4 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
5 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
6 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
8 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
17 @macro internalsref{NAME}
18 @uref{../lilypond-internals/\NAME\.html,\NAME\}
21 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
22 See @internalsref{\NAME\}
28 @macro seeinternals{NAME}
30 @macro internalsref{NAME}
37 @c .{Reference Manual}
39 @node Reference Manual
40 @chapter Reference Manual
43 <!--- @@WEB-TITLE@@=Reference Manual --->
46 This document describes GNU LilyPond and its input format. The last
47 revision of this document was made for LilyPond 1.4.1. It supposes a
48 passing familiarity with how LilyPond input works. New users are
49 encouraged to study the tutorial first.
51 The reference manual is ordered according to different tasks.
52 More details on the property setting mechanisms and context handling is
53 provided in @ref{Tuning output} and @ref{Interpretation context}. The
54 syntactical details are described at the end of the manual.
76 * Skipping corrected music::
77 * Interpretation context::
87 The purpose of LilyPond is explained informally by the term `music
88 typesetter'. This is not a fully correct name: not only does the
89 program print musical symbols, it also makes aesthetic decisions.
90 Symbols and their placements are @emph{generated} from a high-level
91 musical description. In other words, LilyPond would be best described
92 by `music compiler' or `music to notation compiler'.
94 LilyPond is linked to GUILE, GNU's Scheme library for extension
95 programming. The Scheme library provides the glue that holds together
96 the low-level routines and separate modules which are written in C++.
98 When lilypond is run to typeset sheet music, the following happens:
100 @item GUILE Initialization: various scheme files are read
101 @item parsing: first standard @code{ly} initialization files are read, and
102 then the user @file{ly} file is read.
103 @item interpretation: the music in the file is processed ``in playing
104 order'', i.e. the order that you use to read sheet music, or the
105 order in which notes are played. The result of this step is a typesetting
109 The typesetting specification is solved: positions and formatting is
112 @item the visible results ("virtual ink") are written to the output file.
115 During these stages different types of data play the the main role:
116 during parsing, @strong{Music} objects are created. During the
117 interpretation, @strong{contexts} are constructed, and with these contexts
118 a network of @strong{graphical objects} (``grobs'') is created. These
119 grobs contain unknown variables, and the network forms a set of
120 equations. After solving the equations and filling in these variables,
121 the printed output (in the form of @strong{molecules}) is written to an
124 These threemanship of tasks (parsing, translating, typesetting) and
125 data-structures (music, context, graphical objects) permeates the entire
126 design of the program.
128 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
134 The most basic forms of music are notes. We discuss how you enter them
135 here. Notes on their own don't form valid input, but for the sake of
136 brevity we omit obligatory lint such as @code{\score} blocks and
137 @code{\paper} declarations.
148 * Defining pitch names::
149 * Easy Notation note heads ::
156 A note specification has the form
159 @var{pitch}[!][?][@var{duration}]
162 The alteration refers to what note is heard, not to whether an
163 accidental is printed. This is done depending on the key and context.
164 A reminder accidental
165 @cindex reminder accidental
167 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!} after the pitch. A
168 cautionary accidental,
169 @cindex cautionary accidental
170 @cindex parenthesized accidental
171 i.e., an accidental within parentheses can be obtained by adding the
172 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.
174 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
175 cis' d' e' cis' c'? d' e' c'!
178 The grob for a note head is called @internalsref{NoteHead}.
186 @cindex Note specification
188 @cindex entering notes
190 The verbose syntax for pitch specification is
192 @cindex @code{\pitch}
194 \pitch @var{scmpitch}
197 @var{scmpitch} is a pitch scheme object, see @ref{Pitch data type}.
199 In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated by names. The default
200 names are the Dutch note names. The notes are specified by the letters
201 @code{a} through @code{g} (where the octave is formed by notes ranging
202 from @code{c} to @code{b}). The pitch @code{c} is an octave below
203 middle C and the letters span the octave above that C.
205 @cindex note names, Dutch
207 In Dutch, a sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch
208 name and a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double
209 flats are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. @code{aes}
210 and @code{ees} are contracted to @code{as} and @code{es} in Dutch, but
211 both forms are accepted.
213 LilyPond has predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
214 To use them, simply include the language specific init file. For
215 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files and
216 the names they define are:
219 Note Names sharp flat
220 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
221 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
222 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
223 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
224 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
225 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
226 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
234 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
235 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
236 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
237 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave.
239 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
240 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
248 A rest is entered like a note, with note name `@code{r}':
250 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
254 The grob is @internalsref{Rest}. Whole bar rests centered in the bar are
255 specified using @code{R}, see @ref{Multi measure rests}.
263 @cindex Invisible rest
266 An invisible rest, or skip, can be entered like a note with note name
269 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
273 Actually, this is a shorthand for the @code{\skip} command, and it is
274 only available in Note mode and Chord mode.
276 @c FIXME: in lyrics mode, we have " " and _
278 In Lyrics mode, you can use `@code{" "}' and `@code{_}':
279 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
281 \context Lyrics \lyrics { lah2 di4 " " dah2 _4 di }
282 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a4 a a2 a4 a }
286 The unabbreviated `@code{\skip} @var{duration}' also works outside of
289 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
292 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
293 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
298 Note that the skip does not produce any output, not even transparent output.
303 @subsection Durations
307 @cindex @code{\duration}
309 The syntax for a verbose duration specification is
311 \duration @var{scmduration}
313 Here, @var{scmduration} is a Scheme object of type @code{Duration}. See
314 @ref{Duration} for more information.
317 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations may be designated by numbers
318 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For notes
319 longer than a whole you must use identifiers.
323 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
325 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
331 \notes \relative c'' {
333 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
335 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
340 \remove "Clef_engraver"
341 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
342 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
343 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
349 To get a longa note head, you have to use mensural note heads. This
350 is accomplished by setting the @code{style} property of the
351 NoteHead grob to @code{mensural}. There is also a note head style
352 @code{baroque} which gives mensural note heads for @code{\longa} and
353 @code{\breve} but standard note heads for shorter notes.
355 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
356 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
360 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previous duration
361 entered. At the start of parsing a quarter note is assumed. The
362 duration can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') to obtain dotted note
366 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
372 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M} by
373 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
374 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
386 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. When used
387 with chords, it connects all the note heads whose pitches match.
388 Ties are indicated using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'. If you try to tie
389 together chords which have no common pitches then no ties will be
392 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
393 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
396 If you dislike the amount of ties created for a chord, you set
397 @code{Voice.sparseTies} to true, resulting in a smaller number of
399 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
400 \property Voice.sparseTies = ##t
401 <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
404 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
405 to the augmentation dot: the following example are two ways of notating
406 exactly the same concept.
408 @lilypond[fragment, singleline]
409 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
412 The name of the tie grob is @internalsref{Tie}, and it is created in the
413 @internalsref{Voice} context.
417 At present, the tie is implemented as a separate thing, temporally
418 located in between the notes. There is also no way to convert
419 between tied notes, dotted notes and plain notes.
421 Tieing only a subset of the note heads of a chord is not supported in a
422 simple way. It can be achieved by moving the tie-engraver into the Thread
423 context and turning on and off ties per Thread.
431 @cindex @code{\times}
433 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all duration
436 @cindex @code{\times}
438 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
441 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
442 In print, the fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes,
443 optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in
444 which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of
445 their written length:
447 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
448 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
451 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each bracket
452 should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing
453 @code{\times} only once, thus saving typing work.
455 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
456 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(make-moment 1 4)
457 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
460 The format of the number is determined by the property
461 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
462 denominator, but if you set it to the Scheme function
463 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, Lilypond will print @var{num}:@var{den}
466 The typesetting of brackets and numbers is controlled by the properties
467 @code{tuplet-bracket-visibility} and @code{tuplet-number-visibility}.
469 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
470 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##t
471 \times 2/3{c'8 d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
472 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = #'if-no-beam
473 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
474 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-bracket-visibility = ##f
475 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
476 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = ##f
477 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
478 \property Voice.TupletBracket \set #'tuplet-number-visibility = #'if-no-beam
479 \times 2/3{c d e} \times 2/3{d4 e8}
482 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
483 @cindex tuplet formatting
485 Tuplet brackets are printed as @internalsref{TupletBracket} grobs, most
486 often in the @internalsref{Voice} context.
488 @c . {Defining pitch names}
489 @node Defining pitch names
490 @subsection Defining pitch names
492 @cindex defining pitch names
493 @cindex pitch names, defining
495 Note names and chord modifiers can be customized for nationalities. The
496 syntax is as follows.
498 @cindex @code{\pitchnames}
499 @cindex @code{\chordmodifiers}
501 \pitchnames @var{scheme-alist}
502 \chordmodifiers @var{scheme-alist}
505 See @file{ly/nederlands.ly} and @file{ly/chord-modifiers.ly} for
506 specific examples on how to do this.
509 @node Easy Notation note heads
510 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
512 @cindex easy notation
515 A entirely different type of note head is the "easyplay" note head: a
516 note head that includes a note name. It is used in some publications by
517 Hal-Leonard Inc. music publishers.
519 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
520 \include "paper23.ly"
522 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
523 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
527 Note that @internalsref{EasyNotation} overrides a @internalsref{Score} context. You
528 probably will want to print it with magnification to make it more
529 readable, see @ref{Output scaling}.
535 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines will show through the
536 letters. Printing the postscript file obtained either by using dvips or
537 the @code{-f ps} option of lilypond produces the correct result.
542 @section Staff notation
544 @cindex Staff notation
556 @subsection Key signature
561 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
564 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
567 @cindex @code{\minor}
568 @cindex @code{\major}
569 @cindex @code{\minor}
570 @cindex @code{\ionian}
571 @cindex @code{\locrian}
572 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
573 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
574 @cindex @code{\lydian}
575 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
576 @cindex @code{\dorian}
578 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
579 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
580 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
581 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
582 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
584 This command sets the context property @code{Staff.keySignature}.
585 Non-standard key signatures can be specified by setting this property
588 The printed signature is a @internalsref{KeySignature} grob, typically
589 created in @internalsref{Staff} context.
591 @cindex @code{keySignature}
598 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command.
606 \property Staff.clefGlyph = @var{glyph associated with clefname}
607 \property Staff.clefPosition = @var{clef Y-position for clefname}
608 \property Staff.centralCPosition = @var{position for central C}
609 \property Staff.clefOctavation = @var{extra transposition of clefname}
613 Any change in these properties creates a clef (A @internalsref{Clef} grob).
615 Supported clef-names include
617 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
619 @item treble, violin, G, G2
628 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
643 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
644 transposed one octave down or up, respectively. Note that you have to
645 enclose @var{clefname} in quotes if you use underscores or digits in the
651 Supported associated glyphs (for @code{Staff.clefGlyph}) are:
660 @item clefs-vaticana_do
661 Editio Vaticana style do clef
662 @item clefs-vaticana_fa
663 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
664 @item clefs-medicaea_do
665 Editio Medicaea style do clef
666 @item clefs-medicaea_fa
667 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
668 @item clefs-mensural1_c
669 modern style mensural C clef
670 @item clefs-mensural2_c
671 historic style small mensural C clef
672 @item clefs-mensural3_c
673 historic style big mensural C clef
674 @item clefs-mensural1_f
675 historic style traditional mensural F clef
676 @item clefs-mensural2_f
677 historic style new mensural F clef
678 @item clefs-mensural_g
679 historic style mensural G clef
680 @item clefs-hufnagel_do
681 historic style hufnagel do clef
682 @item clefs-hufnagel_fa
683 historic style hufnagel fa clef
684 @item clefs-hufnagel_do_fa
685 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
686 @item clefs-percussion
687 modern style percussion clef
690 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in current editions.''
691 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in contemporary
692 historic editions''. @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in
695 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
696 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
697 @cindex hufnagel clefs
700 @c . {Time signature}
702 @subsection Time signature
703 @cindex Time signature
707 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
710 \time @var{n}@code{/}@var{d}
712 Internally, this is a shortcut for doing
714 \property Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(@var{n} . @var{d})
715 \property Score.beatLength = #(make-moment 1 @var{d})
716 \property Score.measureLength = #(make-moment @var{n} @var{d})
719 These properties @code{timeSignatureFraction} determine where bar lines
720 should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be
723 Changing the value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes a
724 fraction to be printed. This grob is @internalsref{TimeSignature}.
726 The actual symbol that's printed can be customized with the style
728 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, singleline]
730 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
732 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'()
734 \property Staff.TimeSignature \override #'style = #'C
738 There are many more options for the layout of this grob. They are
739 selected through the @code{style} grob property.
741 @c FIXME: this isn't documented except in example?
743 @file{input/test/time.ly} for examples.
750 @cindex partial measure
751 @cindex measure, partial
752 @cindex shorten measures
753 @cindex @code{\partial}
755 Partial measures, for example in upbeats, are entered using the
756 @code{\partial} command:
758 \partial @var{duration}
761 Internally, this is a shortcut for
764 \property Score.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
768 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
769 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
772 @node Unmetered music
773 @subsection Unmetered music
775 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
776 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. The property
777 @code{Score.timing} can be used to switch off this automatic timing
779 @lilypond[fragment,relative,singleline,verbatim]
781 \property Score.timing = ##f
783 \property Score.timing = ##t
787 The identifiers @code{\cadenzaOn} and @code{\cadenzaOff} can be used as
794 @subsection Bar lines
798 @cindex measure lines
805 This is a shortcut for doing
807 \property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}
809 The following bar types are available
811 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
824 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
828 @cindex Bar_line_engraver
830 @cindex repeatCommands
831 @cindex defaultBarType
833 Whenever @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
834 created. @code{whichBar} is usually set automatically: at the start of
835 a measure it is set to @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of
836 @code{repeatCommands} is used to override default measure bars.
838 @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property} or
839 @code{\bar }. These settings take precedence over the automatic
840 @code{whichBar} settings.
842 @internalsref{BarLine} grobs are created by the @code{Bar_engraver}.
849 Polyphonic parts, i.e. parts with more than one voice on a staff can be
850 typeset with LilyPond. To use this, instantiate a separate Voice
851 context for each part, and assign a stem direction to each part.
852 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
854 < \context Voice = VA { \stemUp b'4 a' g' f' e' }
855 \context Voice = VB { \stemDown g'4 g' g' g' g' } >
858 When there are more than two voices on a staff, you must also indicate
859 which voice should moved horizontally in case of a collision. This can
860 be done with the identifiers @code{\shiftOff}, @code{\shiftOn},
861 @code{\shiftOnn}, etc. (which sets the grob property @code{horizontal-shift}
862 in @internalsref{NoteColumn}).
864 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
865 \context Staff \notes\relative c''<
872 \context Voice=three {
873 \shiftOnn \stemUp ais
875 \context Voice=four {
876 \shiftOnnn \stemUp fis
881 The most convenient way is to use the identifiers @code{\voiceOne}
882 through @code{\voiceFour}, which also set slur and tie directions in the
885 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
887 \context Staff < \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne cis2 b }
888 \context Voice = VB { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
889 \context Voice = VC { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >
892 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
893 if you set the grob property @code{merge-differently-dotted}, they are:
895 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
897 \context Voice = VA { \voiceOne
899 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
902 \context Voice = VB { \voiceTwo [g'8. f16] [g'8. f'16] }
906 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem.
908 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
910 \context Voice { \stemUp c''4 }
911 \context Voice =VB { r4 }
915 Note head collisions (horizontal shifting of note heads) are handled by
916 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} grob. @internalsref{RestCollision} handles vertical
923 Resolving collisions is a very intricate subject, and LilyPond only
924 handles a few situations. When it can not cope, you are advised to use
925 @code{force-hshift} of the NoteColumn grob and @code{staff-position} of
926 the Rest grob to override typesetting decisions.
931 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
932 the metrum. LilyPond guesses where beams should be inserted. If you're
933 not satisfied with the automatic beaming, you can specify which patterns
934 to beam automatically. In specific cases, you can also enter the beams
938 @c . {Automatic beams}
939 @subsection Automatic beams
941 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}
942 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
943 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
946 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
947 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
948 or at durations specified by the properties in
949 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
950 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
952 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
953 @code{\override} and unset using @code{\revert}:
955 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
956 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
958 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
959 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
960 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
961 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
962 signature (wildcards, `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
965 For example, if you want automatic beams to end on every quarter note,
966 you can use the following:
968 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
969 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 1 4)
971 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
972 entered as @code{(make-moment 1 4)}.
974 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
975 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note.
977 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
978 #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
980 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
981 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
982 3/8 has passed within the measure).
984 You can also restrict rules to specific time signatures. A rule that
985 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
986 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
987 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
989 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
990 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
993 If you want a rule to apply to certain types of beams, you can use the
994 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest
995 note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams
996 with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), you would use @code{(end 1
1000 @c Automatic beams can not be put on the last note in a score.
1002 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1003 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1005 @cindex automatic beam generation
1007 @cindex @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming}
1009 Automatic beaming is on by default, but can be switched off by setting
1010 @code{Voice.noAutoBeaming} to true. You you may find this necessary for
1011 a melody that goes with lyrics.
1015 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters for beams with mixed
1016 durations, that differ from the beaming parameters of all separate
1017 durations, i.e., you'll have to specify manual beams to get:
1018 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,relative]
1019 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1020 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(make-moment 3 8)
1021 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c [c c c c] c8 c c4
1024 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1025 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1026 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1029 @cindex Automatic beams
1030 @subsection Manual beams
1031 @cindex beams, manual
1035 In some cases it may be necessary to override LilyPond's automatic
1036 beaming algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not beam over
1037 rests or bar lines, If you want that, specify the begin and end point
1038 manually using a @code{[} before the first beamed note and a @code{]}
1039 after the last note:
1041 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1043 r4 [r8 g' a r8] r8 [g | a] r8
1046 Whenever an manual beam is busy, the automatic beamer will not produce
1049 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1051 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1052 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1053 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount}. can
1054 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If you set either
1055 property, it's value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1057 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1060 [f8 r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
1063 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1065 The beam symbol (grob @internalsref{Beam} in @internalsref{Voice}
1066 context), both for automatic and manual beams) can be tweaked through
1067 grob-properties @code{height} and @code{staff-position}. These specify
1068 vertical location and vertical span. Both are measured in half
1069 staff-spaces, @code{staff-position=0} corresponds to the middle staff
1072 Set @code{height} to zero, to get horizontal beams:
1074 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1075 \property Voice.Beam \set #'direction = #1
1076 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #0
1080 Here's how you'd specify a weird looking beam that instead of being
1081 horizontal, falls two staff spaces:
1083 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1084 \property Voice.Beam \set #'staff-position = #4
1085 \property Voice.Beam \set #'height = #-4
1089 @c TODO -> why this ref? Document?
1090 @cindex @code{neutral-direction}
1092 @node Expressive marks
1093 @section Expressive marks
1108 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1109 They are entered using parentheses:
1111 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1112 f'()g'()a' [a'8 b'(] a'4 g'2 )f'4
1116 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1117 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1118 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1119 grob-property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1120 @internalsref{Voice} context It's value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1121 the attachment type of the left and right end points.
1123 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1124 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1125 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1127 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1131 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1132 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1133 stems might look better:
1135 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1136 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
1137 \property Voice.Slur \set #'direction = #1
1139 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1144 Similarly, the curvature of a slur is adjusted to stay clear of note
1145 heads and stems. When that would increase the curvature too much, the
1146 slur is reverted to its default shape. The threshold for this decision
1147 is in @internalsref{Slur}'s grob-property @code{beautiful}. It is loosely
1148 related to the enclosed area between the slur and the notes. Usually,
1149 the default setting works well, but in some cases you may prefer a
1150 curved slur when LilyPond decides for a vertically moved one. You can
1151 indicate this preference by increasing the @code{beautiful} value:
1153 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,relative]
1154 \property Voice.Beam \override #'direction = #-1
1155 \property Voice.Slur \override #'direction = #1
1156 c16( a' f' a a f a, )c,
1157 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1158 \property Voice.Slur \override #'beautiful = #5.0
1159 c( a' f' a a f d, )c
1164 @code{beautiful} is an arbitrary parameter in the slur formatter.
1165 Useful values can only be determined by trial and error.
1167 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1169 @node Phrasing slurs
1170 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1172 @cindex phrasing slurs
1173 @cindex phrasing marks
1175 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1176 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1179 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1180 \time 6/4 c' \( ( d ) e f ( e ) \) d
1183 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal
1184 slur. The grob associated with it is @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, in
1185 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1188 @subsection Breath marks
1190 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}. The result is a
1191 @internalsref{BreathingSign} grob in @internalsref{Voice} context.
1193 @lilypond[fragment,relative]
1202 Currently, only tick marks are supported, not comma style breath marks.
1209 @cindex beats per minute
1210 @cindex metronome marking
1212 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1214 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1216 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1219 For example, @code{\tempo 4 = 76} requests output with 76 quarter notes
1224 The tempo setting is not printed, but is only used in the MIDI
1225 output. You can trick lily into producing a metronome mark,
1226 though. Details are in @ref{Text markup}.
1231 @subsection Text spanners
1232 @cindex Text spanners
1234 Some textual indications, e.g. rallentando or accelerando, often extend
1235 over many measures. This is indicated by following the text with a
1236 dotted line. You can create such texts using text spanners. The syntax
1239 \spanrequest \start "text"
1240 \spanrequest \stop "text"
1242 LilyPond will respond by creating a @internalsref{TextSpanner} grob (typically
1243 in @internalsref{Voice} context). The string to be printed, as well as the
1244 style is set through grob properties.
1246 An application---or rather, a hack---is to fake octavation indications.
1247 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1248 \relative c' { a''' b c a
1249 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'type = #'dotted-line
1250 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-height = #'(0 . 1.5)
1251 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("8va " . "")
1252 \property Staff.centralCPosition = #-13
1253 a\spanrequest \start "text" b c a \spanrequest \stop "text" }
1271 @subsection Articulations
1272 @cindex Articulations
1274 @cindex articulations
1278 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
1279 different characteristics of the performance. These symbols can be
1280 added to a note with `@var{note}@code{-\}@var{name}'. Numerous symbols
1281 are defined in @file{script.ly}. Symbols can be forced to appear above
1282 or below the note by writing `@var{note}@code{^\}@var{name}' and
1283 `@var{note}@code{_\}@var{name}' respectively. Here is a chart showing
1284 symbols on notes, with the name of the corresponding symbol appearing
1290 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-family =#'typewriter
1291 \property Score.LyricSyllable \override #'font-shape = #'upright
1292 \context Staff \notes {
1293 c''-\accent c''-\marcato c''-\staccatissimo c''^\fermata
1294 c''-\stopped c''-\staccato c''-\tenuto c''-\upbow
1295 c''-\downbow c''^\lheel c''-\rheel c''^\ltoe
1296 c''-\rtoe c''-\turn c''-\open c''-\flageolet
1297 c''-\reverseturn c''-\trill c''-\prall c''-\mordent
1298 c''-\prallprall c''-\prallmordent c''-\upprall c''-\downprall
1299 c''-\upmordent c''-\downmordent c''-\pralldown c''-\prallup
1300 c''-\lineprall c''-\thumb c''-\segno c''-\coda
1302 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1303 accent__ marcato__ staccatissimo__ fermata
1304 stopped__ staccato__ tenuto__ upbow
1305 downbow__ lheel__ rheel__ ltoe
1306 rtoe__ turn__ open__ flageolet
1307 reverseturn__ trill__ prall__ mordent
1308 prallprall__ prallmordent__ uprall__ downprall
1309 upmordent__ downmordent__ pralldown__ prallup__
1310 lineprall__ thumb__ segno__ coda
1314 linewidth = 5.875\in
1320 To save typing work, some shorthands are available:
1321 @lilypond[singleline]
1323 \notes \context Voice {
1324 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-family = #'typewriter
1325 \property Voice.TextScript \set #'font-shape = #'upright
1331 c''4-^_"c-\\^{ }" s4
1338 Fingering instructions can also be entered in this shorthand.
1339 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
1340 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
1344 @cindex @code{\script}
1349 You can add scripts by editing @file{scm/script.scm}. This file contains
1350 a table, listing script definitions and aliases. The following syntax
1351 accesses a script definition from the table:
1357 Usually the @code{\script} keyword is not used directly. Various
1358 helpful identifier definitions appear in @file{script.ly}.
1360 Grobs for these objects are @internalsref{Script} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
1364 All of these note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
1365 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
1367 Unfortunately, there is no support for adding fingering instructions or
1368 ornaments to individual note heads. Some hacks exist, though. See
1369 @file{input/test/script-horizontal.ly}.
1374 @subsection Text scripts
1375 @cindex Text scripts
1377 In addition, it is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup
1378 text (see @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
1381 By default, these indications do not influence the note spacing, but
1382 if @code{Voice.textNonEmpty} is set to true the widths will be taken
1383 into account. The identifier @code{\fatText} is defined in the standard
1385 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
1386 \relative c' { c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
1389 Text scripts are created in form of @internalsref{TextScript} grobs, in
1390 @internalsref{Voice} context.
1392 @ref{Text markup} describes how to change the font or access
1393 special symbols in text scripts.
1397 @subsection Grace notes
1406 @cindex @code{\grace}
1409 @cindex @code{graceAlignPosition}
1411 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out, but do not take up any
1412 logical time in a measure. LilyPond has limited support for grace notes.
1413 The syntax is as follows.
1415 \grace @var{musicexpr}
1418 Unbeamed eighth notes and shorter by default have a slash through the
1421 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1423 \grace c8 c4 \grace { [c16 c16] } c4
1425 \property Voice.Stem \override #'flag-style = #'()
1427 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'flag-style
1432 A grace note expression has duration 0; the next real note is assumed to
1433 be the main note. If you want the note to appear after the main note,
1434 set @code{Voice.graceAlignPosition} to @code{1}.
1438 Nesting @code{\grace} notes is not supported. The following may cause
1439 run-time errors: @example
1440 @code{\grace @{ \grace c32 c16 @} c4}
1442 Since the meaning of such a construct is unclear, we don't consider this
1443 a loss. Similarly, juxtaposing two @code{\grace} sections is
1444 syntactically valid, but makes no sense and may cause runtime errors.
1445 Ending a staff or score with grace notes may also generate a run-time
1446 error, since there will be no main note to attach the grace notes to.
1457 @subsection Glissando
1460 @cindex @code{\glissando}
1462 A glissando line (grob @internalsref{Glissando}) can be requested by
1463 attaching a @code{\glissando} to a notte:
1465 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1471 Printing of an additional text (such as @emph{gliss.}) must be done
1478 @subsection Dynamics
1491 @cindex @code{\ffff}
1501 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an identifier after a
1502 note: @code{c4-\ff}. The available dynamic marks are: @code{\ppp},
1503 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
1504 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
1505 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}.
1507 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
1508 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
1514 @cindex @code{\decr}
1515 @cindex @code{\rced}
1521 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\cr} and terminated with
1522 @code{\rc} (the textual reverse of @code{cr}). A decrescendo mark is
1523 started with @code{\decr} and terminated with @code{\rced}. There are
1524 also shorthands for these marks. A crescendo can be started with
1525 @code{\<} and a decrescendo can be started with @code{\>}. Either one
1526 can be terminated with @code{\!}. Note that @code{\!} must go before
1527 the last note of the dynamic mark whereas @code{\rc} and @code{\rced} go
1528 after the last note. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you
1529 want several marks during one note, you have to use spacer notes.
1531 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
1532 c'' \< \! c'' d'' \decr e'' \rced
1533 < f''1 { s4 s4 \< \! s4 \> \! s4 } >
1536 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
1537 is an example how to do it:
1542 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1544 \property Voice.crescendoText = "cresc."
1545 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
1550 For everyday use, we recommend the identifiers @code{\cresc},
1551 @code{endcresc}, @code{\dim} and @code{\enddim}.
1555 Dynamics are grobs of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
1556 @internalsref{Hairpin}. They are put together on
1557 @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} to align them vertically.
1566 @cindex @code{\repeat}
1568 To specify repeats, use the @code{\repeat} keyword. Since repeats
1569 should work differently when played or printed, there are a few
1570 different variants of repeats.
1574 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
1575 output, and entering repetitive music.
1578 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
1579 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
1582 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
1583 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
1584 @file{input/star-spangled-banner.ly}.
1590 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
1596 * Manual repeat commands::
1598 * Tremolo subdivisions::
1603 @subsection Repeat syntax
1605 The syntax for repeats is
1608 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
1611 If you have alternative endings, you may add
1612 @cindex @code{\alternative}
1614 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
1616 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
1618 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.
1620 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
1621 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1623 \repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
1624 \repeat volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
1627 With alternative endings:
1628 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1630 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1631 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1634 Folded repeats look like this:
1637 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1639 \repeat fold 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1640 \alternative { {d'2 d'} {f' f} }
1644 If you don't give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then
1645 the first alternative is assumed to be repeated often enough to equal
1646 the specified number of repeats.
1648 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1652 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
1653 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
1658 @subsection Unfolding repeats for MIDI output.
1660 @cindex expanding repeats
1662 See @file{input/test/unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
1667 Notice that timing information is not remembered at the start of an
1668 alternative, so you have to reset timing information after a repeat,
1669 e.g. using a bar-check (See @ref{Bar check}), setting
1670 @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering @code{\partial}. Slurs or ties
1671 are also not repeated.
1673 It is possible to nest @code{\repeat}s, although this probably is only
1674 meaningful for unfolded repeats.
1676 Folded repeats offer little more over simultaneous music. However, it
1677 is to be expected that more functionality -- especially for the MIDI
1678 backend -- will be implemented at some point in the future.
1680 Volta repeats are printed over all staves in a score. You must turn them
1681 off explicitly, for example by doing
1683 \property Staff.VoltaBracket = \turnOff
1685 in all but the top staff.
1687 @node Manual repeat commands
1688 @subsection Manual repeat commands
1690 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
1692 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
1693 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
1701 @item (volta . @var{text})
1702 Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}.
1704 Stop a running volta bracket
1707 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
1709 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
1711 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
1716 Repeats brackets are @internalsref{VoltaBracket} grobs.
1718 @node Tremolo repeats
1719 @subsection Tremolo repeats
1720 @cindex tremolo beams
1722 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
1724 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
1726 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
1727 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
1728 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
1729 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
1730 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
1735 Tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} grobs. Single stem tremolos are
1736 @internalsref{StemTremolo}.
1741 At present, the spacing between tremolo beams is not regular, since the
1742 spacing engine does not notice that not all notes are printed.
1744 @node Tremolo subdivisions
1745 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
1746 @cindex tremolo marks
1747 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
1749 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
1750 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
1751 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
1752 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
1753 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used.
1755 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
1756 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
1762 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
1765 @node Measure repeats
1766 @subsection Measure repeats
1768 @cindex percent repeats
1769 @cindex measure repeats
1771 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
1772 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
1773 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
1774 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
1776 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1777 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
1778 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
1782 The signs are represented by these grobs: @internalsref{RepeatSlash} and
1783 @internalsref{PercentRepeat} and @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
1787 You can not nest percent repeats, e.g. by filling in the first measure
1788 with slashes, and repeating that measure with percents.
1790 @node Rhythmic music
1791 @section Rhythmic music
1798 @node Rhythmic staves
1799 @subsection Rhythmic staves
1801 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can
1802 be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff
1803 are squashed, and the staff itself looks has a single staff line:
1805 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1806 \context RhythmicStaff {
1808 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1815 @section Piano music
1817 Piano music is an odd type of notation. Piano staves are two normal
1818 staves coupled with a brace. The staves are largely independent, but
1819 sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. The
1820 @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to handle this cross-staffing
1821 behavior. In this section we discuss the @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some
1822 other pianistic peculiarities.
1825 * Automatic staff changes::
1826 * Manual staff switches::
1829 * Voice follower lines::
1833 @c . {Automatic staff changes}
1834 @node Automatic staff changes
1835 @subsection Automatic staff changes
1836 @cindex Automatic staff changes
1838 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
1839 staff. The syntax for this is
1841 \autochange @var{contexttype} @var{musicexp}
1843 This will switch the interpretation context of @var{musicexp} between a
1844 @var{contexttype} named @code{up} and @code{down}. Typically, you use
1845 @internalsref{Staff} for @var{contexttype}. The autochanger switches on basis
1846 of pitch (central C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping
1847 over rests to switch rests in advance.
1849 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
1850 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <
1851 \context Staff = "up" {
1852 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA < \relative c' {
1853 g4 a b c d r4 a g } > }
1854 \context Staff = "down" {
1860 Note how spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
1861 terminating too soon.
1864 @node Manual staff switches
1865 @subsection Manual staff switches
1867 @cindex manual staff switches
1868 @cindex staff switch, manual
1870 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
1872 \translator Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
1874 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
1875 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
1876 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
1879 The formal definition of this construct is obtuse, but for the sake of
1880 completeness we give it here.
1881 @cindex @code{\translator}
1883 \translator @var{contexttype} = @var{name}
1885 Formally, this construct is a music expression indicating
1886 that the context which is a direct child of the context of type
1887 @var{contexttype} should be shifted to a context of type
1888 @var{contexttype} and the specified name.
1896 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed using
1897 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
1898 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp}.
1900 These identifiers are shorthands for spanner commands of the types
1901 @internalsref{Sustain}, @internalsref{UnaCorda} and @internalsref{Sostenuto}:
1903 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1904 c''4 \spanrequest \start "Sustain" c''4
1905 c''4 \spanrequest \stop "Sustain"
1908 The symbols that are printed can be modified by setting
1909 @code{pedal@var{X}Strings}, where @var{X} is one of the pedal
1910 types. Refer to the generated documentation of @rgrob{PianoPedal} for
1916 Currently, brackets are not supported, only text markings (i.e. `*Ped'
1922 @subsection Arpeggio
1925 @cindex broken arpeggio
1926 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
1928 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
1929 @code{\arpeggio} to a note of the chord.
1932 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1933 \context Voice <c\arpeggio e g c>
1936 When an arpeggio crosses staves in piano music, you attach an arpeggio
1937 to the chords in both staves, and set
1938 @code{PianoStaff.connectArpeggios}.
1940 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1941 \context PianoStaff <
1942 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
1943 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
1944 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
1948 This command creates @internalsref{Arpeggio} grobs. Cross staff arpeggios
1949 are @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio}. @internalsref{Arpeggio}
1951 To add an arrow head to explicitly specify the direction of the
1952 arpeggio, you should set the arpeggio grob property
1953 @code{arpeggio-type}.
1955 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1957 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #1
1959 \property Voice.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
1965 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
1966 arpeggiate the chord.
1968 @lil ypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1969 \context PianoStaff <
1970 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
1971 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override #'arpeggio-direction = #'bracket
1972 \context Voice = one { <c'\arpeggio e g c> }
1973 \context Voice = other { \clef bass <c,,\arpeggio e g>}
1981 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios
1986 @node Voice follower lines
1987 @subsection Voice follower lines
1989 @cindex follow voice
1990 @cindex staff switching
1993 @cindex @code{followVoice}
1995 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
1996 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
1997 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
1999 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2000 \context PianoStaff <
2001 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
2002 \context Staff \context Voice {
2004 \translator Staff=two
2007 \context Staff=two {\clef bass \skip 1*2 }
2011 The associated grob is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
2021 * Automatic syllable durations::
2027 @subsection Lyrics mode
2030 To print lyrics, you must first make a music expression from the lyric
2031 text. That music expression can be printed by selecting an appropriate
2035 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
2037 You can enter lyrics in a special input mode of LilyPond. This mode is
2038 called Lyrics mode, and it is introduced by the keyword @code{\lyrics}.
2039 The purpose of this mode is that you can enter lyrics as plain text,
2040 punctuation and accents without any hassle.
2042 Syllables are entered like notes, with pitches replaced by text. For
2043 example, @code{Twin- kle twin- kle} enters four syllables. Note that
2044 the hyphen has no special meaning for lyrics, and does not introduce
2047 Spaces can be introduced into a lyric either by using quotes:
2048 @code{"He could"4 not4} or by using an underscore without quotes:
2049 @code{He_could4 not4}. All unquoted underscores are converted to
2052 The precise definition of this mode can be found in @ref{Lyrics mode
2055 @c . {Printing lyrics}
2056 @node Printing lyrics
2057 @subsection Printing lyrics
2060 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the @internalsref{Lyrics} context.
2062 @c Maybe more pedagogical to avoid \addlyrics in this first example? /MB
2063 @c Add tied and beamed melismata too.
2064 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2066 \notes \relative c' {
2068 \property Staff.automaticMelismata = ##t
2069 d'2 c4 b16 ( a g a b a b ) c a2
2070 b2 c4 b8 ( a16 g ) a4 g2 }
2071 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2073 share the soft -- ware; }
2077 Notes and syllable durations are matched automatically. This is
2078 accomplished using @code{\addlyrics}, which is documented in
2079 @ref{Automatic syllable durations}. Setting @code{automaticMelismata} in
2080 the melody staff will cause tied, slurred or beamed notes to be
2081 interpreted as melismata.
2083 The Lyric syllables are @code{LyricsVoice.LyricSyllable} grobs.
2086 @cindex lyric extender
2089 As you can see, extender lines are entered as @code{__}. This will
2090 create an extender, a line that extends over the entire duration of the
2091 lyric. This line will run all the way to the start of the next lyric,
2092 so you may want to shorten it by using a blank lyric (using @code{_}).
2093 The grob for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricExtender}.
2098 If you want to have hyphens centered between syllables (rather than
2099 attached to the end of the first syllable) you can use the special
2100 `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric as a separate word between syllables. This
2101 will result in a hyphen whose length varies depending on the space
2102 between syllables. It will be centered between the syllables. The grob
2103 for this symbol is @code{LyricsVoice.LyricHyphen}.
2105 @cindex Lyric hyphen
2107 @node Automatic syllable durations
2108 @subsection Automatic syllable durations
2109 @cindex Automatic syllable durations
2111 @cindex automatic lyric durations
2112 @cindex @code{\addlyrics}
2114 If you have lyrics that are set to a melody, you can copy the rhythm
2115 of that melody into the lyrics using @code{\addlyrics}. The syntax for
2118 \addlyrics @var{musicexpr1 musicexpr2}
2121 Both @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} are interpreted, but every
2122 music event (``every syllable'') in @var{musicexpr2} is interpreted only
2123 when there are events in @var{musicexpr1}.
2125 @cindex @code{automaticMelismata}
2127 If the property @code{automaticMelismata} is set in the
2128 context of @var{musicexpr1}, no lyrics will be put on slurred or tied
2131 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2134 \property Voice.automaticMelismata = ##t
2135 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2137 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2141 If you want the lyric lines to be above the melody staff, or in some
2142 other, more complex configuration, then build that configuration first
2143 using simultaneous music, and use @code{\addlyrics} after that.
2145 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
2147 \context Lyrics = LA { s1 }
2148 \context Staff = SA { s1 }
2150 \context Staff = SA \relative c' { c4 e g g }
2151 \context Lyrics = LA \lyrics { geen ge -- don -- der } >
2154 For @code{\addlyrics} you should use a single rhythm melody, and single
2155 rhythm lyrics (a constant duration is the obvious choice). If you do
2156 not, you can get undesired effects when using multiple stanzas:
2158 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
2161 c8 () cis d8. e16 f2
2163 \context Lyrics \lyrics
2168 It is valid (but probably not very useful) to use notes instead of
2169 lyrics for @var{musicexpr2}.
2172 @subsection More stanzas
2176 If you have multiple stanzas printed underneath each other, the vertical
2177 groups of syllables should be aligned around punctuation. LilyPond can
2178 do this if you tell it which lyric lines belong to which melody.
2180 To this end, give the Voice context an identity, and set the LyricsVoice
2181 to a name starting with that identity followed by a dash.
2182 In the following example, the Voice
2183 identity is @code{duet}, and the identities of the LyricsVoices are
2184 @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}.
2187 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2190 \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
2192 \lyrics \context Lyrics <
2193 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" {
2194 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
2195 Hi, my name is bert. }
2196 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" {
2197 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
2198 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
2203 You can add stanza numbers by setting @code{LyricsVoice.Stanza} (for the
2204 first system) and @code{LyricsVoice.stz} for the following
2205 systems. Notice how you must surround dots with spaces in @code{\lyrics}
2211 @cindex stanza numbering
2219 LilyPond has support for both entering and printing chords. Chords are
2220 characterized by a set of pitches. They are
2221 internally stored as simultaneous music expressions. This means you can
2222 enter chords by name and print them as note head, enter them as notes
2223 and print them as chord names, or (the most common case) enter them by
2224 name, and print them as name.
2227 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2228 twoWays = \notes \transpose c'' {
2238 < \context ChordNames \twoWays
2239 \context Voice \twoWays > }
2242 Note that this example also shows that the chord printing routines do
2243 not attempt to be intelligent. If you enter @code{f bes d}, it does not
2244 interpret this as an inversion.
2248 * Printing named chords::
2253 @subsection Chords mode
2256 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
2257 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}. It is similar
2258 to note mode, but words are also looked up in a chord modifier table
2259 (containing @code{maj}, @code{dim}, etc).
2261 Dashes and carets are used to indicate chord additions and subtractions,
2262 so articulation scripts can not be entered in Chord mode.
2264 The syntax for named chords is as follows:
2266 @var{tonic}[@var{duration}][@code{-}@var{modifiers}][@code{^}@var{subtractions}][@code{/}@var{inversion}][@code{/+}@var{bass}].
2269 @var{tonic} should be the tonic note of the chord, and @var{duration} is
2270 the chord duration in the usual notation. There are two kinds of
2271 modifiers. One type is formed by @emph{chord additions}. Additions are
2272 obtained by listing intervals separated by dots. An interval is written
2273 by its number with an optional @code{+} or @code{-} to indicate raising
2274 or lowering by half a step. Chord additions have two effects: they adds
2275 the specified interval and all lower odd numbered intervals to the
2276 chord, and they may lower or raise the specified interval.
2278 Throughout these examples, chords have been shifted around the staff
2279 using @code{\transpose}.
2281 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2285 c:9 c:9-.5+.7+ c:3-.5-
2295 The second type of modifier that may appear after the @code{:} is a
2296 named modifier. Named modifiers are listed in the file
2297 @file{chord-modifiers.ly}. The available modifiers are @code{m} and
2298 @code{min} which lower the 3rd half a step, `@code{aug}' which
2299 raises the 5th, `@code{dim}' which lowers the 5th,
2300 `@code{maj}' which adds a raised 7th, and `@code{sus}'
2301 which replaces the 5th with a 4th.
2303 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2306 c1:m c:min7 c:maj c:aug c:dim c:sus
2312 Chord subtractions are used to eliminate notes from a chord. The
2313 notes to be subtracted are listed after a @code{^} character,
2316 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2325 Chord inversions can be specified by appending `@code{/}' and the name
2326 of a single note to a chord. In a chord inversion, the inverted note is
2327 transposed down until it is the lowest note in the chord. If the note
2328 is not in the chord, a warning will be printed.
2330 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2340 Bass notes can be added by `@code{/+}' and
2341 the name of a single note to a chord. This has the effect of
2342 adding the specified note to the chord, lowered by an octave,
2343 so it becomes the lowest note in the chord.
2345 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
2356 Implementation details are quite gory. For example @code{c:4} not only
2357 adds a fourth, but also removes the third.
2360 @c . {Printing named chords}
2361 @node Printing named chords
2362 @subsection Printing named chords
2364 @cindex printing chord names
2368 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
2369 The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or
2370 directly using simultaneous music.
2372 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2374 \chords {a1 b c} <d f g> <e g b>
2378 \context ChordNames \scheme
2379 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2384 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
2385 @code{ChordNames.chordChanges} to true. This will only display chord
2386 names when there's a change in the chords scheme and at the start of a
2391 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
2395 \context ChordNames {
2396 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
2398 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2402 LilyPond examines chords specified as lists of notes to determine a name
2403 to give the chord. LilyPond will not try to identify chord inversions or
2404 an added bass note, which may result in strange chord names when chords
2405 are entered as a list of pitches:
2407 @lilypond[verbatim,center,singleline]
2416 \context ChordNames \scheme
2417 \context Staff \scheme
2423 By default, a chord name system proposed by Harald Banter (See
2424 @ref{Literature}) is used. The system is very regular and predictable.
2425 Typical American style chord names may be selected by setting the
2426 @code{style} property of the @code{ChordNames.ChordName} grob to
2427 @code{'american}. Similarly @code{'jazz} selects Jazz chordnames.
2429 Routines that determine the names to be printed are written in Scheme,
2430 and may be customized by the user. The code can be found in
2431 @file{scm/chord-name.scm}. Here's an example showing the differences in
2435 @c maybe just junk verbatim option?
2436 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2446 \context ChordNames = banter \scheme
2447 \context ChordNames = american {
2448 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2449 #'style = #'american \scheme }
2450 \context ChordNames = jazz {
2451 \property ChordNames.ChordName \override
2452 #'style = #'jazz \scheme }
2453 \context Staff \transpose c'' \scheme
2460 @section Writing parts
2462 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score,
2463 as in the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle common
2464 problems in orchestral music.
2471 * Instrument names::
2473 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
2474 * Multi measure rests::
2475 * Automatic part combining::
2476 * Hara kiri staves::
2479 @c . {Rehearsal marks}
2480 @node Rehearsal marks
2481 @subsection Rehearsal marks
2482 @cindex Rehearsal marks
2484 @cindex @code{\mark}
2488 \mark @var{unsigned}
2493 This command prints a rehearsal mark above the system. You can provide
2494 a number, a string or a markup text as argument. If you use
2495 @code{\default}, the value of property @code{rehearsalMark} is used and
2496 automatically incremented.
2498 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2504 c1 \mark #'(music "scripts-segno")
2509 The grob is @internalsref{RehearsalMark} in @internalsref{Score} context. See
2510 @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} if you need boxes around the marks.
2513 @subsection Bar numbers
2515 Bar numbers (grob: @internalsref{BarNumber}) are printed at the start of the
2516 line. See @code{input/test/boxed-molecule.ly} for boxed bar numbers.
2520 It is not possible to have bar numbers printed at regular intervals
2523 @node Instrument names
2524 @subsection Instrument names
2526 You can specify an instrument name for a staff by setting
2527 @code{Staff.instrument} and @code{Staff.instr}. This will print a string
2528 before the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
2529 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used.
2531 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2532 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
2535 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
2539 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2541 '((font-relative-size . -2 ) (music "accidentals--1")))
2544 \property Staff.instrument = #`((kern . 0.5) (lines
2545 "2 Clarinetti" (columns " (B" ,text-flat ")")))
2553 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
2554 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
2555 the name to avoid a collision.
2558 @subsection Transpose
2560 @cindex transposition of pitches
2561 @cindex @code{\transpose}
2563 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
2566 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{musicexpr}
2569 This means that middle C in @var{musicexpr} is transposed to
2572 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
2573 @code{\transpose cis'} or @code{\transpose des'} will transpose up half
2574 a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version
2577 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2580 { \key e \major c d e f }
2582 \transpose des'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2583 \transpose cis'' { \key e \major c d e f }
2587 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
2588 you must use @code{\transpose} first. @code{\relative} will have no
2589 effect music that appears inside a @code{\transpose}.
2591 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
2592 @subsection Sound output transposing instruments
2594 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed and
2596 instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch offset (in
2597 semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done using the
2598 @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed output.
2600 @cindex @code{transposing}
2603 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
2604 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
2607 @c . {Multi measure rests}
2608 @node Multi measure rests
2609 @subsection Multi measure rests
2610 @cindex Multi measure rests
2614 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
2615 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to
2617 rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest This expansion
2618 is controlled by the property @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true,
2619 Lily will not expand empty measures, and the appropriate number is added
2622 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
2623 \time 3/4 r2. | R2. | R2.*2 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R2.*17 R2.*4
2626 Notice that the @code{R2.} is printed as a whole rest, centered in the
2629 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
2631 The grob for this object is @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
2635 Currently, there is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into
2636 a single multimeasure rest.
2638 @cindex condensing rests
2640 @node Automatic part combining
2641 @subsection Automatic part combining
2642 @cindex automatic part combining
2643 @cindex part combiner
2646 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
2647 staff in an intelligent way. It is aimed primarily at typesetting
2648 orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of
2649 time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are
2650 typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically.
2651 Also, solo and @emph{a due} parts can be identified and marked.
2653 The syntax for part combining is
2656 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
2658 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
2659 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
2660 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
2663 The most useful function of the part combiner is to combine parts into
2664 one voice, as common for wind parts in orchestral scores:
2666 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2668 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2669 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2672 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2678 Notice that the first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
2679 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
2680 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
2681 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
2682 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
2685 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
2686 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false.
2688 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
2690 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
2691 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2692 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2695 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2701 There are a number of other properties that you can use to tweak the
2702 behavior of part combining, refer to the automatically generated
2703 documentation of @reng{Thread_devnull_engraver} and
2704 @reng{Voice_devnull_engraver}. Look at the documentation of the
2705 responsible engravers, @code{Thread_devnull_engraver},
2706 @code{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @code{A2_engraver}.
2710 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
2711 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
2714 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
2716 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
2717 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
2720 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
2726 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
2727 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
2728 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
2730 @node Hara kiri staves
2731 @subsection Hara kiri staves
2733 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed.
2734 This saves some space. LilyPond also supports this through the hara
2735 kiri@footnote{Hara kiri, also called Seppuku, is the ritual suicide of
2736 the Japanese Samourai warriors.} staff. This staff commits suicide when
2737 it finds itself to be empty after the line-breaking process. It will
2738 not disappear when it contains normal rests, you must use multi measure
2741 The hara kiri staff is specialized version of the @internalsref{Staff}
2742 context. It is available as the context identifier
2743 @code{\HaraKiriStaffContext}. Observe how the second staff in this
2744 example disappears in the second line.
2748 \notes \relative c' <
2749 \context Staff = SA { e4 f g a \break c1 }
2750 \context Staff = SB { c4 d e f \break R1 }
2754 \translator { \HaraKiriStaffContext }
2767 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
2768 staff context symbol that appears at the end of a staff line. It
2769 anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line and
2770 thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2771 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2776 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
2781 \consists Custos_engraver
2787 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century.
2788 There were different appearances for different notation styles.
2789 Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical notation
2790 such as via the @emph{editio vaticana} dating back to the beginning of
2793 For typesetting custodes, just put a @code{Custos_engraver} into the
2794 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block. In this
2795 block, you can also globally control the appearance of the custos symbol
2796 by setting the custos @code{style} property. Currently supported styles
2797 are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
2804 \consists Custos_engraver
2805 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2810 The property can also be set locally, for example in a @code{\notes}
2815 \property Staff.Custos \override #'style = #'vaticana
2816 c'1 d' e' d' \break c' d' e' d'
2820 @c . {Tuning output}
2822 @section Tuning output
2824 LilyPond tries to take as much formatting as possible out of your
2825 hands. Nevertheless, there are situations where it needs some help, or
2826 where you want to override its decisions. In this section we discuss
2827 ways to do just that.
2829 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called grobs (graphic
2830 objects). Each grob carries with it a set of properties (grob
2831 properties) specific to that object. For example, a stem grob has
2832 properties that specify its direction, length and thickness.
2834 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
2835 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
2836 temporarily change the definition of a certain type of grob, thus
2837 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
2838 object, and set a grob property in that object.
2841 * Tuning groups of grobs ::
2842 * Tuning per grob ::
2850 @node Tuning groups of grobs
2851 @subsection Tuning groups of grobs
2853 @cindex grob description
2857 A grob definition is a Scheme association list, that is stored in a
2858 context property. By assigning to that property (using plain
2859 @code{\property}), you can change the resulting grobs.
2861 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment]
2862 c'4 \property Voice.Stem = #'((meta . ((interfaces . ())))) c'4
2865 The @code{\property} assignment effectively empties the definition of
2866 the Stem object. One of the effects is that the recipe of how it should be
2867 printed is erased, with the effect of rendering it invisible. The above
2868 assignment is available as a standard identifier, for the case that you
2872 \property Voice.Stem = \turnOff
2879 This mechanism is fairly crude, since you can only set, but not modify,
2880 the definition of a grob. For this reason, there is a more advanced
2883 The definition of a grob is actually a list of default grob
2884 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem grob (available in
2885 @file{scm/grob-description.scm}), defines the following values for
2890 (beamed-lengths . (0.0 2.5 2.0 1.5))
2891 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
2895 You can add a property on top of the existing definition, or remove a
2896 property, thus overriding the system defaults:
2898 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
2899 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
2902 You should balance @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. If that's too
2903 much work, you can use the @code{\set} shorthand. It performs a revert
2904 followed by an override. The following example gives exactly the same
2905 result as the previous one.
2907 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
2908 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #0.8
2911 If you use @code{\set}, you must explicitly restore the default.
2914 Formally the syntax for these constructions is
2916 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2917 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2918 \property @var{context}.@var{grobname} \revert @var{symbol}
2920 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
2921 and @var{grobname} are strings and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
2924 If you revert a setting which was not set in the first place, then it
2925 has no effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, it
2926 may remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
2927 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and @code{\revert},
2928 must be carefully balanced.
2930 These are examples of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set},
2933 A clumsy but correct form:
2935 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
2938 Shorter version of the same:
2940 \override \set \set \revert
2943 A short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
2946 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
2949 If there is no default (i.e. by default, the grob property is unset),
2952 \set \set \set \revert
2955 For the digirati, the grob description is an Scheme association
2956 list. Since a Scheme list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a
2957 stack, and @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are just push and pop
2958 operations. This pushing and popping is also used for overriding
2959 automatic beaming settings.
2963 LilyPond will hang or crash if @var{value} contains cyclic references.
2964 The backend is not very strict in type-checking grob properties. If you
2965 @code{\revert} properties that are expected to be set by default,
2968 Some grobs are created at the moment that their context is created. An
2969 example of such a grob is the staff itself (i.e. the horizontal lines).
2970 You can not change the appearance of the staff symbol by manipulating
2971 @code{\property Staff.StaffSymbol}. At the moment that @code{\property
2972 Staff} is interpreted, a Staff context is made, and the StaffSymbol is
2973 created before any @code{\override} is effective. You can deal with this
2974 either overriding properties in a @code{\translator} definition, or by
2975 using @code{\outputproperty}.
2980 @node Tuning per grob
2981 @subsection Tuning per grob
2983 @cindex \outputproperty
2985 A second way of tuning grobs is the more arcane @code{\outputproperty}
2986 feature. The syntax is as follows:
2988 \outputproperty @var{predicate} @var{symbol} = @var{value}
2990 Here @code{predicate} is a Scheme function taking a grob argument, and
2991 returning a boolean. This statement is processed by the
2992 @code{Output_property_engraver}. It instructs the engraver to feed all
2993 grobs that it sees to @var{predicate}. Whenever the predicate returns
2994 true, the grob property @var{symbol} will be set to @var{value}.
2996 You will need to combine this statement with @code{\context} to select
2997 the appropriate context to apply this to.
2999 Here are some random examples.
3002 In the following example, all note heads occurring at current staff
3003 level, are shifted up and right by setting their @code{extra-offset}
3006 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
3008 \context Staff \outputproperty
3009 #(make-type-checker 'note-head-interface)
3010 #'extra-offset = #'(0.5 . 0.75)
3014 @cindex @code{extra-offset}
3016 In this example, the predicate checks the @code{text} grob property, to
3017 shift only the `m.d.' text, but not the fingering instruction "2".
3018 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3019 #(define (make-text-checker text)
3020 (lambda (grob) (equal? text (ly-get-grob-property grob 'text))))
3023 \notes\relative c''' {
3024 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
3025 \outputproperty #(make-text-checker "m.d.")
3026 #'extra-offset = #'(-3.5 . -4.5)
3034 If possible, avoid this feature: the semantics are not very clean, and
3035 the syntax and semantics are up for rewrite.
3041 @subsection What to tune?
3043 This all tells you how to tune grobs, but you don't know what variables
3044 to set? The question is not answered in this part of the manual
3045 (although you may encounter some examples.).
3047 Grob properties are tied directly to the implementation of LilyPond, and
3048 they are thus a moving target. Documentation of such variables is in the
3049 automatically generated documentation. Description of properties are
3050 generated from the source code for each version. This documentation is
3051 therefore more up to date. It should be available from the same place
3052 where you got this manual.
3054 To decide how to tune a grob, you need to find the following information
3057 which grob to modify
3059 which property to modify
3061 which context the grob comes from.
3064 Included with the automatically generated documentation is a master list
3065 of grobs. Selecting a grob will take you to an overview of the
3066 properties available for that grob.
3068 There is also a master list of contexts. Selecting one takes you to an
3069 overview of that context which lists which grob types are created there.
3072 @node Font selection
3073 @subsection Font selection
3075 Most graphics in LilyPond are composed of characters of fonts. You can
3076 alter the characteristics of the font by setting certain grob
3077 properties. The mechanism that is used for this resembles La@TeX{}'s New
3078 Font Selection Scheme. Within this scheme, a font is entirely
3079 characterized by its font name.
3081 For each grob that uses fonts (in other words, each grob that supports
3082 @code{font-interface}) a font-name must be selected before it can be
3083 printed. The font name is selected by looking at a number of grob
3088 A symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
3089 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff braces),
3090 @code{music} (the standard music font), @code{dynamic} (font for dynamic
3091 signs) and @code{typewriter}
3094 A symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
3095 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
3096 @code{caps} and @code{upright}
3099 A symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
3100 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
3103 @item font-relative-size
3104 A number indicating the size relative the standard size. For example,
3105 with 20pt staff height, relative size -1 corresponds to 16pt staff
3106 height, and relative size +1 corresponds to 23 pt staff height.
3108 @item font-design-size
3109 A number indicating the design size of the font.
3111 This is a feature of the Computer Modern Font: each point size has a
3112 slightly different design. Smaller design sizes are relatively wider,
3113 which enhances readability. Scalable type faces such TrueType and Adobe
3114 Type1 usually come as ``one design fits all sizes''.
3117 The name of the font, without the design size, e.g. @code{cmr},
3118 @code{cmti}, etc. Setting this overrides font-family, font-shape and
3123 The font is selected by taking the first font that satisfies all
3124 qualifiers specified. You can override any of these fields through
3125 @code{\override} and @code{\revert}. The special value @code{*} matches
3126 any value for that qualifier.
3129 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
3130 \property Lyrics.LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
3133 @cindex @code{font-style}
3135 There are also pre-cooked font selection qualifiers. These are selected
3136 through the grob property @code{font-style}. For example, the style
3137 @code{finger} selects family @code{number} and relative size @code{-3}.
3138 Styles available include @code{volta}, @code{finger}, @code{tuplet},
3139 @code{timesig}, @code{mmrest}, @code{script}, @code{large}, @code{Large}
3142 The style sheets and tables for selecting fonts are located in
3143 @file{scm/font.scm}. Refer to this file for more information.
3147 Relative size is not linked to any real size.
3149 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3150 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts. You
3151 can scale the entire output, of course, see @ref{Output scaling}.
3153 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
3156 @cindex font selection
3157 @cindex font magnification
3158 @cindex @code{font-interface}
3162 @subsection Text markup
3166 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can
3167 form text markup expressions by composing scheme expressions
3168 in the following way.
3170 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
3175 c^#'(italic "italic")
3176 d_#'((bold italic) "ff")
3178 f_#'(lines "one" (bold "two"))
3179 g^#'(music "noteheads-2" ((raise . 2.4) "flags-u3"))
3183 Normally, the Scheme markup text is stored in the @code{text} property
3184 of a grob. Formally, it is defined as follows:
3187 text: string | (head? text+)
3188 head: markup | (markup+)
3189 markup-item: property | abbrev
3190 property: (@var{key} . @var{value})
3191 abbrev: @code{columns lines roman music bold italic named super sub}
3192 @code{overstrike text finger volta timesig mmrest mark script}
3193 @code{large Large dynamic}
3196 The markup is broken down and converted into a list of grob properties,
3197 which are prepended to the property list. The @var{key}-@var{value}
3198 pair is a grob property. A list of properties available is included in
3199 the generated documentation for @rint{Text_interface}.
3201 The following abbreviations are currently defined:
3204 horizontal mode: set all text on one line (default)
3206 vertical mode: set every text on a new line
3210 selects the Feta font (the standard font for music notation glyphs),
3211 and uses named lookup
3218 lookup by character name
3220 plain text lookup (by character value)
3226 the next text or character overstrikes this one
3228 select fingering number fontstyle
3230 select volta number fontstyle
3232 select time signature number fontstyle
3234 select multi measure rest number fontstyle
3236 select mark number fontstyle
3238 select scriptsize roman fontstyle
3240 select large roman fontstyle
3242 select Large roman fontstyle
3244 select dynamics fontstyle
3248 @cindex metronome mark
3250 One practical application of complicated markup is to fake a metronome
3254 #(define note '(columns
3255 (music "noteheads-2" ((kern . -0.1) "flags-stem"))))
3256 #(define eight-note `(columns ,note ((kern . -0.1)
3257 (music ((raise . 3.5) "flags-u3")))))
3258 #(define dotted-eight-note
3259 `(columns ,eight-note (music "dots-dot")))
3262 \notes\relative c'' {
3263 a1^#`((columns (font-relative-size . -1)) ,dotted-eight-note " = 64")
3269 TextScript \override #'font-shape = #'upright
3275 @node Invisible grobs
3276 @subsection Invisible grobs
3277 @cindex invisible grobs
3281 ben nog steeds niet kapot van de informatiedichtheid hier.
3287 You can imagine a number of situations where you would want to make
3288 certain grobs not show up in the output. There may be aesthetic
3289 reasons, to make the output resemble an (old) manuscript as close as
3290 possible, or to make lessons or exercises for students.
3292 Grobs can be made invisible in a number of ways:
3294 Here's an example with blanked-out notes and stems:
3295 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3297 \property Voice.NoteHead \override
3299 \property Voice.Stem \override
3300 #'transparent = ##t }
3303 \property Voice.NoteHead \revert #'transparent
3304 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'transparent }
3307 \notes\relative c'' {
3309 a b c b \blanknotes c \unblanknotes d
3313 This method makes the grobs invisible but they still take the normal space.
3314 To remove all traces of the grob, you can redefine the function
3318 \notes\relative c'' {
3321 as bes c bes c d \break
3322 \property Staff.KeySignature \override #'molecule-callback = #'()
3325 \paper{linewidth=5.0\cm indent=0}
3329 A very rigorous way of removing grobs from the whole score is to remove
3330 the engraver that creates them. For example,
3332 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3333 \score {\notes { c'4 d'8 e'8 g2 }
3334 \paper { \translator {
3336 \remove Stem_engraver
3342 @subsection Dirty tricks
3343 @cindex embedded tex
3345 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should be
3346 avoided because it makes it impossible for LilyPond to compute the
3347 exact length of the string, which may lead to collisions. Also, @TeX{}
3348 commands won't work with direct PostScript output (see @ref{PostScript
3351 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3352 a'^"3 $\\times$ \\`a deux"
3355 You can also use raw PostScript commands embedded in text scripts. This
3356 offers ultimate flexibility, but requires you to learn PostScript.
3357 Currently, embedded PostScript will @strong{not} work with direct
3358 PostScript output. Note that all dimensions that you use are in staff
3363 \notes \relative c'' {
3364 a-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 5 3 rlineto stroke}"
3365 -#"\\embeddedps{ [ 0 1 ] 0 setdash 3 5 moveto 5 -3 rlineto stroke}"
3366 b-#"\\embeddedps{3 4 moveto 0 0 1 2 8 4 20 3.5 rcurveto stroke}"
3370 \paper { linewidth = 70*\staffspace }
3377 @section Page layout
3380 The page layout is the combined product of LilyPond formatting notation,
3381 and (La)@TeX{} putting the notation on a page, including page breaks.
3382 The part of LilyPond is documented here.
3396 @subsection Paper block
3399 The most important output definition is the @code{\paper} block, for
3400 music notation. The syntax is
3403 @code{\paper @{} [@var{paperidentifier}] @var{items} @code{@}}
3406 where each of the items is one of
3409 @item An assignment.
3411 @item A context definition. See @ref{Interpretation context} for
3412 more information on context definitions.
3414 @item \stylesheet declaration. Its syntax is
3416 \stylesheet @var{alist}
3419 See @file{scm/font.scm} for details of @var{alist}.
3420 @item an @code{\elementdescriptions} declaration.
3422 \elementdescriptions @var{alist}
3424 See @file{scm/grob-description.scm} for details of
3425 @var{alist}. This command is not user-serviceable.
3429 @c . {Paper variables}
3430 @node Paper variables
3431 @subsection Paper variables
3432 @cindex Paper variables
3434 The paper block has some variables you may want to use or change:
3437 @cindex @code{indent}
3439 The indentation of the first line of music.
3440 @cindex @code{staffspace}
3442 @item @code{staffspace}
3443 The distance between two staff lines, calculated from the center
3446 @cindex @code{linewidth}
3447 @item @code{linewidth}
3448 Sets the width of the lines.
3450 If set to a negative value, a single unjustified line is produced.
3451 @c rename to singleLinePaper ?
3452 The shorthand @code{\singleLine} defines a default paper block that
3453 produces a single line.
3455 @cindex @code{textheight}
3457 @item @code{textheight}
3458 Sets the total height of the music on each page. Only used by
3461 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
3463 @item @code{interscoreline}
3464 Sets the spacing between systems. The default is 16pt.
3466 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
3468 @item @code{interscorelinefill}
3469 If set to a positive number, the distance between the score
3470 lines will stretch in order to fill the full page. In that
3471 case @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
3476 @cindex @code{stafflinethickness}
3478 @item @code{stafflinethickness}
3479 Determines the thickness of staff lines, and also acts as a scaling
3480 parameter for other line thicknesses.
3483 You may enter these dimension using units (@code{cm}, @code{in},
3484 @code{mm}, @code{pt}), or relative to another dimension
3486 linewidth = 20.0 * \staffspace
3493 @subsection Font size
3496 The Feta font provides musical symbols at six different sizes. These
3497 fonts are 11 point, 13 point, 16 point, 20 point,
3498 23 point, and 26 point. The point size of a font is the
3499 height of the five lines in a staff when displayed in the font.
3501 Definitions for these sizes are the files @file{paperSZ.ly}, where
3502 @code{SZ} is one of 11, 13, 16, 20, 23 and 26. If you include any of
3503 these files, the identifiers @code{paperEleven}, @code{paperThirteen},
3504 @code{paperSixteen}, @code{paperTwenty}, @code{paperTwentythree}, and
3505 @code{paperTwentysix} are defined respectively. The default
3506 @code{\paper} block is also set.
3508 The font definitions are generated using a Scheme function. For more
3509 details, see the file @file{scm/font.scm}.
3515 @subsection Paper size
3520 @cindex @code{papersize}
3522 To change the paper size, you must first set the
3523 @code{papersize} variable at top level. Set it to
3524 the strings @code{a4}, @code{letter}, or @code{legal}. After this
3525 specification, you must set the font as described above. If you want
3526 the default font, then use the 20 point font.
3530 \include "paper16.ly"
3533 The file @code{paper16.ly} will now include a file named @file{a4.ly}, which
3534 will set the paper variables @code{hsize} and @code{vsize} (used by
3539 @subsection Line break
3542 @cindex breaking lines
3544 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
3545 that the resulting spacing has low variation, and looks neither cramped
3548 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do
3549 this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at this
3550 point. Do remember that line breaks can only occur at places where there
3551 are bar lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no
3552 bar line, you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
3553 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a certain point.
3555 @cindex @code{\penalty}
3557 The @code{\break} and @code{\noBreak} commands are defined in terms of
3558 the penalty command:
3563 This encourages or discourages LilyPond to make a line break at this
3568 The scaling of the @code{\penalty} argument is not well-defined. The
3569 command is rather kludgey, and slated for rewriting.
3573 @subsection Page break
3576 @cindex breaking pages
3578 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
3579 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into the
3580 @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages, by inserting
3581 the command @code{\newpage}
3582 @cindex @code{\newpage}
3588 @c why do so difficult?
3589 @c maybe should explain contents of between-system.ly,
3590 @c but not now, we're talking about page breaks here.
3592 @c details, see the example file @file{input/test/between-systems.ly}
3595 @c . {Output scaling}
3596 @node Output scaling
3597 @subsection Output scaling
3612 There is no mechanism to select magnification of particular fonts,
3613 meaning that you don't have access to continuously scaled fonts.
3617 @c . {Output formats}
3618 @node Output formats
3619 @section Output formats
3621 LilyPond can output processed music in different output formats.
3625 * PostScript output::
3627 * ASCIIScript output::
3631 @subsection TeX output
3634 LilyPond will use @TeX{} by default. Even if you want to produce
3635 PostScript output for viewing or printing, you should normally have
3636 LilyPond produce @TeX{} first. The .tex output must be processed by
3637 @TeX{} (@strong{not} La@TeX{}) to generate a .dvi. Then, @file{Dvips}
3638 is used to generate PostScript. Alternatively, @file{ly2dvi} can be
3639 used to generate the .dvi for you.
3643 Titling is not generated unless you use @file{ly2dvi}.
3646 @node PostScript output
3647 @subsection PostScript output
3648 @cindex PostScript output
3649 @cindex direct PostScript output
3651 LilyPond can produce PostScript directly, without going through @TeX{}.
3652 Currently, this is mainly useful if you cannot use TeX, because direct
3653 PostScript output has some problems; see Bugs below.
3656 $ lilypond -fps foo.ly
3657 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3658 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3660 Interpreting music...[3]
3661 Preprocessing elements...
3662 Calculating column positions...
3663 paper output to foo.ps...
3665 $ cat /usr/share/lilypond/pfa/feta20.pfa foo.ps | lpr
3671 Text font selection is broken.
3673 The .ps file does not contain the .pfa font files. To print a .ps
3674 created through direct postscript output, you should prepend the
3675 necessary .pfa files to LilyPond's .ps output, or upload them to the
3676 printer before printing.
3678 The line height calculation is broken, you must set @var{lineheight} in
3679 the paperblock if you have more than one staff in your score, e.g.
3684 % Set line height to 40 staff spaces
3690 @subsection Scheme output
3691 @cindex Scheme output
3693 In the typesetting stage, LilyPond builds a page description, which is
3694 then written to disk in postscript, @TeX{} or ASCII art. Before it is
3695 written, the page description is represented as Scheme expressions. You
3696 can also dump these Scheme expressions to a file, which may be
3697 convenient for debugging output routines. This is done with the Scheme
3701 $ lilypond -fscm foo.ly
3702 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3703 Now processing: `foo.ly'
3705 Interpreting music...[3]
3706 Preprocessing elements...
3707 Calculating column positions...
3708 paper output to foo.scm...
3711 ;;; Usage: guile -s x.scm > x.tex
3712 (primitive-load-path 'standalone.scm)
3716 $ guile -s foo.scm > foo.tex
3720 @node ASCIIScript output
3721 @subsection ASCIIScript output
3722 @cindex ASCIIScript output
3723 @cindex ascii script
3726 LilyPond can output ASCII Art. This is a two step process, LilyPond
3727 produces an ASCII description file, dubbed ASCIIScript (extension
3728 @file{.as}). ASCIIScript has a small and simple command set that
3729 includes font selection, character and string printing and line drawing
3730 commands. The program @file{as2text} is used to translate an .as file
3733 To produce ASCII Art, you must include an ASCII Art paper definition
3734 file in your .ly, one of:
3736 \include "paper-as5.ly"
3737 \include "paper-as9.ly"
3740 Here's an example use for ASCII Art output (the example file
3741 @file{as-email.ly} is included in the LilyPond distribution), the staff
3742 symbol has been made invisible:
3745 $ lilypond -fas as-email.ly
3746 GNU LilyPond 1.3.144
3747 Now processing: `as-email.ly'
3749 Interpreting music...[3]
3750 Preprocessing elements...
3751 Calculating column positions... [2]
3752 paper output to as-email.as...
3754 $ as2text as-email.as 2>/dev/null
3756 |/ |##|##| | | | | |
3757 /| | | | | |\ |\ |\ |\ |\ |
3758 / |_ 3 | | | | 5 | )| )| )| )| )|
3759 | /| \ 8 * * * | 8 * * * * * |
3769 The ASCII Art fonts are far from complete and not very well designed.
3770 It's easy to change the glyphs, though; if you think you can do better,
3771 have a look at @file{mf/*.af}.
3773 Lots of resizable symbols such as slurs, ties and tuplets are missing.
3775 The poor looks of most ASCII Art output and its limited general
3776 usefulness gives ASCII Art output a low priority; it may be
3777 dropped in future versions.
3784 LilyPond can produce MIDI output. The performance lacks lots of
3785 interesting effects, such as swing, articulation, slurring, etc., but it
3786 is good enough for proof-hearing the music you have entered. Ties,
3787 dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted.
3789 Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume
3790 levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available
3791 MIDI volume range, crescendi and decrescendi make the the volume vary
3792 linearly between their two extremities. The fractions be adjusted by
3793 overriding the @code{absolute-volume-alist} defined in
3794 @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3796 For each type of musical instrument (that MIDI supports), a volume range
3797 can be defined. This gives you basic equalizer control, which can
3798 enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably. You can add
3799 instruments and ranges or change the default settings by overriding the
3800 @code{instrument-equalizer-alist} defined in @file{scm/midi.scm}.
3802 Both loudness controls are combined to produce the final MIDI volume.
3807 It is currently not possible to use the percussion channel (generally
3808 channel 10 of a MIDI file).
3812 * MIDI instrument names::
3817 @subsection MIDI block
3821 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
3822 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
3826 @item a @code{\tempo} definition
3827 @item context definitions
3830 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
3834 @cindex context definition
3836 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
3837 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
3838 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer.ly}.
3841 @node MIDI instrument names
3842 @subsection MIDI instrument names
3844 @cindex instrument names
3845 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3846 @cindex @code{Staff.instrument}
3848 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
3849 property or, if that property is not set, the @code{Staff.instrument}
3850 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
3851 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
3855 If the selected string does not exactly match, then LilyPond uses the
3856 default (Grand Piano). It is not possible to select an instrument by
3866 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
3869 @section Music entry
3877 When entering music with LilyPond, it is easy to introduce errors. This
3878 section deals with tricks and features that help you enter music, and
3879 find and correct mistakes.
3883 @subsection Relative
3885 @cindex relative octave specification
3887 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
3888 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in
3889 the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. To prevent these
3890 errors, LilyPond features octave entry.
3892 @cindex @code{\relative}
3894 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
3897 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
3898 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
3899 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
3900 (This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
3901 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
3904 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise or
3905 lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an
3906 absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
3907 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
3909 Entering music that changes octave frequently is easy in relative mode.
3910 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
3916 And octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth.
3917 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3919 c g c f, c' a, e'' }
3922 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
3923 to determine the first note of the next chord. However, other notes
3924 within the second chord are determined by looking at the immediately
3927 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3934 @cindex @code{\notes}
3936 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
3937 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
3938 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
3941 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
3942 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
3943 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
3944 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
3949 @subsection Bar check
3953 @cindex @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}
3957 Whenever a bar check is encountered during interpretation, a warning
3958 message is issued if it doesn't fall at a measure boundary. This can
3959 help you find errors in the input. Depending on the value of
3960 @code{barCheckNoSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
3961 relocated, so this can also be used to shorten measures.
3963 A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, @code{|}:
3965 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2.
3968 @c . {Point and click}
3969 @node Point and click
3970 @subsection Point and click
3972 Point and click lets you find notes in the input by clicking on them in
3973 the Xdvi window. This makes it very easy to find input that causes some
3974 error in the sheet music.
3976 To use it, you need the following software
3978 @unnumberedsubsec Installation
3982 @uref{ftp://ftp.math.berkeley.edu/pub/Software/TeX/xdvi.tar.gz,plain
3983 Xdvi} version 22.36 or newer.
3985 Note that most @TeX{} distributions ship with xdvik, which is a
3986 different and less well maintained program. To find out which xdvi you
3987 are running, try @code{xdvi --version} or @code{xdvi.bin --version}.
3991 Xdvi must be configured to find the TeX fonts and music
3992 fonts. Refer to the Xdvi documentation for more information.
3995 @unnumberedsubsec Using it
3997 Add one of these lines to the top of your .ly file. The first one is for
3998 line location only. The second one is more convenient, but requires
3999 patching @code{emacsclient} and @code{server.el}.
4002 #(set! point-and-click line-location)
4005 In the emacs startup file (usually @file{~/.emacs}), add the following
4010 Make sure that the environment variable @code{XEDITOR} is set
4013 emacsclient --no-wait +%l %f
4015 The second one, that also specifies the column, only works if you have
4016 patched your emacsclient and server, and have compiled your @code{.ly}
4017 file using the @code{line-column-location} setting.
4019 When viewing, control-mousebutton 1 will take you to the originating
4020 spot in the @file{.ly} file. Control-mousebutton 2 will show all
4024 @unnumberedsubsec Column location
4026 If you want emacs to jump to the exact spot (and not just the line) on a
4027 click, you must enable column positioning. To do so, you need to patch
4028 emacsclient. Apply @file{emacsclient.patch} (included with the source
4029 package) to @file{emacsclient.c} and @file{server.el} from the emacs
4030 source code. Recompile and stick the recompiled emacsclient into a bin
4031 directory, and put @file{server.el} into a elisp directory
4032 (e.g. @file{~/usr/share/emacs/}). Add the following to your @file{.emacs}
4033 init file, before invoking server-start.
4036 (setq load-path (cons "~/usr/share/emacs" load-path))
4039 Set @code{XEDITOR} to @code{emacsclient --no-wait +%l:%c %f}
4041 At the top of the @code{ly} file, replace the @code{set!} line with the
4044 #(set! point-and-click line-column-location)
4047 One final hint: if you correct large files with point-and-click, then
4048 start correcting at the end of the file. When you start at the top, and
4049 insert one line, all subsequent locations will be off by a line.
4054 When you convert the @TeX{} file to PostScript using @code{dvips}, it
4055 will complain about not finding @code{src:X:Y} files. Those complaints
4056 are harmless, and can be ignored.
4058 @node Skipping corrected music
4059 @section Skipping corrected music
4061 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
4062 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
4063 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
4064 You can use this to skip over the parts of a score that you have already
4067 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4068 \relative c'' { c8 d
4069 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
4071 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
4076 @node Interpretation context
4077 @section Interpretation context
4080 * Creating contexts::
4081 * Default contexts::
4082 * Context properties::
4083 * Engravers and performers::
4084 * Changing context definitions::
4085 * Defining new contexts::
4089 Interpretation contexts are objects that only exist during a run of
4090 LilyPond. During the interpretation phase of LilyPond (when it prints
4091 "interpreting music"), the music expression in a @code{\score} block is
4092 interpreted in time order. This is the same order that humans hear and
4095 During this interpretation, the interpretation context holds the
4096 state for the current point within the music. It contains information
4100 @item What notes are playing at this point?
4101 @item What symbols will be printed at this point?
4102 @item What is the current key signature, time signature, point within
4106 Contexts are grouped hierarchically: A @internalsref{Voice} context is
4107 contained in a @internalsref{Staff} context (because a staff can contain
4108 multiple voices at any point), a @internalsref{Staff} context is contained in
4109 @internalsref{Score}, @internalsref{StaffGroup}, or @internalsref{ChoirStaff} context.
4111 Contexts associated with sheet music output are called @emph{notation
4112 contexts}, those for sound output are called @emph{performance
4113 contexts}. The default definitions of the standard notation and
4114 performance contexts can be found in @file{ly/engraver.ly} and
4115 @file{ly/performer.ly}, respectively.
4118 @node Creating contexts
4119 @subsection Creating contexts
4121 @cindex @code{\context}
4122 @cindex context selection
4124 Contexts for a music expression can be selected manually, using the
4125 following music expression.
4128 \context @var{contexttype} [= @var{contextname}] @var{musicexpr}
4131 This instructs lilypond to interpret @var{musicexpr} within the context
4132 of type @var{contexttype} and with name @var{contextname}. If this
4133 context does not exist, it will be created.
4135 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4137 \notes \relative c'' {
4138 c4 <d4 \context Staff = "another" e4> f
4144 In this example, the @code{c} and @code{d} are printed on the
4145 default staff. For the @code{e}, a context Staff called
4146 @code{another} is specified; since that does not exist, a new
4147 context is created. Within @code{another}, a (default) Voice context
4148 is created for the @code{e4}. When all music referring to a
4149 context is finished, the context is ended as well. So after the
4150 third quarter, @code{another} is removed.
4154 @node Default contexts
4155 @subsection Default contexts
4157 Most music expressions don't need an explicit @code{\context}
4158 declaration: they inherit the
4159 notation context from their parent. Each note is a music expression, and
4160 as you can see in the following example, only the sequential music
4161 enclosing the three notes has an explicit context.
4163 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4164 \score { \notes \context Voice = goUp { c'4 d' e' } }
4167 There are some quirks that you must keep in mind when dealing with
4170 First, every top level music is interpreted by the Score context, in other
4171 words, you may think of @code{\score} working like
4174 \context Score @var{music}
4178 Second, contexts are created automatically to be able to interpret the
4179 music expressions. Consider the following example.
4181 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4182 \score { \context Score \notes { c'4 ( d' )e' } }
4185 The sequential music is interpreted by the Score context initially
4186 (notice that the @code{\context} specification is redundant), but when a
4187 note is encountered, contexts are setup to accept that note. In this
4188 case, a Thread, Voice and Staff are created. The rest of the sequential
4189 music is also interpreted with the same Thread, Voice and Staff context,
4190 putting the notes on the same staff, in the same voice.
4192 This is a convenient mechanism, but do not expect opening chords to work
4193 without @code{\context}. For every note, a separate staff is
4196 @cindex explicit context
4197 @cindex starting with chords
4198 @cindex chords, starting with
4200 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline]
4201 \score { \notes <c'4 es'> }
4204 Of course, if the chord is preceded by a normal note in sequential
4205 music, the chord will be interpreted by the Thread of the preceding
4207 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4208 \score { \notes { c'4 <c'4 es'> } }
4213 @node Context properties
4214 @subsection Context properties
4216 Notation contexts have properties. These properties are from
4217 the @file{.ly} file using the following expression:
4218 @cindex @code{\property}
4220 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} = @var{value}
4223 Sets the @var{propname} property of the context @var{contextname} to the
4224 specified Scheme expression @var{value}. All @var{propname} and
4225 @var{contextname} are strings, which are typically unquoted.
4227 Properties that are set in one context are inherited by all of the
4228 contained contexts. This means that a property valid for the
4229 @internalsref{Voice} context can be set in the @internalsref{Score} context (for
4230 example) and thus take effect in all @internalsref{Voice} contexts.
4232 Properties can be unset using the following expression:
4234 \property @var{contextname}.@var{propname} \unset
4237 @cindex properties, unsetting
4238 @cindex @code{\unset}
4240 This removes the definition of @var{propname} in @var{contextname}. If
4241 @var{propname} was not defined in @var{contextname} (but was inherited
4242 from a higher context), then this has no effect.
4247 The syntax of @code{\unset} is asymmetric: @code{\property \unset} is not
4248 the inverse of @code{\property \set}.
4250 @node Engravers and performers
4251 @subsection Engravers and performers
4255 Basic building blocks of translation are called engravers; they are
4256 special C++ classes.
4260 @c . {Context definitions}
4261 @node Changing context definitions
4262 @subsection Changing context definitions
4264 @cindex context definition
4265 @cindex translator definition
4267 The most common way to define a context is by extending an existing
4268 context. You can change an existing context from the paper block, by
4269 first initializing a translator with an existing context identifier:
4273 @var{context-identifier}
4276 Then you can add and remove engravers using the following syntax:
4278 \remove @var{engravername}
4279 \consists @var{engravername}
4283 Here @var{engravername} is a string, the name of an engraver in the
4287 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4291 \translator { \StaffContext
4292 \remove Clef_engraver
4298 You can also set properties in a translator definition. The syntax is as
4301 @var{propname} = @var{value}
4302 @var{propname} \set @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4303 @var{propname} \override @var{grob-propname} = @var{pvalue}
4304 @var{propname} \revert @var{grob-propname}
4306 @var{propname} is a string, @var{grob-propname} a symbol, @var{value}
4307 and @code{pvalue} are Scheme expressions. These type of property
4308 assignments happen before interpretation starts, so a @code{\property}
4309 command will override any predefined settings.
4312 To simplify editing translators, all standard contexts have standard
4313 identifiers called @var{name}@code{Context}, e.g. @code{StaffContext},
4314 @code{VoiceContext}, see @file{ly/engraver.ly}.
4316 @node Defining new contexts
4317 @subsection Defining new contexts
4319 If you want to build a context from scratch, you must also supply the
4320 following extra information:
4322 @item A name, specified by @code{\name @var{contextname}}.
4324 @item A cooperation module. This is specified by @code{\type
4331 \type "Engraver_group_engraver"
4334 \consists "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4335 \consists "Note_head_engraver"
4336 \consistsend "Axis_group_engraver"
4340 The argument of @code{\type} is the name for a special engraver that
4341 handles cooperation between simple engravers such as
4342 @code{Note_head_engraver} and @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}. Alternatives
4343 for this engraver are the following:
4345 @cindex @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4346 @item @code{Engraver_group_engraver}
4347 The standard cooperation engraver.
4349 @cindex @code{Score_engraver}
4351 @item @code{Score_engraver}
4352 This is cooperation module that should be in the top level context,
4353 and only the top level context.
4355 @cindex @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4357 @item @code{Grace_engraver_group}
4358 This is a special cooperation module (resembling
4359 @code{Score_engraver}) that is used to create an embedded
4366 @item @code{\alias} @var{alternate-name}
4367 This specifies a different name. In the above example,
4368 @code{\property Staff.X = Y} will also work on @code{SimpleStaff}s
4370 @item @code{\consistsend} @var{engravername}
4371 Analogous to @code{\consists}, but makes sure that
4372 @var{engravername} is always added to the end of the list of
4375 Some engraver types need to be at the end of the list; this
4376 insures they stay there even if a user adds or removes engravers.
4377 End-users generally don't need this command.
4379 @item @code{\accepts} @var{contextname}
4380 Add @var{contextname} to the list of contexts this context can
4381 contain in the context hierarchy. The first listed context is the
4382 context to create by default.
4384 @item @code{\denies}. The opposite of @code{\accepts}. Added for
4385 completeness, but is never used in practice.
4388 @item @code{\name} @var{contextname}
4389 This sets the type name of the context, e.g. @internalsref{Staff},
4390 @internalsref{Voice}. If the name is not specified, the translator won't do
4394 In the @code{\paper} block, it is also possible to define translator
4395 identifiers. Like other block identifiers, the identifier can only
4396 be used as the very first item of a translator. In order to define
4397 such an identifier outside of @code{\score}, you must do
4402 foo = \translator @{ @dots{} @}
4409 \translator @{ \foo @dots{} @}
4417 @cindex paper types, engravers, and pre-defined translators
4424 @c . {Syntactic details}
4425 @node Syntactic details
4426 @section Syntactic details
4427 @cindex Syntactic details
4429 This section describes details that were too boring to be put elsewhere.
4434 * Music expressions::
4435 * Manipulating music expressions::
4443 @subsection Top level
4446 This section describes what you may enter at top level.
4450 @subsubsection Score
4453 @cindex score definition
4455 The output is generated combining a music expression with an output
4456 definition. A score block has the following syntax:
4459 \score @{ @var{musicexpr} @var{outputdefs} @}
4462 @var{outputdefs} are zero or more output definitions. If none is
4463 supplied, the default @code{\paper} block will be added.
4467 @c . {Default output}
4468 @subsubsection Default output
4470 Default values for the @code{\paper} and @code{\midi} block are set by
4471 entering such a block at the top level.
4474 @subsubsection Header
4476 @cindex @code{\header}
4479 A header describes bibliographic information of the file's contents. It
4480 can also appear in a @code{\score} block. Tools like @code{ly2dvi} can
4481 use this information for generating titles. Key values that are used by
4482 @code{ly2dvi} are: title, subtitle, composer, opus, poet, instrument,
4483 meter, arranger, piece and tagline.
4485 @cindex @code{ly2dvi}
4489 \header @{ @var{key1} = @var{val1}
4490 @var{key2} = @var{val2} @dots{} @}
4493 It is customary to put the @code{\header} at the top of the file.
4495 @subsubsection Default output
4497 A @code{\midi} or @code{\paper} block at top level sets the default
4498 paper block for all scores that lack an explicit paper block.
4502 @subsection Identifiers
4506 What has this section got to do with identifiers?
4507 It seems more appropriate in the introduction to Chapter 4,
4513 All of the information in a LilyPond input file, is internally
4514 represented as a Scheme value. In addition to normal Scheme data types
4515 (such as pair, number, boolean, etc.), LilyPond has a number of
4516 specialized data types,
4523 @item Translator_def
4527 @item Music_output_def
4528 @item Moment (rational number)
4531 LilyPond also includes some transient object types. Objects of these
4532 types are built during a LilyPond run, and do not `exist' per se within
4533 your input file. These objects are created as a result of your input
4534 file, so you can include commands in the input to manipulate them,
4535 during a lilypond run.
4538 @item Grob: short for Graphical object. See @ref{Grobs}.
4539 @item Molecule: device-independent page output object,
4540 including dimensions. Produced by some Grob functions
4542 @item Translator: object that produces audio objects or Grobs. This is
4543 not yet user accessible.
4544 @item Font_metric: object representing a font. (See @ref{Font metrics})
4549 @node Music expressions
4550 @subsection Music expressions
4552 @cindex music expressions
4554 Music in LilyPond is entered as a music expression. Notes, rests, lyric
4555 syllables are music expressions, and you can combine music expressions
4556 to form new ones, for example by enclosing a list of expressions in
4557 @code{\sequential @{ @}} or @code{< >}. In the following example, a
4558 compound expression is formed out of the quarter note @code{c} and a
4559 quarter note @code{d}:
4562 \sequential @{ c4 d4 @}
4565 @cindex Sequential music
4566 @cindex @code{\sequential}
4567 @cindex sequential music
4570 @cindex Simultaneous music
4571 @cindex @code{\simultaneous}
4573 The two basic compound music expressions are simultaneous and
4577 \sequential @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4578 \simultaneous @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4580 For both, there is a shorthand:
4582 @code{@{} @var{musicexprlist} @code{@}}
4586 @code{<} @var{musicexprlist} @code{>}
4588 for simultaneous music.
4589 In principle, the way in which you nest sequential and simultaneous to
4590 produce music is not relevant. In the following example, three chords
4591 are expressed in two different ways:
4593 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4594 \notes \context Voice {
4595 <a c'> <b d' > <c' e'>
4596 < { a b c' } { c' d' e' } >
4601 Other compound music expressions include
4604 \transpose @var{pitch} @var{expr}
4605 \apply @var{func} @var{expr}
4606 \context @var{type} = @var{id} @var{expr}
4607 \times @var{fraction} @var{expr}
4611 @c . {Manipulating music expressions}
4612 @node Manipulating music expressions
4613 @subsection Manipulating music expressions
4615 The @code{\apply} mechanism gives you access to the internal
4616 representation of music. You can write Scheme-functions that operate
4617 directly on it. The syntax is
4619 \apply #@var{func} @var{music}
4621 This means that @var{func} is applied to @var{music}. The function
4622 @var{func} should return a music expression.
4624 This example replaces the text string of a script. It also shows a dump
4625 of the music it processes, which is useful if you want to know more
4626 about how music is stored.
4628 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4629 #(define (testfunc x)
4630 (if (equal? (ly-get-mus-property x 'text) "foo")
4631 (ly-set-mus-property x 'text "bar"))
4633 (ly-set-mus-property x 'elements
4634 (map testfunc (ly-get-mus-property x 'elements)))
4639 \apply #testfunc { c'4_"foo" }
4643 For more information on what is possible, see the automatically
4644 generated documentation.
4647 Directly accessing internal representations is dangerous: the
4648 implementation is subject to changes, so you should avoid this feature
4651 A final example is a function that reverses a piece of music in time:
4653 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4654 #(define (reverse-music music)
4655 (let* ((elements (ly-get-mus-property music 'elements))
4656 (reversed (reverse elements))
4657 (span-dir (ly-get-mus-property music 'span-direction)))
4658 (ly-set-mus-property music 'elements reversed)
4660 (ly-set-mus-property music 'span-direction (- span-dir)))
4661 (map reverse-music reversed)
4664 music = \notes { c'4 d'4( e'4 f'4 }
4666 \score { \context Voice {
4668 \apply #reverse-music \music
4673 More examples are given in the distributed example files in
4676 @c . {Span requests}
4682 @subsubsection Span requests
4683 @cindex Span requests
4685 Notational constructs that start and end on different notes can be
4686 entered using span requests. The syntax is as follows:
4690 \spanrequest @var{startstop} @var{type}
4694 @cindex @code{\start}
4695 @cindex @code{\stop}
4697 This defines a spanning request. The @var{startstop} parameter is either
4698 -1 (@code{\start}) or 1 (@code{\stop}) and @var{type} is a string that
4699 describes what should be started. Much of the syntactic sugar is a
4700 shorthand for @code{\spanrequest}, for example,
4702 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
4703 c'4-\spanrequest \start "slur"
4704 c'4-\spanrequest \stop "slur"
4707 Among the supported types are @code{crescendo}, @code{decrescendo},
4708 @code{beam}, @code{slur}. This is an internal command. Users are
4709 encouraged to use the shorthands which are defined in the initialization
4710 file @file{spanners.ly}.
4715 @subsection Assignments
4718 Identifiers allow objects to be assigned to names during the parse
4719 stage. To assign an identifier, you use @var{name}@code{=}@var{value}
4720 and to refer to an identifier, you precede its name with a backslash:
4721 `@code{\}@var{name}'. @var{value} is any valid Scheme value or any of
4722 the input-types listed above. Identifier assignments can appear at top
4723 level in the LilyPond file, but also in @code{\paper} blocks.
4725 An identifier can be created with any string for its name, but you will
4726 only be able to refer to identifiers whose names begin with a letter,
4727 being entirely alphabetical. It is impossible to refer to an identifier
4728 whose name is the same as the name of a keyword.
4730 The right hand side of an identifier assignment is parsed completely
4731 before the assignment is done, so it is allowed to redefine an
4732 identifier in terms of its old value, e.g.
4738 When an identifier is referenced, the information it points to is
4739 copied. For this reason, an identifier reference must always be the
4740 first item in a block.
4744 \paperIdent % wrong and invalid
4748 \paperIdent % correct
4753 @c . {Lexical modes}
4755 @subsection Lexical modes
4756 @cindex Lexical modes
4759 @cindex @code{\notes}
4760 @cindex @code{\chords}
4761 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
4763 To simplify entering notes, lyrics, and chords, LilyPond has three
4764 special input modes in addition to the default mode: note, lyrics and
4765 chords mode. These input modes change the way that normal, unquoted
4766 words are interpreted: for example, the word @code{cis} may be
4767 interpreted as a C-sharp, as a lyric syllable `cis' or as a C-sharp
4768 major triad respectively.
4770 A mode switch is entered as a compound music expression
4772 @code{\notes} @var{musicexpr}
4773 @code{\chords} @var{musicexpr}
4774 @code{\lyrics} @var{musicexpr}.
4777 In each of these cases, these expressions do not add anything to the
4778 meaning of their arguments. They just instruct the parser in what mode
4779 to parse their arguments. The modes are treated in more detail in
4780 @ref{Lyrics} and @ref{Chords}.
4782 Different input modes may be nested.
4786 @subsection Ambiguities
4791 The grammar contains a number of ambiguities. We hope to resolve them at
4795 @item The assignment
4800 is interpreted as the string identifier assignment. However,
4801 it can also be interpreted as making a string identifier @code{\foo}
4802 containing @code{"bar"}, or a music identifier @code{\foo}
4803 containing the syllable `bar'.
4805 @item If you do a nested repeat like
4817 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the
4818 @code{\alternative} belongs. This is the classic if-then-else
4819 dilemma. It may be solved by using braces.
4821 @item The parser is not sophisticated enough to distinguish at the
4823 @code{c4*2 / 3 } and @code{c4*2 / g} (in chord mode).
4830 @c . {Lexical details}
4831 @node Lexical details
4832 @section Lexical details
4834 Even more boring details, now on lexical side of the input parser.
4845 * Version information::
4850 @subsection Comments
4853 @cindex block comment
4854 @cindex line comment
4858 A one line comment is introduced by a @code{%} character.
4859 Block comments are started by @code{%@{} and ended by @code{%@}}.
4860 They cannot be nested.
4863 @subsection Direct Scheme
4867 @cindex Scheme, in-line code
4870 LilyPond contains a Scheme interpreter (the GUILE library) for
4871 internal use. In some places, Scheme expressions also form valid syntax:
4872 wherever it is allowed,
4876 evaluates the specified Scheme code. Example:
4878 \property Staff.TestObject \override #'foobar = #(+ 1 2)
4880 @code{\override} expects two Scheme expressions, so there are two Scheme
4881 expressions. The first one is a symbol (@code{foobar}), the second one
4882 an integer (namely, 3).
4884 In-line scheme may be used at the top level. In this case the result is
4887 Scheme is a full-blown programming language, and a full discussion is
4888 outside the scope of this document. Interested readers are referred to
4889 the website @uref{http://www.schemers.org/} for more information on
4894 @subsection Keywords
4898 Keywords start with a backslash, followed by a number of lower case
4899 alphabetic characters. These are all the keywords.
4902 apply arpeggio autochange spanrequest commandspanrequest
4903 simultaneous sequential accepts alternative bar breathe
4904 char chordmodifiers chords clef cm consists consistsend
4905 context denies duration dynamicscript elementdescriptions
4906 font grace header in lyrics key mark pitch
4907 time times midi mm name pitchnames notes outputproperty
4908 override set revert partial paper penalty property pt
4909 relative remove repeat addlyrics partcombine score
4910 script stylesheet skip textscript tempo translator
4915 @subsection Integers
4923 Formed from an optional minus sign followed by digits. Arithmetic
4924 operations cannot be done with integers, and integers cannot be mixed
4929 @cindex real numbers
4935 Formed from an optional minus sign and a sequence of digits followed
4936 by a @emph{required} decimal point and an optional exponent such as
4937 @code{-1.2e3}. Reals can be built up using the usual operations:
4938 `@code{+}', `@code{-}', `@code{*}', and
4939 `@code{/}', with parentheses for grouping.
4947 A real constant can be followed by one of the dimension keywords:
4948 @code{\mm} @code{\pt}, @code{\in}, or @code{\cm}, for millimeters,
4949 points, inches and centimeters, respectively. This converts the number
4950 a number that is the internal representation of that dimension.
4958 Begins and ends with the @code{"} character. To include a @code{"}
4959 character in a string write @code{\"}. Various other backslash
4960 sequences have special interpretations as in the C language. A string
4961 that contains no spaces can be written without the quotes. Strings can
4962 be concatenated with the @code{+} operator.
4966 @subsection Main input
4969 @cindex @code{\maininput}
4971 The @code{\maininput} command is used in init files to signal that the
4972 user file must be read. This command cannot be used in a user file.
4974 @node File inclusion
4975 @subsection File inclusion
4976 @cindex @code{\include}
4978 \include @var{filename}
4981 Include @var{filename}. The argument @var{filename} may be a quoted string (an
4982 unquoted string will not work here!) or a string identifier. The full
4983 filename including the @file{.ly} extension must be given,
4986 @node Version information
4987 @subsection Version information
4988 @cindex @code{\version}
4990 \version @var{string}
4993 Specify the version of LilyPond that a file was written for. The
4994 argument is a version string in quotes, for example @code{"1.2.0"}.
4995 This is used to detect invalid input, and to aid
4996 @code{convert-ly} a tool that automatically upgrades input files. See
4997 See @ref{convert-ly} for more information on @code{convert-ly}.
5006 @c .{Local emacs vars}
5009 @c minor-mode: font-lock
5010 @c minor-mode: outline
5011 @c outline-layout: (-1 : 0)
5012 @c outline-use-mode-specific-leader: "@c \."
5013 @c outline-primary-bullet: "{"
5014 @c outline-stylish-prefixes: nil
5015 @c outline-override-protect: t