
227 An invisible rest (also called a `skip') can be entered like a note
228 with note name `@code{s}' or with @code{\skip @var{duration}}:
230 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
234 The @code{s} syntax is only available in Note mode and Chord
235 mode. In other situations, you should use the @code{\skip} command,
236 which will work outside of those two modes:
238 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
241 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
242 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
247 The skip command is merely an empty musical placeholder. It does not
248 produce any output, not even transparent output.
252 @internalsref{SkipEvent}
257 @subsection Durations
261 @cindex @code{\duration}
264 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations are designated by numbers
265 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For example,
266 a quarter note is entered using a @code{4} (since it is a 1/4 note), while
267 a half note is entered using a @code{2} (since it is a 1/2 note). For notes
268 longer than a whole you must use variables.
270 @c FIXME: what is an identifier? I do not think it's been introduced yet.
271 @c and if it has, I obviously skipped that part. - Graham
275 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
277 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
282 \notes \relative c'' {
284 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
286 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
291 \remove "Clef_engraver"
292 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
293 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
294 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
301 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previously entered
302 duration. Default for the first note is a quarter note. The duration
303 can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') in order to obtain dotted note
307 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
308 a' b' c''8 b' a'4 a'4. b'4.. c'8.
313 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M}
314 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
315 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
317 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
318 a'2*2 b'4*2 a'8*4 a'4*3/2 gis'4*3/2 a'4*3/2 a'4
321 Durations can also be produced through GUILE extension mechanism.
322 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
323 c'\duration #(ly:make-duration 2 1)
329 Dot placement for chords is not perfect. In some cases, dots overlap:
342 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in
343 effect extends the length of a note. Ties should not be confused with
344 slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate
345 musical phrasing. A tie is entered using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'.
347 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
348 e' ~ e' <<c' e' g'>> ~ <<c' e' g'>>
351 When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads (whose pitches match) are
352 connected. If you try to tie together chords that have no common pitches,
353 no ties will be created.
355 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
356 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
357 exactly the same concept.
359 @lilypond[fragment, singleline,quote]
360 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
362 If you need to tie notes over bars, it may be easier to use automatic
363 note splitting (See @ref{Automatic note splitting}).
368 @internalsref{TieEvent}, @internalsref{NewTieEvent},
369 @internalsref{Tie}, @ref{Automatic note splitting}.
372 ties created for a chord, see @inputfileref{input/test,tie-sparse.ly}.
376 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a pair of chords is not
377 supported in a simple way. It can be achieved by moving the
378 tie-engraver into the @internalsref{Thread} context and turning on and
379 off ties per @internalsref{Thread}.
381 Switching staves when a tie is active, will produce a horizontal tie
385 Formatting of ties is a difficult subject. LilyPond often does not
386 give optimal results.
390 @node Automatic note splitting
391 @subsection Automatic note splitting
392 @c FIXME: This subsection does not belong in @ref{Note entry}.
394 LilyPond can automatically converting long notes to tied notes. This
395 is done by replacing the @internalsref{Note_heads_engraver} by the
396 @internalsref{Completion_heads_engraver}.
398 @lilypond[verbatim,noindent]
400 \notes\relative c'{ \time 2/4
401 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
405 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
406 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
410 This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts
411 ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are
412 not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how much each measure
417 Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be
418 represented exactly; the engraver will not insert tuplets.
425 @cindex @code{\times}
427 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all durations
430 @cindex @code{\times}
432 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
435 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
436 In the sheet music, the fraction's denominator will be printed over
437 the notes, optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the
438 triplet in which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3
439 of their written length:
441 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
442 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
445 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
446 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
447 @code{\times} only once, saving you lots of typing.
449 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
450 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
451 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
454 The format of the number is determined by the property
455 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
456 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
457 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
461 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
462 @cindex tuplet formatting
464 See also @seeinternals{TupletBracket}.
468 Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically. In this case, outer
469 tuplet brackets should be moved manually.
471 @node Easy Notation note heads
472 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
474 @cindex easy notation
477 The "easyplay" note head includes a note name inside the head. It is
478 used in music aimed at beginners.
480 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,26pt]
482 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
483 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
487 The @code{EasyNotation} variable overrides a @internalsref{Score}
488 context. You probably will want to print it with magnification or a
489 large font size to make it more readable. To print with
490 magnification, you must create a DVI file (with @file{ly2dvi}) and
491 then enlarge it with something like @file{dvips -x 2000 file.dvi}.
492 See @file{man dvips} for details. To print with a larger font, see
499 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through
500 the letters. Printing the PostScript file obtained with ly2dvi does
501 produce the correct result.
504 @node Easier music entry
505 @section Easier music entry
510 * Skipping corrected music::
513 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce
514 errors. This section deals with tricks and features that help you
515 enter music, and find and correct mistakes. It is also possible to
516 use external programs to enter or edit music. Refer to the website for
521 @node Relative octaves
522 @subsection Relative octaves
524 @cindex relative octave specification
526 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
527 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
528 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
529 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
531 @cindex @code{\relative}
533 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
536 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
537 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
538 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
539 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
540 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
543 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
544 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
545 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
546 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
548 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
549 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
555 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
556 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
561 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
562 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
563 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
566 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
573 @cindex @code{\notes}
575 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
576 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
577 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
580 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
581 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
582 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
583 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
587 @subsection Bar check
591 @cindex @code{barCheckSynchronize}
595 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
596 message is issued if it does not fall at a measure boundary. This can
597 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
598 @code{barCheckSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
599 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
601 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, `@code{|}'.
603 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
608 @cindex skipTypesetting
610 Failed bar checks are caused by entering incorrect
611 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
612 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the
613 score by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To
614 speed up this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting}, described
617 @node Skipping corrected music
618 @subsection Skipping corrected music
620 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
621 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
622 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
623 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
626 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
628 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
630 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
638 @section Staff notation
640 This section deals with music notation that occurs on staff level,
641 such as keys, clefs and time signatures.
643 @cindex Staff notation
655 @subsection Staff symbol
657 @cindex adjusting staff symbol
658 @cindex StaffSymbol, using \property
659 @cindex staff lines, setting number of
661 Staff is a the general name for Notes, dynamic signs, etc. are grouped
662 with a set of horizontal lines, into a staff (plural `staves'). In our
663 system, these lines are drawn using a separate graphical object called
666 This object is created whenever a @internalsref{Staff} context is
667 created. You cannot change the appearance of the staff symbol by
668 using @code{\override} or @code{\set}. At the moment that
669 @code{\property Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and
670 the @internalsref{StaffSymbol} is created before any @code{\override} is
671 effective. You can deal with this either overriding properties in a
672 @code{\translator} definition, or by using @code{\outputproperty}.
676 If you end a staff halfway a piece, the staff symbol may not end
677 exactly on the barline.
681 @subsection Key signature
686 The key signature indicates the scale in which a piece is played. It
687 is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of
692 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
695 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
698 @cindex @code{\minor}
699 @cindex @code{\major}
700 @cindex @code{\minor}
701 @cindex @code{\ionian}
702 @cindex @code{\locrian}
703 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
704 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
705 @cindex @code{\lydian}
706 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
707 @cindex @code{\dorian}
709 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
710 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
711 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
712 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
713 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
715 This command sets the context property
716 @internalsref{Staff}.@code{keySignature}. Non-standard key signatures
717 can be specified by setting this property directly.
722 @internalsref{KeyChangeEvent}, @internalsref{KeySignature},
724 @cindex @code{keySignature}
731 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
736 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command:
737 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
738 \key f\major c''2 \clef alto g'2
741 Supported clef-names include
742 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
744 @item treble, violin, G, G2
753 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
768 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
769 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. You have to
770 enclose @var{clefname} in quotes if you use underscores or digits in the
776 This command is equivalent to setting @code{clefGlyph},
777 @code{clefPosition} (which controls the Y position of the clef),
778 @code{centralCPosition} and @code{clefOctavation}. A clef is printed
779 when any of these properties are changed.
783 The object for this symbol is @internalsref{Clef}.
789 @subsection Time signature
790 @cindex Time signature
794 Time signature indicates the metrum of a piece: a regular pattern of
795 strong and weak beats. It is denoted by a fraction at the start of the
800 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
802 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
803 \time 2/4 c'2 \time 3/4 c'2.
806 The actual symbol that is printed can be customized with the
807 @code{style} property. Setting it to @code{#'()} uses fraction style
808 for 4/4 and 2/2 time. There are many more options for its layout.
809 See @inputfileref{input/test,time.ly} for more examples.
812 This command sets the property @code{timeSignatureFraction},
813 @code{beatLength} and @code{measureLength} in the @code{Timing}
814 context, which is normally aliased to @internalsref{Score}. The property
815 @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines should be
816 inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated. Changing the
817 value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a time signature
818 symbol to be printed.
820 More options are available through the Scheme function
821 @code{set-time-signature}. In combination with the
822 @internalsref{Measure_grouping_engraver}, it will create
823 @internalsref{MeasureGrouping} signs. Such signs ease reading
824 rhythmically complex modern music. In the following example, the 9/8
825 measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to
826 @code{set-time-signature} as the third argument @code{(2 2 2 3)}.
829 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
830 #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3))
831 g8-[ g-] d-[ d-] g-[ g-] a8-[-( bes g-]-) |
832 #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2))
837 \translator { \StaffContext
838 \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
844 @internalsref{TimeSignature}, @internalsref{Timing_engraver}.
849 Automatic beaming does not use measure grouping specified with
850 @code{set-time-signature}.
857 @cindex partial measure
858 @cindex measure, partial
859 @cindex shorten measures
860 @cindex @code{\partial}
862 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
863 @code{\partial} command:
864 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
865 \partial 16*5 c'16 c4 f16 a'2. ~ a'8. a'16 | g'1
868 The syntax for this command is
870 \partial @var{duration}
872 This is internally translated into
874 \property Timing.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
877 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
878 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
880 @node Unmetered music
881 @subsection Unmetered music
883 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
884 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. By setting
885 @code{Score.timing} to false, this automatic timing can be switched
889 @subsection Bar lines
893 @cindex measure lines
897 Bar lines delimit measures, but are also used to indicate
898 repeats. Line breaks may only happen on barlines.
902 Bar lines are inserted automatically, but if you need a special type
903 of barline, you can force one using the @code{\bar} command:
904 @lilypond[relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
908 The following bar types are available
909 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
921 In scores with many staves, the barlines are automatically placed at
922 top level, and they are connected between different staves of a
923 @internalsref{StaffGroup}:
924 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
925 < \context StaffGroup <
926 \context Staff = up { e'4 d'
929 \context Staff = down { \clef bass c4 g e g } >
930 \context Staff = pedal { \clef bass c2 c2 } >
934 The command @code{\bar @var{bartype}} is a short cut for
935 doing @code{\property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}}
936 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
937 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
938 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
939 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
941 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
942 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
943 @code{whichBar} settings.
946 @cindex repeatCommands
947 @cindex defaultBarType
949 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
959 The bar line objects that are created at @internalsref{Staff} level
960 are called @internalsref{BarLine}, the bar lines that span staffs are
961 @internalsref{SpanBar}s.
968 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff
969 is to split chords using the separator @code{\\}. You can use it for
970 small, short-lived voices (make a chord of voices) or for single
973 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
974 \context Voice = VA \relative c'' {
975 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ b, \\ f' \\ d' >
979 The separator causes @internalsref{Voice} contexts to be instantiated,
980 bearing the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc. In each of these
981 contexts, vertical direction of slurs, stems, etc. are set
984 This can also be done by instantiating @internalsref{Voice} contexts
985 by hand, and using @code{\voiceOne}, up to @code{\voiceFour} to assign
986 a stem directions and horizontal shift for each part.
989 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
991 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
992 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
993 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
996 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
997 if you set the object property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
998 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
999 \relative c' \context Voice < {
1001 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override
1002 #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
1004 } \\ { [g8. f16] [g8. f16] }
1008 Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting
1009 @code{merge-differently-headed}:
1010 @lilypond[fragment, relative=2,verbatim]
1013 \property Staff.NoteCollision
1014 \override #'merge-differently-headed = ##t
1015 c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >
1018 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
1020 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1021 \context Voice < c''4 \\ r4 >
1026 The objects responsible for resolving collisions are
1027 @internalsref{NoteCollision} and @internalsref{RestCollision}. See
1028 also example files @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-dots.ly},
1029 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-head-chords.ly},
1030 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-heads.ly},
1031 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-mesh.ly}, and
1032 @inputfileref{input/regression,collisions.ly}.
1037 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
1038 handles a few situations. When it cannot cope, you are advised to use
1039 @code{force-hshift} of the @internalsref{NoteColumn} object and pitched
1040 rests to override typesetting decisions.
1045 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
1046 the metrum. They are inserted automatically in most cases.
1048 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1049 \time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
1052 If you are not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can enter the
1053 beams explicitly. If you have beaming patterns that differ from the
1054 defaults, you can also set your own.
1056 See also @internalsref{Beam}.
1059 @cindex Automatic beams
1060 @subsection Manual beams
1061 @cindex beams, manual
1065 In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming
1066 algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over rests or
1067 bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point manually
1068 using @code{[} and @code{]}.
1070 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1072 r4 r8-[ g' a r8-] r8 g-[ | a-] r8
1076 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1078 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1079 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1080 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount} can
1081 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
1082 property, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1084 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1087 f8-[ r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a-]
1090 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1093 The property @code{subdivideBeams} can be set in order to subdivide
1094 all 16th or shorter beams at beat positions. This accomplishes the
1095 same effect as twiddling with @code{stemLeftBeamCount} and
1096 @code{stemRightBeamCount}, but it take less typing.
1099 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,noindent]
1100 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1101 \property Voice.subdivideBeams = ##t
1102 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1103 c32-[ c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c-]
1104 \property Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
1105 c32-[ c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c-]
1107 @cindex subdivideBeams
1109 Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap is detected
1110 between the note heads. This behavior can be tuned through the object
1111 property @code{auto-knee-gap}.
1113 @cindex beams, kneed
1115 @cindex auto-knee-gap
1123 Automatically kneed beams cannot be used together with Hara Kiri
1128 * Setting automatic beam behavior ::
1132 @no de Beam typography
1133 @sub section Beam typography
1135 One of the strong points of LilyPond is how beams are formatted. Beams
1136 are quantized, meaning that the left and right endpoints beams start
1137 exactly on staff lines. Without quantization, small wedges of white
1138 space appear between the beam and staff line, and this looks untidy.
1140 Beams are also slope-damped: melodies that go up or down should also
1141 have beams that go up or down, but the slope of the beams should be
1142 less than the slope of the notes themselves.
1144 Some beams should be horizontal. These are so-called concave beams.
1146 [TODO: some pictures.]
1150 @node Setting automatic beam behavior
1151 @subsection Setting automatic beam behavior
1153 @cindex @code{autoBeamSettings}
1154 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
1155 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
1156 @cindex automatic beams, tuning
1157 @cindex tuning automatic beaming
1159 [TODO: use \applycontext]
1161 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
1162 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
1163 or at durations specified by the properties in
1164 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
1165 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
1167 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
1168 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
1170 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
1171 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
1173 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
1174 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
1175 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
1176 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
1177 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
1180 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
1181 you can use the following:
1183 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1184 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
1186 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1187 entered as @code{(ly:make-moment 1 4)}.
1189 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1190 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
1192 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1193 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1195 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1196 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1197 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1199 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
1200 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1201 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1202 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1204 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1205 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1208 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
1209 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
1210 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
1211 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
1214 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1215 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1217 @cindex automatic beam generation
1219 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeaming}
1222 For melodies that have lyrics, you may want to switch off
1223 automatic beaming. This is done by setting @code{Voice.autoBeaming} to
1229 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1230 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1231 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
1233 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,relative,noverbatim,quote]
1234 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1235 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1236 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c-[ c c c-] c8 c c4
1238 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1239 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1240 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1243 @section Accidentals
1246 This section describes how to change the way that LilyPond automatically
1247 inserts accidentals before the running notes.
1251 * Using the predefined accidental variables::
1252 * Defining your own accidental typesettings::
1255 @node Using the predefined accidental variables
1256 @subsection Using the predefined accidental variables
1258 The constructs for describing the accidental typesetting rules are
1259 quite hairy, so non-experts should stick to the variables defined in
1260 @file{ly/property-init.ly}.
1261 @cindex @file{property-init.ly}
1263 The variables set properties in the ``Current'' context (see @ref{Context
1264 properties}). This means that the variables shuold normally be added
1265 right after the creation of the context in which the accidental
1266 typesetting described by the variable is to take effect. I.e. if you
1267 want to use piano-accidentals in a pianostaff then you issue
1268 @code{\pianoAccidentals} first thing after the creation of the piano
1272 \notes \relative c'' <
1273 \context Staff = sa @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1274 \context GrandStaff <
1276 \context Staff = sb @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1277 \context Staff = sc @{ es2 c @}
1279 \context Staff = sd @{ es2 c @}
1283 @lilypond[singleline]
1285 \notes \relative c'' <
1286 \context Staff = sa { cis4 d e2 }
1287 \context GrandStaff <
1289 \context Staff = sb { cis4 d e2 }
1290 \context Staff = sc { es2 c }
1292 \context Staff = sd { es2 c }
1297 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 4.0)
1305 @item \defaultAccidentals
1306 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1307 This is the default typesetting behaviour. It should correspond
1308 to 18th century common practice: Accidentals are
1309 remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and
1310 only on their own octave.
1312 @item \voiceAccidentals
1313 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1315 The normal behaviour is to
1316 remember the accidentals on Staff-level. This variable, however,
1317 typesets accidentals individually for each voice. Apart from that the
1318 rule is similar to @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1320 This leads to some weird and often unwanted results
1321 because accidentals from one voice do not get cancelled in other
1323 @lilypond[singleline,relative,fragment,verbatim,quote]
1331 Hence you should only use @code{\voiceAccidentals} if the voices
1332 are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff is to be
1333 used by one musician (e.g., a conductor) then you use
1334 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals} or @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1337 @item \modernAccidentals
1338 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1339 This rule corresponds to the common practice in the 20th
1341 The rule is more complex than @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1342 You get all the same accidentals, but temporary
1343 accidentals also get cancelled in other octaves. Further more,
1344 in the same octave, they also get cancelled in the following measure:
1345 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1347 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1350 @item \modernCautionaries
1351 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1352 This rule is similar to @code{\modernAccidentals}, but the
1353 ``extra'' accidentals (the ones not typeset by
1354 @code{\defaultAccidentals}) are typeset as cautionary accidentals
1355 (i.e. in reduced size):
1356 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1358 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1361 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1362 @item \modernVoiceAccidentals
1363 is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians
1364 playing one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are
1365 typeset for each voice, but they @emph{are} cancelled across voices in
1366 the same @internalsref{Staff}.
1368 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1369 @item \modernVoiceCautionaries
1370 is the same as @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}, but with the extra
1371 accidentals (the ones not typeset by @code{\voiceAccidentals}) typeset
1372 as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset by
1373 @code{\defaultAccidentals} @emph{are} typeset by this variable then
1374 some of them are typeset as cautionaries.
1376 @item \pianoAccidentals
1377 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1378 20th century practice for piano notation. Very similar to
1379 @code{\modernAccidentals} but accidentals also get cancelled
1380 across the staves in the same @internalsref{GrandStaff} or
1381 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.
1383 @item \pianoCautionaries
1384 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1385 As @code{\pianoAccidentals} but with the extra accidentals
1386 typeset as cautionaries.
1389 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1390 Same as @code{\defaultAccidentals} but with accidentals lasting
1391 ``forever'' and not only until the next measure:
1392 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1397 @item \forgetAccidentals
1398 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1399 This is sort of the opposite of @code{\noResetKey}: Accidentals
1400 are not remembered at all - and hence all accidentals are
1401 typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what was
1402 before in the music:
1403 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1405 \key d\major c4 c cis cis d d dis dis
1409 @node Defining your own accidental typesettings
1410 @subsection Defining your own accidental typesettings
1412 This section must be considered gurus-only, and hence it must be
1413 sufficient with a short description of the system and a reference to
1414 the internal documentation.
1416 The algorithm tries several different rules, and uses the rule
1417 that gives the highest number of accidentals. Each rule consists of
1420 In which context is the rule applied. For example, if
1421 @var{context} is @internalsref{Score} then all staves share
1422 accidentals, and if @var{context} is @internalsref{Staff} then all
1423 voices in the same staff share accidentals, but staves do not.
1425 Whether the accidental changes all octaves or only the current
1428 Over how many barlines the accidental lasts.
1429 If @var{lazyness} is @code{-1} then the accidental is forget
1430 immediately, and if @var{lazyness} is @code{#t} then the accidental
1433 [TODO: should use +infinity for this case?]
1439 @internalsref{Accidental_engraver}, @internalsref{Accidental},
1440 @internalsref{AccidentalPlacement}.
1445 Currently the simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in
1446 sequential mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are
1447 typeset as if the notes in the chord happened one at a time - in the
1448 order in which they appear in the input file.
1450 This is only a problem when there are simultaneous notes whose
1451 accidentals depend on each other. The problem only occurs when using
1452 non-default accidentals. In the default scheme, accidentals only
1453 depend on other accidentals with the same pitch on the same staff, so
1454 no conflicts possible.
1456 This example shows two examples of the same music giving different
1457 accidentals depending on the order in which the notes occur in the
1460 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1461 \property Staff.autoAccidentals = #'( Staff (any-octave . 0) )
1462 cis'4 <<c'' c'>> r2 | cis'4 <<c' c''>> r2
1463 | <<cis' c''>> r | <<c'' cis'>> r |
1466 This problem can be solved by manually inserting @code{!} and @code{?}
1467 for the problematic notes.
1469 @node Expressive marks
1470 @section Expressive marks
1479 * Analysis brackets::
1486 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1490 They are entered using parentheses:
1491 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1492 f'-( g'-)-( a'-) [a'8 b'-(-] a'4 g'2 f'4-)
1493 <<c' e'>>2-( <<b d'>>2-)
1497 @c TODO: should explain that ^( and _( set directions
1498 @c should set attachments with ^ and _ ?
1500 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1501 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1502 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1503 object property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1504 @internalsref{Voice} context. Its value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1505 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1507 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1509 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1511 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1515 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1516 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1517 stems might look better:
1519 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1522 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1528 @seeinternals{Slur}, @internalsref{SlurEvent}.
1533 Producing nice slurs is a difficult problem, and LilyPond currently
1534 uses a simple, empiric method to produce slurs. In some cases, the
1535 results of this method are ugly.
1538 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1540 @node Phrasing slurs
1541 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1543 @cindex phrasing slurs
1544 @cindex phrasing marks
1546 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1547 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1550 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1551 \time 6/4 c'-\( d-( e-) f-( e-) d-\)
1554 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a
1555 normal slur. Although they behave similar to normal slurs, phrasing
1556 slurs count as different objects. A @code{\slurUp} will have no
1557 effect on a phrasing slur; instead, you should use
1558 @code{\phrasingSlurUp}, @code{\phrasingSlurDown}, and
1559 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}.
1561 The commands @code{\slurUp}, @code{\slurDown}, and @code{\slurBoth}
1562 will only affect normal slurs and not phrasing slurs.
1566 See also @internalsref{PhrasingSlur},
1567 @internalsref{PhrasingSlurEvent}.
1571 Phrasing slurs have the same limitations in their formatting as normal
1575 @subsection Breath marks
1577 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}.
1580 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1584 The glyph of the breath mark can be tweaked by overriding the
1585 @code{text} property of the @code{BreathingSign} grob with the name of
1586 any glyph of @ref{The Feta font}. For example,
1587 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative]
1589 \property Voice.BreathingSign \override #'text = #"scripts-rvarcomma"
1596 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
1597 @inputfileref{input/regression,breathing-sign.ly}.
1603 @cindex beats per minute
1604 @cindex metronome marking
1606 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1608 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1610 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1613 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1618 @internalsref{TempoEvent}
1622 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1623 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1624 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1626 [TODO: make note markup.]
1630 @subsection Text spanners
1631 @cindex Text spanners
1633 Some textual indications, e.g. @i{rallentando} or @i{accelerando}, are
1634 often extended over many measures. This is indicated by following the
1635 text with a dotted line. You can create such texts using text
1636 spanners. The syntax is as follows:
1641 The string to be printed, as well as the style, is set through object
1644 An application is to fake octavation indications.
1646 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1647 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1648 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1649 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1650 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1651 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1652 a-\startTextSpan b c a-\stopTextSpan }
1658 @internalsref{TextSpanEvent},
1659 @internalsref{TextSpanner}, @inputfileref{input/regression,text-spanner.ly}.
1662 @node Analysis brackets
1663 @subsection Analysis brackets
1665 @cindex phrasing brackets
1666 @cindex musicological analysis
1667 @cindex note grouping bracket
1669 Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical
1670 pieces. LilyPond supports a simple form of nested horizontal brackets.
1671 To use this, add the @internalsref{Horizontal_bracket_engraver} to
1672 @internalsref{Staff} context. A bracket is started with
1673 @code{\groupOpen} and closed with @code{\groupClose}.
1675 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
1676 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
1677 c4-\groupOpen-\groupOpen
1680 c4-\groupClose-\groupClose
1682 \paper { \translator {
1683 \StaffContext \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
1689 @internalsref{HorizontalBracket}, @internalsref{NoteGroupingEvent},
1690 @inputfileref{input/regression,note-group-bracket.ly}.
1694 Bracket endings should be angled/slanted. (TODO)
1702 [TODO: ornaments vs. expressive marks]
1714 @subsection Articulations
1715 @cindex Articulations
1717 @cindex articulations
1721 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1722 different characteristics of the performance. They are added to a note
1723 by adding a dash and the the character signifying the
1724 articulation. They are demonstrated here.
1726 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-abbreviations.ly}
1728 The script is automatically placed, but if you need to force
1729 directions, you can use @code{_} to force them down, or @code{^} to
1731 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1736 Other symbols can be added using the syntax
1737 @var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}. Again, they can be forced up or down
1738 using @code{^} and @code{_}.
1742 @cindex staccatissimo
1751 @cindex organ pedal marks
1760 @cindex prallmordent
1764 @cindex thumb marking
1769 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-chart.ly}
1774 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand. For
1775 finger changes, use markup texts:
1777 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1778 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1779 c'^\markup { \fontsize #-3 \number "2-3" }
1782 @cindex finger change
1787 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
1788 << c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >> 4
1789 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #LEFT
1790 << c-1 es-3 g-5 >> 4
1791 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #RIGHT
1792 << c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >> 4-\arpeggio
1793 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #LEFT
1794 << c_1 e-2 g-3 b^5 >> 4
1799 @internalsref{ScriptEvent},
1800 @internalsref{Script}, @internalsref{FingerEvent} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
1804 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1805 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1809 @subsection Text scripts
1810 @cindex Text scripts
1812 It is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup text (see
1813 @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1814 @code{c^"text"}. By default, these indications do not influence the
1815 note spacing, but by using the command @code{\fatText}, the widths
1816 will be taken into account.
1818 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim] \relative c' {
1819 c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1822 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
1823 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
1824 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
1825 commands will not work with direct PostScript output.
1830 @internalsref{TextScriptEvent}, @internalsref{TextScript},
1836 @subsection Grace notes
1840 @cindex @code{\grace}
1844 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out
1846 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,ifragment] c4 \grace c16 c4 \grace {
1850 In normal notation, grace notes take up no logical
1851 time in a measure. Such an idea is practical for normal notation, but
1852 is not strict enough to put it into a program. The model that LilyPond
1853 uses for grace notes internally is that all timing is done in two
1856 Every point in musical time consists of two rational numbers: one
1857 denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing. The above
1858 example is shown here with timing tuples.
1861 \score { \notes \relative c''{
1862 c4^"(0,0)" \grace c16_" "_"(1/4,-1/16)" c4^"(1/4,0)" \grace {
1863 [c16_"(2/4,-1/8)" d16^"(2/4,-1/16)" ] } c4_" "_"(2/4,0)"
1865 \paper { linewidth = 8.\cm }
1870 The placement of these grace notes is synchronized between different
1873 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
1874 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \grace { c16-[ d e f-] } e4 }
1875 \context Staff = SB { c'4 \grace { g8 b } c4 } >
1879 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1880 stem. This can be controlled with object property @code{stroke-style} of
1881 @internalsref{Stem}. The change in formatting is accomplished by
1882 inserting @code{\startGraceMusic} before handling the grace notes, and
1883 @code{\stopGraceMusic} after finishing the grace notes.
1884 You can add to these definitions to globally change grace note
1885 formatting. The standard definitions are in @file{ly/grace-init.ly}.
1887 [TODO discuss Scheme functionality.]
1890 The @code{\override} is carefully matched with a @code{\revert}.
1895 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1896 \relative c'' \context Voice {
1897 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1899 \property Voice.Stem \override #'stroke-style = #'()
1901 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'stroke-style
1908 If you want to end a note with a grace note, then the standard trick
1909 is to put the grace notes before a phantom ``space note'', e.g.
1910 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1913 { s2 \grace { [c16 d] } } >
1918 A @code{\grace} section has some default values, and LilyPond will
1919 use those default values unless you specify otherwise inside the
1920 @code{\grace} section. For example, if you specify \slurUp
1921 @emph{before} your @code{\grace} section, a slur which starts inside
1922 the @code{\grace} will not be forced up, even if the slur ends outside
1923 of the @code{\grace}. Note the difference between the first and
1924 second bars in this example:
1926 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1927 \relative c'' \context Voice {
1946 @internalsref{GraceMusic}.
1950 Grace notes cannot be used in the smallest size (@file{paper11.ly}).
1952 Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation,
1953 such as key signatures, barlines, etc. are also synchronized. Take
1954 care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without.
1956 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
1957 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
1958 \context Staff = SB { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >
1961 Grace sections should only be used within sequential music
1962 expressions. Nesting, juxtaposing, or ending sequential music with a
1963 grace section is not supported, and might produce crashes or other
1968 @subsection Glissando
1971 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1973 A glissando is a smooth change in pitch. It is denoted by a line or a
1974 wavy line between two notes.
1978 A glissando line can be requested by attaching a @code{\glissando} to
1981 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1987 @internalsref{Glissando}, @internalsref{GlissandoEvent}.
1992 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1997 @subsection Dynamics
2010 @cindex @code{\ffff}
2020 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an variable after a
2021 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
2022 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
2023 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
2024 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
2026 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
2027 c'-\ppp c-\pp c -\p c-\mp c-\mf c-\f c-\ff c-\fff
2033 @cindex @code{\decr}
2034 @cindex @code{\rced}
2041 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
2042 @code{\endcr}, and decrescendi similarly with @code{\decr} and
2043 @code{\enddecr}. There are also shorthands for these marks. A
2044 crescendo can be started with @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be
2045 started with @code{\>}. Either one can be terminated with @code{\!}.
2046 Because these marks are bound to notes, if you must use spacer notes
2047 if marks during one note are needed.
2049 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,quote]
2050 c''-\< c''-\! d''-\decr e''-\rced
2051 < f''1 { s4 s4-\< s4-\! \> s4-\! } >
2053 This may give rise to very short hairpins. Use @code{minimum-length}
2054 in @internalsref{Voice}.@internalsref{HairPin} to lengthen these, e.g.
2057 \property Staff.Hairpin \override #'minimum-length = #5
2060 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
2061 is an example how to do it:
2063 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
2064 c4 \cresc c4 \endcresc c4
2071 You can also supply your own texts:
2072 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2074 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc. poco"
2075 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
2084 @internalsref{CrescendoEvent}, @internalsref{DecrescendoEvent},
2085 @internalsref{AbsoluteDynamicEvent}.
2087 Dynamics are objects of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
2088 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is
2089 handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2091 If you want to adjust padding or vertical direction of the dynamics,
2092 you must set properties for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner}
2093 object. Predefined variables to set the vertical direction are
2094 @code{\dynamicUp} and @code{\dynamicDown}.
2096 @cindex direction, of dynamics
2097 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
2098 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
2106 @cindex @code{\repeat}
2108 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
2109 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
2110 different variants of repeats.
2114 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
2115 output, and entering repetitive music.
2118 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
2119 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
2123 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
2124 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
2125 @inputfileref{input,star-spangled-banner.ly}.
2132 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
2138 * Repeats and MIDI::
2139 * Manual repeat commands::
2141 * Tremolo subdivisions::
2146 @subsection Repeat syntax
2149 Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist
2154 LilyPond has one syntactic construct for specifying different types of
2155 repeats. The syntax is
2158 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
2161 If you have alternative endings, you may add
2162 @cindex @code{\alternative}
2164 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
2166 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
2168 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression. If you do not
2169 give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then the first
2170 alternative is assumed to be played more than once.
2172 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
2173 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2175 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
2176 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
2179 With alternative endings:
2180 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2182 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
2183 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
2187 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2191 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
2192 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
2199 If you do a nested repeat like
2208 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the @code{\alternative}
2209 belongs. This ambiguity is resolved by always having the
2210 @code{\alternative} belong to the inner @code{\repeat}. This
2211 ambiguity may also be resolved by using braces.
2214 @node Repeats and MIDI
2215 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
2217 @cindex expanding repeats
2219 For instructions on how to unfold repeats for MIDI output, see the
2220 example file @inputfileref{input/test,unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
2225 Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative,
2226 so you have to reset timing information after a repeat, e.g. using a
2227 bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting @code{Score.measurePosition}
2228 or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties are also not repeated.
2231 @node Manual repeat commands
2232 @subsection Manual repeat commands
2234 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
2236 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
2237 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
2245 @item (volta . @var{text})
2246 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}. The text can be specified as
2247 a text string or as a markup text, see @ref{Text markup}. Do not
2248 forget to change the font, as the default number font does not contain
2249 alphabetic characters.
2251 Stop a running volta bracket
2254 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2256 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
2258 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
2265 @internalsref{VoltaBracket}, @internalsref{RepeatedMusic},
2266 @internalsref{VoltaRepeatedMusic},
2267 @internalsref{UnfoldedRepeatedMusic}
2268 @internalsref{FoldedRepeatedMusic}.
2270 @node Tremolo repeats
2271 @subsection Tremolo repeats
2272 @cindex tremolo beams
2274 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
2276 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2278 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
2279 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
2280 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
2281 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
2282 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
2289 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} objects. Single stem tremolos are
2290 @internalsref{StemTremolo}. @internalsref{TremoloEvent}.
2295 The single stem tremolo @emph{must} be entered without @code{@{} and
2298 @node Tremolo subdivisions
2299 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
2300 @cindex tremolo marks
2301 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
2303 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
2304 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
2305 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
2306 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
2307 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
2309 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
2310 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
2313 [TODO : stok is te kort bij 32en]
2317 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
2320 @node Measure repeats
2321 @subsection Measure repeats
2323 @cindex percent repeats
2324 @cindex measure repeats
2326 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
2327 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
2328 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
2329 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
2331 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2332 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
2333 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
2339 @internalsref{RepeatSlash}, @internalsref{PercentRepeat},
2340 @internalsref{PercentRepeatedMusic}, and
2341 @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
2346 You cannot nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
2347 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
2349 @node Rhythmic music
2350 @section Rhythmic music
2352 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
2353 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
2354 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
2356 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2357 \context RhythmicStaff {
2359 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
2364 * Percussion staves::
2365 * Percussion midi output::
2368 @node Percussion staves
2369 @subsection Percussion staves
2373 To typeset more than one piece of percussion to be played by the same
2374 musician one typically uses a multiline staff where each staff
2375 position refers to a specific piece of percussion.
2379 LilyPond is has a set of Scheme functions that can be used to typeset
2380 percussion staves. The system is based on the general MIDI
2381 drum-pitches. Include @file{ly/drumpitch-init.ly} to use drum
2382 pitches. This file defines the pitches from the Scheme variable
2383 @code{drum-pitch-names}, the definition of which can be read in
2384 @file{scm/drums.scm}. Each piece of percussion has a full name and an
2385 abbreviated name, and both the full name or the abbreviation may be
2386 used in input files.
2388 To typeset the music on a staff apply the function @code{drums->paper}
2389 to the percussion music. This function takes a list of percussion
2390 instrument names, notehead scripts and staff positions (that is:
2391 pitches relative to the C-clef) and transforms the input
2392 music by moving the pitch, changing the notehead and (optionally)
2395 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,quote]
2396 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2397 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2398 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2400 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2402 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2403 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2408 In the above example the music was transformed using the list @code{'drums}.
2409 Currently the following lists are defined in @file{scm/drums.scm}:
2412 To typeset a typical drum kit on a five-line staff.
2415 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2416 nam = \lyrics { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2417 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
2418 mus = \notes { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2419 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
2422 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2426 \context Lyrics \nam
2429 linewidth = 100.0\mm
2432 \remove Bar_engraver
2433 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2434 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
2438 \remove Stem_engraver
2444 Scheme supports six different toms. When there fewer toms, simply
2445 select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e., to get toms on
2446 the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml} and
2449 Because general MIDI does not contain rimshots the sidestick is used
2450 for this purpose instead.
2452 To typeset timbales on a two line staff.
2453 @lilypond[singleline]
2454 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2455 nam = \lyrics { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
2456 mus = \notes { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
2459 \apply #(drums->paper 'timbales) \context Staff <
2463 \context Lyrics \nam
2468 \remove Bar_engraver
2469 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2470 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2471 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2472 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2476 \remove Stem_engraver
2483 To typeset congas on a two line staff.
2484 @lilypond[singleline]
2485 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2486 nam = \lyrics { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
2487 mus = \notes { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
2490 \apply #(drums->paper 'congas) \context Staff <
2494 \context Lyrics \nam
2499 \remove Bar_engraver
2500 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2501 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2502 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2503 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2507 \remove Stem_engraver
2513 To typeset bongos on a two line staff.
2514 @lilypond[singleline]
2515 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2516 nam = \lyrics { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
2517 mus = \notes { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
2520 \apply #(drums->paper 'bongos) \context Staff <
2524 \context Lyrics \nam
2529 \remove Bar_engraver
2530 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2531 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2532 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2533 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2537 \remove Stem_engraver
2543 To typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves.
2544 @lilypond[singleline]
2545 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2546 nam = \lyrics { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
2547 mus = \notes { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
2550 \apply #(drums->paper 'percussion) \context Staff <
2554 \context Lyrics \nam
2559 \remove Bar_engraver
2560 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2561 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #1
2562 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-2.0 . 3.0)
2566 \remove Stem_engraver
2573 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
2574 list at the top of your file:
2576 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
2578 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2579 (snare default #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 1 0))
2580 (hihat cross #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2581 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2582 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2584 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2585 up = \notes { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
2586 down = \notes { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
2588 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2590 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2591 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2596 To use a modified existing list, one can prepend modifications to the
2600 #(define mydrums (append `(
2601 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2602 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2606 The file @file{drumpitch-init.ly} replaces the normal pitch names, so
2607 you have to reinclude @file{nederlands.ly} after the
2608 drum-pattern-definitions to enter normal notes.
2610 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2611 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2612 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2613 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2614 \include "nederlands.ly"
2615 bass = \notes \transpose c c,, { a4. e8 r e g e }
2618 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff = drums <
2620 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2621 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2623 \context Staff = bass { \clef "F_8" \bass }
2628 @node Percussion midi output
2629 @subsection Percussion midi output
2631 In order to produce correct midi output you need to produce two score
2632 blocks---one for the paper and one for the midi output. To use the
2633 percussion channel you set the property @code{instrument} to
2634 @code{'drums}. Because the drum-pitches themself are similar to the
2635 general midi pitches all you have to do is to insert the voices with
2636 none of the scheme functions to get the correct midi output:
2640 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2649 \property Staff.instrument = #'drums
2658 This scheme is to be considered a temporary implementation.
2662 @section Piano music
2664 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
2665 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
2666 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
2667 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
2668 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
2669 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
2673 * Automatic staff changes::
2674 * Manual staff switches::
2677 * Voice follower lines::
2682 There is no support for putting chords across staves. You can get
2683 this result by increasing the length of the stem in the lower stave so
2684 it reaches the stem in the upper stave, or vice versa. An example is
2685 included with the distribution as @inputfileref{input/test,stem-cross-staff.ly}.
2687 Dynamics are not centered, but kludges do exist. See
2688 @inputfileref{input/templates,piano-dynamics.ly}.
2690 @cindex cross staff stem
2691 @cindex stem, cross staff
2694 @c fixme: should have hyperlinks as well.
2700 @node Automatic staff changes
2701 @subsection Automatic staff changes
2702 @cindex Automatic staff changes
2704 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
2705 staff. The syntax for this is
2707 \autochange Staff \context Voice @{ @dots{}@var{music}@dots{} @}
2709 The autochanger switches on basis of pitch (central C is the turning
2710 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch rests in
2711 advance. Here is a practical example:
2713 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,quote]
2714 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
2715 \context Staff = "up" {
2716 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
2717 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
2718 \context Staff = "down" {
2723 Spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
2724 terminating too soon.
2729 The staff switches often do not end up in optimal places. For high
2730 quality output staff switches should be specified manually.
2734 @node Manual staff switches
2735 @subsection Manual staff switches
2737 @cindex manual staff switches
2738 @cindex staff switch, manual
2740 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
2742 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
2744 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
2745 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
2746 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
2754 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound are produced. Generally, a
2755 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
2759 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
2760 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
2761 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
2764 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
2765 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal types:
2766 Sustain, Sostenuto or UnaCorda. Refer to the generated documentation
2767 of @internalsref{SustainPedal} for more information.
2769 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
2770 @code{pedal-type} property of @internalsref{SustainPedal} objects:
2772 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2773 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'bracket
2774 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
2775 a'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
2776 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
2779 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
2780 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
2782 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2783 \property Staff.SustainPedal \override #'pedal-type = #'mixed
2784 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
2785 c'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
2786 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
2789 The default '*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
2790 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
2791 for a sostenuto pedal:
2793 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2794 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
2797 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
2798 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
2799 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (see the detailed documentation of
2800 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket}) can be modified. For example, the bracket
2801 may be extended to the end of the note head.
2803 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2804 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override
2805 #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
2806 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4
2807 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
2811 @subsection Arpeggio
2814 @cindex broken arpeggio
2815 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
2817 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
2818 @code{\arpeggio} to a chord.
2821 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2822 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
2825 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
2826 to the chords in both staves, and set
2827 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@code{connectArpeggios}.
2829 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2830 \context PianoStaff <
2831 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
2832 \context Voice = one { <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio }
2833 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <<c,, e g>>-\arpeggio }
2837 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} objects. Cross staff
2838 arpeggios are @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@internalsref{Arpeggio}.
2840 The direction of the arpeggio is sometimes denoted by adding an
2841 arrowhead to the wiggly line. This can be typeset by setting
2842 @code{arpeggio-direction}.
2844 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2846 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #1
2847 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
2848 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
2849 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
2853 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
2854 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
2855 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
2856 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} objects to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
2857 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before.
2859 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2860 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override
2861 #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
2862 <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio
2868 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected
2869 arpeggios in one @internalsref{PianoStaff} at the same time.
2871 @node Voice follower lines
2872 @subsection Voice follower lines
2875 [TODO: invent better name]
2877 @cindex follow voice
2878 @cindex staff switching
2881 @cindex @code{followVoice}
2883 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
2884 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
2885 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
2887 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2888 \context PianoStaff <
2889 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2890 \context Staff \context Voice {
2892 \translator Staff=two
2895 \context Staff=two { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2899 The associated object is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2903 @section Vocal music
2905 For a discussion of how to put lyrics into a score, see section
2906 @code{Printing lyrics} in the tutorial.
2908 @cindex context variables
2909 @cindex setting context variables
2910 An interpretation context has variables that tune its behavior. These
2911 variables are also called @emph{properties}. The @code{autoBeaming}
2912 variable in a @code{Staff} controls whether 8th and shorter notes are
2913 beamed automatically. Setting the variable to @code{##f}, which is the
2914 boolean value @var{false}, turns it off.
2917 This will create an extender, which is a line
2918 that extends over the entire duration of the lyric. This line will
2919 run all the way to the start of the next lyric, so you may want to
2920 shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
2923 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
2925 To get them printed, you must do two
2926 things: indicate that lyrics are entered with @code{\lyrics}, and
2927 indicate that this type of music must be interpreted as texts (and not
2928 notes). This is done with @code{\context Lyrics}.
2930 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
2931 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword
2932 @code{\lyrics}. In this mode you can enter lyrics, with punctuation
2933 and accents without any hassle. Syllables are entered like notes, but
2934 with pitches replaced by text. For example,
2942 You can use ordinary hyphens at the end of a syllable, i.e.
2946 but then the hyphen will be attached to the end of the first syllable.
2948 If you want them centered between syllables you can use the special
2949 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. The
2950 hyphen will have variable length depending on the space between
2951 the syllables and it will be centered between the syllables.
2956 Normally the notes that you enter are transformed into note heads.
2957 Note heads alone make no sense. They need surrounding information: a
2958 key signature, a clef, staff lines, etc. They need @emph{context}.
2959 In LilyPond, these symbols are created by objects called
2960 `interpretation contexts'. Interpretation contexts exist for
2961 generating notation (`notation context') and for generating sound
2962 (`performance context'). These objects only exist while LilyPond is
2963 executing. For lyrics, the command
2967 must be used to interpret a set of syllables as lyrics.
2972 @cindex interpretation context
2973 @cindex notation context
2977 The melody and the lyrics can be combined with the @code{\addlyrics}:
2980 \notes \relative c' @dots{}
2981 \context Lyrics \lyrics @dots{}
2984 [TODO: Move lyrics section from tutorial to here?]
2986 See also the sections on @ref{Slurs} and @ref{Breath marks}.
2988 [TODO: Move slurs / breath marks section to here?]
2990 [TODO: Write subsection upon usage of ChoirStaff.]
2995 @section More stanzas
3000 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
3001 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
3002 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
3003 We show how you can do this by showing how you could print a frivolous
3004 fragment of a fictional Sesame Street duet.
3006 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3009 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
3011 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
3012 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
3013 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3014 Hi, my name is bert. }
3015 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
3016 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3017 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
3022 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the
3023 LyricsVoice to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
3024 In the following example, the Voice identity is @code{duet},
3026 \context Voice = duet @{
3031 identities of the LyricsVoices are @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
3033 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" @{
3034 Hi, my name is bert. @}
3035 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" @{
3036 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. @}
3038 The convention for naming @code{LyricsVoice} and @code{Voice} must
3039 also be used to get melismata on rests correct.
3042 We add the names of the singers. This can be done by setting
3043 @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the first system) and
3044 @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following systems. You must
3045 surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics} mode.
3048 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3050 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3056 For entering quotes in Lyrics mode, use the following
3058 "\"God\"" is "`King'"
3061 You can use empty syllables, e.g. @code{_4} or @code{" "4} to enter
3062 lyrics. This can confuse the LilyPond -- for example, this might put
3063 (empty) lyrics under rests. To remedy this, use @code{\skip}.
3071 Input for lyrics introduces a syntactical ambiguity:
3078 is interpreted as assigning a string identifier @code{\foo} such that
3079 it contains @code{"bar"}. However, it could also be interpreted as
3080 making or a music identifier @code{\foo} containing the syllable
3081 `bar'. The force the latter interpretation, use
3095 The term @emph{ambitus} denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in
3096 a part of music. It also may denote the pitch range that a musical
3097 instrument is capable of playing. Most musical instruments have their
3098 ambitus standardized (or at least there is agreement upon the minimal
3099 ambitus of a particular type of instrument), such that a composer or
3100 arranger of a piece of music can easily meet the ambitus constraints of
3101 the targeted instrument. However, the ambitus of the human voice
3102 depends on individual physiological state, including education and
3103 training of the voice. Therefore, a singer potentially has to check for
3104 each piece of music if the ambitus of that piece meets his individual
3105 capabilities. This is why the ambitus of a piece may be of particular
3106 value to vocal performers.
3108 The ambitus is typically notated on a per-voice basis at the very
3109 beginning of a piece, e.g. nearby the initial clef or time signature of
3110 each staff. The range is graphically specified by two noteheads, that
3111 represent the minimum and maximum pitch. Some publishers use a textual
3112 notation: they put the range in words in front of the corresponding
3113 staff. Lilypond currently only supports the graphical ambitus notation.
3115 To apply, add the @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the
3116 @internalsref{Voice} context, i.e.
3119 \paper @{ \translator @{
3121 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3127 @lilypond[singleline]
3128 upper = \notes \relative c {
3131 as'' c e2 bes f cis d4 e f2 g
3133 lower = \notes \relative c {
3136 e'4 b g a c es fis a cis b a g f e d2
3139 \context ChoirStaff {
3141 \context Staff = one { \upper }
3142 \context Staff = three { \lower }
3148 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3157 @internalsref{Ambitus}, @inputfileref{input/regression,ambitus.ly}.
3162 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
3163 instruments. It notates pitches not by using note heads, but by
3164 indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
3165 offers limited support for tablature.
3168 * Tablatures basic::
3169 * Non-guitar tablatures::
3172 @node Tablatures basic
3173 @subsection Tablatures basic
3174 @cindex Tablatures basic
3176 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
3177 followed by a number, e.g. @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
3178 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
3179 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
3180 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
3181 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts.
3183 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3184 \notes \context TabStaff {
3190 If you do not specify a string number then one is selected
3191 automatically: the first string that does not give a fret number less
3192 than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default value for
3193 @code{minimumFret} is 0.
3197 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3198 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3199 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3204 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3205 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3206 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3209 \context StaffGroup <
3210 \context Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
3211 \context TabStaff { \frag }
3218 @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}, and
3219 @internalsref{StringNumberEvent}.
3223 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
3224 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
3228 @node Non-guitar tablatures
3229 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
3230 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
3232 You can change the number of strings, by setting the number of lines
3233 in the @internalsref{TabStaff} (the @code{line-count} property of
3234 @internalsref{TabStaff} can only be changed using
3235 @code{\outputproperty}, for more information, see @ref{Tuning objects}.
3237 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
3238 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
3239 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to central C) of an
3240 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
3241 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
3242 by default middle C, in string order: thus the notes are e, a, d, and
3245 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3248 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface)
3250 \property TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
3253 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
3258 Finally, it is possible to change the Scheme function to format the
3259 tablature note text. The default is
3260 @var{fret-number-tablature-format}, which uses the fret number. For
3261 some instruments that do not use this notation, you can create a
3262 special tablature formatting function. This function takes three
3263 argument: the string number, the string tuning and the note pitch.
3267 As tablature is a recent feature, most of the guitar special effects
3268 such as bend are not yet supported.
3272 @section Chord namess
3275 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords.
3276 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3277 twoWays = \notes \transpose c c' {
3287 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
3288 \context Voice \twoWays > }
3291 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
3292 be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not interpret
3293 this as an inversion.
3295 Chords are represented as a set of pitches. They are internally
3296 stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can enter
3297 chords by name and print them as notes, enter them as notes and print
3298 them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by name, and
3303 * Printing chord names::
3308 @subsection Chords mode
3311 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
3312 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}.
3313 In chords mode, a chord is entered by the root, which is entered
3314 like a common pitch, for example,
3315 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote, relative=1]
3316 \chords { es4. d8 c2 }
3321 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon, and introducing a
3322 modifier, and optionally, a number, for example
3324 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote]
3325 \chords { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
3327 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
3328 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
3329 number, for example.
3330 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3331 \chords { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
3334 @cindex root of chord
3335 @cindex additions, in chords
3336 @cindex removals, in chords
3338 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
3339 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
3340 the colon, and are separated by dots. For example
3342 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3343 \chords { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
3345 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
3346 to the number, for example:
3347 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3348 \chords { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
3350 Removals are specified similarly, and are introduced by a caret. They
3351 must come after the additions.
3352 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3353 \chords { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
3356 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
3360 is the minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
3362 is the diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
3365 is the augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
3367 is the major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
3369 is the suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
3370 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
3373 Modifiers can be mixed with additions.
3374 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3375 \chords { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
3378 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
3385 Since the unaltered 11 does sound well when combined with the
3386 unaltered 3, the 11 is removed in this case, unless it is added
3387 explicitly). For example,
3388 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3389 \chords { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
3394 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
3395 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
3396 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord.
3397 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3398 \chords { c1 c/g c/f }
3401 If you do not want to remove the bass note from the chord, but rather
3402 add the note, then you can use @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
3404 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3405 \chords { c1 c/+g c/+f }
3408 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyrics}, @code{\notes} etc. Most
3409 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
3410 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and
3411 @code{\property} may be used to change various settings.
3417 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
3418 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
3421 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3422 \chords { c:5.5-.5+ }
3425 In chord mode, dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions
3426 and subtractions, so articulation scripts cannot be entered.
3429 @node Printing chord names
3430 @subsection Printing chord names
3432 @cindex printing chord names
3436 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
3437 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
3438 directly using simultaneous music.
3440 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3442 \chords {a1 b c} <<d f g>> <<e g b>>
3446 \context ChordNames \scheme
3447 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
3452 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
3453 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
3454 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
3455 the start of a new line.
3459 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
3463 \context ChordNames {
3464 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
3466 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
3468 \paper{linewidth= 9.\cm}
3472 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
3473 Klaus Ignatzek (See @ref{Literature}).
3475 [TODO: add description for banter other jazz.]
3477 The Ignatzek chord name formatting can be tuned in a number of ways
3478 through the following properties:
3480 @item chordNameExceptions
3481 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
3483 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly}.
3485 @item majorSevenSymbol
3486 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
3487 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup},
3488 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
3489 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly} for an example.
3491 @item chordNameSeparator
3492 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
3493 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
3495 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3496 \context ChordNames \chords {
3498 \property ChordNames.chordNameSeparator
3503 @item chordRootNamer
3504 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
3505 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
3506 function. An application of setting this function, is providing chord
3507 names with german notation for the root.
3509 @item chordNoteNamer
3510 The default is to print single notes (as for instance the bass note)
3511 using the chordRootNamer. However, by setting this function to a non-null
3512 value you can specify a different function. I.e. you could use letters
3513 in lower case for the base note.
3519 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly},
3520 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly},
3521 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-german.ly},
3522 @file{scm/chords-ignatzek.scm}, @file{scm/chord-entry.scm}
3527 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
3528 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
3529 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
3530 @code{<< .. >>} syntax.
3536 @section Writing parts
3538 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
3539 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
3540 problems in orchestral music.
3547 * Instrument names::
3549 * Multi measure rests::
3550 * Automatic part combining::
3551 * Hara kiri staves::
3552 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
3556 @node Rehearsal marks
3557 @subsection Rehearsal marks
3558 @cindex Rehearsal marks
3560 @cindex @code{\mark}
3562 To print a rehearsal mark, use the @code{\mark} command.
3563 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3573 The mark is incremented automatically if you use @code{\mark
3574 \default}. The value to use is stored in the property
3575 @code{rehearsalMark} is used and automatically incremented.
3577 The @code{\mark} command can also be used to put signs like coda,
3578 segno and fermatas on a barline. Use @code{\markup} to
3579 to access the appropriate symbol.
3581 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
3582 c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts-ufermata" }
3586 In this case, during line breaks,
3587 marks must also be printed at the end of the line, and not at the
3588 beginning. Use the following to force that behavior
3590 \property Score.RehearsalMark \override
3591 #'break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible
3594 See @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}. for putting boxes
3600 @cindex barlines, putting symbols on
3604 @internalsref{MarkEvent}, @internalsref{RehearsalMark},
3605 @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}.
3609 @subsection Bar numbers
3613 @cindex measure numbers
3614 @cindex currentBarNumber
3616 Bar numbers are printed by default at the start of the line. The
3617 number itself is stored in the
3618 @code{currentBarNumber} property,
3619 which is normally updated automatically for every measure.
3621 Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of at the
3622 beginning of each line. This is illustrated in the following example,
3623 whose source is available as
3624 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
3626 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
3628 The start of that numbering can also be reset, as demonstrated in
3629 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-5-reset.ly}.
3631 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-every-5-reset.ly}
3636 @internalsref{BarNumber}.
3637 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-5-reset.ly}.
3638 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-fifth.ly}
3642 Bar numbers can collide with the @internalsref{StaffGroup} bracket, if
3643 there is one at the top. To solve this, You have to twiddle with the
3644 @internalsref{padding} property of @internalsref{BarNumber} if your
3645 score starts with a @internalsref{StaffGroup}.
3647 @node Instrument names
3648 @subsection Instrument names
3650 In an orchestral score, instrument names are printed left of the
3653 This can be achieved by setting @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instrument}
3654 and @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instr}. This will print a string before
3655 the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
3656 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
3658 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3659 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
3662 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
3665 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3666 \notes \context Staff = treble {
3667 \property Staff.instrument = \markup {
3668 \column << "Clarinetti"
3670 \smaller \musicglyph #"accidentals--1"
3681 @internalsref{InstrumentName}
3685 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
3686 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
3687 the name to avoid a collision.
3690 @subsection Transpose
3692 @cindex transposition of pitches
3693 @cindex @code{\transpose}
3695 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
3698 \transpose @var{from} @var{to} @var{musicexpr}
3701 This means that @var{musicexpr} is transposed by the interval
3702 between @var{from} and @var{to}.
3704 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
3705 @code{\transpose c cis} or @code{\transpose c des} will transpose up
3706 half a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second
3707 version will print flats.
3709 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
3710 mus =\notes { \key d \major cis d fis g }
3711 \score { \notes \context Staff {
3714 \transpose c g' \mus
3715 \transpose c f' \mus
3721 @internalsref{TransposedMusic}, @internalsref{UntransposableMusic}.
3725 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
3726 you must put @code{\transpose} outside of @code{\relative}, since
3727 @code{\relative} will have no effect music that appears inside a
3733 @node Multi measure rests
3734 @subsection Multi measure rests
3735 @cindex Multi measure rests
3739 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
3740 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
3741 fill a score with rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure
3742 rest. This expansion is controlled by the property
3743 @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true, Lily will not expand
3744 empty measures, and the appropriate number is added automatically.
3746 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3747 \time 4/4 r1 | R1 | R1*2
3748 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R1*17 R1*4
3751 The @code{1} in @code{R1} is similar to the duration notation used for
3752 notes. Hence, for time signatures other than 4/4, you must enter other
3753 durations. This can be done with augmentation dots or fractions:
3755 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3756 \property Score.skipBars = ##t
3764 A @code{R} spanning a single measure is printed as a whole rest
3765 centered in the measure (or a breve when the measure lasts longer than
3766 two whole notes), regardless of the time signature.
3770 @cindex text on multi-measure rest
3771 @cindex script on multi-measure rest
3772 @cindex fermata on multi-measure rest
3774 Texts can be added to multi-measure rests by using the
3775 @var{note}-@code{markup} syntax. In this case, the number is
3776 replaced. If you need both texts and the number, you must add the
3777 number by hand. A variable (@code{\fermataMarkup}) is provided for
3781 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3783 R2._\markup { "Ad lib" }
3788 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
3792 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestEvent},
3793 @internalsref{MultiMeasureTextEvent},
3794 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestMusicGroup},
3795 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
3797 The graphical object @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestNumber} is for the
3798 default number, and @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestText} for user
3803 It is not possible to use fingerings (e.g. @code{R1-4}) to put numbers
3804 over multi-measure rests.
3806 @cindex condensing rests
3808 There is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into a single
3809 multimeasure rest. Multi measure rests do not take part in rest
3812 Be careful when entering multimeasure rests followed by whole notes,
3816 will enter two notes lasting four measures each. The result will look
3817 ok, but the bar numbering will be off.
3819 @node Automatic part combining
3820 @subsection Automatic part combining
3821 @cindex automatic part combining
3822 @cindex part combiner
3825 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
3826 staff. It is aimed at typesetting orchestral scores. When the two
3827 parts are identical for a period of time, only one is shown. In
3828 places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate
3829 voices, and stem directions are set automatically. Also, solo and
3830 @emph{a due} parts are identified and can be marked.
3834 The syntax for part combining is
3837 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
3839 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
3840 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
3841 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
3844 The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part
3845 combiner: putting parts on one staff, and setting stem directions and
3848 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
3850 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3851 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3854 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3860 The first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
3861 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
3862 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
3863 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
3864 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
3867 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
3868 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
3870 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
3872 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
3873 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3874 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3877 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3885 @internalsref{PartCombineMusic},
3886 @internalsref{Thread_devnull_engraver},
3887 @internalsref{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @internalsref{A2_engraver}.
3891 The syntax for naming contexts in inconsistent with the syntax for
3894 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
3895 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
3898 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
3900 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
3901 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
3904 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
3910 The part combiner is slated to be rewritten [TODO: explain why] .
3912 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
3913 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
3914 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
3916 @node Hara kiri staves
3917 @subsection Hara kiri staves
3919 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
3920 This saves some space. This style is called `French Score'.
3924 This is supported through the hara kiri@footnote{Hara kiri is the
3925 vulgar name for Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of the Japanese
3926 Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when it finds
3927 itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will not
3928 disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
3931 For @internalsref{Lyrics}, @internalsref{LyricsVoice},
3932 @internalsref{ChordNames} and @internalsref{FiguredBass}, hara-kiri is
3933 switched on by default. For normal staffs, hara kiri is available as a
3934 specialized @internalsref{Staff} context, with the name variable
3935 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
3936 example disappears in the second line.
3940 \notes \relative c' <
3941 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
3942 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
3946 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
3952 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
3953 @subsection Sound output for transposing instruments
3955 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed
3956 and untransposed instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch
3957 offset (in semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done
3958 using the @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed
3961 @cindex @code{transposing}
3964 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
3965 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
3969 @node Ancient notation
3970 @section Ancient notation
3972 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
3973 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
3978 [TODO: write introduction on ancient notation]
3981 * Ancient note heads::
3990 @node Ancient note heads
3991 @subsection Ancient note heads
3993 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
3994 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
3995 NoteHead object to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
3996 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
3997 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
3999 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4000 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
4005 @subsection Ancient clefs
4007 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
4009 For modern clefs, see section @ref{Clef}. For the percussion clef, see
4010 section @ref{Percussion staves}. For the @code{TAB} clef, see section
4013 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
4014 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but
4015 differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such
4016 cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs.
4017 Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an
4018 arbitrary line, as described in section @ref{Clef}. The note printed
4019 to the right side of each clef in the example column denotes the
4020 @code{c'} with respect to that clef.
4022 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
4023 @c @item modern style G clef (glyph: @code{clefs-G})
4026 @c @code{treble}, @code{violin}, @code{G}, @code{G2}, @code{french}
4028 @c @lilypond[26pt]{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "G" c'}
4030 @c @item modern style F clef (glyph: @code{clefs-F})
4033 @c @code{varbaritone}, @code{bass}, @code{F}, @code{subbass}
4035 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "F" c'}
4037 @c @item modern style C clef (glyph: @code{clefs-C})
4040 @c @code{soprano}, @code{mezzosoprano}, @code{alto}, @code{C},
4041 @c @code{tenor}, @code{baritone}
4043 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "C" c'}
4045 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .3 .1
4049 @b{Description} @tab
4050 @b{Supported Clefs} @tab
4054 @code{clefs-neo_mensural_c} @tab
4055 modern style mensural C clef @tab
4056 @code{neo_mensural_c1}, @code{neo_mensural_c2},
4057 @code{neo_mensural_c3}, @code{neo_mensural_c4} @tab
4058 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4059 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4060 \clef "neo_mensural_c2" c
4064 @code{clefs-petrucci_c1} @tab
4065 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 1st staffline) @tab
4066 @code{petrucci_c1} @tab
4067 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4068 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4069 \clef "petrucci_c1" c
4073 @code{clefs-petrucci_c2} @tab
4074 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 2nd staffline) @tab
4075 @code{petrucci_c2} @tab
4076 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4077 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4078 \clef "petrucci_c2" c
4082 @code{clefs-petrucci_c3} @tab
4083 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 3rd staffline) @tab
4084 @code{petrucci_c3} @tab
4085 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4086 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4087 \clef "petrucci_c3" c
4091 @code{clefs-petrucci_c4} @tab
4092 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 4th staffline) @tab
4093 @code{petrucci_c4} @tab
4094 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4095 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4096 \clef "petrucci_c4" c
4100 @code{clefs-petrucci_c5} @tab
4101 petrucci style mensural C clef (specifically for use on 5th staffline) @tab
4102 @code{petrucci_c5} @tab
4103 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4104 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4105 \clef "petrucci_c5" c
4109 @code{clefs-petrucci_f} @tab
4110 petrucci style mensural F clef @tab
4111 @code{petrucci_f} @tab
4112 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4113 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4114 \clef "petrucci_f" c
4118 @code{clefs-petrucci_g} @tab
4119 petrucci style mensural G clef @tab
4120 @code{petrucci_g} @tab
4121 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4122 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4123 \clef "petrucci_g" c
4127 @code{clefs-mensural_c'} @tab
4128 historic style mensural C clef @tab
4129 @code{mensural_c1}, @code{mensural_c2}, @code{mensural_c3},
4130 @code{mensural_c4} @tab
4131 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4132 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4133 \clef "mensural_c2" c
4137 @code{clefs-mensural_f} @tab
4138 historic style mensural F clef @tab
4139 @code{mensural_f} @tab
4140 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4141 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4142 \clef "mensural_f" c
4146 @code{clefs-mensural_g} @tab
4147 historic style mensural G clef @tab
4148 @code{mensural_g} @tab
4149 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4150 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4151 \clef "mensural_g" c
4155 @code{clefs-vaticana_do} @tab
4156 Editio Vaticana style do clef @tab
4157 @code{vaticana_do1}, @code{vaticana_do2}, @code{vaticana_do3} @tab
4158 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4160 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4161 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4162 \clef "vaticana_do2" c
4166 @code{clefs-vaticana_fa} @tab
4167 Editio Vaticana style fa clef @tab
4168 @code{vaticana_fa1}, @code{vaticana_fa2} @tab
4169 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4171 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4172 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4173 \clef "vaticana_fa2" c
4177 @code{clefs-medicaea_do} @tab
4178 Editio Medicaea style do clef @tab
4179 @code{medicaea_do1}, @code{medicaea_do2}, @code{medicaea_do3} @tab
4180 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4182 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4183 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4184 \clef "medicaea_do2" c
4188 @code{clefs-medicaea_fa} @tab
4189 Editio Medicaea style fa clef @tab
4190 @code{medicaea_fa1}, @code{medicaea_fa2} @tab
4191 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4193 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4194 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4195 \clef "medicaea_fa2" c
4199 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do} @tab
4200 historic style hufnagel do clef @tab
4201 @code{hufnagel_do1}, @code{hufnagel_do2}, @code{hufnagel_do3} @tab
4202 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4204 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4205 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4206 \clef "hufnagel_do2" c
4210 @code{clefs-hufnagel_fa} @tab
4211 historic style hufnagel fa clef @tab
4212 @code{hufnagel_fa1}, @code{hufnagel_fa2} @tab
4213 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4215 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4216 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4217 \clef "hufnagel_fa2" c
4221 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4222 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef @tab
4223 @code{hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4224 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4225 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4226 \clef "hufnagel_do_fa" c
4231 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
4232 @c @item modern style percussion clef (glyph: @code{clefs-percussion})
4235 @c @code{percussion}
4237 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "percussion" c'}
4239 @c @item modern style tab clef (glyph: @code{clefs-tab})
4244 @c @lilypond{\context Staff \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #6 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "tab" c'}
4246 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
4247 transcribed mensural music''.
4249 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
4250 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
4252 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
4253 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
4255 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
4257 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
4258 beams, depending on which staffline it is printed.
4262 @subsection Custodes
4267 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
4268 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
4269 of the first note(s) of the following line and thus helps the player
4270 or singer to manage line breaks during performance, thus enhancing
4271 readability of a score.
4273 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th
4274 century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms
4275 of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant
4276 like the @emph{editio vaticana}. There are different custos glyphs
4277 used in different flavours of notational style.
4279 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
4280 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block,
4281 as shown in the following example.
4287 \consists Custos_engraver
4288 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
4293 The result looks like this:
4299 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
4306 \consists Custos_engraver
4313 The custos glyph is selected by the @code{style} property. The styles
4314 supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
4315 @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the following fragment:
4325 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-vaticana-u0" }
4329 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-medicaea-u0" }
4333 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-hufnagel-u0" }
4337 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-mensural-u0" }
4346 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4350 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4351 \remove "Key_engraver"
4352 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4353 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4354 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4360 If the boolean property @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} is set to
4361 @code{#t} (which it is by default), lily typesets slightly different
4362 variants of the custos glyph, depending on whether the custos, is
4363 typeset on or between stafflines. The idea is that the glyph will
4364 optically fit well into the staff, with the appendage on the right of
4365 the custos always ending at the same vertical position between two
4366 stafflines regardless of the pitch. If you set
4367 @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} to @code{#f}, then lily takes regardless
4368 of the pitch always a glyph that is a compromise of the former two
4371 Just like stems can be attached to noteheads in two directions
4372 @emph{up} and @emph{down}, each custos glyph is available with its
4373 appendage pointing either up or down. If the pitch of a custos is
4374 above a selectable position, the appendage will point downwards; if
4375 the pitch is below this position, the appendage will point upwards.
4376 Use property @code{neutral-position} to select this position. By
4377 default, it is set to @code{0}, such that the neutral position is the
4378 center of the staff. Use property @code{neutral-direction} to control
4379 what happens if a custos is typeset on the neutral position itself.
4380 By default, this property is set to @code{-1}, such that the appendage
4381 will point downwards. If set to @code{1}, the appendage will point
4382 upwards. Other values such as @code{0} are reserved for future
4383 extensions and should not be used.
4388 @internalsref{Custos}, @inputfileref{input/test,custos-style.ly} and
4389 @inputfileref{input/regression,custos.ly}.
4393 @subsection Divisiones
4399 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; latin word for
4400 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
4401 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
4402 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior} and @emph{divisio maxima}
4403 can be characterized as short, medium and long pause, somewhat like
4404 @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not only marks the end of
4405 a chant, but is also frequently used within a single
4406 antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
4410 To use divisiones, include the file @code{gregorian-init.ly}. It
4411 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
4412 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
4413 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
4414 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
4415 Therefore, @code{gregorian-init.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
4419 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{divisiones.ly}
4423 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
4424 @inputfileref{input/test,divisiones.ly}, @ref{Breath marks}.
4427 @subsection Ligatures
4431 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
4432 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
4434 In musical terminology, a ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that
4435 represents at least two different notes. Ligatures originally appeared
4436 in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th
4437 century as an allusion to the accent symbols of greek lyric poetry to
4438 denote ascending or descending sequences of notes. Both, the shape and
4439 the exact meaning of ligatures changed tremendously during the following
4440 centuries: In early notation, ligatures where used for monophonic tunes
4441 (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way of performance in
4442 the sense of articulation. With upcoming multiphony, the need for a
4443 metric system arised, since multiple voices of a piece have to be
4444 synchronized some way. New notation systems were invented that used
4445 the manifold shapes of ligatures to now denote rhythmical patterns
4446 (e.g. black mensural notation, mannered notation, ars nova). With the
4447 invention of the metric system of the white mensural notation, the need
4448 for ligatures to denote such patterns disappeared. Nevertheless,
4449 ligatures were still in use in the mensural system for a couple of
4450 decades until they finally disappeared during the late 16th / early 17th
4451 century. Still, ligatures have survived in contemporary editions of
4452 Gregorian chant such as the Editio Vaticana from 1905/08.
4456 Syntactically, ligatures are simply enclosed by @code{\[} and
4457 @code{\]}. Some ligature styles (such as Editio Vaticana) may need
4458 additional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature.
4459 By default, the @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a
4460 square bracket above the ligature.
4462 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
4464 \notes \transpose c c' {
4472 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver has
4473 to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in the
4474 following subsections. Currently, Lilypond only supports white mensural
4475 ligatures with certain limitations. Support for Editio Vaticana will be
4476 added in the future.
4479 * White mensural ligatures::
4482 @node White mensural ligatures
4483 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
4485 @cindex Mensural ligatures
4486 @cindex White mensural ligatures
4488 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures. The
4489 implementation is still experimental; it currently may output strange
4490 warnings or even crash in some cases or produce weird results on more
4491 complex ligatures. To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the paper
4492 block the @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} has to be put into
4493 the @internalsref{Voice} context (and you probably want to remove the
4494 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}). There is no additional
4495 input language to describe the shape of a white mensural ligature.
4496 The shape is rather determined solely from the pitch and duration of
4497 the enclosed notes. While this approach may take a new user a while
4498 to get accustomed, it has the great advantage that the full musical
4499 information of the ligature is known internally. This is not only
4500 required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for automatic
4501 transcription of the ligatures.
4505 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
4507 \notes \transpose c c' {
4508 \property Score.timing = ##f
4509 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4510 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4511 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4513 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4515 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4520 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4521 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
4527 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
4528 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
4531 @lilypond[singleline]
4533 \notes \transpose c c' {
4534 \property Score.timing = ##f
4535 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4536 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4537 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4539 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4541 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4547 @subsection Figured bass
4549 @cindex Basso continuo
4551 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
4555 LilyPond has limited support for figured bass:
4557 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
4559 \context Voice \notes { \clef bass dis4 c d ais}
4560 \context FiguredBass
4562 < 6 >4 < 7 >8 < 6+ [_!] >
4568 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
4569 mode, introduced by @code{\figures}, where you can enter bass figures
4570 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass}
4571 that takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
4573 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
4574 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>}.
4579 \context FiguredBass
4583 Accidentals are added to the numbers if you alterate them by
4584 appending @code{-}, @code{!} and @code{+}.
4590 \context FiguredBass
4591 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> }
4594 Spaces or dashes may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
4595 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}.
4601 \context FiguredBass
4602 \figures { < [4 6] 8 [_ 12]> }
4605 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
4606 support, it works much simpler. The @code{\figures} mode simply
4607 stores the numbers , and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints
4608 them as entered. There is no conversion to pitches, and no
4609 realizations of the bass are played in the MIDI file.
4611 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
4612 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
4613 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
4617 @internalsref{BassFigureEvent} music, @internalsref{BassFigure} grob,
4618 @internalsref{FiguredBass} context
4622 Slash notation for alterations is not supported.
4625 @node Contemporary notation
4626 @section Contemporary notation
4628 In the 20th century, composers have greatly expanded the musical
4629 vocabulary. With this expansion, many innovations in musical notation
4630 have been tried. For a comprehensive overview, refer to @cite{Stone
4631 1980} (see @ref{Literature}). In general, the use of new, innovative
4632 notation makes a piece harder to understand and perform and its use
4633 should be avoided if possible. For this reason, support for
4634 contemporary notation in LilyPond is limited.
4643 @subsection Clusters
4647 In musical terminology, a @emph{cluster} denotes a range of
4648 simultaneously sounding pitches that may change over time. The set of
4649 available pitches to apply usually depends on the accoustic source.
4650 Thus, in piano music, a cluster typically consists of a continous range
4651 of the semitones as provided by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic
4652 scale. In choral music, each singer of the choir typically may sing an
4653 arbitrary pitch within the cluster's range that is not bound to any
4654 diatonic, chromatic or other scale. In electronic music, a cluster
4655 (theoretically) may even cover a continuous range of pitches, thus
4656 resulting in coloured noise, such as pink noise.
4658 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
4659 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
4660 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
4661 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by the
4662 shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical extent of
4663 the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster geometrically
4664 describes the development of a range of pitches (vertical extent) over
4665 time (horizontal extent). Still, the geometrical shape of a cluster
4666 covers the area in wich any single pitch contained in the cluster would
4667 be notated as an ordinary note. From this point of view, it is
4668 reasonable to specify a cluster as the envelope of a set of notes.
4672 A cluster is engraved as the envelope of a set of notes. The starting
4673 note is marked with @code{\startCluster}, and the ending note with
4674 @code{\stopCluster}, e.g.,
4682 The following example (from
4683 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly}) shows what the result
4686 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{cluster.ly}
4688 By default, @internalsref{Cluster_engraver} is in the
4689 @internalsref{Voice} context. This allows putting ordinary notes and
4690 clusters together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In such a
4691 case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between
4692 ordinary notes and clusters.
4696 @internalsref{Cluster}, @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly},
4697 @internalsref{Cluster_engraver}, @internalsref{ClusterEvent}.
4701 When a cluster is active, note heads must be switched off manually using
4704 Music expressions like @code{< @{ g8 e8 @} a4 >} are not printed
4705 accurately. Use @code{<<g a>>8 <<e a>>8} instead.
4710 @subsection Fermatas
4716 Contemporary music notation frequently uses special fermata symbols to
4717 indicate fermatas of differing lengths.
4721 The following are supported
4723 @lilypond[singleline]
4746 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
4747 "shortfermata" "fermata" "longfermata" "verylongfermata"
4752 See @ref{Articulations} for general instructions how to apply scripts
4753 such as fermatas to a @code{\notes@{@}} block.
4756 @section Tuning output
4758 As much formatting as possible is performed
4759 automatically. Nevertheless, there are situations where LilyPond needs
4760 some help, or where you want to override its decisions. In this
4761 section we discuss ways to do just that.
4763 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called objects (graphic
4764 objects). Each object carries with it a set of properties (object
4765 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem object has
4766 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
4768 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
4769 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
4770 temporarily change the definition of one type of object, thus
4771 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
4772 object, and set a object property in that object.
4782 @node Tuning objects
4783 @subsection Tuning objects
4785 @cindex object description
4787 The definition of an object is actually a list of default object
4788 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem object (available
4789 in @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), includes the following definitions for
4794 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
4795 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
4800 By adding variables on top of these existing definitions, the system
4801 defaults is overriden, and the appearance of a graphical objects is
4807 Changing a variable for only one object is commonly achieved with
4811 \once \property @var{context}.@var{grobname}
4812 \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4814 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
4815 and @var{grobname} is a string and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
4816 This command applies a setting only during one moment in the score.
4818 In the following example, only one @internalsref{Stem} object is
4819 changed from its original setting:
4821 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment, relative=1]
4823 \once \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4
4827 @cindex @code{\once}
4829 For changing more objects, the same command, without @code{\once} can
4832 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4834 This command adds @code{@var{symbol} = @var{value}} to the definition
4835 of @var{grobname} in the context @var{context}, and this definition
4836 stays in place until it is removed.
4838 An existing definition may be removed by the following command
4841 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
4844 All @code{\override} and @code{\revert} commands should be balanced.
4845 The @code{\set} shorthand, performs a revert followed by an override,
4846 and is often more convenient to use
4849 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4853 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
4854 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
4856 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
4860 The following example gives exactly the same result as the previous
4861 one (assuming the system default for stem thickness is 0.8).
4863 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
4864 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
4866 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
4870 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
4871 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
4872 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
4873 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and
4874 @code{\revert}, must be carefully balanced.
4876 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
4879 A clumsy but correct form:
4881 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
4884 Shorter version of the same:
4886 \override \set \set \revert
4889 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
4892 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
4895 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the object property is unset),
4898 \set \set \set \revert
4901 For the digirati, the object description is an Scheme association
4902 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as
4903 a stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are push and pop
4904 operations. The association list is stored in a normal context
4907 \property Voice.NoteHead = #'()
4909 will effectively erase @internalsref{NoteHead}s from the current
4910 @internalsref{Voice}. However, this mechanism is not guaranteed to
4911 work, and may cause crashes or other anomalous behavior.
4915 @internalsref{OverrideProperty}, @internalsref{RevertProperty},
4916 @internalsref{PropertySet}, @internalsref{backend properties},
4917 @internalsref{All Graphical Objects}.
4922 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
4923 The backend is not very strict in type-checking object properties. If you
4924 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
4929 @subsection Applyoutput
4931 The most versatile way of tuning object is @code{\applyoutput}. Its
4934 \applyoutput @var{proc}
4936 where @var{proc} is a Scheme function, taking four arguments.
4938 When interpreted, the function @var{proc} is called for every grob found
4939 in the context, with the following arguments:
4941 @item the grob itself
4942 @item the context where the grob was created
4943 @item the context where @code{\applyoutput} is processed.
4946 In addition, the cause of the grob, i.e. the music expression or object
4947 that was responsible for creating the object, is in the object property
4948 @code{cause}. For example, for a note head, this is a
4949 @internalsref{NoteHead} event, and for a @internalsref{Stem} object,
4950 this is a @internalsref{NoteHead} object.
4953 @node Outputproperty
4954 @subsection Outputproperty
4956 @cindex \outputproperty
4958 Another way of tuning objects is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
4959 feature. The syntax is as follows:
4961 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
4963 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking an object argument, and
4964 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
4965 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
4966 objects that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
4967 true, the object property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
4969 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
4970 the appropriate context to apply this to.
4971 @inputfileref{input/regression,output-property.ly} shows an example of
4972 the use of @code{\outputproperty}.
4976 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
4977 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
4980 @node Font selection
4981 @subsection Font selection
4983 The most common thing to change about the appearance of fonts is
4984 their size. The font size of any context can be easily
4985 changed by setting the @code{fontSize} property for that context:
4987 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,verbatim,quote]
4988 c4 c4 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
4991 This command will set @code{font-relative-size} (see below),
4992 and does not change the size of variable symbols, such as
4993 beams or slurs. You can use this command to get smaller symbol for
4994 cue notes, but that involves some more subtleties. An elaborate
4995 example of those is in @inputfileref{input/test,cue-notes.ly}.
4997 @cindex magnification
4999 The size of the font may be scaled with the object property
5000 @code{font-magnification}. For example, @code{2.0} blows up all
5001 letters by a factor 2 in both directions.
5010 The font used for printing a object can be selected by setting
5011 @code{font-name}, e.g.
5013 \property Staff.TimeSignature
5014 \set #'font-name = #"cmr17"
5016 You may use any font which is available to @TeX{}, such as foreign
5017 fonts or fonts that do not belong to the Computer Modern font family.
5019 Font selection for the standard fonts, @TeX{}'s Computer Modern fonts,
5020 can also be adjusted with a more fine-grained mechanism. By setting
5021 the object properties described below, you can select a different font.
5022 All three mechanisms work for every object that supports
5023 @code{font-interface}.
5027 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
5028 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff
5029 braces), @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{ancient} (the
5030 ancient notation font) @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic signs) and
5034 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
5035 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
5036 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
5039 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
5040 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
5043 @item font-relative-size
5044 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
5045 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
5046 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
5048 There are small differences in design between fonts designed for
5049 different sizes, hence font-relative-size is the preferred way to
5053 @item font-design-size
5054 A number indicating the design size of the font.
5056 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
5057 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
5058 which enhances readability.
5061 For any of these properties, the value @code{*} (i.e. the symbol
5062 @code{*}, entered as @code{#'*}), acts as a wildcard. This can be used
5063 to override default setting, which are always present. For example:
5065 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
5066 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-family = #'typewriter
5067 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
5070 @cindex @code{font-style}
5076 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
5078 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
5079 family, and the style sheet cannot be modified easily.
5081 @cindex font selection
5082 @cindex font magnification
5083 @cindex @code{font-interface}
5087 @subsection Text markup
5092 @cindex typeset text
5094 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can access it
5095 with the keyword @code{\markup}. Within markup mode, you can enter texts
5096 similar to lyrics: simply enter them, surrounded by spaces.
5099 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
5100 c1^\markup { hello }
5101 c1_\markup { hi there }
5102 c1^\markup { hi \bold there, is \italic anyone home? }
5105 @cindex font switching
5107 The line of the example demonstrates font switching commands. The
5108 command only apply to the first following word; enclose a set of texts
5109 with braces to apply a command to more words.
5111 \markup @{ \bold @{ hi there @} @}
5113 For clarity, you can also do this for single arguments, e.g.
5115 \markup @{ is \italic @{ anyone @} home @}
5118 @cindex font size, texts
5120 The following size commands set abolute sizes
5136 You can also make letter larger or smaller relative to their neighbors,
5137 with the commands @code{\larger} and @code{\smaller}.
5141 @cindex font style, for texts
5147 The following font change commands are defined:
5150 This changes to the font used for dynamic signs. This font does not
5151 contain all characters of the alphabet, so when producing ``piu f'',
5152 the ``piu'' should be done in a different font.
5156 This changes to the font used for time signatures. It only contains
5157 numbers and a few punctuation marks.
5159 Changes @code{font-shape} to @code{italic}
5161 Changes @code{font-series} to @code{bold}
5164 @cindex raising text
5165 @cindex lowering text
5167 @cindex translating text
5172 Raising and lowering texts can be done with @code{\super} and
5175 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
5176 c1^\markup { E "=" mc \super "2" }
5181 If you want to give an explicit amount for lowering or raising, use
5182 @code{\raise}. This command takes a Scheme valued first argument, and
5183 a markup object as second argument
5185 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1,quote]
5186 c1^\markup { C \small \raise #1.0 \bold { "9/7+" }}
5188 The argument to @code{\raise} is the vertical displacement amount,
5189 measured in (global) staff spaces.
5191 Other commands taking single arguments include
5194 @item \bracket, \hbracket
5195 Bracket the argument markup with normal and horizontal brackets
5200 This is converted to a musical symbol, e.g. @code{\musicglyph
5201 #"accidentals-0"} will select the natural sign from the music font.
5202 See @ref{The Feta font} for a complete listing of the possible glyphs.
5204 This produces a single character, e.g. @code{\char #65} produces the
5207 @item \hspace #@var{amount}
5209 This produces a invisible object taking horizontal space.
5211 \markup @{ A \hspace #2.0 B @}
5213 will put extra space between A and B, on top of the space that is
5214 normally inserted before elements on a line.
5216 @item \fontsize #@var{size}
5218 This sets the relative font size, eg.
5220 A \fontsize #2 @{ B C @} D
5224 This will enlarge the B and the C by two steps.
5225 @item \translate #(cons @var{x} @var{y})
5227 This translates an object. Its first argument is a cons of numbers
5229 A \translate #(cons 2 -3) @{ B C @} D
5231 This moves `B C' 2 spaces to the right, and 3 down.
5233 @item \magnify #@var{mag}
5235 This sets the font magnification for the its argument. In the following
5236 example, the middle A will be 10% larger.
5238 A \magnify #1.1 @{ A @} A
5242 @item \override #(@var{key} . @var{value})
5244 This overrides a formatting property for its argument. The argument
5245 should be a key/value pair, e.g.
5247 m \override #'(font-family . math) m m
5251 In markup mode you can compose expressions, similar to mathematical
5252 expressions, XML documents and music expressions. The braces group
5253 notes into horizontal lines. Other types of lists also exist: you can
5254 stack expressions grouped with @code{<<}, and @code{>>} vertically with
5255 the command @code{\column}. Similarly, @code{\center} aligns texts by
5258 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
5259 c1^\markup { \column << a bbbb c >> }
5260 c1^\markup { \center << a bbbb c >> }
5261 c1^\markup { \line << a b c >> }
5264 The markup mechanism is very flexible and extensible. Refer to
5265 @file{scm/new-markup.scm} for more information on extending the markup
5268 @cindex metronome mark
5270 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
5274 eighthStem = \markup \combine
5275 \musicglyph #"flags-stem"
5276 \translate #'(0.0 . 3.5) \musicglyph #"flags-u3"
5277 eighthNote = \markup
5278 \override #'(word-space . 0.0)
5279 { \musicglyph #"noteheads-2"
5280 \translate #'(-0.05 . 0.1) \eighthStem }
5283 \notes\relative c'' {
5284 a1^\markup { \magnify #0.9 \eighthNote " = 64" }
5291 @internalsref{Markup functions}, @file{scm/new-markup.scm}
5298 Text layout is ultimately done by @TeX{}, which does kerning of
5299 letters. LilyPond does not account for kerning, so texts will be
5300 spaced slightly too wide.
5302 Syntax errors for markup mode are confusing.
5306 @section Global layout
5308 The global layout determined by three factors: the page layout, the
5309 line breaks and the spacing. These all influence each other. The
5310 choice of spacing determines how densely each system of music is set,
5311 which influences where line breaks breaks are chosen, and thus
5312 ultimately how many pages a piece of music takes. In this section we
5313 will explain how the lilypond spacing engine works, and how you can
5316 Globally spoken, this procedure happens in three steps: first,
5317 flexible distances (``springs'') are chosen, based on durations. All
5318 possible line breaking combination are tried, and the one with the
5319 best results---a layout that has uniform density and requires as
5320 little stretching or cramping as possible---is chosen. When the score
5321 is processed by @TeX{}, page are filled with systems, and page breaks
5322 are chosen whenever the page gets full.
5327 * Vertical spacing::
5328 * Horizontal spacing::
5335 @node Vertical spacing
5336 @subsection Vertical spacing
5338 @cindex vertical spacing
5339 @cindex distance between staves
5340 @cindex staff distance
5341 @cindex between staves, distance
5342 @cindex staffs per page
5345 The height of each system is determined automatically by lilypond, to
5346 keep systems from bumping into each other, some minimum distances are
5347 set. By changing these, you can put staves closer together, and thus
5348 put more systems onto one page.
5350 Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make
5351 staves maintain a distance, their vertical size is padded. This is
5352 done with the property @code{minimumVerticalExtent}. It takes a pair
5353 of numbers, so if you want to make it smaller from its, then you could
5356 \property Staff.minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4 . 4)
5358 This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 4 staff-space on
5359 either side of the center staff line. The argument of
5360 @code{minimumVerticalExtent} is interpreted as an interval, where the
5361 center line is the 0, so the first number is generally negative. The
5362 staff can be made larger at the bottom by setting it to @code{(-6
5365 The piano staves are handled a little differently: to make cross-staff
5366 beaming work correctly, it necessary that the distance between staves
5367 is fixed. This is also done with a @internalsref{VerticalAlignment}
5368 object, created in @internalsref{PianoStaff}. In this object the
5369 distance between the staves is fixed by setting
5370 @code{forced-distance}. If you want to override this, use a
5371 @code{\translator} block as follows:
5375 VerticalAlignment \override #'forced-distance = #9
5378 This would bring the staves together at a distance of 9 staff spaces,
5379 measured from the center line of each staff.
5383 Vertical aligment of staves is handled by the
5384 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object.
5388 @node Horizontal spacing
5389 @subsection Horizontal Spacing
5391 The spacing engine translates differences in durations into
5392 stretchable distances (``springs'') of differing lengths. Longer
5393 durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest
5394 durations get a fixed amount of space (which is controlled by
5395 @code{shortest-duration-space} in the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}
5396 object). The longer the duration, the more space it gets: doubling a
5397 duration adds a fixed amount (this amount is controlled by
5398 @code{spacing-increment}) of space to the note.
5400 For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter and
5401 8th notes, the eighth note is followed by 1 note head width (NHW). The
5402 The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by 3 NHW, etc.
5403 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=1] c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8
5407 Normally, @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to 1.2, which is the
5408 width of a note head, and @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to
5409 2.0, meaning that the shortest note gets 2 NHW (2 times
5410 @code{shortest-duration-space}) of space. For normal notes, this space
5411 is always counted from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest
5412 notes are generally followed by one NHW of space.
5414 If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single
5415 32th note to a score that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the
5416 entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a 16th, but a 32nd,
5417 thus adding 2 noteheads of space to every note. To prevent this, the
5418 shortest duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score,
5419 but the most commonly found shortest note. Notes that are even
5420 shorter this are followed by a space that is proportonial to their
5421 duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add
5422 only a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by
5425 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=2]
5426 c2 c4. c8 c4. [c16 c] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
5429 The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every
5430 measure, the shortest duration is determined. The most common short
5431 duration, is taken as the basis for the spacing, with the stipulation
5432 that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than
5433 1/8th note. The shortest duration is printed when you run lilypond
5434 with @code{--verbose}. These durations may also be customized. If you
5435 set the @code{common-shortest-duration} in
5436 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, then this sets the base duration for
5437 spacing. The maximum duration for this base (normally 1/8th), is set
5438 through @code{base-shortest-duration}.
5440 @cindex @code{common-shortest-duration}
5441 @cindex @code{base-shortest-duration}
5442 @cindex @code{stem-spacing-correction}
5443 @cindex @code{spacing}
5445 In the introduction it was explained that stem directions influence
5446 spacing. This is controlled with @code{stem-spacing-correction}
5447 property in @internalsref{NoteSpacing}, which are generated for every
5448 @internalsref{Voice} context. The @code{StaffSpacing} object
5449 (generated at @internalsref{Staff} context) contains the same property
5450 for controlling the stem/barline spacing. In the following example
5451 shows these corrections, once with default settings, and once with
5452 exaggerated corrections.
5458 \property Staff.NoteSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
5460 \property Staff.StaffSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
5465 \paper { raggedright = ##t } }
5468 @cindex SpacingSpanner, overriding properties
5470 Properties of the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} must be overriden
5471 from the @code{\paper} block, since the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}
5472 is created before any @code{\property} statements are interpreted.
5474 \paper @{ \translator @{
5476 SpacingSpanner \override #'spacing-increment = #3.0
5483 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, @internalsref{NoteSpacing},
5484 @internalsref{StaffSpacing}, @internalsref{SeparationItem},
5485 @internalsref{SeparatingGroupSpanner}.
5489 Spacing is determined on a score wide basis. If you have a score that
5490 changes its character (measured in durations) halfway during the
5491 score, the part containing the longer durations will be spaced too
5494 There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing.
5499 @subsection Font size
5500 @cindex font size, setting
5501 @cindex staff size, setting
5502 @cindex @code{paper} file
5504 The Feta font provides musical symbols at seven different sizes.
5505 These fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 19 pt, 20 point, 23
5506 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the height of the
5507 five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
5509 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
5510 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 19, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any
5511 of these files, the variables @code{paperEleven},
5512 @code{paperThirteen}, @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperNineteen},
5513 @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and @code{paperTwentysix}
5514 are defined respectively. The default @code{\paper} block is also
5515 set. These files should be imported at toplevel, i.e.
5517 \include "paper26.ly"
5521 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
5522 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
5527 @subsection Line breaking
5530 @cindex breaking lines
5532 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
5533 that lines look neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines
5534 have similar density.
5536 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can
5537 do this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at
5538 this point. Line breaks can only occur at places where there are bar
5539 lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line,
5540 you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
5541 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a
5545 @cindex regular line breaks
5546 @cindex four bar music.
5548 If you want linebreaks at regular intervals, you can use the following:
5550 < \repeat unfold 7 @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
5551 @emph{the real music}
5554 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
5559 @internalsref{BreakEvent}
5563 @subsection Page layout
5566 @cindex breaking pages
5568 @cindex @code{indent}
5569 @cindex @code{linewidth}
5571 The most basic settings influencing the spacing are @code{indent} and
5572 @code{linewidth}. They are set in the @code{\paper} block. They
5573 control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of
5576 If @code{raggedright} is set to true in the @code{\paper}
5577 block, then the lines are justified at their natural length. This
5578 useful for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural
5582 @cindex vertical spacing
5584 The page layout process happens outside lilypond: variables
5585 controlling page layout are passed to the output, and are further
5586 interpreted by @code{ly2dvi}. @code{ly2dvi} responds to the following
5587 variables in the @code{\paper} block. The variable @code{textheight}
5588 sets the total height of the music on each page. The spacing between
5589 systems is controlled with @code{interscoreline}, its default is 16pt.
5590 The distance between the score lines will stretch in order to fill the
5591 full page @code{interscorelinefill} is set to a positive number. In
5592 that case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
5594 @cindex @code{textheight}
5595 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
5596 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
5598 If the variable @code{lastpagefill} is defined,
5599 @c fixme: this should only be done if lastpagefill == #t
5600 systems are evenly distributed vertically on the last page. This
5601 might produce ugly results in case there are not enough systems on the
5602 last page. The @command{lilypond-book} command ignores
5603 @code{lastpagefill}. See @ref{lilypond-book manual} for more
5606 @cindex @code{lastpagefill}
5608 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
5609 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into
5610 the @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages. This
5611 is done by setting the @code{between-systems-strings} on the
5612 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn} where the system is broken.
5613 An example is shown in @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}.
5617 @cindex @code{papersize}
5619 To change the paper size, you must first set the
5620 @code{papersize} paper variable variable. Set it to
5621 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
5622 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
5623 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
5626 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
5627 \include "paper16.ly"
5630 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
5631 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
5632 Lilypond and @code{ly2dvi})
5637 @ref{Invoking ly2dvi},
5638 @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly},
5639 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn}.
5643 There is no concept of page breaking, which makes it difficult to
5644 choose sensible page breaks in multi-page pieces.
5653 Entered music can also be converted to MIDI output. The performance
5654 is good enough for proof-hearing the music for errors.
5657 Ties, dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted. Dynamic marks,
5658 crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume levels. Dynamic
5659 marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI volume
5660 range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary linearly
5661 between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
5662 @code{dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction} in @internalsref{Voice} context.
5664 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
5665 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
5666 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. The equalizer
5667 can be controlled by setting @code{instrumentEqualizer}.
5669 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
5673 Many musically interesting effects, such as swing, articulation,
5674 slurring, etc., are translated to MIDI.
5679 * MIDI instrument names::
5684 @subsection MIDI block
5688 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
5689 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
5693 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
5694 @item context definitions
5697 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
5701 @cindex context definition
5703 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
5704 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
5705 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer-init.ly}.
5708 @node MIDI instrument names
5709 @subsection MIDI instrument names
5711 @cindex instrument names
5712 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
5713 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
5715 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
5716 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
5717 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
5718 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
5722 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
5723 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by