3 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
4 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
5 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
7 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
11 @chapter Notation manual
15 * Easier music entry::
22 * Fingering instructions::
31 * Contemporary notation::
37 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
43 This chapter describes all the different types of notation supported
44 by LilyPond. It is intended as a reference for users that are already
45 somewhat familiar with using LilyPond.
51 * Chromatic alterations::
59 * Easy Notation note heads ::
67 A note is printed by specifying its pitch and then its duration:
68 @footnote{Notes constitute the most basic elements of LilyPond input,
69 but they do not form valid input on their own without a @code{\score}
70 block. However, for the sake of brevity and simplicity we will
71 generally omit @code{\score} blocks and @code{\paper} declarations in
74 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
83 @cindex Note specification
85 @cindex entering notes
87 The most common syntax for pitch entry is used in @code{\chords} and
88 @code{\notes} mode. In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated
89 by names. The notes are specified by the letters @code{a} through
90 @code{g}, while the octave is formed with notes ranging from @code{c}
91 to @code{b}. The pitch @code{c} is an octave below middle C and the
92 letters span the octave above that C:
94 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
96 a,4 b, c d e f g a b c' d' e' \clef treble f' g' a' b' c''
99 @cindex note names, Dutch
101 A sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch name and
102 a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double flats
103 are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. These
104 names are the Dutch note names. In Dutch, @code{aes} is contracted to
105 @code{as} in Dutch, but both forms are accepted. Similarly, both
106 @code{es} and @code{ees} are accepted.
108 There are predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
109 To use them, include the language specific init file. For
110 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files
111 and the note names they define are:
116 Note Names sharp flat
117 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
118 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
119 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
120 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
121 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
122 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
123 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
124 espanol.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -s -b
133 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
134 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
135 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
136 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave:
138 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
139 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
143 There is also a verbose syntax for pitch specification:
146 @cindex @code{\pitch}
148 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
152 where @var{scmpitch} is a Scheme object of the @code{Pitch} type.
156 Notes can be hidden and unhidden with the following commands:
158 @cindex @code{\hideNotes}
160 @cindex @code{\unHideNotes}
167 @internalsref{NoteEvent}, and @internalsref{NoteHead}.
169 @node Chromatic alterations
170 @subsection Chromatic alterations
172 Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also
173 print them manually. A reminder accidental
174 @cindex reminder accidental
176 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!}
177 after the pitch. A cautionary accidental
178 @cindex cautionary accidental
179 @cindex parenthesized accidental
180 (an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the
181 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch:
183 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
184 cis' cis' cis'! cis'?
188 The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many
189 ways. For more information, refer to @ref{Accidentals}.
194 A chord is formed by a enclosing a set of pitches in @code{<<} and
195 @code{>>}. A chord may be followed by a duration, and a set of
196 articulations, just like simple notes.
206 Rests are entered like notes, with the note name @code{r}:
208 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
212 Whole bar rests, centered in middle of the bar,
213 must be done with multi measure rests. They are discussed in
214 @ref{Multi measure rests}.
217 A rest's vertical position may be explicitly specified by entering a
218 note with the @code{\rest} keyword appended. This makes manual
219 formatting in polyphonic music easier. Rest collision testing will
220 leave these rests alone:
222 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
228 @internalsref{RestEvent}, and @internalsref{Rest}.
235 @cindex Invisible rest
238 An invisible rest (also called a `skip') can be entered like a note
239 with note name `@code{s}' or with @code{\skip @var{duration}}:
241 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
245 The @code{s} syntax is only available in Note mode and Chord mode. In
246 other situations, you should use the @code{\skip} command:
248 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
251 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
252 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
257 The skip command is merely an empty musical placeholder. It does not
258 produce any output, not even transparent output.
262 @internalsref{SkipEvent}.
267 @subsection Durations
271 @cindex @code{\duration}
274 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations are designated by numbers
275 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For example,
276 a quarter note is entered using a @code{4} (since it is a 1/4 note), while
277 a half note is entered using a @code{2} (since it is a 1/2 note). For notes
278 longer than a whole you must use variables:
280 @c FIXME: what is an identifier? I do not think it's been introduced yet.
281 @c and if it has, I obviously skipped that part. - Graham
285 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
287 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
292 \notes \relative c'' {
294 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
296 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
301 \remove "Clef_engraver"
302 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
303 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
304 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
311 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previously entered
312 duration. The default for the first note is a quarter note. The duration
313 can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') in order to obtain dotted note
317 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
318 a' b' c''8 b' a'4 a'4. b'4.. c'8.
323 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M}
324 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
325 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
326 In the following example, the first three notes take up exactly two
328 @lilypond[fragment,relative 2,verbatim]
330 a4*2/3 gis4*2/3 a4*2/3
334 Durations can also be produced using the verbose syntax
335 @code{\duration @var{Scheme object}}:
336 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
337 c'\duration #(ly:make-duration 4 1)
344 Dots are normally moved up to avoid staff lines, except in polyphonic
345 situations. The following commands may be used to force a particular
348 @cindex @code{\dotsUp}
350 @cindex @code{\dotsDown}
352 @cindex @code{\dotsBoth}
357 @internalsref{Dots}, and @internalsref{DotColumn}.
361 In dense chords, dots can overlap.
366 Whenever a note is found, a
367 @internalsref{Stem} object is created automatically. For whole notes
368 and rests, stem objects are also created, but in those cases, the stem
373 @cindex @code{\stemUp}
375 @cindex @code{\stemDown}
377 @cindex @code{\stemBoth}
388 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in
389 effect extends the length of a note. Ties should not be confused with
390 slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate
391 musical phrasing. A tie is entered using the tilde symbol `@code{~}':
393 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
394 e' ~ e' <<c' e' g'>> ~ <<c' e' g'>>
397 When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads whose pitches match
398 are connected. When no note heads match, no ties will be created.
400 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
401 to the augmentation dot; in the following example there are two ways of
402 notating exactly the same concept:
404 @lilypond[fragment, singleline,quote]
405 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
407 If you need to tie a lot of notes over bars, it may be easier to use automatic
408 note splitting (See @ref{Automatic note splitting}).
413 @cindex @code{\tieUp}
415 @cindex @code{\tieDown}
417 @cindex @code{\tieBoth}
419 @cindex @code{\tieDotted}
421 @cindex @code{\tieSolid}
426 @internalsref{TieEvent}, @internalsref{NewTieEvent},
427 @internalsref{Tie}, and @ref{Automatic note splitting}.
430 ties created for a chord, see @inputfileref{input/test,tie-sparse.ly}.
434 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a pair of chords is not
435 supported in a simple way. It can be achieved by moving the
436 tie-engraver into the @internalsref{Thread} context and turning on and
437 off ties per @internalsref{Thread}.
439 Switching staves when a tie is active, will not produce a slanted tie.
441 Formatting of ties is a difficult subject. The results are often not
451 @cindex @code{\times}
453 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all durations
456 @cindex @code{\times}
458 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
461 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
462 In the sheet music, the fraction's denominator will be printed over
463 the notes, optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the
464 triplet in which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3
465 of their written length:
467 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
468 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
471 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each
472 bracket should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while
473 typing @code{\times} only once, saving lots of typing. In the next
474 example, there are two triplets shown, while @code{\times} was only
477 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
478 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
479 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
482 The format of the number is determined by the property
483 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
484 denominator, but if it is set to the Scheme function
485 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, @var{num}:@var{den} will be printed
489 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
490 @cindex tuplet formatting
495 @cindex @code{\tupletUp}
497 @cindex @code{\tupletDown}
499 @cindex @code{\tupletBoth}
504 @internalsref{TupletBracket}, and @internalsref{TimeScaledMusic}.
508 Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically. In this case, outer
509 tuplet brackets should be moved manually.
511 @node Easy Notation note heads
512 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
514 @cindex easy notation
517 The `easyplay' note head includes a note name inside the head. It is
518 used in music aimed at beginners.
520 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,26pt]
522 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
523 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
527 The @code{EasyNotation} variable overrides a @internalsref{Score} context.
528 You probably will want to print it with magnification or a
529 large font size to make it more readable. To print with
530 magnification, you must create a DVI file (with @file{ly2dvi}) and
531 then enlarge it with something like @file{dvips -x 2000 file.dvi}.
532 See the @code{dvips} documentation for more details. To print with a
533 larger font, see @ref{Font Size}.
539 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through
540 the letters. Printing the PostScript file obtained with ly2dvi does
541 produce the correct result.
544 @node Easier music entry
545 @section Easier music entry
548 When entering music it is easy to introduce errors. This section deals
549 with tricks and features of the input language that help when entering
550 music, and find and correct mistakes. Some features of the input
551 language ease entering music, but also have other applications. They
552 are not described in this section.
554 It is also possible to use external programs, for example GUI
555 interfaces, or MIDI transcription programs, to enter or edit
556 music. Refer to the website for more information. Finally, there are
557 tools make debugging easier, by linking the input file and the output
558 shown on screen. See @ref{Point and click} for more information.
564 * Skipping corrected music::
565 * Automatic note splitting ::
571 @node Relative octaves
572 @subsection Relative octaves
574 @cindex relative octave specification
576 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
577 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch
578 in the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. The relative
579 octave mode prevents these errors: a single error puts the rest of the
580 piece off by one octave:
582 @cindex @code{\relative}
584 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
587 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
588 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
589 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
590 (; this distance is determined without regarding alterations: a
591 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
594 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise
595 or lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode,
596 an absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
597 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
599 Here is the relative mode shown in action:
600 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
606 Octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth:
607 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
612 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
613 to determine the first note of the next chord:
615 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
622 @cindex @code{\notes}
624 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
625 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
626 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
629 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
630 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
631 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
632 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
636 @subsection Bar check
640 @cindex @code{barCheckSynchronize}
643 Bar checks help detect errors in the durations. A bar check is
644 entered using the bar symbol, `@code{|}'. Whenever it is encountered
645 during interpretation, it should fall on a measure boundary. If it
646 does not, a warning is printed. Depending on the value of
647 @code{barCheckSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
650 In the next example, the second bar check will signal an error:
652 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2 |
657 @cindex skipTypesetting
659 Failed bar checks are caused by entering incorrect
660 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
661 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the
662 score by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To
663 speed up this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting}, described
666 @node Skipping corrected music
667 @subsection Skipping corrected music
669 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
670 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
671 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
672 This can be used to skip over the parts of a score that have already
673 been checked for errors:
675 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
677 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
679 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
683 @node Automatic note splitting
684 @subsection Automatic note splitting
686 Long notes can be converted automatically to tied notes. This is done
687 by replacing the @internalsref{Note_heads_engraver} by the
688 @internalsref{Completion_heads_engraver}:
691 \paper @{ \translator @{
693 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
694 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
698 which will make long notes tied in the following example:
701 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
708 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
710 \paper { \translator {
712 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
713 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
718 This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts
719 ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are
720 not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how much each measure
725 Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be
726 represented exactly; the engraver will not insert tuplets.
732 @section Staff notation
734 This section describes music notation that occurs on staff level,
735 such as keys, clefs and time signatures.
737 @cindex Staff notation
751 @subsection Staff symbol
753 @cindex adjusting staff symbol
754 @cindex StaffSymbol, using \property
755 @cindex staff lines, setting number of
757 Notes, dynamic signs, etc. are grouped
758 with a set of horizontal lines, into a staff (plural `staves'). In our
759 system, these lines are drawn using a separate layout object called
762 This object is created whenever a @internalsref{Staff} context is
763 created. The appearance of the staff symbol cannot be changed by
764 using @code{\override} or @code{\set}. At the moment that
765 @code{\property Staff} is interpreted, a @internalsref{Staff} context
766 is made, and the @internalsref{StaffSymbol} is created before any
767 @code{\override} is effective. Properties can be changed in a
768 @code{\translator} definition, or by using @code{\outputproperty}.
772 If a staff is ended halfway a piece, the staff symbol may not end
773 exactly on the barline.
777 @subsection Key signature
778 @cindex Key signature
782 The key signature indicates the scale in which a piece is played. It
783 is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of
788 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
791 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
794 @cindex @code{\minor}
795 @cindex @code{\major}
796 @cindex @code{\minor}
797 @cindex @code{\ionian}
798 @cindex @code{\locrian}
799 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
800 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
801 @cindex @code{\lydian}
802 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
803 @cindex @code{\dorian}
805 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
806 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
807 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
808 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
809 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
811 This command sets the context property
812 @internalsref{Staff}.@code{keySignature}. Non-standard key signatures
813 can be specified by setting this property directly.
817 The ordering of a key cancellation is wrong when it is combined with
818 repeat bar lines. The cancellation is also printed after a line break.
822 @internalsref{KeyChangeEvent}, and @internalsref{KeySignature}.
824 @cindex @code{keySignature}
831 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
836 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command:
837 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
838 \key f\major c''2 \clef alto g'2
841 Supported clef-names include:
842 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
844 @item treble, violin, G, G2
853 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
868 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
869 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. Argument @var{clefname}
870 must be enclosed in quotes when it contains underscores or digits. For
876 This command is equivalent to setting @code{clefGlyph},
877 @code{clefPosition} (which controls the Y position of the clef),
878 @code{centralCPosition} and @code{clefOctavation}. A clef is printed
879 when any of these properties are changed.
883 The object for this symbol is @internalsref{Clef}.
887 @node Ottava brackets
888 @subsection Ottava brackets
890 ``Ottava'' brackets introduce an extra transposition of an octave for
891 the staff. They are created by invoking the function
892 @code{set-octavation}:
898 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
907 Internally the @code{set-octavation} function sets the properties
908 @code{ottavation} (eg. to @code{"8va"}) and @code{centralCPosition}.
912 @internalsref{OttavaBracket}.
916 @code{set-octavation} will get confused when clef changes happen
917 during an octavation bracket.
920 @subsection Time signature
921 @cindex Time signature
925 Time signature indicates the metrum of a piece: a regular pattern of
926 strong and weak beats. It is denoted by a fraction at the start of the
931 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
933 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
934 \time 2/4 c'2 \time 3/4 c'2.
937 The symbol that is printed can be customized with the @code{style}
938 property. Setting it to @code{#'()} uses fraction style for 4/4 and
939 2/2 time. There are many more options for its layout. See
940 @inputfileref{input/test,time.ly} for more examples.
943 This command sets the property @code{timeSignatureFraction},
944 @code{beatLength} and @code{measureLength} in the @code{Timing}
945 context, which is normally aliased to @internalsref{Score}. The
946 property @code{measureLength} determines where bar lines should be
947 inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated. Changing the
948 value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes the symbol to be
951 More options are available through the Scheme function
952 @code{set-time-signature}. In combination with the
953 @internalsref{Measure_grouping_engraver}, it will create
954 @internalsref{MeasureGrouping} signs. Such signs ease reading
955 rhythmically complex modern music. In the following example, the 9/8
956 measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to
957 @code{set-time-signature} as the third argument @code{(2 2 2 3)}:
960 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
961 #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3))
962 g8-[ g-] d-[ d-] g-[ g-] a8-[-( bes g-]-) |
963 #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2))
968 \translator { \StaffContext
969 \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
975 @internalsref{TimeSignature}, and @internalsref{Timing_engraver}.
980 Automatic beaming does not use measure grouping specified with
981 @code{set-time-signature}.
983 @node Partial measures
984 @subsection Partial measures
987 @cindex partial measure
988 @cindex measure, partial
989 @cindex shorten measures
990 @cindex @code{\partial}
992 Partial measures, for example in upsteps, are entered using the
993 @code{\partial} command:
994 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
995 \partial 16*5 c'16 c4 | a'2. ~ a'8. a'16 | g'1
998 The syntax for this command is
1000 \partial @var{duration}
1002 This is internally translated into
1004 \property Timing.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
1007 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
1008 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
1010 @node Unmetered music
1011 @subsection Unmetered music
1013 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
1014 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. By setting
1015 @code{Score.timing} to false, this automatic timing can be switched
1021 @cindex @code{\cadenzaOn}
1023 @cindex @code{\cadenzaOff}
1027 @subsection Bar lines
1031 @cindex measure lines
1035 Bar lines delimit measures, but are also used to indicate repeats.
1036 Normally, they are inserted automatically. Line breaks may only
1042 of barlines can be forced with the @code{\bar} command:
1043 @lilypond[relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
1047 The following bar types are available:
1048 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
1060 In scores with many staves, a @code{\bar} command in one staff is
1061 automatically applied to all staves. The resulting bar lines are
1062 connected between different staves of a @internalsref{StaffGroup}:
1064 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1065 < \context StaffGroup <
1066 \context Staff = up { e'4 d'
1069 \context Staff = down { \clef bass c4 g e g } >
1070 \context Staff = pedal { \clef bass c2 c2 } >
1074 The command @code{\bar @var{bartype}} is a short cut for doing
1075 @code{\property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}} Whenever
1076 @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
1077 created. At the start of a measure it is set to
1078 @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of @code{repeatCommands} are used
1079 to override default measure bars.
1081 Property @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property}
1082 or @code{\bar}. These settings take precedence over the automatic
1083 @code{whichBar} settings.
1086 @cindex repeatCommands
1087 @cindex defaultBarType
1089 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
1099 The bar line objects that are created at @internalsref{Staff} level
1100 are called @internalsref{BarLine}, the bar lines that span staves are
1101 @internalsref{SpanBar}s.
1103 @cindex bar lines at start of system
1104 @cindex start of system
1106 The barlines at the start of each system are
1107 @internalsref{SystemStartBar}, @internalsref{SystemStartBrace}, and
1108 @internalsref{SystemStartBracket}. They are spanner objects and
1109 typically must be tuned from a @code{\translator} block.
1116 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff
1117 is to split chords using the separator @code{\\}. You can use it for
1118 small, short-lived voices or for single chords:
1120 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
1121 \context Voice = VA \relative c'' {
1122 c4 < { f d e } \\ { b c2 } > c4 < g' \\ b, \\ f' \\ d >
1126 The separator causes @internalsref{Voice} contexts to be
1128 bear the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc. In each of these
1129 contexts, vertical direction of slurs, stems, etc. is set
1132 This can also be done by instantiating @internalsref{Voice} contexts
1133 by hand, and using @code{\voiceOne}, up to @code{\voiceFour} to assign
1134 a stem directions and horizontal shift for each part:
1137 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
1139 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
1140 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
1141 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
1144 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
1145 when the object property @code{merge-differently-dotted} is set in
1146 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} object, they are merged:
1147 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
1148 \relative c'' \context Voice < {
1150 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override
1151 #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
1153 } \\ { g8.-[ f16-] g8.-[ f16-] }
1157 Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting
1158 @code{merge-differently-headed}:
1159 @lilypond[fragment, relative=2,verbatim]
1162 \property Staff.NoteCollision
1163 \override #'merge-differently-headed = ##t
1164 c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >
1167 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem:
1170 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1171 \context Voice < c''4 \\ r4 >
1179 @cindex @code{\oneVoice}
1181 @cindex @code{\voiceOne}
1183 @cindex @code{\voiceTwo}
1185 @cindex @code{\voiceThree}
1187 @cindex @code{\voiceFour}
1190 The following commands specify in what chords of the current voice
1191 should be shifted: the outer voice has @code{\shiftOff}, and the inner
1192 voices have @code{\shiftOn}, @code{\shiftOnn}, etc.
1195 @cindex @code{\shiftOn}
1197 @cindex @code{\shiftOnn}
1199 @cindex @code{\shiftOnnn}
1201 @cindex @code{\shiftOff}
1208 The objects responsible for resolving collisions are
1209 @internalsref{NoteCollision} and @internalsref{RestCollision}. See
1210 also example files @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-dots.ly},
1211 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-head-chords.ly},
1212 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-heads.ly},
1213 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-mesh.ly}, and
1214 @inputfileref{input/regression,collisions.ly}.
1219 Resolving collisions is a intricate subject, and only a few situations
1220 are handled. When LilyPond cannot cope, the @code{force-hshift}
1221 property of the @internalsref{NoteColumn} object and pitched rests can
1222 be used to override typesetting decisions.
1224 When using @code{merge-differently-headed} with an upstem 8th or a shorter
1225 note, and a downstem half note, the 8th note gets the wrong offset.
1230 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
1231 the metrum. They are inserted automatically in most cases:
1233 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1234 \time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
1237 When these automatic decisions are not good enough, beaming can be
1238 entered explicitly. It is also possible to define beaming patterns
1239 that differ from the defaults.
1243 @internalsref{Beam}.
1246 @cindex Automatic beams
1247 @subsection Manual beams
1248 @cindex beams, manual
1252 In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming
1253 algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not put beams over rests
1254 or bar lines. Such beams are specified by manually: the begin and end
1255 point are marked with @code{[} and @code{]}:
1257 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1259 r4 r8-[ g' a r8-] r8 g-[ | a-] r8
1263 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1265 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1266 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1267 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount} can
1268 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If either property
1269 is set, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1271 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1274 f8-[ r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a-]
1277 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1280 The property @code{subdivideBeams} can be set in order to subdivide
1281 all 16th or shorter beams at beat positions, as defined by the
1282 @code{beatLength} property . This accomplishes the same effect as
1283 twiddling with @code{stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{stemRightBeamCount},
1284 but it take less typing:
1287 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,noindent]
1288 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1289 \property Voice.subdivideBeams = ##t
1290 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1291 \property Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
1292 c16-[ c c c c c c c-]
1294 @cindex subdivideBeams
1296 Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap is detected
1297 between the note heads. This behavior can be tuned through the object
1298 property @code{auto-knee-gap}.
1300 @cindex beams, kneed
1302 @cindex auto-knee-gap
1308 @cindex Frenched staves
1310 Automatically kneed beams cannot be used together with hidden staves.
1315 * Setting automatic beam behavior ::
1319 @no de Beam typography
1320 @sub section Beam typography
1322 One of the strong points of LilyPond is how beams are formatted. Beams
1323 are quantized, meaning that the left and right endpoints beams start
1324 exactly on staff lines. Without quantization, small wedges of white
1325 space appear between the beam and staff line, and this looks untidy.
1327 Beams are also slope-damped: melodies that go up or down should also
1328 have beams that go up or down, but the slope of the beams should be
1329 less than the slope of the notes themselves.
1331 Some beams should be horizontal. These are so-called concave beams.
1333 [TODO: some pictures.]
1337 @node Setting automatic beam behavior
1338 @subsection Setting automatic beam behavior
1340 @cindex @code{autoBeamSettings}
1341 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
1342 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
1343 @cindex automatic beams, tuning
1344 @cindex tuning automatic beaming
1346 @c [TODO: use \applycontext]
1348 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
1349 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
1350 or at durations specified by the properties in
1351 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
1352 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
1354 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
1355 @code{\override} and restored with @code{\revert}:
1357 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
1358 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
1360 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
1361 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
1362 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
1363 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
1364 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
1367 For example, if automatic beams should end on every quarter note, use
1370 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1371 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
1373 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1374 entered as @code{(ly:make-moment 1 4)}.
1376 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1377 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note:
1379 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1380 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1382 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1383 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1384 3/8 has passed within the measure).
1386 Rules can also be restricted to specific time signatures. A rule that
1387 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1388 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1389 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1391 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1392 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1395 If a rule should be to applied only to certain types of beams, use the
1396 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the
1397 shortest note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies
1398 to beams with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), use @code{(end 1 32 *
1401 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1402 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1404 @cindex automatic beam generation
1406 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeaming}
1409 For melodies that have lyrics, you may want to switch off
1410 automatic beaming. This is done by setting @code{Voice.autoBeaming} to
1415 @cindex @code{\autoBeamOff}
1416 @code{\autoBeamOff},
1417 @cindex @code{\autoBeamOn}
1423 The rules for ending a beam depend on the shortest note in a beam.
1424 So, while it is possible to have different ending rules for eight
1425 beams and sixteenth beams, a beam that contains both eight and
1426 sixteenth notes will use the rules for the sixteenth beam.
1428 In the example below, the autobeamer makes eight beams and sixteenth
1429 end at 3 eights; the third beam can only be corrected by specifying
1432 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,relative,noverbatim,quote]
1433 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1434 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1435 % rather show case where it goes wrong
1436 %\time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c-[ c c c-] c8-[ c-] c4
1437 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c c c c c8 c c4
1439 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1440 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1441 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1444 @section Accidentals
1447 This section describes how to change the way that accidentals are
1448 inserted automatically before the running notes.
1452 * Using the predefined accidental variables::
1453 * Customized accidental rules::
1456 @node Using the predefined accidental variables
1457 @subsection Using the predefined accidental variables
1459 The constructs for describing the accidental typesetting rules are
1460 quite hairy, so non-experts should stick to the variables
1461 defined in @file{ly/property-init.ly}.
1462 @cindex @file{property-init.ly}
1464 The variables set properties in the ``@code{Current}'' context (see
1465 @ref{Context properties}). This means that the variables should
1466 normally be added right after the creation of the context in which the
1467 accidental typesetting described by the variable is to take
1468 effect. For example, if you want to use piano-accidentals in a piano
1469 staff then issue @code{\pianoAccidentals} first thing after the
1470 creation of the piano staff:
1473 \notes \relative c'' <
1474 \context Staff = sa @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1475 \context GrandStaff <
1477 \context Staff = sb @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1478 \context Staff = sc @{ es2 c @}
1480 \context Staff = sd @{ es2 c @}
1484 @lilypond[singleline]
1486 \notes \relative c'' <
1487 \context Staff = sa { cis4 d e2 }
1488 \context GrandStaff <
1490 \context Staff = sb { cis4 d e2 }
1491 \context Staff = sc { es2 c }
1493 \context Staff = sd { es2 c }
1498 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 4.0)
1506 @item \defaultAccidentals
1507 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1508 This is the default typesetting behaviour. It should correspond
1509 to 18th century common practice: Accidentals are
1510 remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and
1511 only on their own octave.
1513 @item \voiceAccidentals
1514 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1516 The normal behaviour is to
1517 remember the accidentals on Staff-level. This variable, however,
1518 typesets accidentals individually for each voice. Apart from that the
1519 rule is similar to @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1521 This leads to some weird and often unwanted results
1522 because accidentals from one voice do not get cancelled in other
1524 @lilypond[singleline,relative,fragment,verbatim,quote]
1532 Hence you should only use @code{\voiceAccidentals} if the voices
1533 are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff is to be
1534 used by one musician (e.g. a conductor) then you use
1535 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals} or @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1538 @item \modernAccidentals
1539 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1540 This rule corresponds to the common practice in the 20th
1542 The rule is more complex than @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1543 You get all the same accidentals, but temporary
1544 accidentals also get cancelled in other octaves. Furthermore,
1545 in the same octave, they also get cancelled in the following measure:
1546 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1548 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1551 @item \modernCautionaries
1552 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1553 This rule is similar to @code{\modernAccidentals}, but the
1554 ``extra'' accidentals (the ones not typeset by
1555 @code{\defaultAccidentals}) are typeset as cautionary accidentals.
1556 They are printed in reduced size or with parentheses:
1557 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1559 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1562 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1563 @item \modernVoiceAccidentals
1564 is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians
1565 playing one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are
1566 typeset for each voice, but they @emph{are} cancelled across voices in
1567 the same @internalsref{Staff}.
1569 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1570 @item \modernVoiceCautionaries
1571 is the same as @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}, but with the extra
1572 accidentals (the ones not typeset by @code{\voiceAccidentals}) typeset
1573 as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset by
1574 @code{\defaultAccidentals} @emph{are} typeset by this variable then
1575 some of them are typeset as cautionaries.
1577 @item \pianoAccidentals
1578 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1579 20th century practice for piano notation. Very similar to
1580 @code{\modernAccidentals} but accidentals also get cancelled
1581 across the staves in the same @internalsref{GrandStaff} or
1582 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.
1584 @item \pianoCautionaries
1585 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1586 As @code{\pianoAccidentals} but with the extra accidentals
1587 typeset as cautionaries.
1590 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1591 Same as @code{\defaultAccidentals} but with accidentals lasting
1592 ``forever'' and not only until the next measure:
1593 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1598 @item \forgetAccidentals
1599 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1600 This is sort of the opposite of @code{\noResetKey}: Accidentals
1601 are not remembered at all---and hence all accidentals are
1602 typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what was
1603 before in the music:
1604 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1606 \key d\major c4 c cis cis d d dis dis
1610 @node Customized accidental rules
1611 @subsection Customized accidental rules
1613 This section must be considered gurus-only, and hence it must be
1614 sufficient with a short description of the system and a reference to
1615 the internal documentation.
1617 The algorithm tries several different rules, and uses the rule
1618 that gives the highest number of accidentals. Each rule consists of
1621 In which context is the rule applied. For example, if
1622 @var{context} is @internalsref{Score} then all staves share
1623 accidentals, and if @var{context} is @internalsref{Staff} then all
1624 voices in the same staff share accidentals, but staves do not.
1626 Whether the accidental changes all octaves or only the current
1629 Over how many barlines the accidental lasts.
1630 If @var{lazyness} is @code{-1} then the accidental is forget
1631 immediately, and if @var{lazyness} is @code{#t} then the accidental
1634 @c [TODO: should use +infinity for this case?]
1640 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1641 @code{\defaultAccidentals},
1642 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1643 @code{\voiceAccidentals},
1644 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1645 @code{\modernAccidentals},
1646 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1647 @code{\modernCautionaries},
1648 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1649 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals},
1650 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1651 @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries},
1652 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1653 @code{\pianoAccidentals},
1654 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1655 @code{\pianoCautionaries},
1656 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1658 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1659 @code{\forgetAccidentals}.
1663 @internalsref{Accidental_engraver}, @internalsref{Accidental}, and
1664 @internalsref{AccidentalPlacement}.
1669 Currently the simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in
1670 sequential mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are
1671 typeset as if the notes in the chord happened once at a time - in the
1672 order in which they appear in the input file.
1674 This is only a problem when there are simultaneous notes whose
1675 accidentals depend on each other. The problem only occurs when using
1676 non-default accidentals. In the default scheme, accidentals only
1677 depend on other accidentals with the same pitch on the same staff, so
1678 no conflicts possible.
1680 This example shows two examples of the same music giving different
1681 accidentals depending on the order in which the notes occur in the
1684 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1685 \property Staff.autoAccidentals = #'( Staff (any-octave . 0) )
1686 cis'4 <<c'' c'>> r2 | cis'4 <<c' c''>> r2
1687 | <<cis' c''>> r | <<c'' cis'>> r |
1690 This problem can be solved by manually inserting @code{!} and @code{?}
1691 for the problematic notes.
1693 @node Expressive marks
1694 @section Expressive marks
1702 * Analysis brackets::
1709 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1713 They are entered using parentheses:
1714 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1715 f'-( g'-)-( a'-) a'8-[ b'-(-] a'4 g'2 f'4-)
1716 <<c' e'>>2-( <<b d'>>2-)
1720 @c TODO: should explain that ^( and _( set directions
1721 @c should set attachments with ^ and _ ?
1723 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1724 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1725 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1726 object property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1727 @internalsref{Voice} context. Its value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1728 the attachment type of the left and right end points:
1730 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1732 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1734 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1738 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1739 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1740 stems might look better:
1742 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1745 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1752 @cindex @code{\slurUp}
1754 @cindex @code{\slurDown}
1756 @cindex @code{\slurBoth}
1758 @cindex @code{\slurDotted}
1760 @cindex @code{\slurSolid}
1765 @seeinternals{Slur}, and @internalsref{SlurEvent}.
1770 Producing nice slurs is a difficult problem, and LilyPond currently
1771 uses a simple, empiric method to produce slurs. In some cases, its
1775 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1777 @node Phrasing slurs
1778 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1780 @cindex phrasing slurs
1781 @cindex phrasing marks
1783 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1784 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1787 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1788 \time 6/4 c'-\( d-( e-) f-( e-) d-\)
1791 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a
1792 normal slur. However, they are treated as different objects. A
1793 @code{\slurUp} will have no effect on a phrasing slur; instead, you
1794 should use @code{\phrasingSlurUp}, @code{\phrasingSlurDown}, and
1795 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}.
1797 The commands @code{\slurUp}, @code{\slurDown}, and @code{\slurBoth}
1798 will only affect normal slurs and not phrasing slurs.
1802 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurUp}
1803 @code{\phrasingSlurUp},
1804 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurDown}
1805 @code{\phrasingSlurDown},
1806 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}
1807 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth},
1811 See also @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, and
1812 @internalsref{PhrasingSlurEvent}.
1816 Phrasing slurs have the same limitations in their formatting as normal
1817 slurs. Putting phrasing slurs over rests leads to spurious warnings.
1820 @subsection Breath marks
1822 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}:
1825 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1829 The glyph of the breath mark can be tweaked by overriding the
1830 @code{text} property of the @code{BreathingSign} layout object with the name of
1831 any glyph of @ref{The Feta font}. For example,
1832 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative]
1834 \property Voice.BreathingSign \override #'text = #"scripts-rvarcomma"
1841 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent}, and
1842 @inputfileref{input/regression,breathing-sign.ly}.
1845 @node Metronome marks
1846 @subsection Metronome marks
1849 @cindex beats per minute
1850 @cindex metronome marking
1852 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1854 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1857 In the MIDI output, they are interpreted as a tempo change, and in the
1858 paper output, a metronome marking is printed:
1859 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1860 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1866 @internalsref{TempoEvent}.
1871 @subsection Text spanners
1872 @cindex Text spanners
1874 Some performance indications, e.g. @i{rallentando} or @i{accelerando},
1875 are written as texts, and extended over many measures with dotted
1876 lines. You can create such texts using text spanners: attach
1877 @code{\startTextSpan} and @code{\stopTextSpan} to the
1878 start and ending note of the spanner.
1880 The string to be printed, as well as the style, is set through object
1883 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1885 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'direction = #-1
1886 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("rall " . "")
1887 c2-\startTextSpan b c-\stopTextSpan a }
1893 @internalsref{TextSpanEvent},
1894 @internalsref{TextSpanner}, and
1895 @inputfileref{input/regression,text-spanner.ly}.
1898 @node Analysis brackets
1899 @subsection Analysis brackets
1901 @cindex phrasing brackets
1902 @cindex musicological analysis
1903 @cindex note grouping bracket
1905 Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical
1906 pieces. LilyPond supports a simple form of nested horizontal brackets.
1907 To use this, add the @internalsref{Horizontal_bracket_engraver} to
1908 @internalsref{Staff} context. A bracket is started with
1909 @code{\startGroup} and closed with @code{\stopGroup}:
1911 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
1912 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
1913 c4-\startGroup-\startGroup
1916 c4-\stopGroup-\stopGroup
1918 \paper { \translator {
1919 \StaffContext \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
1925 @internalsref{HorizontalBracket}, @internalsref{NoteGroupingEvent}, and
1926 @inputfileref{input/regression,note-group-bracket.ly}.
1930 @section Articulations
1931 @cindex Articulations
1933 @cindex articulations
1937 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1938 different characteristics of the performance. They are added to a note
1939 by adding a dash and the character signifying the
1940 articulation. They are demonstrated here:
1942 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-abbreviations.ly}
1944 The script is automatically placed, but if you need to force
1945 directions, you can use @code{_} to force them down, or @code{^} to
1947 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1954 Other symbols can be added using the syntax
1955 @var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}, e.g. @code{c4-\fermata}. Again, they
1956 can be forced up or down using @code{^} and @code{_}:
1960 @cindex staccatissimo
1969 @cindex organ pedal marks
1978 @cindex prallmordent
1982 @cindex thumb marking
1987 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-chart.ly}
1992 @cindex @code{\scriptUp}
1994 @cindex @code{\scriptDown}
1996 @cindex @code{\scriptBoth}
2001 @internalsref{ScriptEvent}, and @internalsref{Script}.
2005 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
2006 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
2009 @node Fingering instructions
2010 @section Fingering instructions
2014 Fingering instructions can be entered using
2016 @var{note}-@var{digit}
2018 For finger changes, use markup texts:
2020 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
2021 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
2022 c'^\markup { \fontsize #-3 \number "2-3" }
2025 @cindex finger change
2030 You can use the thumb-script to indicate that a note should be
2031 played with your thumb (used in cello music):
2033 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragmnt]
2034 <<a' a''-3>>8-(_\thumb-[ <<b' b''-3>>-)_\thumb
2035 <<c'' c'''-3>>-(_\thumb <<d'' d'''-3>>-)_\thumb-]
2038 Fingerings for chords can also be added to individual notes
2039 of the chord by adding them after the pitches:
2040 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
2041 << c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >> 4
2044 Setting @code{fingerHorizontalDirection} will put the fingerings next
2047 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
2048 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #LEFT
2049 << c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 >> 4
2050 \property Voice.fingerHorizontalDirection = #RIGHT
2051 << c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 >> 4
2056 @internalsref{FingerEvent}, and @internalsref{Fingering}.
2067 @subsection Text scripts
2068 @cindex Text scripts
2070 It is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup text (see
2071 @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
2072 @code{c^"text"}. By default, these indications do not influence the
2073 note spacing, but by using the command @code{\fatText}, the widths
2074 will be taken into account:
2076 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim] \relative c' {
2077 c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
2080 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should
2081 be avoided because the exact dimensions of the string can then no
2087 @internalsref{TextScriptEvent}, @internalsref{TextScript}, and
2093 @subsection Grace notes
2095 @cindex @code{\grace}
2099 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out:
2101 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment] c4 \grace c16 c4 \grace {
2105 In normal notation, grace notes take up no logical
2106 time in a measure. Such an idea is practical for normal notation, but
2107 is not strict enough to put it into a program. The model that LilyPond
2108 uses for grace notes internally is that all timing is done in two
2111 Every point in musical time consists of two rational numbers: one
2112 denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing. The above
2113 example is shown here with timing tuples:
2116 \score { \notes \relative c''{
2117 c4^"(0,0)" \grace c16_" "_"(1/4,-1/16)" c4^"(1/4,0)" \grace {
2118 c16_"(2/4,-1/8)"-[ d16^"(2/4,-1/16)" ] } c4_" "_"(2/4,0)"
2120 \paper { linewidth = 12.\cm }
2125 The placement of grace notes is synchronized between different staves.
2126 In the following example, there are two sixteenth graces notes for
2127 every eighth grace note:
2129 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2130 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \grace { c16-[ d e f-] } e4 }
2131 \context Staff = SB { c'4 \grace { g8-[ b-] } c4 } >
2135 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
2136 stem. This can be controlled with object property @code{stroke-style} of
2137 @internalsref{Stem}. For proper matching of override and reverts of
2138 such properties, it is necessary to use a Scheme function.
2140 The following fragment overrides the default formatting Grace style stems:
2142 #(add-to-grace-init "Voice" 'Stem 'stroke-style '())
2145 The @code{\override} is carefully matched with a @code{\revert}:
2150 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2151 \relative c'' \context Voice {
2152 \grace c8 c4 \grace { c16-[ c16-] } c4
2154 \property Voice.Stem \override #'stroke-style = #'()
2156 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'stroke-style
2161 If you want to end a note with a grace note, then the standard trick
2162 is to put the grace notes before a phantom ``space note'', e.g.
2163 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
2166 { s2 \grace { c16-[ d-] } } >
2172 By adjusting the duration of the skip note (here it is a half-note),
2173 the space between the main-note and the grace is adjusted.
2175 A @code{\grace} section has some default values, and LilyPond will
2176 use those default values unless you specify otherwise inside the
2177 @code{\grace} section. For example, if you specify \slurUp
2178 @emph{before} your @code{\grace} section, a slur which starts inside
2179 the @code{\grace} will not be forced up, even if the slur ends outside
2180 of the @code{\grace}. Note the difference between the first and
2181 second bars in this example:
2183 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2184 \relative c'' \context Voice {
2202 @internalsref{GraceMusic}.
2206 Grace notes cannot be used in the smallest size (@file{paper11.ly}).
2208 A score that starts with an @code{\grace} section needs an explicit
2209 @code{\context Voice} declaration, otherwise the main note and grace
2210 note end up on different staves.
2212 Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation,
2213 such as key signatures, barlines, etc. are also synchronized. Take
2214 care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without, for example,
2216 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2217 < \context Staff = SA { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
2218 \context Staff = SB { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >
2221 Grace sections should only be used within sequential music
2222 expressions. Nesting or juxtaposing grace sections is not supported,
2223 and might produce crashes or other errors.
2225 Overriding settings for grace music globally cannot be done in a
2226 modular way. A kludge (@code{add-to-grace-init}) is defined in
2227 @file{ly/grace-init.ly}.
2231 @subsection Glissando
2234 @cindex @code{\glissando}
2236 A glissando is a smooth change in pitch. It is denoted by a line or a
2237 wavy line between two notes.
2241 A glissando line can be requested by attaching a @code{\glissando} to
2244 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2250 @internalsref{Glissando}, and @internalsref{GlissandoEvent}.
2255 Additional texts (such as @emph{gliss.}) is not supported.
2259 @subsection Dynamics
2272 @cindex @code{\ffff}
2282 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an variable after a
2283 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are @code{\ppp},
2284 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
2285 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
2286 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}:
2288 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
2289 c'-\ppp c-\pp c -\p c-\mp c-\mf c-\f c-\ff c-\fff
2295 @cindex @code{\decr}
2296 @cindex @code{\rced}
2303 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\<} and terminated with
2304 @code{\!}. A decrescendo is started with @code{\>} and also terminated
2305 with @code{\!}. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you must
2306 use spacer notes if multiple marks during one note are needed:
2308 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,quote]
2309 c''-\< c''-\! d''-\decr e''-\rced
2310 < f''1 { s4 s4-\< s4-\! \> s4-\! } >
2312 This may give rise to very short hairpins. Use @code{minimum-length}
2313 in @internalsref{Voice}.@internalsref{HairPin} to lengthen them, for
2317 \property Staff.Hairpin \override #'minimum-length = #5
2320 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
2321 is an example how to do it:
2323 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
2324 c4 \cresc c4 c c c \endcresc c4
2330 You can also supply your own texts:
2331 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2333 \property Voice.crescendoText = \markup { \italic "cresc. poco" }
2334 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
2344 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
2346 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
2347 @code{\dynamicDown},
2348 @cindex @code{\dynamicBoth}
2349 @code{\dynamicBoth}.
2351 @cindex direction, of dynamics
2355 @internalsref{CrescendoEvent}, @internalsref{DecrescendoEvent}, and
2356 @internalsref{AbsoluteDynamicEvent}.
2358 Dynamics are objects of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
2359 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is
2360 handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2362 If you want to adjust padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you
2363 must set properties for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2371 @cindex @code{\repeat}
2374 Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist
2375 for repetitions. In LilyPond, most of these notations can be captured
2376 in a uniform syntax. One of the advantages is, all these repetitions
2377 can be rendered in MIDI accurately.
2379 The following types of repetition are supported:
2383 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
2384 output, and entering repetitive music.
2387 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
2388 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
2392 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
2393 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
2394 @inputfileref{input,star-spangled-banner.ly}.
2401 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
2407 * Repeats and MIDI::
2408 * Manual repeat commands::
2410 * Tremolo subdivisions::
2415 @subsection Repeat syntax
2419 LilyPond has one syntactic construct for specifying different types of
2420 repeats. The syntax is
2423 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
2426 If you have alternative endings, you may add
2427 @cindex @code{\alternative}
2429 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
2431 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
2433 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression. If you do not
2434 give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then the first
2435 alternative is assumed to be played more than once.
2437 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
2438 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2440 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
2441 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
2444 With alternative endings:
2445 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2447 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
2448 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
2452 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2456 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
2457 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
2464 If you do a nested repeat like
2473 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the @code{\alternative}
2474 belongs. This ambiguity is resolved by always having the
2475 @code{\alternative} belong to the inner @code{\repeat}. For clarity,
2476 it is advisable to use braces in such situations.
2479 @node Repeats and MIDI
2480 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
2482 @cindex expanding repeats
2484 For instructions on how to unfold repeats for MIDI output, see the
2485 example file @inputfileref{input/test,unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
2490 Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative,
2491 so after a repeat timing information must be reset by hand, for
2492 example by setting @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering
2493 @code{\partial}. Similarly, slurs or ties are also not repeated.
2496 @node Manual repeat commands
2497 @subsection Manual repeat commands
2499 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
2501 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
2502 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
2506 @item the symbol @code{start-repeat},
2507 which prints a @code{|:} bar line,
2508 @item the symbol @code{end-repeat},
2509 which prints a @code{:|} bar line,
2510 @item the list @code{(volta @var{text})},
2511 which prints a volta bracket saying @var{text}: The text can be specified as
2512 a text string or as a markup text, see @ref{Text markup}. Do not
2513 forget to change the font, as the default number font does not contain
2514 alphabetic characters. Or,
2515 @item the list @code{(volta #f)}, which
2516 stops a running volta bracket:
2519 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2521 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
2523 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
2530 @internalsref{VoltaBracket}, @internalsref{RepeatedMusic},
2531 @internalsref{VoltaRepeatedMusic},
2532 @internalsref{UnfoldedRepeatedMusic}, and
2533 @internalsref{FoldedRepeatedMusic}.
2535 @node Tremolo repeats
2536 @subsection Tremolo repeats
2537 @cindex tremolo beams
2539 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
2541 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2543 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
2544 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
2545 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
2546 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
2547 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
2554 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} objects. Single stem tremolos
2555 are @internalsref{StemTremolo}s. The music expression is
2556 @internalsref{TremoloEvent}.
2561 The single stem tremolo must be entered without @code{@{} and
2564 @node Tremolo subdivisions
2565 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
2566 @cindex tremolo marks
2567 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
2569 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
2570 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
2571 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
2572 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
2573 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used:
2575 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
2576 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
2579 @c [TODO : stok is te kort bij 32en]
2583 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
2586 @node Measure repeats
2587 @subsection Measure repeats
2589 @cindex percent repeats
2590 @cindex measure repeats
2592 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
2593 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
2594 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
2595 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes:
2597 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2598 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
2599 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
2605 @internalsref{RepeatSlash}, @internalsref{PercentRepeat},
2606 @internalsref{PercentRepeatedMusic}, and
2607 @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
2611 @node Rhythmic music
2612 @section Rhythmic music
2614 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This
2615 can be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a
2616 staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single line:
2618 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2619 \context RhythmicStaff {
2621 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
2626 * Percussion staves::
2627 * Percussion MIDI output::
2630 @node Percussion staves
2631 @subsection Percussion staves
2635 A percussion part for more than one instrument typically uses a
2636 multiline staff where each position in the staff refers to one piece
2641 Percussion staves are typeset with help of a set of Scheme
2642 functions. The system is based on the general MIDI drum-pitches.
2643 Include @file{drumpitch-init.ly} to use drum pitches. This file
2644 defines the pitches from the Scheme variable @code{drum-pitch-names},
2645 the definition of which can be read in @file{scm/drums.scm}. Each
2646 piece of percussion has a full name and an abbreviated name, and either
2647 the full name or the abbreviation may be used in input files.
2649 To typeset the music on a staff apply the function @code{drums->paper}
2650 to the percussion music. This function takes a list of percussion
2651 instrument names, notehead scripts and staff positions (that is:
2652 pitches relative to the C-clef) and transforms the input
2653 music by moving the pitch, changing the notehead and (optionally)
2656 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,quote]
2657 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2658 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2659 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2661 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2663 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2664 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2669 In the above example the music was transformed using the list @code{'drums}.
2670 Currently the following lists are defined in @file{scm/drums.scm}:
2673 to typeset a typical drum kit on a five-line staff:
2676 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2677 nam = \lyrics { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2678 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
2679 mus = \notes { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2680 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
2683 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <
2687 \context Lyrics \nam
2690 linewidth = 100.0\mm
2693 \remove Bar_engraver
2694 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2695 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
2699 \remove Stem_engraver
2705 The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there fewer toms, simply
2706 select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e. to get toms on
2707 the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml} and
2710 Because general MIDI does not contain rimshots the sidestick is used
2711 for this purpose instead.
2713 to typeset timbales on a two line staff:
2715 @lilypond[singleline]
2716 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2717 nam = \lyrics { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
2718 mus = \notes { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
2721 \apply #(drums->paper 'timbales) \context Staff <
2725 \context Lyrics \nam
2730 \remove Bar_engraver
2731 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2732 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2733 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2734 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2738 \remove Stem_engraver
2745 to typeset congas on a two line staff:
2747 @lilypond[singleline]
2748 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2749 nam = \lyrics { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
2750 mus = \notes { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
2753 \apply #(drums->paper 'congas) \context Staff <
2757 \context Lyrics \nam
2762 \remove Bar_engraver
2763 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2764 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2765 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2766 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2770 \remove Stem_engraver
2776 to typeset bongos on a two line staff:
2778 @lilypond[singleline]
2779 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2780 nam = \lyrics { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
2781 mus = \notes { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
2784 \apply #(drums->paper 'bongos) \context Staff <
2788 \context Lyrics \nam
2793 \remove Bar_engraver
2794 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2795 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2796 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2797 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2801 \remove Stem_engraver
2807 to typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves:
2808 @lilypond[singleline]
2809 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2810 nam = \lyrics { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
2811 mus = \notes { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
2814 \apply #(drums->paper 'percussion) \context Staff <
2818 \context Lyrics \nam
2823 \remove Bar_engraver
2824 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2825 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #1
2826 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-2.0 . 3.0)
2830 \remove Stem_engraver
2837 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
2838 list at the top of your file:
2840 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
2841 #(set-drum-kit 'mydrums `(
2842 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2843 (snare default #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 1 0))
2844 (hihat cross #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2845 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2846 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2848 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2849 up = \notes { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
2850 down = \notes { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
2852 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2854 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2855 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2860 To use a modified existing list, one can prepend modifications to the
2864 #(set-drum-kit 'mydrums (append `(
2865 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2866 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2867 ) (get-drum-kit 'drums)))
2870 You can easily combine percussion notation with pitched notation.
2871 Indeed, the file @file{drumpitch-init.ly} replaces the normal pitch
2872 names, so you will have to reinclude @file{nederlands.ly} after the
2873 drum-pattern-definitions to enter normal notes:
2875 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2876 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2877 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2878 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2879 \include "nederlands.ly"
2880 bass = \notes \transpose c c,, { a4. e8 r e g e }
2883 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff = drums <
2885 \context Voice = up { \voiceOne \up }
2886 \context Voice = down { \voiceTwo \down }
2888 \context Staff = bass { \clef "F_8" \bass }
2893 @node Percussion MIDI output
2894 @subsection Percussion MIDI output
2896 In order to produce correct MIDI output you need to produce two score
2897 blocks---one for the paper and one for the MIDI output. To use the
2898 percussion channel you set the property @code{instrument} to
2899 @code{'drums}. Because the drum-pitches themselves are similar to the
2900 general MIDI pitches all you have to do is to insert the voices with
2901 none of the scheme functions to get the correct MIDI output:
2905 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <
2914 \property Staff.instrument = #'drums
2923 This scheme is a temporary implementation.
2927 @section Piano music
2929 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
2930 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
2931 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
2932 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
2933 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
2934 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
2938 * Automatic staff changes::
2939 * Manual staff switches::
2942 * Staff switch lines::
2947 There is no support for putting chords across staves. You can get
2948 this result by increasing the length of the stem in the lower stave so
2949 it reaches the stem in the upper stave, or vice versa. An example is
2950 included with the distribution as @inputfileref{input/test,stem-cross-staff.ly}.
2952 Dynamics are not centered, but kludges do exist. See
2953 @inputfileref{input/templates,piano-dynamics.ly}.
2955 @cindex cross staff stem
2956 @cindex stem, cross staff
2959 @c fixme: should have hyperlinks as well.
2965 @node Automatic staff changes
2966 @subsection Automatic staff changes
2967 @cindex Automatic staff changes
2969 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
2970 staff. The syntax for this is
2972 \autochange Staff \context Voice @{ @dots{}@var{music}@dots{} @}
2974 The autochanger switches on basis of pitch (central C is the turning
2975 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch in
2976 advance. Here is a practical example:
2978 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,quote]
2979 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
2980 \context Staff = "up" {
2981 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
2982 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
2983 \context Staff = "down" {
2990 In this example, spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
2991 terminating too soon.
2996 @internalsref{AutoChangeMusic}.
3000 The staff switches often do not end up in optimal places. For high
3001 quality output staff switches should be specified manually.
3005 @node Manual staff switches
3006 @subsection Manual staff switches
3008 @cindex manual staff switches
3009 @cindex staff switch, manual
3011 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
3013 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
3017 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
3018 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
3019 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
3027 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound are produced. Generally, a
3028 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
3032 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
3033 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
3034 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
3037 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3038 c'4-\sustainDown c'4-\sustainUp
3041 What is printed can be modified by setting @code{pedal@var{X}Strings},
3042 where @var{X} is one of the pedal types: @code{Sustain},
3043 @code{Sostenuto} or @code{UnaCorda}. Refer to the generated
3044 documentation of @internalsref{SustainPedal} for more information.
3046 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
3047 @code{pedalSustainStyle} property to @code{bracket} objects:
3049 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3050 \property Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'bracket
3051 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
3052 a'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
3053 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
3056 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
3057 obtained by setting @code{pedal-type} to @code{mixed}:
3059 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3060 \property Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'mixed
3061 c''4-\sustainDown d''4 e''4
3062 c'4-\sustainUp-\sustainDown
3063 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sustainUp
3066 The default `*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
3067 @code{\pedal-type = #'text}. However, @code{mixed} is the default style
3068 for a sostenuto pedal:
3070 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3071 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
3074 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
3075 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
3076 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (, see the detailed documentation of
3077 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket},) can be modified. For example, the bracket
3078 may be extended to the end of the note head:
3080 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3081 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override
3082 #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
3083 c''4-\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4
3084 f'4 g'4 a'4-\sostenutoUp
3088 @subsection Arpeggio
3091 @cindex broken arpeggio
3092 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
3094 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
3095 @code{\arpeggio} to a chord:
3098 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3099 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
3102 When an arpeggio crosses staves, you attach an arpeggio to the chords
3103 in both staves, and set
3104 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@code{connectArpeggios}:
3106 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3107 \context PianoStaff <
3108 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
3109 \context Voice = one { <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio }
3110 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <<c,, e g>>-\arpeggio }
3114 The direction of the arpeggio is sometimes denoted by adding an
3115 arrowhead to the wiggly line. This can be typeset by setting
3116 @code{arpeggio-direction}:
3118 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3120 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #1
3121 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
3122 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
3123 <<c e g c>>-\arpeggio
3127 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
3128 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
3129 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
3130 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} objects to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
3131 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before:
3133 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3134 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override
3135 #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
3136 <<c' e g c>>-\arpeggio
3141 @cindex @code{\arpeggioBracket}
3142 @code{\arpeggioBracket},
3143 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
3148 @internalsref{ArpeggioEvent} expression lead to
3149 @internalsref{Arpeggio} objects. Cross staff arpeggios are
3150 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@internalsref{Arpeggio}.
3154 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected
3155 arpeggios in one @internalsref{PianoStaff} at the same time.
3157 @node Staff switch lines
3158 @subsection Staff switch lines
3161 @cindex follow voice
3162 @cindex staff switching
3165 @cindex @code{followVoice}
3167 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
3168 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
3169 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
3171 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3172 \context PianoStaff <
3173 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
3174 \context Staff \context Voice {
3176 \translator Staff=two
3179 \context Staff=two { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
3183 The associated object is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
3187 @cindex @code{\showStaffSwitch}
3188 @code{\showStaffSwitch},
3189 @cindex @code{\hideStaffSwitch}
3190 @code{\hideStaffSwitch}.
3194 @section Vocal music
3196 This section discusses how to enter and print lyrics.
3200 * The Lyrics context::
3205 @node Entering lyrics
3206 @subsection Entering lyrics
3210 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
3213 Lyrics are entered in a special input mode. This mode is is introduced
3214 by the keyword @code{\lyrics}. In this mode you can enter lyrics, with
3215 punctuation and accents without any hassle. Syllables are entered like
3216 notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example,
3218 \lyrics @{ Twin-4 kle4 twin- kle litt- le star2 @}
3221 A word in Lyrics mode begins with: an alphabetic character, @code{_},
3222 @code{?}, @code{!}, @code{:}, @code{'}, the control characters @code{^A}
3223 through @code{^F}, @code{^Q} through @code{^W}, @code{^Y}, @code{^^},
3224 any 8-bit character with ASCII code over 127, or a two-character
3225 combination of a backslash followed by one of @code{`}, @code{'},
3226 @code{"}, or @code{^}.
3228 Subsequent characters of a word can be any character that is not a digit
3229 and not white space. One important consequence of this is that a word
3230 can end with @code{@}}. The following example is usually a bug. The
3231 syllable includes a @code{@}}, and hence the opening brace is not balanced:
3233 \lyrics @{ twinkle@}
3236 @cindex @code{\property}, in @code{\lyrics}
3237 Similarly, a period following a alphabetic sequence, is included in the
3238 resulting string. As a consequence, spaces must be inserted around
3239 @code{\property} commands:
3241 \property Lyrics . LyricText \set #'font-shape = #'italic
3245 @cindex spaces, in lyrics
3246 @cindex quotes, in lyrics
3248 Any @code{_} character which appears in an unquoted word is converted
3249 to a space. This provides a mechanism for introducing spaces into words
3250 without using quotes. Quoted words can also be used in Lyrics mode to
3251 specify words that cannot be written with the above rules:
3254 \lyrics @{ He said: "\"Let" my peo ple "go\"" @}
3258 Hyphens can be entered as ordinary hyphens at the end of a syllable, i.e.
3263 These will be attached to the end of the first syllable.
3265 Centered hyphens are entered using the special `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric
3266 as a separate word between syllables. The hyphen will have variable
3267 length depending on the space between the syllables and it will be
3268 centered between the syllables.
3273 When a lyric is sung over many notes (this is called a melisma), this is
3274 indicated with a horizontal line centered between a syllable and the
3275 next one. Such a line is called an extender line, and it is entered as
3280 @internalsref{LyricEvent}, @internalsref{HyphenEvent}, and
3281 @internalsref{ExtenderEvent}.
3285 The definition of lyrics mode is too complex.
3287 @node The Lyrics context
3288 @subsection The Lyrics context
3290 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in @internalsref{Lyrics} context:
3292 \context Lyrics \lyrics @dots{}
3295 @cindex automatic syllable durations
3296 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
3297 @cindex lyrics and melodies
3299 This will place the lyrics according to the durations that were
3300 entered. The lyrics can also be aligned under a given melody
3301 automatically. In this case, it is no longer necessary to enter the
3302 correct duration for each syllable. This is achieved by combining the
3303 melody and the lyrics with the @code{\addlyrics} expression:
3307 \context Lyrics @dots{}
3310 @cindex staff order, with @code{\addlyrics}
3312 Normally, this will put the lyrics below the staff. For different or
3313 more complex orderings, the best way is to setup the hierarchy of
3314 staves and lyrics first, e.g.
3316 \context ChoirStaff \notes <
3317 \context Lyrics = LA @{ s1 @}
3318 \context Staff = SA @{ s1 @}
3319 \context Lyrics = LB @{ s1 @}
3320 \context Staff = SB @{ s1 @}
3323 and then combine the appropriate melodies and lyric lines:
3326 \context Staff = SA @emph{the music}
3327 \context Lyrics = LA @emph{the lyrics}
3330 putting both together, you would get
3332 \context ChoirStaff \notes <
3333 \context Lyrics = LA @dots{}
3334 \context Staff = SB @dots{}
3340 @cindex choral score
3342 A complete example of a SATB score setup is in the file
3343 @inputfileref{input/template,satb}.
3347 @internalsref{LyricCombineMusic}, @internalsref{Lyrics}, and
3348 @inputfileref{input/template,satb}.
3352 @code{\addlyrics} is not automatic enough: melismata are not detected
3353 automatically, and melismata are not stopped when they hit a rest. A
3354 melisma on the last note in a melody is not printed.
3358 @subsection More stanzas
3361 @cindex phrasing, in lyrics
3363 When multiple stanzas are printed underneath each other, the vertical
3364 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. This can be
3365 done automatically when corresponding lyric lines and melodies are
3368 To this end, give the @internalsref{Voice} context an identity:
3370 \context Voice = duet @{
3375 Then set the @internalsref{LyricsVoice} contexts to names starting with
3376 that identity followed by a dash. In the preceding example, the
3377 @internalsref{Voice} identity is @code{duet}, so the identities of the
3378 @internalsref{LyricsVoices} are marked @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}:
3380 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" @{
3381 Hi, my name is bert. @}
3382 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" @{
3383 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. @}
3385 The convention for naming @internalsref{LyricsVoice} and
3386 @internalsref{Voice} must also be used to get melismata correct in
3387 conjunction with rests.
3389 The complete example is shown here:
3390 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3393 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
3395 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
3396 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
3397 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3398 Hi, my name is bert. }
3399 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
3400 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3401 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
3406 Stanza numbers, or the names of the singers can be added by setting
3407 @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the first system) and
3408 @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following systems. Notice how dots are
3409 surrounded with spaces in @code{\lyrics} mode:
3412 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3414 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3417 To make empty spaces in lyrics, use @code{\skip}.
3425 Input for lyrics introduces a syntactical ambiguity:
3432 is interpreted as assigning a string identifier @code{\foo} such that
3433 it contains @code{"bar"}. However, it could also be interpreted as
3434 making or a music identifier @code{\foo} containing the syllable
3435 `bar'. The force the latter interpretation, use
3445 The term @emph{ambitus} denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in
3446 a part of music. It also may denote the pitch range that a musical
3447 instrument is capable of playing. Most musical instruments have their
3448 ambitus standardized (or at least there is agreement upon the minimal
3449 ambitus of a particular type of instrument), such that a composer or
3450 arranger of a piece of music can easily meet the ambitus constraints of
3451 the targeted instrument. However, the ambitus of the human voice
3452 depends on individual physiological state, including education and
3453 training of the voice. Therefore, a singer potentially has to check for
3454 each piece of music if the ambitus of that piece meets his individual
3455 capabilities. This is why the ambitus of a piece may be of particular
3456 value to vocal performers.
3458 The ambitus is typically notated on a per-voice basis at the very
3459 beginning of a piece, e.g. nearby the initial clef or time signature of
3460 each staff. The range is graphically specified by two noteheads, that
3461 represent the minimum and maximum pitch. Some publishers use a textual
3462 notation: they put the range in words in front of the corresponding
3463 staff. LilyPond currently only supports the graphical ambitus notation.
3465 To apply, add the @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the
3466 @internalsref{Voice} context, i.e.
3469 \paper @{ \translator @{
3471 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3477 @lilypond[singleline]
3478 upper = \notes \relative c {
3481 as'' c e2 bes f cis d4 e f2 g
3483 lower = \notes \relative c {
3486 e'4 b g a c es fis a cis b a g f e d2
3489 \context ChoirStaff {
3491 \context Staff = one { \upper }
3492 \context Staff = three { \lower }
3498 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3507 @internalsref{Ambitus}, and @inputfileref{input/regression,ambitus.ly}.
3512 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
3513 instruments. It notates pitches not by using note heads, but by
3514 indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
3515 offers limited support for tablature.
3518 * Tablatures basic::
3519 * Non-guitar tablatures::
3522 @node Tablatures basic
3523 @subsection Tablatures basic
3524 @cindex Tablatures basic
3526 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
3527 followed by a number, e.g. @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
3528 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
3529 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
3530 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
3531 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts:
3533 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3534 \notes \context TabStaff {
3540 When no string is specified, the first string that does not give a
3541 fret number less than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default
3542 value for @code{minimumFret} is 0:
3546 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3547 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3548 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3553 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3554 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3555 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3558 \context StaffGroup <
3559 \context Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
3560 \context TabStaff { \frag }
3567 @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}, and
3568 @internalsref{StringNumberEvent}.
3572 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
3573 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
3577 @node Non-guitar tablatures
3578 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
3579 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
3581 You can change the number of strings, by setting the number of lines
3582 in the @internalsref{TabStaff} (the @code{line-count} property of
3583 @internalsref{TabStaff} can only be changed using
3584 @code{\outputproperty}, for more information, see @ref{Tuning
3587 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
3588 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
3589 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to central C) of an
3590 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
3591 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
3592 by default middle C, in string order. Thus, the notes are e, a, d, and
3595 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3598 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface)
3600 \property TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
3603 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
3608 It is possible to change the Scheme function to format the tablature
3609 note text. The default is @code{fret-number-tablature-format}, which
3610 uses the fret number. For instruments that do not use this notation,
3611 you can create a special tablature formatting function. This function
3612 takes three argument: string number, string tuning and note pitch.
3616 Most of the guitar special effects such as bend have not been
3622 @section Chord names
3625 LilyPond has support for both printing chord names. Chords may be
3626 entered in musical chord notation, i.e. @code{<< .. >>}, but they can
3627 also be entered by name. Internally, the chords are represented as a
3628 set of pitches, so they can be transposed:
3631 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3632 twoWays = \notes \transpose c c' {
3642 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
3643 \context Voice \twoWays > }
3646 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
3647 be intelligent. The last chord (@code{f bes d}) is not interpreted as
3653 * Printing chord names::
3658 @subsection Chords mode
3661 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
3662 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}.
3663 In chords mode, a chord is entered by the root, which is entered
3664 like a common pitch:
3665 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote, relative=1]
3666 \chords { es4. d8 c2 }
3671 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon, and introducing a
3672 modifier, and optionally, a number:
3674 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote]
3675 \chords { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
3677 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
3678 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
3680 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3681 \chords { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
3684 @cindex root of chord
3685 @cindex additions, in chords
3686 @cindex removals, in chords
3688 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
3689 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
3690 the colon, and are separated by dots:
3692 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3693 \chords { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
3695 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
3697 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3698 \chords { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
3700 Removals are specified similarly, and are introduced by a caret. They
3701 must come after the additions:
3702 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3703 \chords { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
3706 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
3710 is the minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
3712 is the diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
3715 is the augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
3717 is the major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
3719 is the suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
3720 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
3723 Modifiers can be mixed with additions:
3724 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3725 \chords { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
3728 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
3735 Since an unaltered 11 does not sound good when combined with an
3736 unaltered 13, the 11 is removed in this case (, unless it is added
3738 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3739 \chords { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
3744 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
3745 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
3746 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord:
3747 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3748 \chords { c1 c/g c/f }
3752 A bass note can be added instead of transposed out of the chord,
3753 by using @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
3755 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3756 \chords { c1 c/+g c/+f }
3759 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyrics}, @code{\notes} etc. Most
3760 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
3761 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and
3762 @code{\property} may be used to change various settings.
3768 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
3769 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
3772 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3773 \chords { c:5.5-.5+ }
3777 @node Printing chord names
3778 @subsection Printing chord names
3780 @cindex printing chord names
3784 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
3785 The chords may be entered either using the notation
3786 described above, or directly using @code{<<} and @code{>>}:
3788 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3790 \chords {a1 b c} <<d' f' a'>> <<e' g' b'>>
3794 \context ChordNames \scheme
3795 \context Staff \scheme
3800 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
3801 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
3802 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
3803 the start of a new line:
3805 @lilypond[verbatim, linewidth=9cm]
3807 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
3811 \context ChordNames {
3812 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
3814 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
3819 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
3820 Klaus Ignatzek (see @ref{Literature}). It can be tuned through the
3821 following properties:
3824 @cindex chordNameExceptions
3825 @item chordNameExceptions
3826 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
3828 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly}.
3829 @cindex exceptions, chord names.
3832 @cindex majorSevenSymbol
3833 @item majorSevenSymbol
3834 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
3835 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup} and
3836 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
3837 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly} for an example.
3839 @cindex chordNameSeparator
3840 @item chordNameSeparator
3841 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
3842 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
3844 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3845 \context ChordNames \chords {
3847 \property ChordNames.chordNameSeparator
3848 = \markup { \typewriter "|" }
3852 @cindex chordRootNamer
3853 @item chordRootNamer
3854 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
3855 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
3856 function. Special note names (for example, the German ``H'' for a
3857 B-chord) can be produced by storing a new function in this property.
3859 @cindex chordNoteNamer
3860 @item chordNoteNamer
3861 The default is to print single pitch, e.g. the bass note, using the
3862 @code{chordRootNamer}. The @code{chordNoteNamer} property can be set
3863 to a specialized function to change this behavior. For example, the
3864 base can be printed in lower case.
3869 There are also two other chord name schemes implemented: an alternate
3870 Jazz chord notation, and a systematic scheme called Banter chords. The
3871 alternate jazz notation is also shown on the chart in @ref{Chord name
3872 chart}. Turning on these styles is described in the input file
3873 @inputfileref{input/test/,chord-names-jazz.ly}.
3877 @cindex chords, jazz
3882 @cindex @code{\germanChords}
3883 @code{\germanChords},
3884 @cindex @code{\semiGermanChords}
3885 @code{\semiGermanChords}.
3892 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly},
3893 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly},
3894 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-jazz.ly},
3895 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-german.ly},
3896 @file{scm/chords-ignatzek.scm}, and @file{scm/chord-entry.scm}.
3901 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
3902 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
3903 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
3904 @code{<< .. >>} syntax.
3909 @node Orchestral music
3910 @section Orchestral music
3912 @cindex Writing parts
3914 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full
3915 score and the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle
3916 some common problems in orchestral music.
3921 * Multiple staff contexts::
3924 * Instrument names::
3926 * Multi measure rests::
3927 * Automatic part combining::
3929 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
3932 @node Multiple staff contexts
3933 @subsection Multiple staff contexts
3935 Polyphonic scores consist of many staves. These staves can be
3936 constructed in three different ways:
3938 @item The group is started with a brace at the left. This is done with the
3939 @internalsref{GrandStaff} context.
3940 @item The group is started with a bracket. This is done with the
3941 @internalsref{StaffGroup} context
3942 @item The group is started with a vertical line. This is the default
3946 @cindex Staff, multiple
3947 @cindex bracket, vertical
3948 @cindex brace, vertical
3955 @node Rehearsal marks
3956 @subsection Rehearsal marks
3957 @cindex Rehearsal marks
3959 @cindex @code{\mark}
3961 To print a rehearsal mark, use the @code{\mark} command:
3962 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3972 The mark is incremented automatically if you use @code{\mark
3973 \default}. The value to use is stored in the property
3974 @code{rehearsalMark} is used and automatically incremented.
3976 The @code{\mark} command can also be used to put signs like coda,
3977 segno and fermatas on a barline. Use @code{\markup} to
3978 to access the appropriate symbol:
3980 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
3981 c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts-ufermata" }
3985 In this case, during line breaks,
3986 marks must also be printed at the end of the line, and not at the
3987 beginning. Use the following to force that behavior:
3989 \property Score.RehearsalMark \override
3990 #'break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible
3993 See @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly} for putting boxes
3999 @cindex barlines, putting symbols on
4003 @internalsref{MarkEvent}, @internalsref{RehearsalMark}, and
4004 @inputfileref{input/test,boxed-molecule.ly}.
4008 @subsection Bar numbers
4012 @cindex measure numbers
4013 @cindex currentBarNumber
4015 Bar numbers are printed by default at the start of the line. The
4016 number itself is stored in the
4017 @code{currentBarNumber} property,
4018 which is normally updated automatically for every measure.
4020 Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of at the
4021 beginning of each line. This is illustrated in the following example,
4022 whose source is available as
4023 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-regular-interval.ly}:
4025 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-regular-interval.ly}
4030 @internalsref{BarNumber},
4031 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-five-reset.ly}, and
4032 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-regular-interval.ly}.
4036 Bar numbers can collide with the @internalsref{StaffGroup} bracket, if
4037 there is one at the top. To solve this, the
4038 @internalsref{padding} property of @internalsref{BarNumber} can be
4039 used to position the number correctly.
4041 @node Instrument names
4042 @subsection Instrument names
4044 In an orchestral score, instrument names are printed left side of the
4047 This can be achieved by setting @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instrument}
4048 and @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instr}. This will print a string before
4049 the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
4050 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used:
4052 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4053 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
4056 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
4059 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
4060 \notes \context Staff = treble {
4061 \property Staff.instrument = \markup {
4062 \column << "Clarinetti"
4064 \smaller \musicglyph #"accidentals--1"
4075 @internalsref{InstrumentName}.
4079 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
4080 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
4081 the name to avoid a collision.
4084 @subsection Transpose
4086 @cindex transposition of pitches
4087 @cindex @code{\transpose}
4089 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
4092 \transpose @var{from} @var{to} @var{musicexpr}
4095 This means that @var{musicexpr} is transposed by the interval
4096 between @var{from} and @var{to}.
4098 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
4099 @code{\transpose c cis} or @code{\transpose c des} will transpose up
4100 half a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second
4101 version will print flats:
4103 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
4104 mus =\notes { \key d \major cis d fis g }
4105 \score { \notes \context Staff {
4108 \transpose c g' \mus
4109 \transpose c f' \mus
4115 @internalsref{TransposedMusic}, and @internalsref{UntransposableMusic}.
4119 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
4120 you must put @code{\transpose} outside of @code{\relative}, since
4121 @code{\relative} will have no effect music that appears inside a
4127 @node Multi measure rests
4128 @subsection Multi measure rests
4129 @cindex multi measure rests
4130 @cindex Rests, multi measure
4134 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
4135 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
4136 fill a score with rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure
4137 rest. This expansion is controlled by the property
4138 @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true, Lily will not expand
4139 empty measures, and the appropriate number is added automatically:
4141 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4142 \time 4/4 r1 | R1 | R1*2
4143 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R1*17 R1*4
4146 The @code{1} in @code{R1} is similar to the duration notation used for
4147 notes. Hence, for time signatures other than 4/4, you must enter other
4148 durations. This can be done with augmentation dots or fractions:
4150 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4151 \property Score.skipBars = ##t
4159 An @code{R} spanning a single measure is printed as either a whole rest
4160 or a breve, centered in the measure regardless of the time signature.
4162 @cindex text on multi-measure rest
4163 @cindex script on multi-measure rest
4164 @cindex fermata on multi-measure rest
4166 Texts can be added to multi-measure rests by using the
4167 @var{note}-@code{markup} syntax (see @ref{Text markup}). In this case, the number is
4168 replaced. If you need both texts and the number, you must add the
4169 number by hand. A variable (@code{\fermataMarkup}) is provided for
4173 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
4175 R2._\markup { "Ad lib" }
4180 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
4184 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestEvent},
4185 @internalsref{MultiMeasureTextEvent},
4186 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestMusicGroup}, and
4187 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
4189 The layout object @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestNumber} is for the
4190 default number, and @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestText} for user
4195 It is not possible to use fingerings (e.g. @code{R1-4}) to put numbers
4196 over multi-measure rests.
4198 @cindex condensing rests
4200 There is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into a single
4201 multimeasure rest. Multi measure rests do not take part in rest
4204 Be careful when entering multimeasure rests followed by whole notes,
4208 will enter two notes lasting four measures each. When @code{skipBars}
4209 is set, then the result will look OK, but the bar numbering will be
4212 @node Automatic part combining
4213 @subsection Automatic part combining
4214 @cindex automatic part combining
4215 @cindex part combiner
4218 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
4219 staff. It is aimed at typesetting orchestral scores. When the two
4220 parts are identical for a period of time, only one is shown. In
4221 places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate
4222 voices, and stem directions are set automatically. Also, solo and
4223 @emph{a due} parts are identified and can be marked.
4227 The syntax for part combining is
4230 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
4232 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
4233 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
4234 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
4237 The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part
4238 combiner: putting parts on one staff, and setting stem directions and
4241 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
4243 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4244 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4247 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4253 The first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
4254 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
4255 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
4256 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
4257 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
4260 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
4261 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false:
4263 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
4265 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
4266 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4267 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4270 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4278 @internalsref{PartCombineMusic},
4279 @internalsref{Thread_devnull_engraver}, and
4280 @internalsref{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @internalsref{A2_engraver}.
4284 The syntax for naming contexts in inconsistent with the syntax for
4287 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
4288 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
4291 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
4293 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4294 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4297 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4303 The part combiner is slated to be rewritten [TODO: explain why].
4305 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
4306 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
4307 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
4310 @subsection Hiding staves
4312 @cindex Frenched scores
4313 @cindex Hiding staves
4315 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually
4316 removed. This saves some space. This style is called `French Score'.
4317 For @internalsref{Lyrics}, @internalsref{LyricsVoice},
4318 @internalsref{ChordNames} and @internalsref{FiguredBass}, this is
4319 switched on by default. When these line of these contexts turn out
4320 empty after the line-breaking process, they are removed.
4322 For normal staves, a specialized @internalsref{Staff} context is
4323 available, which does the same: staves containing nothing (or only
4324 multi measure rests) are removed. The context definition is stored in
4325 @code{\RemoveEmptyStaffContext} variable. Observe how the second staff
4326 in this example disappears in the second line:
4331 \notes \relative c' <
4332 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
4333 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
4337 \translator { \RemoveEmptyStaffContext }
4343 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
4344 @subsection Sound output for transposing instruments
4346 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed
4347 and untransposed instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch
4348 offset (in semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done
4349 using the @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed
4352 @cindex @code{transposing}
4355 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
4356 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
4360 @node Ancient notation
4361 @section Ancient notation
4363 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
4364 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
4369 @c [TODO: write introduction on ancient notation]
4372 * Ancient note heads::
4381 @node Ancient note heads
4382 @subsection Ancient note heads
4384 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
4385 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
4386 NoteHead object to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
4387 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
4388 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes:
4390 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4391 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
4396 @subsection Ancient clefs
4398 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
4400 For modern clefs, see section @ref{Clef}. For the percussion clef, see
4401 section @ref{Percussion staves}. For the @code{TAB} clef, see section
4404 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
4405 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but
4406 differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such
4407 cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs.
4408 Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an
4409 arbitrary line, as described in section @ref{Clef}. The note printed
4410 to the right side of each clef in the example column denotes the
4411 @code{c'} with respect to that clef.
4413 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .3 .1
4417 @b{Description} @tab
4418 @b{Supported Clefs} @tab
4422 @code{clefs-neo_mensural_c} @tab
4423 modern style mensural C clef @tab
4424 @code{neo_mensural_c1}, @code{neo_mensural_c2},
4425 @code{neo_mensural_c3}, @code{neo_mensural_c4} @tab
4426 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4427 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4428 \clef "neo_mensural_c2" c
4432 @code{clefs-petrucci_c1}
4433 @code{clefs-petrucci_c2}
4434 @code{clefs-petrucci_c3}
4435 @code{clefs-petrucci_c4}
4436 @code{clefs-petrucci_c5}
4439 petrucci style mensural C clefs, for use on different stafflines
4440 (the examples shows the 2nd staffline C clef).
4450 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4451 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4452 \clef "petrucci_c2" c
4456 @code{clefs-petrucci_f} @tab
4457 petrucci style mensural F clef @tab
4458 @code{petrucci_f} @tab
4459 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4460 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4461 \clef "petrucci_f" c
4465 @code{clefs-petrucci_g} @tab
4466 petrucci style mensural G clef @tab
4467 @code{petrucci_g} @tab
4468 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4469 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4470 \clef "petrucci_g" c
4474 @code{clefs-mensural_c'} @tab
4475 historic style mensural C clef @tab
4476 @code{mensural_c1}, @code{mensural_c2}, @code{mensural_c3},
4477 @code{mensural_c4} @tab
4478 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4479 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4480 \clef "mensural_c2" c
4484 @code{clefs-mensural_f} @tab
4485 historic style mensural F clef @tab
4486 @code{mensural_f} @tab
4487 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4488 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4489 \clef "mensural_f" c
4493 @code{clefs-mensural_g} @tab
4494 historic style mensural G clef @tab
4495 @code{mensural_g} @tab
4496 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4497 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4498 \clef "mensural_g" c
4502 @code{clefs-vaticana_do} @tab
4503 Editio Vaticana style do clef @tab
4504 @code{vaticana_do1}, @code{vaticana_do2}, @code{vaticana_do3} @tab
4505 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4507 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4508 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4509 \clef "vaticana_do2" c
4513 @code{clefs-vaticana_fa} @tab
4514 Editio Vaticana style fa clef @tab
4515 @code{vaticana_fa1}, @code{vaticana_fa2} @tab
4516 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4518 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4519 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4520 \clef "vaticana_fa2" c
4524 @code{clefs-medicaea_do} @tab
4525 Editio Medicaea style do clef @tab
4526 @code{medicaea_do1}, @code{medicaea_do2}, @code{medicaea_do3} @tab
4527 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4529 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4530 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4531 \clef "medicaea_do2" c
4535 @code{clefs-medicaea_fa} @tab
4536 Editio Medicaea style fa clef @tab
4537 @code{medicaea_fa1}, @code{medicaea_fa2} @tab
4538 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4540 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4541 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4542 \clef "medicaea_fa2" c
4546 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do} @tab
4547 historic style hufnagel do clef @tab
4548 @code{hufnagel_do1}, @code{hufnagel_do2}, @code{hufnagel_do3} @tab
4549 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4551 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4552 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4553 \clef "hufnagel_do2" c
4557 @code{clefs-hufnagel_fa} @tab
4558 historic style hufnagel fa clef @tab
4559 @code{hufnagel_fa1}, @code{hufnagel_fa2} @tab
4560 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4562 \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #4
4563 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4564 \clef "hufnagel_fa2" c
4568 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4569 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef @tab
4570 @code{hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
4571 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4572 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4573 \clef "hufnagel_do_fa" c
4578 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
4579 @c @item modern style percussion clef (glyph: @code{clefs-percussion})
4582 @c @code{percussion}
4584 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "percussion" c'}
4586 @c @item modern style tab clef (glyph: @code{clefs-tab})
4591 @c @lilypond{\context Staff \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #6 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "tab" c'}
4593 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
4594 transcribed mensural music''.
4596 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
4597 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
4599 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
4600 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
4602 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
4604 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
4605 beams, depending on which staffline it is printed.
4609 @subsection Custodes
4614 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
4615 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
4616 of the first note(s) of the following line and thus helps the player
4617 or singer to manage line breaks during performance, thus enhancing
4618 readability of a score.
4620 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th
4621 century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms
4622 of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant
4623 like the @emph{editio vaticana}. There are different custos glyphs
4624 used in different flavours of notational style.
4626 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
4627 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block,
4628 as shown in the following example:
4634 \consists Custos_engraver
4635 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
4640 The result looks like this:
4646 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
4653 \consists Custos_engraver
4660 The custos glyph is selected by the @code{style} property. The styles
4661 supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
4662 @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the following fragment:
4672 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-vaticana-u0" }
4676 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-medicaea-u0" }
4680 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-hufnagel-u0" }
4684 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-mensural-u0" }
4693 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4697 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4698 \remove "Key_engraver"
4699 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4700 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4701 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4707 If the boolean property @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} is set to
4708 @code{#t} (which it is by default), lily typesets slightly different
4709 variants of the custos glyph, depending on whether the custos, is
4710 typeset on or between stafflines. The glyph will
4711 optically fit well into the staff, with the appendage on the right of
4712 the custos always ending at the same vertical position between two
4713 stafflines regardless of the pitch. If you set
4714 @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} to @code{#f}, then
4715 a compromise between both forms is used.
4717 Just like stems can be attached to noteheads in two directions
4718 @emph{up} and @emph{down}, each custos glyph is available with its
4719 appendage pointing either up or down. If the pitch of a custos is
4720 above a selectable position, the appendage will point downwards; if
4721 the pitch is below this position, the appendage will point upwards.
4722 Use property @code{neutral-position} to select this position. By
4723 default, it is set to @code{0}, such that the neutral position is the
4724 center of the staff. Use property @code{neutral-direction} to control
4725 what happens if a custos is typeset on the neutral position itself.
4726 By default, this property is set to @code{-1}, such that the appendage
4727 will point downwards. If set to @code{1}, the appendage will point
4728 upwards. Other values such as @code{0} are reserved for future
4729 extensions and should not be used.
4734 @internalsref{Custos}, @inputfileref{input/test,custos-style.ly} and
4735 @inputfileref{input/regression,custos.ly}.
4739 @subsection Divisiones
4745 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; latin word for
4746 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
4747 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
4748 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior} and @emph{divisio maxima}
4749 can be characterized as short, medium and long pause, somewhat like
4750 @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not only marks the end of
4751 a chant, but is also frequently used within a single
4752 antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
4756 To use divisiones, include the file @code{gregorian-init.ly}. It
4757 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
4758 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
4759 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
4760 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
4761 Therefore, @code{gregorian-init.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
4765 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{divisiones.ly}
4769 @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
4770 @inputfileref{input/test,divisiones.ly}, and @ref{Breath marks}.
4773 @subsection Ligatures
4777 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
4778 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
4780 In musical terminology, a ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that
4781 represents at least two different notes. Ligatures originally appeared
4782 in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th
4783 century as an allusion to the accent symbols of greek lyric poetry to
4784 denote ascending or descending sequences of notes. Both, the shape and
4785 the exact meaning of ligatures changed tremendously during the following
4786 centuries: In early notation, ligatures were used for monophonic tunes
4787 (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way of performance in
4788 the sense of articulation. With upcoming multiphony, the need for a
4789 metric system arised, since multiple voices of a piece have to be
4790 synchronized some way. New notation systems were invented that used
4791 the manifold shapes of ligatures to now denote rhythmical patterns
4792 (e.g. black mensural notation, mannered notation, ars nova). With the
4793 invention of the metric system of the white mensural notation, the need
4794 for ligatures to denote such patterns disappeared. Nevertheless,
4795 ligatures were still in use in the mensural system for a couple of
4796 decades until they finally disappeared during the late 16th / early 17th
4797 century. Still, ligatures have survived in contemporary editions of
4798 Gregorian chant such as the Editio Vaticana from 1905/08.
4802 Syntactically, ligatures are simply enclosed by @code{\[} and
4803 @code{\]}. Some ligature styles (such as Editio Vaticana) may need
4804 additional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature.
4805 By default, the @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a
4806 square bracket above the ligature:
4808 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
4810 \notes \transpose c c' {
4818 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver
4819 has to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in
4820 the following subsections. Currently, only white mensural ligatures
4821 are supported with certain limitations. Support for Editio Vaticana
4822 will be added in the future.
4825 * White mensural ligatures::
4826 * Gregorian square neumes ligatures::
4829 @node White mensural ligatures
4830 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
4832 @cindex Mensural ligatures
4833 @cindex White mensural ligatures
4835 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures. The
4836 implementation is still experimental; it currently may output strange
4837 warnings or even crash in some cases or produce weird results on more
4838 complex ligatures. To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the paper
4839 block the @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} has to be put into
4840 the @internalsref{Voice} context, and remove the
4841 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}:
4847 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4848 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
4853 There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a
4854 white mensural ligature. The shape is rather determined solely from
4855 the pitch and duration of the enclosed notes. While this approach may
4856 take a new user a while to get accustomed, it has the great advantage
4857 that the full musical information of the ligature is known internally.
4858 This is not only required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for
4859 automatic transcription of the ligatures.
4864 \property Score.timing = ##f
4865 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4866 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4867 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4869 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4871 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4873 @lilypond[singleline]
4875 \notes \transpose c c' {
4876 \property Score.timing = ##f
4877 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4878 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4879 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4881 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4883 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4888 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4889 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
4895 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
4896 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
4899 @lilypond[singleline]
4901 \notes \transpose c c' {
4902 \property Score.timing = ##f
4903 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
4904 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4905 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4907 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
4909 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
4914 @node Gregorian square neumes ligatures
4915 @subsubsection Gregorian square neumes ligatures
4917 @cindex Square neumes ligatures
4918 @cindex Gregorian square neumes ligatures
4920 Gregorian square neumes notation (following the style of the Editio
4921 Vaticana) is under heavy development, but not yet really usable for
4922 production purposes. Core ligatures can already be typeset, but
4923 essential issues for serious typesetting are still under development,
4924 such as (among others) horizontal alignment of multiple ligatures,
4925 lyrics alignment and proper accidentals handling. Still, this section
4926 gives a sneak preview of what Gregorian chant may look like once it
4929 The following table contains the extended neumes table of the 2nd
4930 volume of the Antiphonale Romanum (@emph{Liber Hymnarius}), published
4931 1983 by the monks of Solesmes.
4933 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .2 .2 .2
4936 @b{Neuma aut@*Neumarum Elementa} @tab
4937 @b{Figurae@*Rectae} @tab
4938 @b{Figurae@*Liquescentes Auctae} @tab
4939 @b{Figurae@*Liquescentes Deminutae}
4941 @c TODO: \paper block is identical in all of the below examples.
4942 @c Therefore, it should somehow be included rather than duplicated all
4945 @c why not make identifiers in ly/engraver-init.ly? --hwn
4947 @c Because it's just used to typeset plain notes without
4948 @c a staff for demonstration purposes rather than something
4949 @c special of Gregorian chant notation. --jr
4954 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.5cm]
4955 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
4957 \notes \transpose c c' {
4960 \noBreak s^\markup {"a"} \noBreak
4962 % Punctum Inclinatum
4964 \noBreak s^\markup {"b"}
4970 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4974 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4975 \remove "Key_engraver"
4976 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
4977 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4978 \remove "Bar_engraver"
4979 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4983 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
4984 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
4985 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
4986 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
4992 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.5cm]
4993 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
4995 \notes \transpose c c' {
4996 % Punctum Auctum Ascendens
4997 \[ \auctum \ascendens b \]
4998 \noBreak s^\markup {"c"} \noBreak
5000 % Punctum Auctum Descendens
5001 \[ \auctum \descendens b \]
5002 \noBreak s^\markup {"d"} \noBreak
5004 % Punctum Inclinatum Auctum
5005 \[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]
5006 \noBreak s^\markup {"e"}
5012 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5016 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5017 \remove "Key_engraver"
5018 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5019 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5020 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5021 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5025 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5026 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5027 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5028 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5034 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5035 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5037 \notes \transpose c c' {
5038 % Punctum Inclinatum Parvum
5039 \[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]
5040 \noBreak s^\markup {"f"}
5046 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5050 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5051 \remove "Key_engraver"
5052 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5053 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5054 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5055 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5059 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5060 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5061 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5062 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5071 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5072 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5074 \notes \transpose c c' {
5077 \noBreak s^\markup {"g"}
5083 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5087 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5088 \remove "Key_engraver"
5089 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5090 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5091 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5092 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5096 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5097 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5098 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5099 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5108 @code{3. Apostropha vel Stropha}
5110 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5111 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5113 \notes \transpose c c' {
5116 \noBreak s^\markup {"h"}
5122 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5126 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5127 \remove "Key_engraver"
5128 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5129 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5130 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5131 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5135 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5136 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5137 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5138 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5144 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5145 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5147 \notes \transpose c c' {
5149 \[ \stropha \auctum b \]
5150 \noBreak s^\markup {"i"}
5156 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5160 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5161 \remove "Key_engraver"
5162 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5163 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5164 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5165 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5169 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5170 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5171 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5172 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5182 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5183 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5185 \notes \transpose c c' {
5188 \noBreak s^\markup {"j"}
5194 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5198 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5199 \remove "Key_engraver"
5200 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5201 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5202 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5203 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5207 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5208 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5209 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5210 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5219 @code{5. Clivis vel Flexa}
5221 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5222 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5224 \notes \transpose c c' {
5233 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5237 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5238 \remove "Key_engraver"
5239 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5240 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5241 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5242 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5246 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5247 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5248 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5249 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5255 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.0cm]
5256 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5258 \notes \transpose c c' {
5259 % Clivis Aucta Descendens
5260 \[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
5261 \noBreak s^\markup {"l"} \noBreak
5263 % Clivis Aucta Ascendens
5264 \[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]
5265 \noBreak s^\markup {"m"}
5271 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5275 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5276 \remove "Key_engraver"
5277 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5278 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5279 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5280 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5284 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5285 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5286 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5287 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5293 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5294 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5296 \notes \transpose c c' {
5298 \[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]
5305 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5309 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5310 \remove "Key_engraver"
5311 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5312 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5313 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5314 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5318 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5319 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5320 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5321 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5328 @code{6. Podatus vel Pes}
5330 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5331 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5333 \notes \transpose c c' {
5342 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5346 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5347 \remove "Key_engraver"
5348 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5349 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5350 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5351 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5355 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5356 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5357 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5358 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5364 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.0cm]
5365 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5367 \notes \transpose c c' {
5368 % Pes Auctus Descendens
5369 \[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5370 \noBreak s^\markup {"p"} \noBreak
5372 % Pes Auctus Ascendens
5373 \[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]
5374 \noBreak s^\markup {"q"}
5380 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5384 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5385 \remove "Key_engraver"
5386 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5387 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5388 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5389 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5393 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5394 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5395 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5396 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5402 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5403 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5405 \notes \transpose c c' {
5407 \[ g \pes \deminutum b \]
5414 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5418 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5419 \remove "Key_engraver"
5420 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5421 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5422 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5423 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5427 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5428 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5429 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5430 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5437 @code{7. Pes Quassus}
5439 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5440 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5442 \notes \transpose c c' {
5444 \[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]
5451 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5455 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5456 \remove "Key_engraver"
5457 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5458 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5459 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5460 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5464 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5465 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5466 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5467 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5473 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5474 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5476 \notes \transpose c c' {
5477 % Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens
5478 \[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5485 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5489 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5490 \remove "Key_engraver"
5491 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5492 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5493 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5494 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5498 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5499 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5500 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5501 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5509 @code{8. Quilisma Pes}
5511 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5512 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5514 \notes \transpose c c' {
5516 \[ \quilisma g \pes b \]
5523 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5527 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5528 \remove "Key_engraver"
5529 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5530 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5531 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5532 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5536 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5537 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5538 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5539 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5545 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5546 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5548 \notes \transpose c c' {
5549 % Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens
5550 \[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5557 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5561 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5562 \remove "Key_engraver"
5563 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5564 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5565 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5566 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5570 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5571 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5572 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5573 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5581 @code{9. Podatus Initio Debilis}
5583 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5584 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5586 \notes \transpose c c' {
5587 % Pes Initio Debilis
5588 \[ \deminutum g \pes b \]
5595 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5599 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5600 \remove "Key_engraver"
5601 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5602 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5603 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5604 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5608 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5609 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5610 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5611 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5617 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5618 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5620 \notes \transpose c c' {
5621 % Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
5622 \[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5629 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5633 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5634 \remove "Key_engraver"
5635 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5636 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5637 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5638 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5642 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5643 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5644 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5645 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5655 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5656 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5658 \notes \transpose c c' {
5660 \[ a \pes b \flexa g \]
5667 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5671 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5672 \remove "Key_engraver"
5673 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5674 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5675 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5676 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5680 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5681 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5682 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5683 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5689 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5690 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5692 \notes \transpose c c' {
5693 % Torculus Auctus Descendens
5694 \[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
5701 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5705 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5706 \remove "Key_engraver"
5707 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5708 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5709 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5710 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5714 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5715 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5716 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5717 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5723 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5724 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5726 \notes \transpose c c' {
5727 % Torculus Deminutus
5728 \[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
5735 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5739 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5740 \remove "Key_engraver"
5741 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5742 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5743 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5744 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5748 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5749 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5750 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5751 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5758 @code{11. Torculus Initio Debilis}
5760 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5761 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5763 \notes \transpose c c' {
5764 % Torculus Initio Debilis
5765 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]
5772 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5776 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5777 \remove "Key_engraver"
5778 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5779 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5780 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5781 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5785 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5786 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5787 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5788 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5794 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5795 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5797 \notes \transpose c c' {
5798 % Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
5799 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
5806 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5810 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5811 \remove "Key_engraver"
5812 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5813 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5814 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5815 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5819 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5820 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5821 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5822 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5828 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5829 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5831 \notes \transpose c c' {
5832 % Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis
5833 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
5840 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5844 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5845 \remove "Key_engraver"
5846 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5847 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5848 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5849 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5853 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5854 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5855 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5856 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5863 @code{12. Porrectus}
5865 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5866 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5868 \notes \transpose c c' {
5870 \[ a \flexa g \pes b \]
5877 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5881 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5882 \remove "Key_engraver"
5883 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5884 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5885 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5886 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5890 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5891 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5892 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5893 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5899 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5900 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5902 \notes \transpose c c' {
5903 % Porrectus Auctus Descendens
5904 \[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
5911 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5915 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5916 \remove "Key_engraver"
5917 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5918 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5919 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5920 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5924 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5925 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5926 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5927 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5933 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5934 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5936 \notes \transpose c c' {
5937 % Porrectus Deminutus
5938 \[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]
5945 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5949 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5950 \remove "Key_engraver"
5951 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5952 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5953 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5954 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5958 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5959 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5960 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5961 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5970 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5971 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5973 \notes \transpose c c' {
5975 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]
5982 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5986 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5987 \remove "Key_engraver"
5988 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5989 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5990 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5991 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5995 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5996 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5997 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5998 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6004 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6005 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6007 \notes \transpose c c' {
6009 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]
6016 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6020 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6021 \remove "Key_engraver"
6022 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6023 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6024 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6025 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6029 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6030 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6031 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6032 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6038 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6039 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6041 \notes \transpose c c' {
6042 % Climacus Deminutus
6043 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]
6050 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6054 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6055 \remove "Key_engraver"
6056 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6057 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6058 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6059 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6063 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6064 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6065 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6066 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6073 @code{14. Scandicus}
6075 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6076 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6078 \notes \transpose c c' {
6080 \[ g \pes a \virga b \]
6087 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6091 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6092 \remove "Key_engraver"
6093 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6094 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6095 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6096 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6100 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6101 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6102 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6103 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6109 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6110 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6112 \notes \transpose c c' {
6113 % Scandicus Auctus Descendens
6114 \[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6121 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6125 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6126 \remove "Key_engraver"
6127 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6128 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6129 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6130 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6134 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6135 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6136 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6137 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6143 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6144 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6146 \notes \transpose c c' {
6147 % Scandicus Deminutus
6148 \[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]
6155 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6159 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6160 \remove "Key_engraver"
6161 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6162 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6163 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6164 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6168 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6169 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6170 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6171 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6180 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6181 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6183 \notes \transpose c c' {
6185 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]
6192 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6196 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6197 \remove "Key_engraver"
6198 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6199 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6200 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6201 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6205 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6206 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6207 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6208 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6214 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6215 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6217 \notes \transpose c c' {
6218 % Salicus Auctus Descendens
6219 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6226 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6230 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6231 \remove "Key_engraver"
6232 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6233 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6234 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6235 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6239 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6240 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6241 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6242 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6252 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6253 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6255 \notes \transpose c c' {
6257 \[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]
6264 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6268 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6269 \remove "Key_engraver"
6270 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6271 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6272 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6273 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6277 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6278 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6279 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6280 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6291 Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the input language for
6292 neumes does not necessarily reflect directly the typographical
6293 appearance, but is designed to solely focuse on musical meaning. For
6294 example, @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]} produces a Torculus consisting
6295 of three Punctum heads, while @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]} produces
6296 a Porrectus with a curved flexa shape and only a single Punctum head.
6297 There is no command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa shape; the
6298 decision of when to typeset a curved flexa shape is purely taken from
6299 the musical input. The idea of this approach is to separate the
6300 musical aspects of the input from the notation style of the output.
6301 This way, the same input can be reused to typeset the same music in a
6302 different style of Gregorian chant notation such as Hufnagel (also
6303 known as German gothic neumes) or Medicaea (kind of a very simple
6304 forerunner of the Editio Vaticana). As soon as Hufnagel ligature
6305 engraver and Medicaea ligature engraver will have been implemented, it
6306 will be as simple as replacing the ligature engraver in the
6307 @internalsref{Voice} context to get the desired notation style from
6310 The following table shows the code fragments that produce the
6311 ligatures in the above neumes table. The letter in the first column
6312 in each line of the below table indicates to which ligature in the
6313 above table it refers. The second column gives the name of the
6314 ligature. The third column shows the code fragment that produces this
6315 ligature, using @code{g}, @code{a} and @code{b} as example pitches.
6317 @multitable @columnfractions .1 .4 .5
6331 Punctum Inclinatum @tab
6332 @code{\[ \inclinatum b \]}
6336 Punctum Auctum Ascendens @tab
6337 @code{\[ \auctum \ascendens b \]}
6341 Punctum Auctum Descendens @tab
6342 @code{\[ \auctum \descendens b \]}
6346 Punctum Inclinatum Auctum @tab
6347 @code{\[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]}
6351 Punctum Inclinatum Parvum @tab
6352 @code{\[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]}
6357 @code{\[ \virga b \]}
6362 @code{\[ \stropha b \]}
6367 @code{\[ \stropha \auctum b \]}
6372 @code{\[ \oriscus b \]}
6376 Clivis vel Flexa @tab
6377 @code{\[ b \flexa g \]}
6381 Clivis Aucta Descendens @tab
6382 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
6386 Clivis Aucta Ascendens @tab
6387 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]}
6392 @code{\[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
6396 Podatus vel Pes @tab
6397 @code{\[ g \pes b \]}
6401 Pes Auctus Descendens @tab
6402 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6406 Pes Auctus Ascendens @tab
6407 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]}
6412 @code{\[ g \pes \deminutum b \]}
6417 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]}
6421 Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens @tab
6422 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6427 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes b \]}
6431 Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens @tab
6432 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6436 Pes Initio Debilis @tab
6437 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes b \]}
6441 Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis @tab
6442 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6447 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]}
6451 Torculus Auctus Descendens @tab
6452 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
6456 Torculus Deminutus @tab
6457 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
6461 Torculus Initio Debilis @tab
6462 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]}
6466 Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis @tab
6467 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
6471 Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis @tab
6472 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
6477 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]}
6481 Porrectus Auctus Descendens @tab
6482 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6486 Porrectus Deminutus @tab
6487 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]}
6492 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]}
6496 Climacus Auctus @tab
6497 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]}
6501 Climacus Deminutus @tab
6502 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]}
6507 @code{\[ g \pes a \virga b \]}
6511 Scandicus Auctus Descendens @tab
6512 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6516 Scandicus Deminutus @tab
6517 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]}
6522 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]}
6526 Salicus Auctus Descendens @tab
6527 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
6532 @code{\[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]}
6538 Scandicus Deminutus: Punctum Auctum Ascendens overlaps with
6539 Semivocalis head; this looks awful.
6541 Trigonus: apply equal spacing, regardless of pitch.
6544 @subsection Figured bass
6546 @cindex Basso continuo
6548 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
6552 LilyPond has limited support for figured bass:
6554 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
6556 \context Voice \notes { \clef bass dis4 c d ais}
6557 \context FiguredBass
6559 < 6 >4 < 7 >8 < 6+ [_!] >
6565 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
6566 mode, introduced by @code{\figures}, where you can enter bass figures
6567 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass} that
6568 takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
6570 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
6571 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>}:
6576 \context FiguredBass
6580 Accidentals are added when you append @code{-}, @code{!} and @code{+}
6587 \context FiguredBass
6588 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> }
6591 Spaces or dashes may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
6592 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}:
6598 \context FiguredBass
6599 \figures { < [4 6] 8 [_! 12]> }
6602 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
6603 support, it works much simpler. The @code{\figures} mode simply
6604 stores the numbers , and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints
6605 them as entered. There is no conversion to pitches, and no
6606 realizations of the bass are played in the MIDI file.
6608 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
6609 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
6610 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
6614 @internalsref{BassFigureEvent} music, @internalsref{BassFigure} object,
6615 and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context.
6619 Slash notation for alterations is not supported.
6622 @node Contemporary notation
6623 @section Contemporary notation
6625 In the 20th century, composers have greatly expanded the musical
6626 vocabulary. With this expansion, many innovations in musical notation
6627 have been tried. For a comprehensive overview, refer to @cite{Stone
6628 1980} (see @ref{Literature}). In general, the use of new, innovative
6629 notation makes a piece harder to understand and perform and its use
6630 should therefore be avoided if possible. For this reason, support for
6631 contemporary notation in LilyPond is limited.
6640 @subsection Clusters
6644 In musical terminology, a @emph{cluster} denotes a range of
6645 simultaneously sounding pitches that may change over time. The set of
6646 available pitches to apply usually depends on the accoustic source.
6647 Thus, in piano music, a cluster typically consists of a continous range
6648 of the semitones as provided by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic
6649 scale. In choral music, each singer of the choir typically may sing an
6650 arbitrary pitch within the cluster's range that is not bound to any
6651 diatonic, chromatic or other scale. In electronic music, a cluster
6652 (theoretically) may even cover a continuous range of pitches, thus
6653 resulting in coloured noise, such as pink noise.
6655 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
6656 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
6657 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
6658 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by the
6659 shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical extent of
6660 the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster geometrically
6661 describes the development of a range of pitches (vertical extent) over
6662 time (horizontal extent). Still, the geometrical shape of a cluster
6663 covers the area in wich any single pitch contained in the cluster would
6664 be notated as an ordinary note. From this point of view, it is
6665 reasonable to specify a cluster as the envelope of a set of notes.
6669 A cluster is engraved as the envelope of a set of
6670 cluster-notes. Cluster notes are created by applying the function
6671 @code{notes-to-clusters} to a sequence of chords, e.g.
6673 @lilypond[relative 1,verbatim]
6674 \apply #notes-to-clusters { <<c e >> <<b f'>> }
6677 The following example (from
6678 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly}) shows what the result
6681 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{cluster.ly}
6683 By default, @internalsref{Cluster_engraver} is in the
6684 @internalsref{Voice} context. This allows putting ordinary notes and
6685 clusters together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In such a
6686 case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between
6687 ordinary notes and clusters.
6691 @internalsref{ClusterSpanner}, @internalsref{ClusterSpannerBeacon},
6692 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly},
6693 @internalsref{Cluster_engraver}, and @internalsref{ClusterNoteEvent}.
6697 Music expressions like @code{< @{ g8 e8 @} a4 >} are not printed
6698 accurately. Use @code{<<g a>>8 <<e a>>8} instead.
6703 @subsection Fermatas
6709 Contemporary music notation frequently uses special fermata symbols to
6710 indicate fermatas of differing lengths.
6714 The following are supported
6716 @lilypond[singleline]
6718 < \addlyrics \notes {
6738 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
6739 "shortfermata" "fermata" "longfermata" "verylongfermata"
6744 See @ref{Articulations} for general instructions how to apply scripts
6745 such as fermatas to a @code{\notes@{@}} block.
6748 @section Tuning output
6750 There are situations where default layout decisions are not
6751 sufficient. In this section we discuss ways to override these
6754 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called objects
6755 (graphic objects). Each object carries with it a set of properties
6756 (object or layout properties) specific to that object. For example, a
6757 stem object has properties that specify its direction, length and
6760 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
6761 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
6762 temporarily change the definition of one type of object, thus
6763 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
6764 object, and set a layout property in that object.
6766 Do not confuse layout properties with translation
6767 properties. Translation properties always use a mixed caps style
6768 naming, and are manipulated using @code{\property}:
6770 \property Context.propertyName = @var{value}
6772 Layout properties are use Scheme style variable naming, i.e. lower
6773 case words separated with dashes. They are symbols, and should always
6774 be quoted using @code{#'}. For example, this could be an imaginary
6775 layout property name:
6777 #'layout-property-name
6782 * Constructing a tweak::
6791 @node Tuning objects
6792 @subsection Tuning objects
6794 @cindex object description
6796 The definition of an object is a list of default object
6797 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem object (available
6798 in @file{scm/define-grobs.scm}), includes the following definitions
6799 for @internalsref{Stem}:
6803 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
6804 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
6809 Adding variables on top of this existing definition overrides the
6810 system default, and alters the resulting appearance of the layout
6816 Changing a variable for only one object is commonly achieved with
6820 \once \property @var{context}.@var{objectname}
6821 \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
6823 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
6824 and @var{objectname} is a string and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
6825 This command applies a setting only during one moment in the score.
6827 In the following example, only one @internalsref{Stem} object is
6828 changed from its original setting:
6830 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment, relative=1]
6832 \once \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4
6836 @cindex @code{\once}
6838 For changing more objects, the same command, without @code{\once} can
6841 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
6843 This command adds @code{@var{symbol} = @var{value}} to the definition
6844 of @var{objectname} in the context @var{context}, and this definition
6845 stays in place until it is removed.
6847 An existing definition may be removed by the following command:
6850 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \revert @var{symbol}
6853 All @code{\override} and @code{\revert} commands should be balanced.
6854 The @code{\set} shorthand performs a revert followed by an override,
6855 and is often more convenient to use
6858 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
6862 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
6863 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
6865 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
6869 The following example gives exactly the same result as the previous
6870 one (assuming the system default for stem thickness is 1.3):
6872 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
6873 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
6875 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #1.3
6879 Reverting a setting which was not set in the first place has no
6880 effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, this may
6881 remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
6882 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and
6883 @code{\revert} must be carefully balanced. The following are examples
6884 of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set}, @code{\revert}:
6888 a clumsy but correct form:
6890 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
6894 shorter version of the same:
6896 \override \set \set \revert
6900 a short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
6903 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
6907 if there is no default (i.e. by default, the object property is unset),
6910 \set \set \set \revert
6914 For the digirati, the object description is an Scheme association
6915 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as
6916 a stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are push and pop
6917 operations. The association list is stored in a normal context
6920 \property Voice.NoteHead = #'()
6922 will effectively erase @internalsref{NoteHead}s from the current
6923 @internalsref{Voice}. However, this mechanism is not guaranteed to
6924 work, and may cause crashes or other anomalous behavior.
6928 @internalsref{OverrideProperty}, @internalsref{RevertProperty},
6929 @internalsref{PropertySet}, @internalsref{All-backend-properties}, and
6930 @internalsref{All-layout-objects}.
6935 The backend is not very strict in type-checking object properties.
6936 Cyclic references in @var{value} cause hangs and/or crashes.
6937 Similarly, reverting properties that are system defaults may also lead
6940 @node Constructing a tweak
6941 @subsection Constructing a tweak
6944 @cindex internal documentation
6945 @cindex finding graphical objects
6946 @cindex graphical object descriptions
6948 @cindex @code{\override}
6950 @cindex internal documentation
6954 Three pieces of information are required to use @code{\override} and
6955 @code{\set}: the name of the layout object, the context and the name
6956 of the property. We demonstrate how to glean this information from
6957 the notation manual and the generated documentation.
6959 The generated documentation is a set of HTML pages which should be
6960 included if you installed a binary distribution, typically in
6961 @file{/usr/share/doc/lilypond}. They are also available on the web:
6962 go to the @uref{http://lilypond.org,LilyPond website}, click
6963 ``Documentation'', and then ``Program reference'' on the side bar. It
6964 is advisable to bookmark either the local HTML files if possible. They
6965 will load faster than the ones on the web. If you use the version
6966 from the web, you must check whether the documentation matches the
6967 program version: the documentation is generated from the definitions
6968 that the program uses, and therefore it is strongly tied to the
6972 @c [TODO: revise for new site.]
6974 Suppose we want to move the fingering indication in the fragment below:
6976 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim]
6982 If you visit the documentation of @code{Fingering} (in @ref{Fingering
6983 instructions}), you will notice that there is written:
6988 @internalsref{FingerEvent} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
6992 In other words, the fingerings once entered, are internally stored as
6993 @code{FingerEvent} music objects. When printed, a @code{Fingering}
6994 layout object is created for every @code{FingerEvent}.
6996 The Fingering object has a number of different functions, and each of
6997 those is captured in an interface, when we look up
6998 @internalsref{Fingering} in the generated documentation.
7002 The @code{Fingering} object has a fixed size
7003 (@internalsref{item-interface}), the symbol is a piece of text
7004 (@internalsref{text-interface}), whose font can be set
7005 (@internalsref{font-interface}). It is centered horizontally
7006 (@internalsref{self-alignment-interface}), it is placed next to other
7007 objects (@internalsref{side-position-interface}) vertically, and its
7008 placement is coordinated with other scripts
7009 (@internalsref{text-script-interface}). It also has the standard
7010 @internalsref{grob-interface} (grob stands for Graphical object)
7012 @cindex graphical object
7013 @cindex layout object
7014 @cindex object, layout
7015 with all the variables that come with
7016 it. Finally, it denotes a fingering instruction, so it has
7017 @internalsref{finger-interface}.
7019 For the vertical placement, we have to look under
7020 @code{side-position-interface}:
7022 @code{side-position-interface}
7024 Position a victim object (this one) next to other objects (the
7025 support). In this case, the direction signifies where to put the
7026 victim object relative to the support (left or right, up or down?)
7031 below this description, the variable @code{padding} is described as
7035 (dimension, in staff space)
7037 add this much extra space between objects that are next to each
7038 other. Default value: @code{0.6}
7042 By increasing the value of @code{padding}, we can move away the
7043 fingering. The following command inserts 3 staff spaces of white
7044 between the note and the fingering:
7046 \once \property Voice.Fingering \set #'padding = #3
7049 Inserting this command before the Fingering object is created,
7050 i.e. before @code{c2}, yields the following result:
7052 @lilypond[relative=2,fragment,verbatim]
7053 \once \property Voice.Fingering
7060 The context name @code{Voice} in the example above can be determined
7061 as follows. In the documentation for @internalsref{Fingering}, it says
7063 Fingering grobs are created by: @internalsref{Fingering_engraver}
7066 Clicking @code{Fingering_engraver} shows the documentation of
7067 the module responsible for interpreting the fingering instructions and
7068 translating them to a @code{Fingering} object. Such a module is called
7069 an @emph{engraver}. The documentation of the @code{Fingering_engraver}
7072 Fingering_engraver is part of contexts: Voice
7074 so tuning the settings for Fingering should be done with
7076 \property Voice.Fingering \set @dots{}
7079 Of course, the tweak may also done in a larger context than
7080 @code{Voice}, for example, @internalsref{Staff} or
7081 @internalsref{Score}.
7083 The internals document also contains alphabetical lists of
7084 @internalsref{Contexts}, @internalsref{All-layout-objects} and
7085 @internalsref{Music-expressions}, so you can also find which objects to
7086 tweak by browsing the internals document.
7090 @subsection Applyoutput
7092 The most versatile way of tuning an object is @code{\applyoutput}. Its
7095 \applyoutput @var{proc}
7099 where @var{proc} is a Scheme function, taking four arguments.
7101 When interpreted, the function @var{proc} is called for every layout object found
7102 in the context, with the following arguments:
7104 @item the layout object itself,
7105 @item the context where the layout object was created, and
7106 @item the context where @code{\applyoutput} is processed.
7109 In addition, the cause of the layout object, i.e. the music
7110 expression or object that was responsible for creating it, is in the
7111 object property @code{cause}. For example, for a note head, this is a
7112 @internalsref{NoteHead} event, and for a @internalsref{Stem} object,
7113 this is a @internalsref{NoteHead} object.
7116 @node Outputproperty
7117 @subsection Outputproperty
7119 @cindex @code{\outputproperty}
7121 Another way of tuning objects is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
7122 feature. The syntax is as follows:
7124 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
7126 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking an object argument, and
7127 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
7128 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
7129 objects that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
7130 true, the object property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
7132 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
7133 the appropriate context to apply this to.
7134 @inputfileref{input/regression,output-property.ly} shows an example of
7135 the use of @code{\outputproperty}.
7139 This command is slated for removal. Please use the
7140 @code{\applyoutput} command, see @ref{Applyoutput}.
7143 @node Font selection
7144 @subsection Font selection
7146 The most common thing to change about the appearance of fonts is their
7147 size. The font size of any context can be easily changed by setting
7148 the @code{fontSize} property for that context. Its value is an
7149 integer: negative numbers make the font smaller, positive numbers
7150 larger. An example is given below:
7152 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,verbatim,quote]
7153 c4 c4 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
7156 This command will set @code{font-relative-size} (see below), and does
7157 not change the size of variable symbols, such as beams or slurs.
7160 One of the uses of @code{fontSize} is to get smaller symbol for cue
7161 notes. An elaborate example of those is in
7162 @inputfileref{input/test,cue-notes.ly}.
7164 @cindex magnification
7166 The size of the font may be scaled with the object property
7167 @code{font-magnification}. For example, @code{2.0} blows up all
7168 letters by a factor 2 in both directions.
7177 The font used for printing a object can be selected by setting
7178 @code{font-name}, e.g.
7180 \property Staff.TimeSignature
7181 \set #'font-name = #"cmr17"
7185 Any font can be used, as long as it is available to @TeX{}. Possible
7186 fonts include foreign fonts or fonts that do not belong to the
7187 Computer Modern font family.
7189 Font selection for the standard fonts, @TeX{}'s Computer Modern fonts,
7190 can also be adjusted with a more fine-grained mechanism. By setting
7191 the object properties described below, you can select a different font;
7192 all three mechanisms work for every object that supports
7193 @code{font-interface}:
7197 is a symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
7198 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff
7199 braces), @code{music} (the standard music font, including ancient
7200 glyphs), @code{dynamic} (for dynamic signs) and @code{typewriter}.
7203 is a symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
7204 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
7205 @code{caps} and @code{upright}.
7208 is a symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
7209 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
7212 @item font-relative-size
7213 is a number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
7214 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
7215 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
7217 There are small differences in design between fonts designed for
7218 different sizes, hence @code{font-relative-size} is preferred over
7219 @code{font-magnification} for changing font sizes.
7222 @item font-design-size
7223 is a number indicating the design size of the font.
7225 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
7226 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
7227 which enhances readability.
7230 For any of these properties, the value @code{*} (i.e. the symbol
7231 @code{*}, entered as @code{#'*}), acts as a wildcard. This can be used
7232 to override default setting, which are always present. For example:
7234 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
7235 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-family = #'typewriter
7236 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
7239 @cindex @code{font-style}
7243 The following commands set @code{fontSize} for the current voice.
7245 @cindex @code{\tiny}
7247 @cindex @code{\small}
7249 @cindex @code{\normalsize}
7254 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
7256 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
7257 family, and the style sheet cannot be modified easily.
7259 @cindex font selection
7260 @cindex font magnification
7261 @cindex @code{font-interface}
7265 @subsection Text markup
7270 @cindex typeset text
7272 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can access it
7273 with the keyword @code{\markup}. Within markup mode, you can enter texts
7274 similar to lyrics: simply enter them, surrounded by spaces:
7277 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
7278 c1^\markup { hello }
7279 c1_\markup { hi there }
7280 c1^\markup { hi \bold there, is \italic anyone home? }
7283 @cindex font switching
7285 The markup in the example demonstrates font switching commands. The
7286 command @code{\bold} and @code{\italic} only apply to the first
7287 following word; enclose a set of texts with braces to apply a command
7290 \markup @{ \bold @{ hi there @} @}
7294 For clarity, you can also do this for single arguments, e.g.
7296 \markup @{ is \italic @{ anyone @} home @}
7299 @cindex font size, texts
7301 The following size commands set absolute sizes:
7303 @cindex @code{\teeny}
7304 @cindex @code{\tiny}
7305 @cindex @code{\small}
7306 @cindex @code{\large}
7307 @cindex @code{\huge}
7317 You can also make letter larger or smaller relative to their neighbors,
7318 with the commands @code{\larger} and @code{\smaller}.
7322 @cindex font style, for texts
7323 @cindex @code{\bold}
7324 @cindex @code{\dynamic}
7325 @cindex @code{\number}
7326 @cindex @code{\italic}
7328 The following font change commands are defined:
7331 changes to the font used in dynamic signs. This font does not
7332 contain all characters of the alphabet, so when producing ``piu f'',
7333 the ``piu'' should be done in a different font.
7337 changes to the font used in time signatures. It only contains
7338 numbers and a few punctuation marks.
7340 changes @code{font-shape} to @code{italic}.
7342 changes @code{font-series} to @code{bold}.
7345 @cindex raising text
7346 @cindex lowering text
7348 @cindex translating text
7351 @cindex @code{\super}
7353 Raising and lowering texts can be done with @code{\super} and
7356 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
7357 c1^\markup { E "=" mc \super "2" }
7360 @cindex @code{\raise}
7362 If you want to give an explicit amount for lowering or raising, use
7363 @code{\raise}. This command takes a Scheme valued first argument, and
7364 a markup object as second argument:
7366 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1,quote]
7367 c1^\markup { C \small \raise #1.0 \bold { "9/7+" }}
7369 The argument to @code{\raise} is the vertical displacement amount,
7370 measured in (global) staff spaces. @code{\raise} and @code{\super}
7371 raise objects in relation to their surrounding markups. They cannot be
7372 used to move a single text up or down, when it is above or below a
7373 note, since the mechanism that positions it next to the note cancels
7374 any vertical shift. For vertical positioning, use the @code{padding}
7375 and/or @code{extra-offset} properties.
7377 Other commands taking single arguments include
7380 @item \bracket, \hbracket
7381 Bracket the argument markup with normal and horizontal brackets
7385 @cindex @code{\musicglyph}
7386 This is converted to a musical symbol, e.g. @code{\musicglyph
7387 #"accidentals-0"} will select the natural sign from the music font.
7388 See @ref{The Feta font} for a complete listing of the possible glyphs.
7390 This produces a single character, e.g. @code{\char #65} produces the
7393 @item \note @var{log} @var{dots} @var{dir}
7394 @cindex @code{\note}
7396 This produces a note with a stem pointing in @var{dir} direction, with
7397 duration log @var{log} and @var{dots} augmentation dots. The duration
7398 log is the negative 2-logarithm of the duration denominator. For
7399 example, a quarter note has log 2, an eighth note 3 and a breve has
7402 @item \hspace #@var{amount}
7403 @cindex @code{\hspace}
7404 This produces a invisible object taking horizontal space.
7406 \markup @{ A \hspace #2.0 B @}
7408 will put extra space between A and B, on top of the space that is
7409 normally inserted before elements on a line.
7411 @item \fontsize #@var{size}
7412 @cindex @code{\fontsize}
7413 This sets the relative font size, eg.
7415 A \fontsize #2 @{ B C @} D
7419 This will enlarge the B and the C by two steps.
7420 @item \translate #(cons @var{x} @var{y})
7422 This translates an object. Its first argument is a cons of numbers
7424 A \translate #(cons 2 -3) @{ B C @} D
7426 This moves `B C' 2 spaces to the right, and 3 down.
7428 @item \magnify #@var{mag}
7429 @cindex @code{\magnify}
7430 This sets the font magnification for the its argument. In the following
7431 example, the middle A will be 10% larger:
7433 A \magnify #1.1 @{ A @} A
7437 @item \override #(@var{key} . @var{value})
7438 @cindex @code{\override}
7439 This overrides a formatting property for its argument. The argument
7440 should be a key/value pair, e.g.
7442 m \override #'(font-family . math) m m
7446 In markup mode you can compose expressions, similar to mathematical
7447 expressions, XML documents and music expressions. The braces group
7448 notes into horizontal lines. Other types of lists also exist: you can
7449 stack expressions grouped with @code{<<}, and @code{>>} vertically with
7450 the command @code{\column}. Similarly, @code{\center} aligns texts by
7453 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
7454 c1^\markup { \column << a bbbb c >> }
7455 c1^\markup { \center << a bbbb c >> }
7456 c1^\markup { \line << a b c >> }
7459 The markup mechanism is extensible. Refer to
7460 @file{scm/new-markup.scm} for more information.
7466 @internalsref{Markup-functions}, and @file{scm/new-markup.scm}.
7473 Text layout is ultimately done by @TeX{}, which does kerning of
7474 letters. LilyPond does not account for kerning, so texts will be
7475 spaced slightly too wide.
7477 Syntax errors for markup mode are confusing.
7483 @section Global layout
7485 The global layout determined by three factors: the page layout, the
7486 line breaks and the spacing. These all influence each other. The
7487 choice of spacing determines how densely each system of music is set,
7488 which influences where line breaks breaks are chosen, and thus
7489 ultimately how many pages a piece of music takes. In this section, the
7490 algorithm for spacing music is explained, and how spacing can be
7493 Globally spoken, this procedure happens in three steps: first,
7494 flexible distances (``springs'') are chosen, based on durations. All
7495 possible line breaking combination are tried, and the one with the
7496 best results---a layout that has uniform density and requires as
7497 little stretching or cramping as possible---is chosen. When the score
7498 is processed by @TeX{}, each page is filled with systems, and page breaks
7499 are chosen whenever the page gets full.
7504 * Vertical spacing::
7505 * Horizontal spacing::
7512 @node Vertical spacing
7513 @subsection Vertical spacing
7515 @cindex vertical spacing
7516 @cindex distance between staves
7517 @cindex staff distance
7518 @cindex between staves, distance
7519 @cindex staffs per page
7522 The height of each system is determined automatically by LilyPond, to
7523 keep systems from bumping into each other, some minimum distances are
7524 set. By changing these, you can put staves closer together, and thus
7525 put more systems onto one page.
7527 Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make
7528 staves maintain a distance, their vertical size is padded. This is
7529 done with the property @code{minimumVerticalExtent}. It takes a pair
7530 of numbers, so if you want to make it smaller from its, then you could
7533 \property Staff.minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4 . 4)
7535 This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 4 staff-space on
7536 either side of the center staff line. The argument of
7537 @code{minimumVerticalExtent} is interpreted as an interval, where the
7538 center line is the 0, so the first number is generally negative. The
7539 staff can be made larger at the bottom by setting it to @code{(-6
7542 The piano staves are handled a little differently: to make cross-staff
7543 beaming work correctly, it is necessary that the distance between staves
7544 is fixed beforehand. This is also done with a
7545 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object, created in
7546 @internalsref{PianoStaff}. In this object the distance between the
7547 staves is fixed by setting @code{forced-distance}. If you want to
7548 override this, use a @code{\translator} block as follows:
7552 VerticalAlignment \override #'forced-distance = #9
7555 This would bring the staves together at a distance of 9 staff spaces,
7556 measured from the center line of each staff.
7560 Vertical alignment of staves is handled by the
7561 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object.
7565 @node Horizontal spacing
7566 @subsection Horizontal Spacing
7568 The spacing engine translates differences in durations into
7569 stretchable distances (``springs'') of differing lengths. Longer
7570 durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest
7571 durations get a fixed amount of space (which is controlled by
7572 @code{shortest-duration-space} in the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} object).
7573 /The longer the duration, the more space it gets: doubling a
7574 duration adds a fixed amount (this amount is controlled by
7575 @code{spacing-increment}) of space to the note.
7577 For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter and
7578 8th notes, the eighth note is followed by 1 note head width (NHW).
7579 The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by 3 NHW, etc.
7580 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=1] c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8
7584 Normally, @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to 1.2, which is the
7585 width of a note head, and @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to
7586 2.0, meaning that the shortest note gets 2 NHW (2 times
7587 @code{shortest-duration-space}) of space. For normal notes, this space
7588 is always counted from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest
7589 notes are generally followed by one NHW of space.
7591 If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single
7592 32th note to a score that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the
7593 entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a 16th, but a 32nd,
7594 thus adding 2 noteheads of space to every note. To prevent this, the
7595 shortest duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score,
7596 but the most commonly found shortest note. Notes that are even
7597 shorter this are followed by a space that is proportonial to their
7598 duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add
7599 only a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by
7602 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=2]
7603 c2 c4. c8 c4. c16-[ c-] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
7606 The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every
7607 measure, the shortest duration is determined. The most common short
7608 duration, is taken as the basis for the spacing, with the stipulation
7609 that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than
7610 1/8th note. The shortest duration is printed when you run lilypond
7611 with @code{--verbose}. These durations may also be customized. If you
7612 set the @code{common-shortest-duration} in
7613 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, then this sets the base duration for
7614 spacing. The maximum duration for this base (normally 1/8th), is set
7615 through @code{base-shortest-duration}.
7617 @cindex @code{common-shortest-duration}
7618 @cindex @code{base-shortest-duration}
7619 @cindex @code{stem-spacing-correction}
7620 @cindex @code{spacing}
7622 In the introduction it was explained that stem directions influence
7623 spacing. This is controlled with @code{stem-spacing-correction}
7624 property in @internalsref{NoteSpacing}, which are generated for every
7625 @internalsref{Voice} context. The @code{StaffSpacing} object
7626 (generated at @internalsref{Staff} context) contains the same property
7627 for controlling the stem/barline spacing. The following example
7628 shows these corrections, once with default settings, and once with
7629 exaggerated corrections:
7635 \property Staff.NoteSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
7637 \property Staff.StaffSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
7642 \paper { raggedright = ##t } }
7645 @cindex SpacingSpanner, overriding properties
7647 Properties of the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} must be overridden
7648 from the @code{\paper} block, since the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} is
7649 created before any @code{\property} statements are interpreted.
7651 \paper @{ \translator @{
7653 SpacingSpanner \override #'spacing-increment = #3.0
7660 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, @internalsref{NoteSpacing},
7661 @internalsref{StaffSpacing}, @internalsref{SeparationItem}, and
7662 @internalsref{SeparatingGroupSpanner}.
7666 Spacing is determined on a score wide basis. If you have a score that
7667 changes its character (measured in durations) halfway during the
7668 score, the part containing the longer durations will be spaced too
7671 There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing.
7676 @subsection Font size
7677 @cindex font size, setting
7678 @cindex staff size, setting
7679 @cindex @code{paper} file
7681 The Feta font provides musical symbols at seven different sizes.
7682 These fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point, 23 point, and
7683 26 point. The point size of a font is the height of the corresponding
7684 staff (excluding line thicknesses).
7686 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
7687 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any
7688 of these files, the variables @code{paperEleven},
7689 @code{paperThirteen}, @code{paperSixteen},
7690 @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and @code{paperTwentysix}
7691 are defined respectively. The default @code{\paper} block is also
7692 set. These files should be imported at toplevel, i.e.
7694 \include "paper26.ly"
7698 The default font size settings for each staff heights are generated
7699 from the 20pt style sheet. For more details, see the file
7700 @file{scm/font.scm}.
7704 @subsection Line breaking
7707 @cindex breaking lines
7709 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
7710 that lines look neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines
7711 have similar density.
7713 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can
7714 do this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at
7715 this point. Line breaks can only occur at places where there are bar
7716 lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line,
7717 you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
7718 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a
7722 @cindex regular line breaks
7723 @cindex four bar music.
7725 For linebreaks at regular intervals use @code{\break} separated by
7726 skips and repeated with @code{\repeat}:
7728 < \repeat unfold 7 @{ s1 * 4 \break @}
7729 @emph{the real music}
7734 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
7739 @internalsref{BreakEvent}.
7743 @subsection Page layout
7746 @cindex breaking pages
7748 @cindex @code{indent}
7749 @cindex @code{linewidth}
7751 The most basic settings influencing the spacing are @code{indent} and
7752 @code{linewidth}. They are set in the @code{\paper} block. They
7753 control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of
7756 If @code{raggedright} is set to true in the @code{\paper}
7757 block, then the lines are justified at their natural length. This
7758 useful for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural
7762 @cindex vertical spacing
7764 The page layout process happens outside the LilyPond formatting
7765 engine: variables controlling page layout are passed to the output,
7766 and are further interpreted by @code{ly2dvi}. @code{ly2dvi} responds
7767 to the following variables in the @code{\paper} block. The variable
7768 @code{textheight} sets the total height of the music on each page.
7769 The spacing between systems is controlled with @code{interscoreline},
7770 its default is 16pt. The distance between the score lines will
7771 stretch in order to fill the full page @code{interscorelinefill} is
7772 set to a positive number. In that case @code{interscoreline}
7773 specifies the minimum spacing.
7775 @cindex @code{textheight}
7776 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
7777 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
7779 If the variable @code{lastpagefill} is defined,
7780 @c fixme: this should only be done if lastpagefill == #t
7781 systems are evenly distributed vertically on the last page. This
7782 might produce ugly results in case there are not enough systems on the
7783 last page. The @command{lilypond-book} command ignores
7784 @code{lastpagefill}. See @ref{lilypond-book manual} for more
7787 @cindex @code{lastpagefill}
7789 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
7790 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into
7791 the @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages. This
7792 is done by setting the @code{between-systems-strings} on the
7793 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn} where the system is broken.
7794 An example is shown in @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}.
7795 The predefined command @code{\newpage} also does this.
7799 @cindex @code{papersize}
7801 To change the paper size, you must first set the @code{papersize} paper
7802 variable variable as in the example below. Set it to
7803 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
7804 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
7805 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
7808 \paper@{ papersize = "a4" @}
7809 \include "paper16.ly"
7812 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
7813 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
7814 @code{lilypond} and @code{ly2dvi}).
7819 @cindex @code{\newpage}
7825 @ref{Invoking ly2dvi},
7826 @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}, and
7827 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn}.
7831 LilyPond has no concept of page layout, which makes it difficult to
7832 reliably choose page breaks in longer pieces.
7841 Entered music can also be converted to MIDI output. The performance
7842 is good enough for proof-hearing the music for errors.
7844 Ties, dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted. Dynamic marks,
7845 crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume levels. Dynamic
7846 marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI volume
7847 range, crescendi and decrescendi make the volume vary linearly between
7848 their two extremities. The fractions can be adjusted by
7849 @code{dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction} in @internalsref{Voice} context.
7850 For each type of MIDI instrument, a volume range can be defined. This
7851 gives a basic equalizer control, which can enhance the quality of
7852 the MIDI output remarkably. The equalizer can be controlled by
7853 setting @code{instrumentEqualizer}.
7857 Many musically interesting effects, such as swing, articulation,
7858 slurring, etc., are not translated to MIDI.
7863 * MIDI instrument names::
7868 @subsection MIDI block
7872 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
7873 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
7877 @item a @code{\tempo} definition, and
7878 @item context definitions.
7881 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
7885 @cindex context definition
7887 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
7888 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
7889 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer-init.ly}.
7892 @node MIDI instrument names
7893 @subsection MIDI instrument names
7895 @cindex instrument names
7896 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
7897 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
7899 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
7900 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
7901 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
7902 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
7906 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
7907 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by