1 \input texinfo @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @setfilename music-glosssary.info
3 @settitle Music Glossary
4 @documentencoding UTF-8
11 @c see lilypond.tely for info installation note
14 * Glossary: (lilypond/music-glossary). Glossary of music terms.
19 @author Christian Mondrup @c Original author of LilyPond glossary
21 @author François Pinard @c Original glossary of GNU music project,
23 @author Mats Bengtsson @c Swedish glossary
24 @author David González @c Spanish glossary
25 @author Bjoern Jacke @c German glossary
26 @author Neil Jerram @c English glossary translations
27 @author Heikki Junes @c Finnish glossary
28 @author Kurtis Kroon @c English glossary maintenance, beg. Oct. 2007
29 @author Adrian Mariano @c Italian glossary
30 @author Han-Wen Nienhuys @c Dutch glossary
31 @author Jan Nieuwenhuizen @c Dutch glossary
33 @c Fixes by Jean-Pierre Coulon and `Dirk', alphabetized by last name, KK, 10/07
34 @c Updates to the German translation by Till Rettig, 12/07
36 Copyright @copyright{} 1999--2008 by the authors
38 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
39 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
40 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation,
41 without Invariant Sections.
46 @c TODO: multiple omfcreators?
48 @omfcreator Christian Mondrup, Kurt Kroon
49 @omfdescription Glossary of musical terms with translations
51 @omfcategory Applications|Publishing
65 This document is also available as a
66 @uref{source/Documentation/user/music-glossary.pdf,PDF} and as
67 @uref{source/Documentation/user/music-glossary-big-page.html,one big page}.
70 This document is also available as a
71 @uref{source/Documentation/user/music-glossary.pdf,PDF} and as a
72 @uref{source/Documentation/user/music-glossary/index.html,HTML indexed multiple pages}.
76 This glossary was brought you by:
80 @item @b{Christian Mondrup}: Original author of LilyPond glossary, Danish,
81 @item @b{François Pinard}: Original glossary of GNU music project, French,
83 @item @b{Han-Wen Nienhuys}: Dutch,
84 @item @b{Jan Nieuwenhuizen}: Dutch,
86 @item @b{Neil Jerram}: English,
87 @item @b{Kurtis Kroon}: English,
89 @item @b{Heikki Junes}: Finnish,
91 @item @b{Bjoern Jacke}: German,
93 @item @b{Adrian Mariano}: Italian,
95 @item @b{David González}: Spanish,
97 @item @b{Mats Bengtsson}: Swedish,
101 with additional contributions: thanks to all who have contributed.
105 The list is rather long ...
111 @item Rune Zedeler, @emph{pace}
124 @item Andrew Hawryluk
126 @item Kieren MacMillan
127 @item Patrick McCarty
129 @item Carl D. Sorensen
135 @item Risto Vääräniemi
141 @item Reinhold Kainhofer
144 @item Thomas Scharkowski
159 @item Simon Dahlbacka
166 Copyright 1999--2008 by the authors
168 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
169 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
170 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation,
171 without Invariant Sections.
177 @c @everyheading @| @thispage @|
178 @c @evenheading @thispage @| @|
179 @c @oddheading @| @| @thispage @|
181 This is the Music Glossary (MG) for GNU LilyPond version @version{}.
182 For more information about how this fits with the other
183 documentation, see @rlearning{About the documentation}.
189 @w{@expansion{}@strong{\word\}}@c
192 @expansion{}@ref{\word\, @strong{\word\}}@c
197 * Musical terms A-Z::
198 * Duration names notes and rests::
203 @node Musical terms A-Z
204 @chapter Musical terms A-Z
206 Languages in this order.
208 @item UK - British English (where it differs from American English)
236 * ancient minor scale::
241 * ascending interval::
243 * augmented interval::
280 * compound interval::
284 * conjunct movement::
298 * descending interval::
301 * diminished interval::
305 * disjunct movement::
307 * dissonant interval::
311 * dominant ninth chord::
312 * dominant seventh chord::
314 * dot (augmentation dot)::
316 * double appoggiatura::
318 * double dotted note::
321 * double time signature::
328 * ecclesiastical mode::
335 * equal temperament::
356 * functional harmony::
376 * inverted interval::
391 * long appoggiatura::
397 * meantone temperament::
404 * mensural notation::
408 * metronomic indication::
421 * multi-measure rest::
451 * polymetric time signature::
456 * Pythagorean comma::
486 * sixty-fourth note::
487 * sixty-fourth rest::
518 * thirty-second note::
519 * thirty-second rest::
526 * transposing instrument::
581 Abbreviated @notation{a2} or @notation{a 2}.
585 @item An indication in orchestral scores that a single part notated on a single
586 staff that normally carries parts for two players (e.g. first and second oboes)
587 is to be played by both players.
589 @item Or conversely, that two pitches or parts notated on a staff that normally
590 carries a single part (e.g. first violin) are to be played by different players,
591 or groups of players (@q{desks}).
605 F: accelerando, en accélérant,
606 D: accelerando, schneller werden,
610 FI: accelerando, kiihdyttäen.
612 [Italian: @q{speed up, accelerate}.]
631 FI: aksentti, korostus.
633 The stress of one tone over others.
648 @section acciaccatura
650 A grace note which takes its time from the rest or note preceding the
651 principal note to which it is attached. The acciaccatura is drawn as a
652 small eighth note (quaver) with a line drawn through the flag and
657 @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes}, @ref{ornament}.
663 ES: alteración accidental,
665 F: altération accidentelle,
666 D: Versetzungszeichen, Akzidenz,
667 NL: toevallig (verplaatsings)teken,
669 S: tillfälligt förtecken,
670 FI: tilapäinen etumerkki.
672 An accidental alters a note by:
676 @item Raising its pitch:
678 @item A @notation{double sharp}, by two semitones (a whole tone)
679 @item A @notation{sharp}, by one semitone
682 @item Lowering its pitch:
684 @item A @notation{flat}, by one semitone
685 @item A @notation{double flat}, by two semitones (a whole tone)
688 @item Canceling the effects of the key signature or previous accidentals.
691 @lilypond[quote,notime]
695 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
696 gisis1 gis g! ges geses
701 \center-column { double sharp }
707 \center-column { double flat }
713 \override SpacingSpanner
714 #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 32)
722 @ref{alteration}, @ref{semitone}, @ref{whole tone}.
735 FI: adagio, hitaasti.
737 [Italian: @q{comfortable, easy}.]
741 @item Slow tempo, slower -- especially in even meter -- than @notation{andante}
742 and faster than @notation{largo}.
744 @item A movement in slow tempo, especially the second (slow) movement
745 of sonatas, symphonies, etc.
751 @ref{andante}, @ref{largo}, @ref{sonata}.
764 FI: häviten olemattomiin.
766 [Italian: @q{to nothing}.] Used with @notation{decrescendo} to indicate
767 that the sound should fade away to nothing.
769 @notation{Al niente} is indicated by circling the tip of the hairpin:
771 @lilypond[quote,relative=2]
772 \override Hairpin #'circled-tip = ##t
778 or with the actual phrase @notation{al niente}:
780 @lilypond[quote,relative=2]
782 \override DynamicTextSpanner #'(bound-details right text) =
783 \markup { \italic { al niente } }
789 Since one does not crescendo @emph{to} nothing, it is not correct to use
790 @notation{al niente} with @notation{crescendo}. Instead, one should use
791 @emph{dal niente} (@notation{@b{from} nothing}).
795 @ref{crescendo}, @ref{decrescendo}, @ref{hairpin}.
804 D: Allegro, Schnell, Fröhlich, Lustig,
808 FI: allegro, nopeasti.
810 [Italian: @q{cheerful}.] Quick tempo. Also used as a title for pieces in a quick
811 tempo, especially the first and last movements of a sonata.
825 NL: verhoging of verlaging,
830 An alteration is the modification, raising or lowering, of a note's
831 pitch. It is established by an accidental.
848 FI: altto, matala naisääni.
850 A female voice of low range (@emph{contralto}). Originally the alto
851 was a high male voice (hence the name), which by the use of falsetto
852 reached the height of the female voice. This type of voice is also
853 known as countertenor.
863 ES: clave de do en tercera,
864 I: chiave di contralto,
865 F: clef d'ut troisième ligne,
866 D: Altschlüssel, Bratschenschlüssel,
872 C clef setting middle C on the middle line of the staff.
889 FI: ambitus, ääniala, soitinala.
891 [Latin: past participle of @emph{ambire}, @q{to go around}; plural: ambitus]
892 Denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in a part of music. It may
893 also denote the pitch range that a musical instrument is capable of playing.
894 Sometimes anglicized to @emph{ambit} (pl. @emph{ambits}).
913 An anacrusis (also known as pickup or upbeat) is an incomplete measure
914 of music before a section of music. It also refers to the initial
915 note(s) of a melody occurring in that incomplete measure.
917 @lilypond[quote,relative=1]
929 @ref{measure}, @ref{meter}.
932 @node ancient minor scale
933 @section ancient minor scale
935 ES: escala menor natural,
936 I: scala minore naturale,
937 F: forme du mode mineur ancien, troisème mode, mode hellénique,
938 D: reines Moll, natürliches Moll,
939 NL: authentieke mineurtoonladder,
942 FI: luonnollinen molliasteikko.
944 Also called @q{natural minor scale}.
946 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
952 @ref{diatonic scale}.
967 [Italian: present participle of @emph{andare}, @q{to walk}.]
969 Walking tempo/character.
977 @section appoggiatura
981 F: appoggiature, (port de voix),
982 D: Vorschlag, Vorhalt
986 FI: appoggiatura, etuhele.
988 Ornamental note, usually a second, that is melodically connected with
989 the main note following it. In music before the 19th century
990 appoggiature were usually performed on the beat, after that mostly
991 before the beat. While the short appoggiatura is performed as a short
992 note regardless of the duration of the main note the duration of the
993 long appoggiatura is proportional to that of the main note.
995 @lilypond[quote,relative=2]
998 <d a fis>4_"notation" r
1005 \set Score.measurePosition = #ZERO-MOMENT
1006 <d, a fis>4_"performance" r
1012 An appoggiatura may have more notes preceding the main note.
1014 @lilypond[quote,relative=2]
1017 \grace bes16 as8-"notation" as16 bes as8 g |
1018 \grace { as16[( bes] } <c as>4)
1019 \grace { as16[( bes] } <c as>4) \bar "||"
1021 \grace bes16 as8-"performance" as16 bes as8 g |
1025 as32 bes c8. as32 bes c8.
1029 as16 ~ as8. as16 ~ as8.
1045 D: Arpeggio, Akkordbrechungen, gebro@-chener Akkord,
1046 NL: gebroken akoord,
1047 DK: arpeggio, akkordbrydning,
1049 FI: arpeggio, murtosointu.
1051 [Italian: @q{harp-like, played like a harp}.]
1053 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13\cm]
1055 \context Staff = "SA" {
1059 r8 g16 c e g, c e r8 g,16 c e g, c e
1060 r8 a,16 d f a, d f r8 a,16 d f a, d f
1064 \context Staff = "SB" {
1070 r16 e8. ( e4) r16 e8. ( e4)
1071 r16 d8. ( d4) r16 d8. ( d4)
1090 @section articulation
1099 FI: artikulaatio, ilmaisu.
1101 Articulation refers to notation which indicates how a note or notes
1102 should be played. Slurs, accents, staccato, and legato are all
1103 examples of articulation.
1110 @node ascending interval
1111 @section ascending interval
1113 ES: intervalo ascendente,
1114 I: intervallo ascendente,
1115 F: intervalle ascendant,
1116 D: steigendes Intervall,
1117 NL: stijgend interval,
1118 DK: stigende interval,
1119 S: stigande intervall,
1120 FI: nouseva intervalli.
1122 A distance between a starting lower note and a higher ending note.
1129 @node augmented interval
1130 @section augmented interval
1132 ES: intervalo aumentado,
1133 I: intervallo aumentato,
1134 F: intervalle augmenté,
1135 D: übermäßiges Intervall,
1136 NL: overmatig interval,
1137 DK: forstørret interval,
1138 S: överstigande intervall,
1139 FI: ylinouseva intervalli.
1147 @section augmentation
1156 FI: aika-arvojen pidentäminen.
1158 @c TODO: add definition.
1160 This is a placeholder for augmentation (wrt mensural notation).
1164 @ref{diminution}, @ref{mensural notation}.
1172 F: manuscrit, autographe
1173 D: Autograph, Handschrift,
1175 DK: håndskrift, autograf,
1177 FI: käsinkirjoitettu nuotti.
1181 @item A manuscript written in the composer's own hand.
1183 @item Music prepared for photoreproduction by freehand drawing, with
1184 the aid of a straightedge ruler and T-square only, which attempts to
1185 emulate engraving. This required more skill than did engraving.
1210 @ref{H}, @ref{Pitch names}
1232 ES: barra, línea divisoria,
1233 I: stanghetta, barra (di divisione),
1234 F: barre (de mesure),
1241 A vertical line through the staff (or through multiple staves) that
1242 separates measures. Used very infrequently during the Renaissance (mostly
1243 in secular music, or in sacred music to indicate congruences between parts
1244 in otherwise-unmetered music).
1261 FI: baritoni, keskikorkuinen miesääni.
1263 The male voice intermediate in pitch between the bass and the tenor.
1265 @c F: clef de troisième ligne dropped
1269 @ref{bass}, @ref{tenor}.
1273 @section baritone clef
1275 ES: clave de fa en tercera,
1276 I: chiave di baritono,
1277 F: clef d' Ut cinquième ligne, clef de Fa troisième,
1278 D: Baritonschlüssel,
1284 C or F clef setting middle C on the upper staff line.
1288 @ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}.
1301 FI: basso, matala miesääni.
1305 @item The lowest male voice.
1307 @item Sometimes, especially in jazz music, used as an abbreviation for
1320 ES: clave de fa en cuarta,
1322 F: clef de fa quatrième ligne,
1329 A clef setting with middle C on the first top ledger line.
1348 Line connecting a series of notes (shorter than a quarter note). The
1349 number of beams determines the note value of the connected notes.
1351 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2,line-width=13\cm]
1352 g8-"1/8"[ g g g] s16
1353 g16-"1/16"[ g g g] s
1354 g32-"1/32"[ s g s g s g] s16
1355 g64-"1/64"[ s32 g64 s32 g64 s32 g64] s32
1360 @ref{feathered beam}.
1366 ES: tiempo, parte (de compás)
1369 D: Takt, Taktschlag, Zeit (im Takt),
1375 Note value used for counting, most often half-, fourth-, and eighth notes.
1376 The base counting value and the number of them in each measure is indicated
1377 at the start of the music by the @notation{time signature}.
1379 @lilypond[quote,relative=2]
1382 g4 c b a | g1 \bar "||"
1384 g8 d' c | b c a | g4. \bar "||"
1389 @ref{time signature}.
1393 @section beat repeat
1397 @ref{percent repeat}.
1411 ES: llave, corchete,
1414 D: Klammer, Akkolade,
1415 NL: accolade, teksthaak,
1418 FI: yhdistävä sulkumerkki.
1420 Symbol at the start of a system connecting staves.
1422 Curly braces are used for connecting piano staves, and sometimes for connecting
1423 the staves of like instruments in an orchestral score when written on different
1424 staves (e.g. first and second flutes):
1428 \context Staff = "SA" {
1434 \context Staff = "SB" {
1444 Angular brackets for connecting parts in an orchestral or choral score:
1448 \context Staff = "SA" {
1454 \context Staff = "SB" {
1492 NL: koper (blazers),
1495 S: brassinstrument, mässingsinstrument,
1498 A family of blown musical instruments made of brass, all using a cup
1499 formed mouth piece. The brass instruments commonly used in a symphony
1500 orchestra are trumpet, trombone, french horn, and tuba.
1508 @section breath mark
1513 D: Atemzeichen, Trennungszeichen,
1514 NL: repercussieteken,
1515 DK: vejrtrækningstegn,
1519 Indication of where to breathe in vocal and wind instrument parts.
1530 @item US: breve, double-whole note,
1531 @item ES: cuadrada, breve,
1538 @item FI: brevis, kaksoiskokonuotti.
1541 Note value twice as long as a whole note. Mainly used in pre-1650 music.
1542 The shortest note value generally used in white mensural notation, hence the
1543 name, which originally meant @q{of short duration}.
1545 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
1551 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{note value}.
1585 Clef symbol indicating the position of the middle C. Used on all note
1588 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1,line-width=13.0\cm]
1590 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
1592 \clef mezzosoprano c1
1598 \override Lyrics . LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #LEFT
1599 "Soprano " "Mezzosoprano " "Alto " "Tenor " Baritone
1618 FI: kadenssi, lopuke.
1622 @ref{harmonic cadence}, @ref{functional harmony}.
1635 FI: kadenssi, lopuke.
1637 An extended, improvisatory style section inserted near the end of
1638 movement. The purpose of a cadenza is to give singers or players a
1639 chance to exhibit their technical skill and -- not last -- their
1640 ability to improvise. Since the middle of the 19th century, however,
1641 most cadenzas have been written down by the composer.
1660 [Latin: from the supine of @emph{caedere} @q{to cut down}.]
1662 The break between two musical phrases, sometimes (but not always) marked by a
1663 rest or a breath mark.
1680 FI: kaanon, tarkka jäljittely.
1697 FI: sentti, puolisävelaskeleen sadasosa tasavireisessä
1698 viritysjärjestelmässä.
1700 Logarithmic unit of measurement. 1@tie{}cent is 1/1200 of an octave
1701 (1/100 of an equally tempered semitone).
1705 @ref{equal temperament}, @ref{semitone}.
1728 Three or more tones sounding simultaneously. In traditional European music
1729 the base chord is a @emph{triad} consisting of two thirds. @emph{Major}
1730 (major + minor third) as well as @emph{minor} (minor + major third) chords
1731 may be extended with more thirds. Four-tone @emph{seventh chords} and
1732 five-tone @emph{ninth} major chords are most often used as dominants
1733 (functional harmony). Chords having no third above the lower notes to
1734 define their mood are a special case called @q{open chords}. The lack of
1735 the middle third means their quality is ambivalent -- neither major nor
1738 @lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1742 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
1764 @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{interval}, @ref{inversion}, @ref{quality},
1768 @node chromatic scale
1769 @section chromatic scale
1771 ES: escala cromática,
1773 F: gamme chromatique,
1774 D: chro@-ma@-ti@-sche Tonleiter,
1775 NL: chromatische toonladder,
1776 DK: kromatisk skala,
1778 FI: kromaattinen asteikko.
1780 A scale consisting of all 12 semitones.
1782 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1,line-width=13.0\cm]
1783 c1 cis d dis e f fis g gis a ais b c
1792 @section chromaticism
1803 Using tones extraneous to a diatonic scale (minor, major).
1807 @ref{diatonic scale}.
1811 @section church mode
1813 ES: modo eclesiástico,
1814 I: modo ecclesiastico,
1815 F: mode ecclésiastique,
1820 FI: moodi, kirkkosävellaji.
1824 @ref{diatonic scale}.
1833 D: Schlüssel, Notenschlüssel,
1837 FI: avain, nuottiavain.
1839 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
1840 pitches. The three clef symbols in common use are:
1845 \line { The Treble or G clef: }
1847 \line { The Bass or F clef: }
1849 \line { The Alto or C clef: }
1853 \musicglyph #"clefs.G"
1855 \musicglyph #"clefs.F"
1857 \musicglyph #"clefs.C"
1862 Imagine a large staff of 11 lines centered on middle C, sometimes
1863 called a @q{grand staff}, with the bottom line representing low G and
1864 the top line high F:
1869 %-- Note names above treble staff --%
1871 \set printOctaveNames = ##t
1873 \once \override NoteName #'color = #red
1877 %-- Treble Staff --%
1879 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
1885 %-- Alto Staff reduced to a single line on middle C --%
1887 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #1
1888 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
1889 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
1892 \override NoteHead #'color = #red
1898 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
1907 \override SpacingSpanner
1908 #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 1)
1909 \override NonMusicalPaperColumn
1910 #'line-break-system-details = #'((alignment-offsets . (3 0 -3 -6)))
1911 \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1915 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
1921 Staves of five lines are usually used, and the clef superimposed on
1922 them indicates which five lines have been selected from this
1923 @samp{grand staff}. For example, the treble or G clef indicates that
1924 the top five lines have been selected:
1929 %-- Note names above treble staff --%
1931 \set printOctaveNames = ##t
1933 \once \override NoteName #'color = #red
1938 %-- Treble Staff --%
1940 \once \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
1943 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
1944 \set Staff.forceClef = ##t
1948 %-- Alto Staff reduced to a single line on middle C --%
1950 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #1
1951 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
1952 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
1955 \override NoteHead #'color = #red
1960 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
1968 \override SpacingSpanner
1969 #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 2 1)
1970 \override NonMusicalPaperColumn
1971 #'line-break-system-details = #'((alignment-offsets . (3 0 -3 -6)))
1972 \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1976 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
1982 The @q{curl} of the G clef is centered on the line that represents the
1985 In the same way, the bass or F clef indicates that the bottom five
1986 lines have been selected from the @samp{grand staff}, and the alto or
1987 C clef indicates the middle five lines have been selected. This
1988 relationship is shown below, where the notes show an arpeggio on a C
1994 %-- Treble Staff --%
2002 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #1
2003 \once \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
2008 \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'stencil
2009 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2012 \stopStaff \startStaff
2013 \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count
2014 \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'color
2015 \stopStaff \startStaff
2016 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
2017 \set Staff.forceClef = ##t
2032 \override SpacingSpanner #'base-shortest-duration =
2033 #(ly:make-moment 2 1)
2034 \override NonMusicalPaperColumn
2035 #'line-break-system-details = #'((alignment-offsets . (0 -3 -6)))
2036 \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
2040 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
2048 @ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}, @ref{G clef}.
2061 FI: klusteri, cluster.
2063 A @emph{cluster} is a range of simultaneously sounding pitches that
2064 may change over time. The set of available pitches to apply usually
2065 depends on the acoustic source. Thus, in piano music, a cluster
2066 typically consists of a continuous range of the semitones as provided
2067 by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic scale. In choral music, each
2068 singer of the choir typically may sing an arbitrary pitch within the
2069 cluster's range that is not bound to any diatonic, chromatic or other
2070 scale. In electronic music, a cluster (theoretically) may even cover
2071 a continuous range of pitches, thus resulting in colored noise, such
2074 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
2075 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
2076 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
2077 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by
2078 the shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical
2079 extent of the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster
2080 geometrically describes the development of a range of pitches
2081 (vertical extent) over time (horizontal extent). Still, the
2082 geometrical shape of a cluster covers the area in which any single
2083 pitch contained in the cluster would be notated as an ordinary note.
2085 @lilypond[quote,relative=2]
2086 \makeClusters { <c e>4 <b f'> <b g'> <c g>8 <f e> }
2104 FI: komma, korvinkuultava ero äänenkorkeudessa.
2106 Difference in pitch between a note derived from pure tuning and the
2107 same note derived from some other tuning method.
2111 @ref{didymic comma}, @ref{Pythagorean comma}, @ref{syntonic comma},
2116 @section common meter
2118 Another name for @ref{common time}.
2121 @ref{common time}, @ref{meter}.
2125 @section common time
2136 4/4 time. The symbol, which resembles a capital letter C, comes from
2141 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}.
2147 ES: intervalo invertido,
2149 F: intervalle complémentaire,
2150 D: Komplementärintervall,
2151 NL: complementair interval,
2152 DK: komplementærinterval,
2153 S: komplementärintervall (?),
2154 FI: täydentävä intervalli.
2158 @ref{inverted interval}.
2161 @node compound interval
2162 @section compound interval
2164 ES: intervalo compuesto,
2165 I: intervallo composto,
2166 F: intervalle composé,
2167 D: weites Intervall,
2168 NL: samengesteld interval,
2169 DK: sammensat interval,
2170 S: sammansatt intervall,
2171 FI: oktaavia laajempi intervalli.
2173 Intervals larger than an octave.
2180 @node compound meter
2181 @section compound meter
2183 ES: compás compuesto, compás de subdivisión ternaria,
2190 FI: kolmijakoinen tahtilaji.
2192 A meter that includes a triplet subdivision within the beat, such as
2197 @ref{meter}, @ref{simple meter}.
2201 @section compound time
2203 ES: compás compuesto, compás de amalgama (def. 2),
2210 FI: yhdistetty tahtilajiosoitus.
2215 A meter that includes a triplet subdivision within the beat: see
2216 @ref{compound meter}.
2219 A time signature that additively combines two or more unequal meters, e.g.,
2220 "3/8 + 2/8" instead of "5/8". Sometimes called additive time signatures.
2224 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
2225 #(define ((compound-time one two three num) grob)
2226 (grob-interpret-markup grob
2228 #:override '(baseline-skip . 0)
2231 #:left-column (one num)
2233 #:left-column (two num)
2235 #:left-column (three num)))))
2239 #(set-time-signature 8 8 '(3 2 3))
2240 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil =
2241 #(compound-time "3" "2" "3" "8")
2242 #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 8 8) 3 8)
2243 #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 8 8) 5 8)
2253 @ref{compound meter}, @ref{meter}, @ref{polymetric time signature}.
2257 @section concert pitch
2259 ES: en Do, afinación de concierto,
2266 FI: konserttikorkeus.
2268 The pitch at which the piano and other nontransposing instruments play: such
2269 instruments are said to be @q{in C}. The following list includes some (but not
2270 all) instruments that play in concert pitch:
2272 @c Let's see how easy (or hard) it is to put bulleted lists in tables.
2274 @multitable {alto trombone} {tenor trombone} {bass trombone}
2275 @headitem Woodwinds @tab Brass @tab Strings
2288 @item tenor trombone
2302 The trombones are a special case: although they are said to be @q{in F} (alto or
2303 bass) or @q{in B-flat} (tenor), this refers to their fundamental note, not to
2304 their parts' transposition. (In fact, the trombones' parts are written at
2305 concert pitch with an appropriate clef -- alto, tenor or bass.) This differs
2306 from other instruments @q{in F}, @q{in B-flat}, and so on, which are transposing
2309 Instruments that play @q{in C} but in a different octave than what is written
2310 are, technically speaking, @emph{transposing instruments}:
2314 @item piccolo (plays an octave higher)
2315 @item celesta (plays an octave higher)
2316 @item double bass (plays an octave lower)
2322 @ref{transposing instrument}.
2325 @node conjunct movement
2326 @section conjunct movement
2328 ES: movimiento conjunto,
2330 F: mouvement conjoint,
2331 D: schritt@-weise, stufenweise Bewegung,
2332 NL: stapsgewijze, trapsgewijze beweging,
2333 DK: trinvis bevægelse,
2335 FI: asteittainen liike.
2337 Progressing melodically by intervals of a second, as contrasted with
2338 @emph{disjunct movement}.
2340 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
2343 g4 g g a | b2 a | g4 b a a | g1 \bar "||"
2348 @ref{disjunct movement}.
2361 FI: konsonanssi, sopusointi.
2386 @section copying music
2388 A music copyist did fast freehand scores and parts on preprinted staff
2389 lines for performance. Some of their conventions (e.g., the placement
2390 of note heads on stems) varied slightly from those of engravers. Some
2391 of their working methods were superior and could well be adopted by
2394 @c Copying music required more skill than engraving. Flagged for NPOV
2402 @section counterpoint
2411 FI: kontrapunkti, ääni ääntä vastaan.
2413 From Latin @emph{punctus contra punctum}, note against note. The
2414 combination into a single musical fabric of lines or parts which have
2415 distinct melodic significance. A frequently used polyphonic technique
2416 is imitation, in its strictest form found in the canon needing only
2417 one part to be written down while the other parts are performed with a
2418 given displacement. Imitation is also the contrapuntal technique
2419 used in the @emph{fugue} which, since the music of the baroque era,
2420 has been one of the most popular polyphonic composition methods.
2422 @lilypond[quote,staffsize=12,line-width=13.0\cm]
2424 \context Staff = SA \relative c' {
2428 << \context Voice = rha {
2430 r1 | r2 r8 g'8 bes d, |
2431 cis4 d r8 e!16 f g8 f16 e |
2432 f8 g16 a bes8 a16 g a8
2434 \context Voice = rhb {
2440 \context Staff = SB \relative c' {
2443 << \context Voice = lha {
2445 r8 d es g, fis4 g | r8 a16 bes c8 bes16 a bes4 g |
2446 r8 a16 g f8 g16 a bes8 g e! cis' |
2449 \context Voice = lhb {
2463 @section countertenor
2468 D: Countertenor, Kontratenor,
2471 S: kontratenor, counter tenor,
2485 D: Crescendo, lauter werden,
2489 FI: cresendo, voimistuen.
2491 Increasing volume. Indicated by a rightwards opening horizontal wedge
2492 (hairpin) or the abbreviation @notation{cresc.}.
2494 @lilypond[quote,relative=2]
2497 g4\< a b c | d1\! \bar "|."
2502 @ref{decrescendo}, @ref{hairpin}.
2510 F: petites notes précédent l'entrée d'un instrument, réplique,
2517 In a separate part notes belonging to another part with the purpose of
2518 hinting when to start playing. Usually printed in a smaller type.
2531 D: Notenzeiger, Custos,
2537 A custos (plural: custodes) is a staff symbol that appears at the end of a
2538 staff line with monophonic musical contents (i.e., with a single voice). It
2539 anticipates the pitch of the first note of the following line and thus helps
2540 the player or singer to manage line breaks during performance, which
2541 enhances the readability of a score.
2543 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 16th century.
2544 There were different appearences for different notation styles. Nowadays,
2545 they have survived only in special forms of musical notation such as the
2546 @emph{Editio Vaticana}, dating from the beginning of the 20th century
2548 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2551 \override Staff.Custos #'neutral-direction = #DOWN
2552 \override Staff.Custos #'style = #'hufnagel
2559 \consists "Custos_engraver"
2594 F: da capo, depuis le commencement,
2595 D: da capo, von Anfang,
2599 FI: da capo, alusta.
2601 Abbreviated @notation{D.C.}. Indicates that the piece is to be repeated from
2602 the beginning to the end or to a certain place marked @emph{fine}.
2619 FI: tyhjästä ilmaantuen.
2621 [Italian: @q{from nothing}.] Used with @notation{crescendo} to indicate
2622 that the sound should gradually increase from nothing.
2634 F: dal segno, depuis le signe,
2635 D: dal segno, ab dem Zeichen,
2639 FI: dal segno, lähtien merkistä.
2641 Abbreviated @notation{D.S.}. Repetition, not from the beginning, but from
2642 another place frequently near the beginning marked by a sign
2645 @lilypond[quote,relative=2]
2653 \musicglyph #"scripts.segno"
2664 @section decrescendo
2668 D: Decrescendo, leiser werden,
2672 FI: decresendo, hiljentyen.
2674 Decreasing tone volume. Indicated by a leftwards opening horizontal
2675 wedge (hairpin) or the abbreviation @notation{decresc.}.
2677 @lilypond[quote,relative=2]
2680 d4\> c b a | g1 \! \bar "|."
2685 @ref{crescendo}, @ref{diminuendo}, @ref{hairpin}.
2688 @node descending interval
2689 @section descending interval
2691 ES: intervalo descendente,
2692 I: intervallo discendente,
2693 F: intervalle descendant,
2694 D: fallendes Intervall, absteigendes Intervall,
2695 NL: dalend interval,
2696 DK: faldende interval,
2697 S: fallande intervall,
2698 FI: laskeva intervalli.
2700 A distance between a starting higher note and a lower ending note.
2707 @node diatonic scale
2708 @section diatonic scale
2710 ES: escala diatónica,
2712 F: gamme diatonique,
2713 D: diatonische Tonleiter,
2714 NL: diatonische toonladder,
2715 DK: diatonisk skala,
2717 FI: diatoninen asteikko.
2719 A scale consisting of 5@w{ }whole tones and 2@w{ }semitones (S). Scales
2720 played on the white keys of a piano keybord are diatonic. These scales
2721 are sometimes called, somewhat inaccurately, @q{church modes}).
2723 These @emph{modes} are used in Gregorian chant and in pre-baroque early music
2724 but also to some extent in newer jazz music.
2726 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1]
2730 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c
2738 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1]
2742 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c d
2750 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1]
2753 e1^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c d e
2761 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1]
2765 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f
2773 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
2777 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g
2785 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
2789 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a
2797 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
2800 b1^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a b
2808 From the beginning of the 17th century the scales used in European
2809 compositional music are primarily the major and the minor scales. In
2810 the harmonic minor scale type an augmented second (A) occurs between
2811 the 6th and 7th tone.
2813 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1]
2817 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c
2825 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
2829 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a
2832 "Ancient (or Natural) minor"
2837 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
2841 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f!^"~~ A" gis^"~~ S" a
2849 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
2853 b^"~~ S" c d e fis gis^"~~ S" a
2856 "Melodic minor ascending"
2861 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=3]
2865 g! f!^"~~ S" e d c^"~~ S" b a
2868 "Melodic minor descending"
2875 @ref{semitone}, @ref{whole tone}.
2879 @section didymic comma
2883 @ref{syntonic comma}.
2886 @node diminished interval
2887 @section diminished interval
2889 ES: intervalo disminuido,
2890 I: intervallo diminuito,
2891 F: intervalle diminué,
2892 D: vermindertes Intervall,
2893 NL: verminderd interval,
2894 DK: formindsket interval,
2895 S: förminskat intervall,
2896 FI: vähennetty intervalli.
2913 FI: diminuendo, hiljentyen.
2930 FI: aika-arvojen tihennys.
2932 This is a stub for diminution (@emph{wrt} mensural notation).
2936 @ref{augmentation}, @ref{mensural notation}.
2956 @node disjunct movement
2957 @section disjunct movement
2959 ES: movimiento disjunto,
2961 F: mouvement disjoint,
2962 D: sprunghafte Bewegung,
2963 NL: sprongsgewijze beweging,
2964 DK: springende bevægelse,
2965 S: hoppande rörelse,
2966 FI: melodian hyppivä liike.
2968 Progressing melodically by intervals larger than a major second, as contrasted
2969 with conjunct movement.
2971 @lilypond[quote,relative=1]
2975 a4. gis8 b a e cis |
2982 @ref{conjunct movement}.
2988 Another name for @ref{dissonant interval}.
2992 @ref{dissonant interval}, @ref{harmony}.
2995 @node dissonant interval
2996 @section dissonant interval
2998 ES: intervalo disonante, disonancia,
2999 I: intervallo dissonante, dissonanza,
3002 NL: dissonant interval, dissonant,
3003 DK: dissonerende interval, dissonans,
3005 FI: dissonanssi, dissonoiva intervalli, riitasointi.
3024 [Latin: @q{division}; pl. @emph{divisiones}] In Gregorian chant, a
3025 vertical stroke through part or all of the staff that serves to
3026 structure a chant into phrases and sections. There are four types:
3030 @item @emph{divisio minima}, a short pause
3032 @item @emph{divisio maior}, a medium pause
3034 @item @emph{divisio maxima}, a long pause
3036 @item @emph{finalis}, to indicate the end of a chant, or the end of a
3037 section in a long antiphonal or responsorial chant.
3041 TODO: musical example here?
3060 Indicator for a indeterminately rising pitch bend. Compare with
3061 @emph{glissando}, which has determinate starting and ending pitches.
3065 @ref{fall}, @ref{glissando}.
3078 FI: dominantti, huippusointu.
3080 The fifth @emph{scale degree} in @emph{functional harmony}.
3084 @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}.
3087 @node dominant ninth chord
3088 @section dominant ninth chord
3090 ES: acorde de novena de dominante,
3091 I: accordo di nona di dominante,
3092 F: accord de neuvième dominante,
3093 D: Domi@-nant@-nonen@-akkord,
3094 NL: dominant noon akkoord,
3095 DK: dominantnoneakkord,
3096 S: dominantnonackord,
3097 FI: dominanttinoonisointu.
3101 @ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}.
3104 @node dominant seventh chord
3105 @section dominant seventh chord
3107 ES: acorde de séptima de dominante,
3108 I: accordo di settima di dominante,
3109 F: accord de septième dominante,
3110 D: Dominantseptakkord,
3111 NL: dominant septiem akkoord,
3112 DK: dominantseptimakkord,
3113 S: dominantseptimackord,
3114 FI: dominanttiseptimisointu.
3118 @ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}.
3122 @section dorian mode
3127 D: dorisch, dorischer Kirchenton,
3128 NL: dorische toonladder,
3135 @ref{diatonic scale}.
3138 @node dot (augmentation dot)
3139 @section dot (augmentation dot)
3142 I: punto (di valore),
3144 D: Punkt (Verlängerungspunkt),
3152 @ref{dotted note}, @ref{note value}.
3156 @section dotted note
3158 ES: nota con puntillo,
3162 NL: gepuncteerde noot,
3165 FI: pisteellinen nuotti.
3172 @node double appoggiatura
3173 @section double appoggiatura
3175 ES: apoyatura doble,
3176 I: appoggiatura doppia,
3177 F: appoggiature double,
3178 D: doppelter Vorschlag,
3179 NL: dubbele voorslag,
3180 DK: dobbelt forslag,
3182 FI: kaksoisappogiatura, kaksoisetuhele.
3189 @node double bar line
3190 @section double bar line
3196 NL: dubbele maatstreep,
3199 FI: kaksoistahtiviiva.
3201 Indicates the end of a section within a movement.
3208 @node double dotted note
3209 @section double dotted note
3211 ES: nota con doble puntillo,
3212 I: nota doppiamente puntata,
3213 F: note doublement pointée,
3214 D: doppelt punktierte Note,
3215 NL: dubbelgepuncteerde noot,
3216 DK: dob@-belt@-punk@-te@-ret node,
3217 S: dub@-bel@-punk@-te@-rad not,
3218 FI: kaksoispisteellinen nuotti.
3226 @section double flat
3235 FI: kaksoisalennusmerkki.
3243 @section double sharp
3245 ES: doble sostenido,
3250 DK: dob@-belt@-kryds,
3252 FI: kaksoisylennysmerkki.
3259 @node double time signature
3260 @section double time signature
3269 FI: kaksois-aika-arvomerkintä.
3273 @ref{polymetric time signature}.
3277 @section double trill
3283 NL: dubbele triller,
3288 A simultaneous trill on two notes, usually in the distance of a third.
3296 @section duple meter
3301 D: in zwei, grader Takt,
3302 NL: tweedelige maatsoort,
3339 FI: kesto, aika-arvo.
3349 ES: dinámica, matices,
3352 D: Dynamik, Lautstärke,
3356 FI: äänen voimakkuusvaihtelu, dynamiikka.
3358 The aspect of music relating to degrees of loudness, or changes from
3359 one degree to another. The terms, abbreviations, and symbols used to
3360 indicate this information are called dynamic marks.
3364 @ref{piano}, @ref{forte}, @ref{crescendo}, @ref{decrescendo},
3387 @node ecclesiastical mode
3388 @section ecclesiastical mode
3392 @ref{church mode}, @ref{diatonic scale}.
3396 @section eighth note
3403 @item D: Achtel, Achtelnote
3404 @item NL: achtste noot
3405 @item DK: ottendedelsnode
3406 @item S: åttondelsnot
3407 @item FI: kahdeksasosanuotti
3416 @section eighth rest
3419 @item UK: quaver rest
3420 @item ES: silencio de corchea
3421 @item I: pausa di croma
3422 @item F: demi-soupir
3423 @item D: Achtelpause
3424 @item NL: achtste rust
3425 @item DK: ottendedelspause
3426 @item S: åttonddelspaus
3427 @item FI: kahdeksasosatauko
3438 @c TODO: add languages
3447 FI: tavujen yhdistäminen yhteen ääneen.
3449 More properly @emph{synalepha} [New Lat. > Gr. @emph{συναλοιφη}, from Greek
3450 @emph{συναλοιφην} @q{to smear together}].
3452 The singing of several syllables on a single note. Elision may be indicated
3453 by a lyric tie, which looks like (and serves the same function) as a musical
3462 @section embellishment
3475 D: Notenstich, Notendruck
3481 Engraving means incising or etching a metal plate for printing.
3482 Photoengraving means drawing music with ink in a manner similar to
3483 drafting or engineering drawing, using similar tools.
3485 The traditional process of music printing is done through cutting in a
3486 plate of metal. Now also the term for the art of music typesetting.
3505 Two notes, intervals, or scales are enharmonic if they have different
3506 names but equal pitch.
3508 @lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3512 gis1 as <des g,!> <cis g!>
3516 "g sharp " "a flat " "dim fifth " "augm fourth"
3526 @node equal temperament
3527 @section equal temperament
3529 ES: temperamento igual,
3530 I: temperamento equabile,
3531 F: tempérament égal,
3532 D: gleichschwebende Stimmung,
3533 NL: ge@-lijk@-zwe@-ven@-de temperatuur,
3534 DK: ligesvævende temperatur,
3535 S: liksvävande temperatur,
3538 A tuning system that divides the octave into 12 equal semitones (each of
3539 which is precisely equal to 100 cents).
3543 @ref{cent}, @ref{semitone}, @ref{temperament}.
3546 @node expression mark
3547 @section expression mark
3550 I: segno d'espressione,
3551 F: signe d'expression, indication de nuance,
3553 NL: voordrachtsteken,
3554 DK: foredragsbetegnelse,
3555 S: föredragsbeteckning,
3556 FI: nyanssiosoitus, esitysmerkki.
3558 Performance indications concerning:
3562 @item volume, dynamics (for example, @notation{forte},
3563 @notation{crescendo}),
3565 @item tempo (for example, @notation{andante}, @notation{allegro}).
3571 @ref{allegro}, @ref{andante}, @ref{crescendo}, @ref{forte}.
3575 @section extender line
3577 ES: línea de extensión [de melisma, de bajo cifrado, etc.],
3579 F: ligne d'extension [de mélisme, de basse chiffrée, etc.],
3586 The generic term (in LilyPond) for a line (or dash) of arbitrary length that
3587 extends text (without indicating the musical @emph{function} of that text).
3589 Used in many contexts, for example:
3593 @item In vocal music to indicate the syllable for a melisma. Called
3594 @q{extension} in the
3595 @uref{http://www.dolmetsch.com/defse1.htm,Dolmetsch Online Music
3599 In figured bass to indicate that:
3603 @item The extended note should be held through a change in harmony, when applied
3604 to one figure --OR--
3605 @item The chord thus represented should be held above a moving bass line, when
3606 applied to more than one figure.
3607 @item These uses were not completely standardized, and some composers used a
3608 single extender line to indicate the latter case.
3613 In string music to indicate that all notes in the passage thus indicated should
3614 be played on the same string. On the violin, for example, a series of notes to
3615 be played on the G string would be indicated @notation{sul G}, another series to be
3616 played on the D string would be indicated @notation{sul D}, and so on.
3619 With an octave mark to indicate that a passage is to be played higher or lower
3620 by the given number of octaves.
3626 @ref{melisma}, @ref{sul G}, @ref{thorough bass}, @ref{octave mark},
3627 @ref{octave marking}.
3661 The position between the dots of the key symbol is the line of the F
3662 below central@w{ }C. Used on the third, fourth and fifth note line.
3663 A digit@w{ }8 above the clef symbol indicates that the notes must be
3664 played an octave higher (for example, bass recorder) while 8@w{ }below
3665 the clef symbol indicates playing an octave lower (for example, on the
3668 @lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3671 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
3695 @ref{baritone clef}, @ref{strings}.
3710 Indicator for a indeterminately falling pitch bend. Compare with
3711 @emph{glissando}, which has determinate starting and ending pitches.
3715 @ref{doit}, @ref{glissando}.
3718 @node feathered beam
3719 @section feathered beam
3723 F: liens de croches en soufflet,
3724 D: gespreizter Balken,
3730 A type of beam used to indicate that a small group of notes should be
3731 played at an increasing or decreasing tempo -- depending on the
3732 direction of @q{feathering} -- but without changing the overall tempo
3737 Internals Reference: @ruser{Manual beams}
3743 @c F: 'point d'orgue' on a note, 'point d'arret' on a rest.
3747 F: point d'orgue, point d'arrêt,
3752 FI: fermaatti, pidäke.
3754 Prolonged note or rest of indefinite duration.
3756 @lilypond[quote,relative=2]
3785 @section figured bass
3788 I: basso continuo, basso numerato,
3789 F: basse chiffrée, basse continue,
3790 D: Generalbass, bezifferter Bass,
3791 NL: basso continuo, becijferde bas
3794 FI: kenraalibasso, numeroitu basso.
3796 Also called @q{thorough bass}.
3798 A method of indicating an accompaniment part by the bass notes only,
3799 together with figures designating the chief intervals and chords to be
3800 played above the bass notes.
3802 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
3804 \new Staff = "rh" \with {
3806 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #(magstep -3)
3812 \context Voice = "rha" {
3817 \context Voice = "rhb" {
3819 <bes g>8 as <as f> g <g es> f <d f> es
3824 \new Staff = "lh" \relative c' {
3827 es8 c d bes c as bes16 as g f
3831 s8 <6> s <4 2> s <6> s16 s <6> <4 2>
3838 @ref{chord}, @ref{interval}.
3853 Figures to the side or above the note that methodically indicate which
3854 fingers to use while playing a passage.
3865 I: coda (uncinata), bandiera,
3873 Ornament at the end of the stem of a note used for notes with values less
3874 than a quarter note. The number of flags determines the note value.
3876 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
3900 An articulation for string players that means the note or passage is to
3901 be played in harmonics.
3907 @item A duct flute similar to the recorder.
3909 @item An organ stop of flute scale at 1' or 2' pitch.
3915 @ref{articulation}, @ref{harmonics}.
3953 FI: forte, voimakkaasti.
3955 [Italian: @q{loud}.]
3957 Abbreviated @notation{@b{f}}. Variants include:
3960 @item @emph{mezzo forte}, medium loud (notated @notation{@b{mf}}),
3961 @item @emph{fortissimo}, very loud (notated @notation{@b{ff}}).
3986 @node Frenched score
3987 @section Frenched score
3989 ES: partitura a la francesa,
3996 FI: partituuri francesan tapaan.
3998 A @q{condensed} score, produced by omitting staves for instruments that are not
3999 playing at the moment, and by moving up additional systems from following pages
4000 to take up the space thus liberated, which reduces the total number of pages
4001 used to print the work.
4003 The specific rules for @q{frenching} a score differ from publisher to publisher.
4004 If you are producing scores for eventual publication by a commercial publisher,
4005 you may wish to procure a copy of their style manual.
4009 @ref{Frenched staff}.
4012 @node Frenched staff
4013 @section Frenched staff
4015 ES: pentagrama a la francesa,
4022 FI: karsittu nuotinnus.
4024 [Pl. @emph{Frenched staves}] Analogous to Frenched scores (@emph{q.v}), a
4025 Frenched staff has unneeded measures or sections removed. This is useful
4026 for producing, for example, an @emph{ossia} staff.
4033 @node Frenched staves
4034 @section Frenched staves
4036 Plural of @ref{Frenched staff}.
4056 @node functional harmony
4057 @section functional harmony
4059 ES: armonía funcional,
4060 I: armonia funzionale,
4061 F: étude des functions,
4063 NL: functionele harmonie,
4064 DK: funktionsanalyse, funktionsharmonik,
4066 FI: harmoniajärjestelmä.
4068 A system of harmonic analysis.
4070 It is based on the idea that, in a given key, there are only three
4071 functionally different chords: tonic (T, the chord on the first note of the
4072 scale), subdominant (S, the chord on the fourth note), and dominant (D, the
4073 chord on the fifth note). Others are considered to be variants of the base
4076 TODO: what does the @q{p} mean in Sp, Dp, Tp?
4078 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
4081 <g e c>1 <a f d> <b g e>
4082 <c a f> <d b g> <e c a> <f d b>
4086 \markup { D \translate #'(-2 . 0) | }
4121 D: G-Schlüssel, Violinschlüssel,
4127 A clef symbol that indicates G above middle@w{ }C. Used on the first and
4128 second note lines. A digit 8 above the clef symbol indicates that the notes
4129 must be played an octave higher while 8 below the clef symbol indicates
4130 playing or singing an octave lower (used most frequently to notate the tenor
4131 part in modern choral scores).
4133 @lilypond[quote,notime]
4135 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
4136 \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
4147 "french violin clef"
4169 FI: glissando, liukuen.
4171 Letting the pitch slide fluently from one note to the other.
4179 @section grace notes
4181 ES: notas de adorno,
4184 D: Verzierungen, Vorschläge, Vor@-schlags@-noten,
4190 Notes printed in small types to indicate that their time values are not
4191 counted in the rhythm of the bar.
4195 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes},
4200 @section grand staff
4202 ES: sistema de piano,
4205 D: Akkolade, Klaviersystem,
4208 S: ackolad, böjd klammer,
4209 FI: kaksoisnuottiviivasto.
4211 A combination of two staves with a brace. Usually used for piano music.
4228 FI: grave, raskaasti.
4230 [Italian] Slow, solemn.
4259 Letter name used for @notation{B natural} in German and Scandinavian
4260 usage. In the standard usage of these countries, @notation{B} means
4265 @ref{Pitch names}, @ref{B}.
4271 Graphical version of the @notation{crescendo} and @notation{decrescendo}
4274 @lilypond[quote,relative=2]
4282 @ref{crescendo}, @ref{decrescendo}.
4293 @item D: Halbe, halbe Note,
4294 @item NL: halve noot,
4297 @item FI: puolinuotti.
4309 @item UK: minim rest,
4310 @item ES: silencio de blanca,
4311 @item I: pausa di minima,
4312 @item F: demi-pause,
4313 @item D: halbe Pause,
4314 @item NL: halve, rust,
4315 @item DK: halvnodespause,
4317 @item FI: puolitauko.
4325 @node harmonic cadence
4326 @section harmonic cadence
4328 ES: cadencia (armónica),
4329 I: cadenza (armonica),
4330 F: cadence harmonique,
4332 NL: harmonische cadens,
4333 DK: harmonisk kadence,
4334 S: (harmonisk) kadens,
4335 FI: harmoninen kadenssi.
4337 A sequence of chords that terminates a musical phrase or section.
4341 \context Staff = "SA" \relative c'' {
4344 \partial 4 <c g e>4 |
4345 <c a f> <b g d> <c g e>2
4348 \context Staff = "SB" \relative c {
4350 \partial 4 c4 | f, g c2
4362 @ref{functional harmony}.
4368 ES: sonidos del flautín,
4370 F: flageolet, sons harmoniques,
4375 FI: harmoniset äänet, huiluäänet.
4377 The general class of pitches produced by sounding the second or higher
4378 harmonic of a tone producer: string, column of air, and so on.
4380 On stringed instruments, these pitches sound rather flute-like; hence,
4381 their name in languages other than English. They are produced by
4382 lightly touching the string at a node for the desired mode of vibration
4383 while it is being bowed or plucked.
4385 For instruments of the violin family, there are two types of harmonics:
4386 natural harmonics, which are those played on the open string; and
4387 artificial harmonics, which are produced on stopped strings.
4400 D: Harmonie, Zusammenklang,
4404 FI: harmonia, yhteissointi.
4406 Tones sounding simultaneously. Two note harmonies fall into the
4407 categories @emph{consonances} and @emph{dissonances}.
4411 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
4423 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
4424 <g a>1_"second " s s
4425 <g f'>_"seventh " s s
4429 For harmony that uses three or more notes, see @ref{chord}.
4448 [Greek: in Latin, @emph{sesquialtera}] The ratio 3:2.
4450 Most frequently, a proportion (@emph{q.v.}) of three notes of equal value in the
4451 time normally occupied by two. The resulting rhythm can be expressed in modern
4452 terms as a substitution (for example) of a bar in 3/2 for one of 6/4, or of a
4453 bar in 3/4 for one of 6/8. During the Baroque era, hemiola is most frequently
4454 as a special effect (or @emph{affect}) at cadences.
4456 For example, this phrase in 6/4 time
4458 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,line-width=13.0\cm]
4461 c2. e | d2 c d | c1. \bar "||"
4464 may be thought of having alternating time signatures
4466 @lilypond[quote,relative=1,line-width=13.0\cm]
4476 and is therefore a polymeter (second definition) of considerable antiquity.
4480 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}, @ref{polymeter}, @ref{proportion}.
4493 FI: homofonia, yksiäänisyys.
4495 Music in which one voice leads melodically supported by the other voices in
4496 the same rhythm (more or less). In contrast to @emph{polyphony}.
4512 FI: säkeiden tavumäärät.
4514 A group or list of numbers that indicate the number of syllables in a line
4515 of a hymn's verse. Different hymnals have different ways of noting the hymn
4516 meter: for example, consider a hymn that has four lines in two couplets
4517 alternating regularly between eight and seven syllables. The @emph{English
4518 Hymnal} notes this as 87.@w{ }87. Other hymnals may note it as 8787, 87.87,
4519 or 8@w{ }7@w{ }8@w{ }7.
4521 Some frequently-used hymn meters have traditional names:
4524 @item 66.86 is called Short Meter (abbreviated SM or S.M.)
4525 @item 86.86 is called Common Meter (CM or C.M.)
4526 @item 88.88 is called Long Meter (LM or L.M.)
4529 Some hymns and their tunes are doubled versions of a simpler meter: for
4530 easier reading, a hymn with a meter of 87.87.87.87 is usually written
4531 87.87D. The traditional names above also have doubled versions:
4534 @item 66.86.66.86 is Double Short Meter (DSM or D.S.M.)
4535 @item 86.86.86.86 is Double Common Meter (DCM or D.C.M.)
4536 @item 88.88.88.88 is Double Long Meter (DLM or D.L.M.)
4554 FI: intervalli, kahden sävelen korkeusero.
4556 Difference in pitch between two notes. Intervals may be perfect, minor,
4557 major, diminished, or augmented. The augmented fourth and the diminished
4558 fifth are identical (or @emph{enharmonic}) and are called @emph{tritonus}
4559 because they consist of three whole tones. The addition of such two
4560 intervals forms an octave.
4562 @lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4564 \context Voice \relative c'' {
4574 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
4575 "unison " "second " "second " "second "
4576 "third " "third " "third " "third"
4581 @lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4583 \context Staff \relative c'' {
4594 "fourth " "fourth " "fifth " "fifth "
4595 "sixth " "sixth " "sixth " "sixth"
4600 @lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4602 \context Staff \relative c'' {
4612 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
4613 "seventh " "seventh " "seventh " "octave "
4614 "ninth " "ninth " "tenth " "tenth"
4621 @ref{enharmonic}, @ref{whole tone}.
4636 When a chord sounds with a bass note that differs from the root of the
4637 chord, it is said to be @emph{inverted}. The number of inversions that a
4638 chord can have is one fewer than the number of constituent notes. For
4639 example, triads (which have three constituent notes) can have three
4640 positions, two of which are inversions:
4644 The root note is in the bass, and above that are the third and the fifth. A
4645 triad built on the first scale degree, for example, is marked @notation{I}.
4647 @item First inversion
4648 The third is in the bass, and above it are the fifth and the root. This
4649 creates an interval of a sixth and a third above the bass note, and so is
4650 marked in figured Roman notation as @notation{6/3}. This is commonly
4651 abbreviated to @notation{I6} (or @notation{Ib}) since the sixth is the
4652 characteristic interval of the inversion, and so always implies
4655 @item Second inversion
4656 The fifth is in the bass, and above it are the root and the third. This
4657 creates an interval of a sixth and a fourth above the bass note, and so is
4658 marked as @notation{I6/4} or @notation{Ic}. Second inversion is the most
4659 unstable chord position.
4667 @node inverted interval
4668 @section inverted interval
4670 ES: intervalo invertido,
4671 I: intervallo rivolto,
4672 F: intervalle reversé,
4673 D: umgekehrtes Intervall,
4674 NL: interval inversie,
4675 DK: omvendingsinterval,
4676 S: intervallets omvändning,
4677 FI: käänteisintervalli.
4679 The difference between an interval and an octave.
4681 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
4682 <g a>1_"second " s s <g' a,>_"seventh " s s \bar "||"
4683 <g, b>_"third " s s <g' b,>_"sixth " s s \bar "||"
4684 <g, c>_"fourth " s s <g' c,>_"fifth " s s \bar "||"
4692 @node just intonation
4693 @section just intonation
4695 ES: entonación justa,
4696 I: intonazione giusta,
4697 F: intonation juste,
4704 Tuning system in which the notes are obtained by adding and subtracting
4705 natural fifths and thirds.
4724 According to the 12@w{ }tones of the @emph{chromatic scale} there are
4725 12@w{ }keys, one on@w{ }c, one on c-sharp, etc.
4729 @ref{chromatic scale}, @ref{key signature}.
4733 @section key signature
4735 ES: armadura (de la clave),
4736 I: armatura di chiave,
4737 F: armure, armature [de la clé],
4738 D: Vorzeichen, Tonart,
4739 NL: toon@-soort (voortekens),
4742 FI: sävellajiosoitus.
4744 The sharps or flats appearing at the beginning of each staff indicating the
4752 @node laissez vibrer
4753 @section laissez vibrer
4764 [French: @q{Let vibrate}.] Most frequently associated with harp
4765 parts. Marked @notation{l.v.} in the score.
4778 D: Largo, Langsam, Breit,
4782 FI: largo, hitaasti, leveästi.
4784 [Italian: @q{wide}.] Very slow in tempo, usually combined with great
4785 expressiveness. @emph{Larghetto} is less slow than largo.
4789 @section leading note
4800 The seventh @emph{scale degree}, a @emph{semitone} below the tonic; so
4801 called because of its strong tendency to @q{lead up} (resolve upwards)
4802 to the tonic scale degree.
4806 @ref{scale degree}, @ref{semitone}.
4810 @section ledger line
4812 ES: línea adicional,
4813 I: tagli addizionali,
4814 F: ligne supplémentaire,
4821 A ledger line is an extension of the staff.
4823 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
4840 D: legato, gebunden,
4846 To be performed (a) without any perceptible interruption between the
4847 notes, unlike (b) @notation{leggiero} or @notation{non-legato}, (c)
4848 @notation{portato}, or (d) @notation{staccato}.
4850 @lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4852 \context Staff \relative c'' {
4853 c4-( d e-) \bar "||"
4854 c4-- d-- e-- \bar "||"
4855 c4-.-( d-. e-.-) \bar "||"
4856 c4-. d-. e-. \bar "||"
4873 @section legato curve
4877 @ref{slur}, @ref{legato}.
4900 A ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that represents at least two
4901 distinct notes. Ligatures originally appeared in the manuscripts of
4902 Gregorian chant notation around the 9th century to denote ascending or
4903 descending sequences of notes. In early notation, ligatures were used for
4904 monophonic tunes (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way of
4905 performance in the sense of articulation. With the invention of the metric
4906 system of the white mensural notation, the need for ligatures to denote such
4907 patterns disappeared.
4911 @ref{mensural notation}.
4918 ES: estanque de nenúfares,
4919 I: stagno del giglio,
4920 F: étang de nénuphars, étang de nymphéas,
4922 NL: le@-lie@-vij@-ver,
4927 A pond with lilies floating in it.
4929 Also, the name of a music typesetting program.
4942 D: Linie, Notenlinie,
4946 FI: viiva, nuottiviiva.
4963 FI: kirjoitetussa äänenkorkeudessa.
4965 [Italian: @q{place}.] Instruction to play the following passage at the
4966 written pitch. Cancels octave mark (q.v.).
4970 @ref{octave mark}, @ref{octave marking}.
4973 @node long appoggiatura
4974 @section long appoggiatura
4976 ES: apoyatura larga,
4977 I: appoggiatura lunga,
4978 F: appoggiature longue,
4983 FI: pitkä appoggiatura, pitkä etuhele.
4994 @item US: long, longa,
5005 Note value: double length of @notation{breve}.
5007 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
5008 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
5014 @ref{breve}, @ref{note value}.
5020 ES: ligadura de letra,
5027 FI: sidonta sanoituksessa.
5029 @c TODO: add languages
5039 ES: letra (de la canción),
5042 D: Liedtext, Gesangtext,
5069 @ref{diatonic scale}.
5072 @node major interval
5073 @section major interval
5075 ES: intervalo mayor,
5076 I: intervallo maggiore,
5077 F: intervalle majeur,
5078 D: großes Intervall,
5082 FI: suuri intervalli.
5089 @node meantone temperament
5090 @section meantone temperament
5092 ES: afinación mesotónica,
5093 I: accordatura mesotonica,
5094 F: tempérament mésotonique,
5095 D: mitteltönige Stimmung,
5096 NL: middenstemming, middentoonstemming,
5097 DK: middeltonetemperatur,
5098 S: medeltonstemperatur,
5099 FI: keskisävelviritys.
5101 Temperament yielding acoustically pure thirds by decreasing the natural
5102 fifth by 16@w{ }cents. Due to the non-circular character of this
5103 temperament only a limited set of keys are playable. Used for tuning
5104 keyboard instruments for performance of pre-1650 music.
5108 @ref{cent}, @ref{temperament}.
5123 A group of beats (units of musical time) the first of which bears an accent.
5124 Such groups in numbers of two or more recur consistently throughout the
5125 composition and are separated from each other by bar lines.
5129 @ref{bar line}, @ref{beat}, @ref{meter}.
5132 @node measure repeat
5133 @section measure repeat
5137 @ref{percent repeat}.
5144 I: mediante, modale,
5154 @item The third @b{scale degree}.
5156 @item A @emph{chord} having its base tone a third from that of another
5157 chord. For example, the tonic chord may be replaced by its lower
5158 mediant (variant tonic).
5164 @ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{relative key}.
5177 FI: melisma, laulettavan tavun sävelkuvio.
5179 A melisma (Greek: plural @emph{melismata}) is a group of notes or tones sung
5180 on one syllable, especially as applied to liturgical chant.
5188 @section melisma line
5190 @c TODO: add languages
5192 ES: línea de melisma,
5203 @ref{extender line}.
5206 @node melodic cadence
5207 @section melodic cadence
5214 @node mensural notation
5215 @section mensural notation
5217 @c TODO: add languages
5219 ES: notación mensural,
5226 FI: mensuraalinuotinnus.
5228 A system of duration notation whose principles were first established in the
5229 mid-13th century, and that (with various changes) remained in use until about
5230 1600. As such, it is the basis for the notation of rhythms in Western musical
5233 Franco of Cologne (ca. 1250) is credited with the first systematic explanation
5234 of the notation's principles, so the notation of this earliest period is called
5235 @q{Franconian}. Franco's system made use of three note values -- long, breve,
5236 and semibreve -- each of which was normally equivalent to three of the next
5239 Then, in the first half of the 14th century, Philippe de Vitry and Jehan de Murs
5240 added several note values (the minim, semiminim and fusa) and extended Franco's
5241 principles to govern the relationship between these values. They also put the
5242 duple division of note values on an equal footing with the earlier (preferred)
5245 TODO: continue description of French and Italian black notation, and the
5246 relationship betwixt them.
5248 @b{White or void mensural notation}
5250 In the 15th century, hollow (or void) notes began to substitute for the earlier
5251 solid black ones, which were then free to assume the function of red (or
5252 colored) notes in the earlier notation. ...
5254 TODO: add to definition (including summary info on proportional notation)
5258 @ref{augmentation}, @ref{diminution}, @ref{ligature}, @ref{proportion}.
5259 @c TODO: more cross-references?
5267 F: indication de mesure, mesure,
5274 The pattern of note values and accents in a composition or a section thereof.
5275 There are a couple ways to classify @q{traditional} meter (i.e. not polymeter):
5276 by grouping beats and by subdividing the primary beat.
5278 @b{By grouping beats}:
5282 @item @b{duple}: groups of two.
5283 @item @b{triple}: groups of three.
5284 @item @b{quadruple}: groups of four. A special case of duple meter.
5285 @item @b{quintuple}: groups of five beats.
5286 @item @b{sextuple} meter: groups of six. A special case of:
5290 @item duple meter, subdivided in three; or
5291 @item triple meter, subdivided in two.
5295 @item @b{septuple} meter: groups of seven.
5300 Other than triple meter and its subdivided variants (see below), meters that
5301 feature odd groupings of beats (e.g. quintuple or septuple meter) are not
5302 frequently used prior to the 20th Century.
5304 @b{By subdividing the primary beat}:
5308 @item simple: subdivided in groups of two.
5312 @item duple: 2/2, 2/4, 2/8
5313 @item triple: 3/2, 3/4, 3/8
5314 @item quadruple: 4/2, 4/4 (also called common time), 4/8
5318 @item compound: subdivided in groups of three.
5324 @item quadruple: 12/8
5330 Time signatures are placed at the beginning of a composition (or section) to
5331 indicate the meter. For instance, a piece written in simple triple meter with a
5332 beat on each quarter note is conventionally written with a time signature of
5333 3/4. Here are some combinations of the two classifications above:
5335 Simple duple meter (F.J. Haydn, 1732-1809; or a Croatian folk tune):
5337 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
5341 g8. a16 b8 a | c b a16( fis) g8 | e' d c b | a2 \bar "||"}
5344 Simple triple meter:
5346 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
5350 c es d8 c | d4 b g | d' f es8 d | es d c2 \bar "||"}
5353 Simple quadruple meter (French folk tune, @emph{Au clair de la lune}):
5355 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
5359 g4 g g a | b2 a | g4 b a a | g1 \bar "||"}
5362 Simple quintuple meter (B. Marcello, 1686-1739):
5364 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
5368 r4 cis8 bis ais4 dis c8 ais |
5369 aes4 bes8 aes ges4 aes f8 es \bar "||"}
5372 (Aside: this is an example of @emph{Augenmusik}: the accidentals are thus in
5373 the source, with sharps in the accompaniment where the voice has flats and
5377 Compound duple meter (unknown):
5379 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
5383 f8 f g a bes16 a g f |
5384 g8 g bes a c16 a bes g
5388 Compound triple meter (J.S. Bach, 1685-1750):
5390 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
5394 r8 g'( a) b( d c) c( e d) |
5395 d( g fis) g( d b) g( a b)
5399 Compound quadruple meter (P. Yon, 1886-1943):
5401 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
5405 b'8.( a16) gis8 a8.( gis16) fis8 gis8.( fis16) e8 fis4 b,8 |
5406 e4 e8 fis( gis) a b4.~ b4 b8
5410 @b{@q{Monometer} vs Polymeter}
5412 TODO: add information from discussion on lilypond-user related to polymeter.
5416 @ref{accent}, @ref{hemiola}, @ref{note value}, @ref{time signature}
5431 Device used to indicate the exact tempo of a piece.
5433 Invented ca. 1812 by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkler of Amsterdam, but takes its name
5434 from Johann Nepomuk Mälzel, who copied the device, added a scale of tempo
5435 divisions, and patented it as a @q{metronome}. The inevitable lawsuit that
5436 followed acknowledged Winkler as the creator, but by then Mälzel had already
5437 sold many of them, and people had taken to calling it a Mälzel Metronome.
5441 @ref{metronome mark}.
5444 @node metronome mark
5445 @section metronome mark
5447 ES: indicación metronómica,
5448 I: indicazione metronomica,
5449 F: indication métronomique,
5451 NL: metronoom aanduiding,
5453 S: metronomangivelse,
5454 FI: metronomiosoitus.
5456 Exact tempo indication (in beats per minute). Abbreviated @notation{M.M.} or
5457 @notation{MM}, which is short for Mälzels Metronom (or Mälzel's Mark,
5465 @node metronomic indication
5466 @section metronomic indication
5470 @ref{metronome mark}
5483 FI: kohtalaisen, melko.
5485 [Italian: @q{medium}.]
5487 Used to qualify other indications, such as:
5493 @item @notation{mezzo piano} is @q{medium quiet} (that is, not as quiet as
5495 @item @notation{mezzo forte} is @q{medium loud} (that is, not as loud as
5501 @item Pitchwise, a mezzo-soprano's voice lies between that of contraltos and
5513 @section mezzo-soprano
5524 The female voice between soprano and contralto.
5528 @ref{soprano}, @ref{contralto}.
5537 D: eingestrichenes@w{ }c,
5539 DK: enstreget@w{ }c,
5540 S: ettstruket@w{ }c,
5543 First C below the 440 Hz A.
5545 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1]
5546 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
5571 @ref{diatonic scale}.
5574 @node minor interval
5575 @section minor interval
5577 ES: intervalo menor,
5578 I: intervallo minore,
5579 F: intervalle mineur,
5580 D: kleines Intervall,
5584 FI: pieni intervalli.
5591 @node mixolydian mode
5592 @section mixolydian mode
5596 @ref{diatonic scale}.
5605 D: Kirchentonart, Modus,
5609 FI: moodi, kirkkosävelasteikko.
5613 @ref{church mode}, @ref{diatonic scale}.
5626 FI: modulaatio, sävellajin vaihdos.
5628 Moving from one @ref{key} to another. For example, the second subject
5629 of a @ref{sonata form} movement modulates to the dominant key if the
5630 key is major and to the @ref{relative key} if the key is minor.
5646 FI: mordent, korukuvio.
5671 FI: teema, sävelaihe.
5673 The briefest intelligible and self-contained fragment of a musical
5676 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
5679 \set Score.implicitTimeSignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
5680 \override Score.TimeSignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible
5683 \partial 8 g16\startGroup fis |
5684 g8\stopGroup d16\startGroup c d8\stopGroup g16 fis g8 b,16 a b8 g'16 fis |
5685 g8 g,16 a b8 cis d16 s
5689 \Staff \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
5711 Greater musical works like @ref{symphony} and @ref{sonata} most often
5712 consist of several -- more or less -- independent pieces called
5720 @node multi-measure rest
5721 @section multi-measure rest
5723 ES: compases de espera,
5727 D: mehrtaktige Pause, Kirchenpause,
5730 FI: usean tahdin mittainen tauko.
5732 Multi-measure rests are conventionally typeset with a combination of
5733 longa, breve and whole rests for shorter and a long horizontal bar for
5734 longer spans of rest, with a number above to indicate the duration (in
5735 measures) of the rest. The former style is called @q{Kirchenpausen} in
5736 German, as a reminiscence of its use in Renaissance vocal polyphony.
5738 @lilypond[quote,relative=2]
5740 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
5743 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
5750 @ref{longa}, @ref{breve}.
5759 D: Auflösungszeichen,
5760 NL: herstellingsteken,
5761 DK: op@-løsningstegn,
5762 S: återställningstecken,
5770 @node neighbor tones
5771 @section neighbor tones
5775 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes},
5816 Notes are signs by means of which music is fixed in writing. The term is also
5817 used for the sound indicated by a note, and even for the key of the piano
5818 which produces the sound. However, a clear distinction between the terms tone
5819 and @ref{note} is strongly recommended. Briefly, one sees a note,
5831 I: testa, testina, capocchia,
5839 A head-like sign which indicates pitch by its position on a @notation{staff}
5840 provided with a @notation{clef}, and duration by a variety of shapes such as
5841 hollow or black heads with or without @notation{stems}, @notation{flags}, etc.
5842 For percussion instruments (often having no defined pitch) the note head may
5843 indicate the instrument.
5847 @ref{clef}, @ref{flag}, @ref{staff}, @ref{stem}.
5861 ES: valor (duración),
5863 F: durée, valeur (d'une note),
5868 FI: nuotin aika-arvo.
5870 Note values (durations) are measured as fractions -- normally half -- of the
5871 next higher note value. The longest duration in current use is the
5872 @emph{breve}, but sometimes (especially music from the Baroque or earlier) the
5873 double-length note value @emph{longa} or the quadruple-length note value
5874 @emph{maxima} are used.
5876 @c TODO -- add maxima to this example, in a way that doesn't break it.
5878 @lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5880 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
5881 a\longa_"longa" a\breve_"breve"
5882 \revert NoteHead #'style
5883 a1_"1/1" a2_"1/2" a4_"1/4" s16 a8_"1/8" s16
5884 a16_"1/16" s16 a32_"1/32" s16 a64_"1/64" s32 }
5887 @c TODO -- add maxima rest to this example
5889 @lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5891 r\longa_"longa" r\breve_"breve"
5892 r1_"1/1" r2_"1/2" r4_"1/4" s16 r8_"1/8" s16
5893 r16_"1/16" s16 r32_"1/32" s16 r64_"1/64" s32 }
5896 An augmentation dot after a note multiplies the duration by one and a
5897 half. Another dot adds yet a fourth of the duration.
5899 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
5902 g4._"pointed" g8 g2 | g4 ~ g8 g g2 \bar "||"
5903 g4.._"double pointed" g16 g2 | g4 ~ g8 ~ g16 g g2 \bar "||" }
5906 Alternatively note values may be subdivided by other ratios. Most common is
5907 subdivision by@w{ }3 (@emph{triplets}) and@w{ }5 (@emph{quintuplets}).
5908 Subdivisions by@w{ }2 (@emph{duplets}) or@w{ }4 (@emph{quadruplets}) of
5909 dotted notes are also frequently used.
5911 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
5914 \times 2/3 {g8_"triplets" g g} g4 g8 g g4 \bar "||"
5915 \times 2/5 {g8_"quintuplets" g g g g} g4 g8 g g4 \bar "||"
5919 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
5922 \times 3/2 {g4_"duplets" g} |
5924 \times 6/4 {g8_"quadruplets" g g g} |
5925 g8 g g g g4 \bar "||"
5939 @ref{octave marking}.
5954 The interval of an octave, sometimes abbreviated @notation{8ve}.
5956 For uses like @notation{all'ottava} or @notation{8va} with an extender line or
5957 bracket, or @notation{loco} see octave marking.
5961 @ref{interval}, @ref{octave marking}.
5965 @section octave mark
5967 ES: indicación de octava,
5976 The phrase, abbreviation, or other mark used (with or without an extender line
5977 or bracket) to indicate that the music is to be played in a different octave:
5981 @item @notation{15ma}: play two octaves higher
5982 @item @notation{8va}: play one octave higher
5983 @item @notation{8vb}: play one octave lower
5984 @item @notation{8va} (written below the passage): unusual, same as
5986 @item @notation{15vb}: play two octaves lower
5987 @item @notation{15va} (written below the passage): unusual, same as
5992 For longer passages, it may be more practical to mark the octave change at the
5993 beginning with a phrase (see the list below for examples), but without a bracket
5994 or extender line. Then, when the music returns to the written pitch, the octave
5995 change is cancelled with the word @notation{loco} (q.v.).
5997 To parallel the list above:
6001 @item @notation{15ma}: @notation{alla quindicesima (alta)}
6002 @item @notation{8va}: @notation{all'ottava} or @notation{ottava sopra}
6003 @item @notation{8vb}: @notation{all'ottava bassa}, @notation{ottava sotto}
6004 @item @notation{15vb}: @notation{alla quindicesima (bassa)}
6008 In the phrases above, @notation{quindicesima} is sometimes replaced with
6009 @notation{quindecima}, which is Latin.
6011 Finally, the music on an entire staff can be marked to be played in a
6012 different octave by putting a small 8 or 15 above or below the clef at the
6013 beginning. This octave mark can be applied to any clef, but it is most
6014 frequently used with the G and F clefs.
6018 @ref{F clef}, @ref{G clef}, @ref{loco}, @ref{octave marking}.
6021 @node octave marking
6022 @section octave marking
6031 FI: oktaavamerkintä.
6033 The practice of marking music -- an entire staff, a passage, etc. -- to indicate
6034 that it is to be played in a different octave. If applied to the clef at the
6035 beginning of the staff, all music on that staff is to played at the indicated
6038 For a list of the specific marks used, see @ref{octave mark}.
6042 @ref{interval}, @ref{loco}, @ref{octave}, @ref{octave mark}.
6046 @section octave sign
6057 I: abbellimento, fioriture,
6058 F: agrément, ornement,
6059 D: Verzierung, Ornament,
6065 Most commonly used is the @emph{trill}, the rapid alternation of a given note
6066 with the diatonic @ref{second} above it. In the music from the
6067 middle of the 19th century and onwards the trill is performed with the main
6068 note first while in the music from the preceding baroque and classic periods
6069 the upper note is played first.
6071 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
6073 \context Staff = sa {
6075 c2._"pre-1850" b4\trill | c1 \bar "||"
6076 c2._"post-1850" b4\trill | c1 \bar "||"
6080 c2. c32 b c b c b c b | c1
6081 c2. b32 c b c \times 4/5 { b c b c b } | c1
6086 Other frequently used ornaments are the @emph{turn}, the @emph{mordent}, and
6088 @emph{prall} (inverted mordent).
6090 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
6092 \context Staff = sa {
6094 a4_"turn" b\turn c2 \bar "||"
6095 g4_"mordent" a b\mordent a \bar "||"
6096 e'4_"prall" d\prall c2 \bar "||"
6102 e'4 e32[ d e d ~ d8] c2
6109 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes}.
6122 FI: ossia, vaihtoehtoinen esitystapa.
6124 Ossia (otherwise) marks an alternative. It is an added staff or piano
6125 score, usually only a few measures long, which presents another version
6126 of the music, for example for small hands.
6143 FI: stemma, instrumenttiosuus.
6147 @item In instrumental or choral music, the music for a single
6148 instrument or voice.
6150 @item in contrapuntal music, a single melodic line in the contrapuntal
6176 @node percent repeat
6177 @section percent repeat
6179 LilyPond-specific term to indicate the repetition of a musical expression on a
6180 single staff, as opposed to the more usual definition of repeat, which affects
6181 all parts. The musical expression can be anything from a single note or note
6182 pattern to one or more measures. There are other names for this symbol:
6187 @item slash mark, or slash repeat
6189 @item measure (or multi-measure) repeat
6193 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
6195 \repeat percent 4 { c4_"Beat (or slash) repeat" }
6196 \repeat percent 2 { c4 e g b_"Measure repeat" }
6197 \repeat percent 2 { c,2 es | f4 fis g c_"Multi-measure repeat" | }
6203 @uref{http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/textr/Repeat.html,University of
6204 Vermont Music Dictionary}.
6213 D: Schlagzeug, Schlagwerk,
6219 A family of musical instruments which are played on by striking or
6220 shaking. Percussion instruments commonly used in a symphony orchestra are
6221 kettledrums (I: @emph{timpani}, D: @emph{Pauken}), snare drum, bass drum,
6222 tambourine, cymbals, chinese gong (tam-tam), triangle, celesta, glockenspiel,
6230 @node perfect interval
6231 @section perfect interval
6233 ES: intervalo justo,
6234 I: intervallo giusto,
6235 F: intervalle juste,
6236 D: reines Intervall,
6240 FI: puhdas intervalli.
6259 A natural division of the melodic line, comparable to a sentence of speech.
6276 FI: fraseeraus, jäsentäminen.
6278 The clear rendering in musical performance of the @notation{phrases} of the
6279 melody. Phrasing may be indicated by a @notation{slur}.
6283 @ref{phrase}, @ref{slur}.
6298 @emph{piano} (@b{p}) soft, @emph{pianissimo} (@b{pp}) very soft,
6299 @emph{mezzo piano} (@b{mp}) medium soft.
6311 F: anacrouse, levée,
6337 @item The perceived quality of a sound that is primarily a function of its
6338 fundamental frequency.
6340 @item [FR. ton; DE. Ton; ES. tono] Any point on the continuum of musical pitch.
6342 @item [FR. diapason; DE. Kammerton, Stimmung; ES. diapasón] The standardized
6343 association of a particular frequency with a particular pitch name, e.g., c' =
6360 NL: pizzicato, getokkeld,
6363 FI: pizzicato, näppäillen.
6365 A technique for stringed instruments, abbr. @emph{pizz}. To play by plucking
6376 ES: compás polimétrico,
6383 FI: monia tahtiosoituksia sisältävä.
6387 @item The @emph{simultaneous} use of two or more meters, in two or more
6390 @item The @emph{successive} use of different meters in one or more parts.
6396 @ref{polymetric} (adj.)
6409 FI: monia tahtiosoituksia yhtäaikaa tai peräkkäin sisältävä.
6411 Characterized by @emph{polymeter}: using two or more metric frameworks
6412 simultaneously or in alternation.
6416 @ref{polymeter} (noun)
6419 @node polymetric time signature
6420 @section polymetric time signature
6422 ES: compás polimétrico,
6429 FI: vaihtelevan tahtiosoitusmerkintä.
6431 A time signature that indicates regularly alternating polymetric time.
6444 D: Polyphonie, Mehrstimmigkeit,
6448 FI: polyfonia, moniäänisyys.
6450 Music written in a combination of several simultaneous voices (parts)
6451 of a more or less pronounced individuality.
6461 [Italian: past participle of @emph{portare}, @q{to carry}]
6463 A stroke in which each of several notes is separated slightly within a slur,
6464 without changing the bow's direction. It is used for passages of a
6465 @notation{cantabile} character.
6478 D: Presto, Sehr schnell,
6479 NL: presto, Sehr schnell,
6482 FI: presto, hyvin nopeasti.
6486 Very quick, i.e., quicker than @ref{allegro}; @emph{prestissimo}
6487 denotes the highest possible degree of speed.
6506 [Latin: @emph{proportio}.] Described in great detail by Gaffurius, in
6507 @emph{Practica musicae} (published in Milan in 1496). In mensural notation,
6512 @item A ratio that expresses the relationship between the note values that
6513 follow with those that precede;
6515 @item A ratio between the note values of a passage and the @q{normal}
6516 relationship of note values to the metrical pulse. (A special case of the
6521 The most common proportions are:
6524 @item 2:1 (or simply 2), expressed by a vertical line through the
6525 mensuration sign (the origin of the @q{cut-time} time signature), or by
6526 turning the sign backwards
6527 @item 3:1 (or simply 3)
6528 @item 3:2 (@emph{sesquialtera})
6531 To @q{cancel} any of these, the inverse proportion is applied. Thus:
6534 @item 1:2 cancels 2:1
6535 @item 1:3 cancels 3:1
6536 @item 2:3 cancels 3:2
6540 Gaffurius enumerates five basic types of major:minor proportions and their
6544 @item Multiplex, if the major number is an exact multiple of the minor (2:1,
6545 3:1, 4:2, 6:3); and its inverse, Submultiplex (1:2, 1:3, 2:4, 3:6)
6547 @item Epimoria or Superparticular [orig. @emph{Epimoria seu Superparticularis}],
6548 if the major number is one more than the minor (3:2, 4:3, 5:4); and its
6549 inverse, Subsuperparticular (2:3, 3:4, 4:5)
6551 @item Superpartiens, if the major number is one less than twice the minor
6552 (5:3, 7:4, 9:5, 11:6); and its inverse, subsuperpartiens (3:5, 4:7, 5:9, 6:11)
6554 @item Multiplexsuperparticular, if the major number is one more than twice the
6555 minor (5:2, 7:3, 9:4); and its inverse, Submultiplexsuperparticular (2:5, 3:7,
6558 @item Multiplexsuperpartiens, if the major number is one less than some other
6559 multiple (usually three or four) of the minor (8:3, 11:4, 14:5, 11:3); and its
6560 inverse, Submultiplexsuperpartiens (3:8, 4:11, 5:14, 3:11)
6564 He then continues to subdivide each type in various ways. For the multiplex
6565 proportions, for example, he indicates how many times greater the major number
6570 @item If two times greater, the proportion is @emph{dupla}. If inverted, it's
6571 called @emph{subdupla}. Examples: 2:1, 4:2, and 6:3.
6573 @item If three, @emph{tripla}; and its inversion, @emph{subtripla}. Example:
6576 @item If four, @emph{quadrupla}; and its inversion, @emph{subquadrupla}.
6577 Example: 4:1, 8:2, and 12:3
6581 Other proportions were possible, but whether they were frequently used is
6586 @item 33:9, @emph{triplasuperbipartientetertias}
6587 @item 51:15, @emph{triplasuperbipartientequintas}
6591 @c TODO: add an example or two. O => 4/3, and its modern equivalent
6595 @ref{mensural notation}.
6598 @node Pythagorean comma
6599 @section Pythagorean comma
6601 ES: coma pitagórica,
6602 I: comma pitagorico,
6603 F: comma pythagoricien,
6604 D: Pythagoräisches Komma,
6605 NL: komma van Pythagoras,
6606 DK: pythagoræisk komma,
6607 S: pytagoreiskt komma,
6608 FI: pytagorinen komma.
6610 Originally, the interval by which the sum of six whole tones exceeds the octave
6611 -- (9:8)^6 - 2:1 = 531441:524288, or 23.5 cents.
6613 Modern acoustical theory defines it as the interval by which twelve fifths
6614 exceed seven octaves. To put it another way: A sequence of fifths that starts
6615 on C eventually circles back to C. However, this C is 23.5 @ref{cent}s higher
6616 than the C obtained by adding 7 octaves. The difference between those two
6617 pitches is the Pythagorean comma.
6621 @ref{cent}, @ref{temperament}.
6653 The quality of a triad is determined by the precise arrangement of its
6654 intervals. Tertian triads can be described as a series of three notes. The
6655 first element is the root note (or simply @q{root}) of the chord, the second
6656 note is the @q{third} of the chord, and the last note is the @q{fifth} of
6657 the chord. These are described below:
6659 @multitable {Chord name} {Component intervals} {Example} {C, CM, Cma, Cmaj, CΔ}
6660 @headitem Chord name
6661 @tab Component intervals
6664 @item major triad @tab major third/perfect fifth
6666 @tab C, CM, Cma, Cmaj, CΔ
6667 @item minor triad @tab minor third/perfect fifth
6669 @tab Cm, Cmi, Cmin, C-
6670 @item augmented triad @tab major third/augmented fifth
6673 @item diminished triad @tab minor third/diminished fifth
6675 @tab Cm(♭5), Cº, Cdim
6678 There are various types of seventh chords depending on the quality of the
6679 original chord and the quality of the seventh added.
6681 Five common types of seventh chords have standard symbols. The chord quality
6682 indications are sometimes superscripted and sometimes not (e.g. Dm7, Dm^7,
6683 and D^m7 are all identical). The last three chords are not commonly used
6692 @section quarter note
6697 @item I: semiminima, nera
6699 @item D: Viertel, Viertelnote
6701 @item DK: fjerdedelsnode
6702 @item S: fjärdedelsnot
6703 @item FI: neljäsosanuotti
6712 @section quarter rest
6715 @item UK: crotchet rest
6716 @item ES: silencio de negra
6717 @item I: pausa di semiminima
6719 @item D: Viertelpause
6721 @item DK: fjerdedelspause
6722 @item S: fjärdedelspaus
6723 @item FI: neljäsosatauko
6732 @section quarter tone
6734 ES: cuarto de tonno,
6741 FI: neljännessävelaskel.
6743 An interval equal to half a semitone.
6753 ES: cinquillo, quintillo.
6768 @section rallentando
6773 D: rallentando, langsamer werden,
6777 FI: rallerdando, hidastuen.
6779 [Italian] A performance indication, abbreviated "rall.".
6787 @section relative key
6790 I: tonalità relativa,
6791 F: tonalité relative,
6793 NL: paralleltoonsoort,
6794 DK: paralleltoneart,
6796 FI: rinnakkaissävellaji.
6798 Major and minor keys that have the same key signature.
6800 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1,line-width=13.0\cm]
6802 es1_"e flat major" f g as bes c d es
6806 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1,line-width=13.0\cm]
6808 c1_"c minor" d es f g a! b! c
6814 @ref{key}, @ref{key signature}, @ref{major}, @ref{minor}.
6822 F: barre de reprise,
6825 DK: gen@-ta@-gel@-se,
6829 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
6857 @c F: 'pause' if you mean a whole rest, 'silence' if you do not want to
6858 @c specify the rest's value.
6879 @item Metrical rhythm in which every time value is a multiple or
6880 fraction of a fixed unit of time, called @ref{beat}, and in which the
6881 normal @ref{accent} recurs in regular intervals, called @ref{measure}.
6882 The basic scheme of time values is called @ref{meter}.
6884 @item Measured rhythm which lacks regularly recurrent accent. In
6885 modern notation such music appears as a free alternation of different
6888 @item Free rhythm, i.e., the use of temporal values having no common
6889 metrical unit (beat).
6904 D: ritardando, langsamer werden,
6908 FI: ritardando, hidastuen,
6910 Gradually slackening in speed. Mostly abbreviated to rit.@: or ritard.
6927 FI: ritenuto, hidastaen.
6929 Immediate reduction of speed.
6946 FI: asteikko, sävelasteikko.
6950 @ref{diatonic scale}.
6954 @section scale degree
6956 ES: grado (de la escala),
6957 I: grado della scala,
6958 F: degré [de la gamme],
6960 NL: trap [van de toonladder],
6963 FI: sävelaste, asteikon sävel.
6965 Names and symbols used in harmonic analysis to denote tones of the
6966 scale as roots of chords. The most important are degrees I = tonic
6967 (T), IV = sub@-do@-mi@-nant (S) and V = dominant (D).
6969 @lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
6971 \new Staff \relative c' {
6975 << { I II III IV V VI VII I }
6983 @ref{functional harmony}.
6991 F: à cordes ravallées,
6996 FI: epätavallinen viritys.
6998 [Italian: @emph{scordare}, @q{to mistune}.] Unconventional
6999 tuning of stringed instruments, particularly lutes or violins. Used
7004 @item facilitate pitch combinations that would otherwise be difficult
7007 @item alter the characteristic timbre of the instrument, for example,
7008 to increase brilliance
7010 @item reinforce certain sonorities or tonalities by making them
7011 available on open strings
7013 @item imitate other instruments
7019 Tunings that could be called @var{scordatura} first appeared early in
7020 the 16th Century and became commonplace in the 17th.
7033 D: Partitur (full score), Klavierauszug (vocal score),
7039 A copy of orchestral, choral, or chamber music showing what each
7040 instrument is to play, each voice to sing, having each part arranged
7041 one underneath the other on different staves @ref{staff}.
7060 The @ref{interval} between two neighboring tones of a scale. A
7061 @ref{diatonic scale} consists of alternating @ref{semitone}s and
7062 @ref{whole tone}s, hence the size of a second depends on the scale
7063 degrees in question.
7082 The interval of a minor second. The (usually) smallest interval in European
7083 composed music. The interval between two neighbouring tones on the piano
7084 keyboard -- including black and white keys -- is a semitone. An octave may
7085 be divided into 12@w{ }semitones.
7087 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
7088 g1 gis s a bes s b! c
7093 @ref{interval}, @ref{chromatic scale}.
7118 @ref{sextuplet}, @ref{note value}.
7175 [Italian: @q{in the same manner}.] Performance direction: the music thus marked
7176 is to be played in the same manner (i.e. with the same articulations, dynamics,
7177 etc.) as the music that precedes it.
7181 TODO: Where else could I refer the reader?
7185 @section simple meter
7187 ES: compás simple, compás de subdivisión binaria,
7194 FI: kaksijakoinen tahtiosoitus.
7196 A meter in which the basic beat is subdivided in two: that is, a meter
7197 that does not include triplet subdivision of the beat.
7201 @ref{compound meter}, @ref{meter}.
7204 @node sixteenth note
7205 @section sixteenth note
7208 @item UK: semiquaver
7209 @item ES: semicorchea
7211 @item F: double croche
7212 @item D: Sechzehntel, Sechzehntelnote
7213 @item NL: zestiende noot
7214 @item DK: sekstendedelsnode
7215 @item S: sextondelsnot
7216 @item FI: kuudestoistaosanuotti
7224 @node sixteenth rest
7225 @section sixteenth rest
7228 @item UK: semiquaver rest
7229 @item ES: silencio de semicorchea
7230 @item I: pausa di semicroma
7231 @item F: quart de soupir
7232 @item D: Sechzehntelpause
7233 @item NL: zestiende rust
7234 @item DK: sekstendedelspause
7235 @item S: sextondelspaus
7236 @item FI: kuudestoistaosatauko
7261 @node sixty-fourth note
7262 @section sixty-fourth note
7265 @item UK: hemidemisemiquaver
7267 @item I: semibiscroma
7268 @item F: quadruple croche
7269 @item D: Vierundsechzigstel, Vierundsechzigstelnote
7270 @item NL: vierenzestigste noot
7271 @item DK: fi@-re@-og@-tred@-sinds@-ty@-ven@-de@-dels@-no@-de
7272 @item S: sextiofjärdedelsnot
7273 @item FI: kuudeskymmenesneljäsosanuotti
7281 @node sixty-fourth rest
7282 @section sixty-fourth rest
7285 @item UK: hemidemisemiquaver rest
7286 @item ES: silencio de semifusa
7287 @item I: pausa di semibiscroma
7288 @item F: seizième de soupir
7289 @item D: Vierundsechzigstelpause
7290 @item NL: vierenzestigste rust
7291 @item DK: fi@-re@-og@-tred@-sinds@-ty@-ven@-de@-dels@-pau@-se
7292 @item S: sextiofjärdedelspaus
7293 @item FI: kuudeskymmenesneljäsosatauko
7302 @section slash repeat
7306 @ref{percent repeat}.
7312 ES: ligadura (de expresión),
7313 I: legatura (di portamento or espressiva),
7315 D: Bogen (Legatobogen, Phrasierungsbogen),
7316 NL: fraseringsboog, legatoboog, streekboog,
7317 DK: legatobue, fraseringsbue,
7321 A slur above or below a group of notes indicates that they are to be
7322 played @ref{legato}, e.g., with one stroke of the violin bow or with
7323 one breath in singing.
7331 @section solmization
7340 FI: suhteelliset laulunimet.
7342 General term for systems of designating the degrees of the
7343 @notation{scale}, not by letters, but by syllables (@emph{do} (@emph{ut}),
7344 @emph{re}, @emph{mi}, @emph{fa}, @emph{sol}, @emph{la}, @emph{si}
7349 @ref{scale}, @ref{scale degree}.
7364 In its present-day meaning a sonata denotes an instrumental
7365 composition for piano or for some other instrument with piano
7366 accompaniment, which consists of three or four independant pieces,
7375 @section sonata form
7379 F: [en] forme de sonate,
7381 NL: hoofdvorm, sonatevorm,
7386 A form used frequently for single movements of the @emph{sonata},
7387 @emph{symphony}, quartet, etc. A movement written in sonata form falls into
7388 three sections called @notation{exposition}, @notation{development} and
7389 @notation{recapitulation}. In the exposition the composer introduces some
7390 musical ideas, consisting of a number of themes; in the development section the
7391 composer @emph{develops} this material, and in the recapitulation the composer
7392 repeats the exposition, with certain modifications. The exposition contains a
7393 number of themes that fall into two groups, often called first and second
7394 subject. Other melodies occurring in each group are considered as continuations
7395 of these two. The second theme is in another key, normally in the key of the
7396 @notation{dominant} if the @notation{tonic} is @notation{major}, and in the
7397 @notation{relative key} if the tonic is @notation{minor}.
7401 @ref{dominant}, @ref{major}, @ref{minor}, @ref{relative key}, @ref{sonata},
7402 @ref{symphony}, @ref{tonic}.
7423 FI: sopraano, korkea naisääni.
7425 The highest female voice.
7437 F: staccato, piqué, détaché,
7442 FI: staccato, lyhyesti, terävästi.
7444 Playing the note(s) short. Staccato is indicated by a dot above or
7445 below the note head.
7447 @lilypond[quote,relative=2]
7451 d4-\staccato cis-\staccato b-\staccato cis-\staccato |
7466 I: pentagramma, rigo (musicale),
7468 D: Notensystem, Notenzeile,
7469 NL: (noten)balk, partij,
7474 A staff (plural: staves) is a series of (normally five) horizontal
7475 lines upon and between which the musical notes are written, thus
7476 indicating (in connection with a @ref{clef}) their pitch. Staves for
7477 @ref{percussion} instruments may have fewer lines.
7498 D: Hals, Notenhals, Stiel,
7504 Vertical line above or below a @ref{note head} shorter than a
7507 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
7508 \set Score.autoBeaming = ##f
7530 FI: kiihdyttäen, nopeuttaen.
7532 [Italian: @q{pressing}.] Pressing, urging, or hastening the time, as to a
7552 A family of stringed musical instruments played with a bow. Strings
7553 commonly used in a symphony orchestra are violin, viola, violoncello,
7562 @section strong beat
7567 D: betonter Taktteil oder Taktschlag,
7569 D: betonet taktslag,
7570 S: betonat taktslag,
7571 FI: tahdin vahva isku.
7575 @ref{beat}, @ref{accent}, @ref{measure}, @ref{rhythm}.
7579 @section subdominant
7588 FI: subdominantti, alidominantti.
7590 The fourth @notation{scale degree}.
7594 @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}.
7609 The sixth @notation{scale degree}.
7613 @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}, @ref{superdominant}.
7626 FI: subtoonika, alitoonika.
7628 The seventh @ref{scale degree}.
7632 @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}.
7638 ES: sobre la cuerda de Sol,
7641 D: auf G, auf der G-Saite,
7647 Indicates that the indicated passage (or note) should be played on the
7656 @section superdominant
7667 The sixth @ref{scale degree}.
7671 @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}, @ref{submediant}.
7686 The second @ref{scale degree}.
7690 @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}.
7699 D: Sinfonie, Symphonie,
7705 A symphony may be defined as a @emph{sonata} for orchestra.
7714 @section syncopation
7725 Any deliberate upsetting of the normal pulse of @ref{meter},
7726 @ref{accent}, and @ref{rhythm}. The occidental system of musical
7727 rhythm rests upon the grouping of equal beats into groups of two or
7728 three, with a regularly recurrent accent on the first beat of each
7729 group. Any deviation from this scheme is felt as a disturbance or
7730 contradiction between the underlaying (normal) pulse and the actual
7733 @lilypond[quote,relative=1]
7736 e16 c'8 e,16 c'8 e,16 c' ~
7745 @node syntonic comma
7746 @section syntonic comma
7748 ES: coma sintónica, coma de Dídimo,
7749 I: comma sintonico (o didimico),
7750 F: comma syntonique,
7751 D: syntonisches Komma,
7752 NL: syntonische komma,
7753 DK: syntonisk komma,
7754 S: syntoniskt komma,
7755 FI: syntoninen komma, terssien taajuusero luonnollisessa ja
7756 Pytagorisessa viritysjärjestelmässä.
7758 Named after Ptolemy's syntonic diatonic genus. Originally, the difference
7759 by which the ditone exceeds the pure major third obtained by Pythagorean
7760 tuning -- (9:8)^2 - 5:4 = 81:80, or 21.5@w{ }cents.
7762 Modern acoustical theory defines it as the interval by which four fifths exceed
7763 the sum of two octaves plus a major third. (3:2)^4 - (2:1)^2 + (5:4)
7765 This comma is also known as the comma of Didymus, or didymic comma.
7769 @ref{Pythagorean comma}
7778 D: Notensystem, Partitur,
7782 FI: nuottijärjestelmä.
7784 The collection of staves (@notation{staff}), two or more, as used for writing
7785 down of keyboard, chamber, choral, or orchestral music.
7793 @section temperament
7798 D: Stimmung, Tem@-pe@-ra@-tur,
7799 NL: stemming, temperatuur,
7802 FI: viritysjärjestelmä.
7804 Systems of tuning in which the intervals deviate from the acoustically
7809 @ref{meantone temperament}, @ref{equal temperament}.
7812 @node tempo indication
7813 @section tempo indication
7815 ES: indicación de tempo,
7816 I: indicazione di tempo,
7817 F: indication de tempo,
7818 D: Zeitmaß, Tempobezeichnung,
7819 NL: tempo aanduiding,
7824 The rate of speed of a composition or a section thereof, ranging from the
7825 slowest to the quickest, as is indicated by tempo marks as @notation{largo},
7826 @notation{adagio}, @notation{andante}, @notation{allegro}, and
7831 @ref{adagio}, @ref{allegro}, @ref{andante}, @ref{largo}, @ref{presto}.
7845 FI: tenori, korkea miesääni.
7847 The highest @q{natural} male voice (apart from @notation{countertenor}).
7874 ES: subrayado (tenuto),
7883 An indication that a particular note should be held for the whole
7884 length, although this can vary depending on the composer and era.
7908 @node thirty-second note
7909 @section thirty-second note
7912 @item UK: demisemiquaver
7915 @item F: triple croche
7916 @item D: Zweiunddreissigstel, Zweiunddreissigstelnote
7917 @item NL: twee@-endertig@-ste (32e) noot
7918 @item DK: toogtredivtedelsnode
7919 @item S: trettiotvåondelsnot
7920 @item FI: kolmaskymmeneskahdesosanuotti
7928 @node thirty-second rest
7929 @section thirty-second rest
7932 @item UK: demisemiquaver rest
7933 @item ES: silencio de fusa
7934 @item I: pausa di biscroma
7935 @item F: huitième de soupir
7936 @item D: Zweiunddreissigstel@-pause
7937 @item NL: twee@-endertig@-ste (32e) rust
7938 @item DK: toogtredivtedelspause
7939 @item S: trettiotvåondelspaus
7940 @item FI: kolmaskymmeneskahdesosatauko
7949 @section thorough bass
7959 ES: ligadura de prolongación, ligadura de unión,
7960 I: legatura (di valore),
7962 D: Haltebogen, Bindebogen,
7963 NL: overbinding, bindingsboog,
7965 S: bindebåge, överbindning,
7968 A curved line, identical in appearance with the @ref{slur}, which
7969 connects two succesive notes of the same pitch, and which has the
7970 function of uniting them into a single sound (tone) equal to the
7973 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
7986 @node time signature
7987 @section time signature
7989 ES: indicación de compás,
7991 F: chiffrage (chiffres indicateurs), signe de valeur, indication de mesure,
7992 D: Taktangabe, Angabe der Taktart,
7995 S: taktartssignatur,
7998 The sign placed at the beginning of a composition to indicate its
7999 meter. It most often takes the form of a fraction, but a few signs
8000 derived from mensural notation and proportions are also employed.
8004 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}.
8019 A sound of definite pitch and duration, as distinct from @emph{noise}.
8020 Tone is a primary building material of music.
8022 @c Music from the 20th century may be based on atonal sounds. Meh, not so much
8041 The first @notation{scale degree}.
8045 @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}.
8048 @node transposing instrument
8049 @section transposing instrument
8051 ES: instrumento transpositor,
8058 FI: transponoitava soitin.
8060 Instruments whose notated pitch is different from their sounded pitch. Except
8061 for those whose notated and sounding pitches differ by one or more octaves (to
8062 reduce the number of ledger lines needed), most such instruments are identified
8063 by the letter name of the pitch class of their fundamental. The pitch class is
8064 the note that @emph{sounds} (disregarding the octave in which it sounds) when
8065 the instrument plays a notated C.
8067 For example: when played on the B-flat clarinet, the note middle C @emph{sounds}
8068 the B-flat one tone lower. If played on the A clarinet, the same written
8069 note sounds the A (one and half tones -- a minor third -- lower).
8071 Not all transposing instruments include the pitch class in their name:
8075 @item English horn (in F)
8077 @item Alto flute (in G)
8083 @ref{concert pitch}.
8087 @section transposition
8098 Shifting a melody up or down in pitch, while keeping the same
8101 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
8106 d4 g,8 a b c | d4 g, g | e' c8 d e fis | g4 g, g \bar "|."
8111 @lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
8114 \transpose c bes \relative c'' {
8116 d4 g,8 a b c | d4 g, g | e' c8 d e fis | g4 g, g \bar "|."
8127 @section treble clef
8130 I: chiave di violino,
8132 D: Violinschlüssel, Sopranschlüssel,
8155 On stringed instruments:
8159 @item The quick reiteration of the same tone, produced by a rapid
8160 up-and-down movement of the bow.
8162 @item Or, the rapid alternation between two notes of a @ref{chord}, usually
8163 in the distance of a third (@ref{interval}).
8167 @lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1]
8169 f:32 [ e8:16 f:16 g:16 a:16 ] s4
8170 \repeat tremolo 8 { e32_"b" g }
8183 F: triade, accord parfait, accord de trois sons,
8200 F: trille, tremblement, battement (cadence),
8213 @section triple meter
8215 ES: compás ternario,
8218 D: in drei, ungerader Takt,
8219 NL: driedelige maatsoort,
8264 @section tuning fork
8266 ES: diapasón, horquilla de afinación,
8267 I: diapason, corista,
8275 A two-pronged piece of steel used to indicate an absolute pitch, usually for
8276 @emph{A} above middle C (440 cps/Hz), which is the international tuning
8277 standard. Tuning forks for other pitches are available.
8287 A non-standard subdivision of a beat or part of a beat, usually
8288 indicated with a bracket and a number indicating the number of
8293 @ref{triplet}, @ref{note value}.
8299 ES: grupeto (circular),
8323 FI: unisono, yksiäänisesti.
8325 Playing of the same notes or the same melody by various instruments
8326 (voices) or by the whole orchestra (choir), either at exactly the same
8327 pitch or in a different octave.
8339 F: anacrouse, levée,
8361 FI: ääni, lauluääni.
8369 @item @ref{mezzo-soprano}
8370 @item @ref{contralto}
8372 @item @ref{baritone}
8376 @item A melodic layer or part of a polyphonic composition.
8388 ES: vez, primera y segunda vez,
8395 FI: yksi kertauksen maaleista.
8397 [Italian: @q{time} (instance, not duration).] An ending, such as a first
8398 or second ending. LilyPond extends this idea to any number, and allows any text
8399 (not just a number) -- to serve as the @notation{volta} text.
8410 I: tempo debole, arsi,
8412 D: unbetonter Taktteil oder Taktschlag,
8414 DK: ubetonet taktslag,
8415 S: obetonat taktslag,
8416 FI: tahdin heikko isku.
8420 @ref{beat}, @ref{measure}, @ref{rhythm}.
8431 @item D: Ganze, ganze Note
8435 @item FI: kokonuotti
8447 @item UK: semibreve rest
8448 @item ES: silencio de redonda
8449 @item I: pausa di semibreve
8451 @item D: ganze Pause, ganztaktige Pause
8453 @item DK: helnodespause
8475 The interval of a major second. The interval between two tones
8476 on the piano keyboard with exactly one key between them -- including
8477 black and white keys -- is a whole tone.
8496 A family of blown wooden musical instruments. Today some of these
8497 instruments are actually made from metal. The woodwind instruments
8498 commonly used in a symphony orchestra are flute, oboe, clarinet,
8499 saxophone, and bassoon.
8506 @node Duration names notes and rests
8507 @chapter Duration names notes and rests
8509 @multitable @columnfractions .12 .22 .22 .22 .22
8511 @headitem Lang. @tab note name
8515 @item @strong{US} @tab long
8519 @item @strong{UK} @tab longa
8523 @item @strong{ES} @tab longa
8524 @tab silencio de longa
8526 @tab silencio de cuadrada
8527 @item @strong{IT} @tab longa
8531 @item @strong{FR} @tab longa
8532 @tab quadruple-pause
8535 @item @strong{DE} @tab Longa
8539 @item @strong{NL} @tab longa
8543 @item @strong{DK} @tab longa
8544 @tab longanodespause
8546 @tab brevis(nodes)pause
8547 @item @strong{SE} @tab longa
8551 @item @strong{FI} @tab longa-nuotti
8553 @tab brevis-nuotti, kaksoiskoko@-nuotti
8554 @tab brevis-tauko, kaksoiskoko@-tauko
8558 @multitable @columnfractions .12 .22 .22 .22 .22
8560 @headitem Lang. @tab note name
8564 @item @strong{US} @tab whole note
8568 @item @strong{UK} @tab semibreve
8572 @item @strong{ES} @tab redonda
8573 @tab silencio de redonda
8575 @tab silencio de blanca
8576 @item @strong{IT} @tab semibreve
8577 @tab pause di semibreve
8579 @tab pausa di minima
8580 @item @strong{FR} @tab ronde
8584 @item @strong{DE} @tab ganze Note
8588 @item @strong{NL} @tab hele noot
8592 @item @strong{DK} @tab helnode
8596 @item @strong{SE} @tab helnot
8600 @item @strong{FI} @tab kokonuotti
8607 @multitable @columnfractions .12 .22 .22 .22 .22
8609 @headitem Lang. @tab note name
8613 @item @strong{US} @tab quarter note
8617 @item @strong{UK} @tab crotchet
8621 @item @strong{ES} @tab negra
8622 @tab silencio de negra
8624 @tab silencio de corchea
8625 @item @strong{IT} @tab semiminima, nera
8626 @tab pausa di semiminima, pausa di nera
8629 @item @strong{FR} @tab noire
8633 @item @strong{DE} @tab Viertelnote
8637 @item @strong{NL} @tab kwartnoot
8641 @item @strong{DK} @tab fjerdedelsnode
8642 @tab fjerdedelspause
8643 @tab ottendedelsnode
8644 @tab ottendedelspause
8645 @item @strong{SE} @tab fjärdedelsnot
8649 @item @strong{FI} @tab neljäsosa@-nuotti
8650 @tab neljäsosa@-tauko
8651 @tab kahdeksasosa@-nuotti
8652 @tab kahdeksasosa@-tauko
8656 * About the French naming system: @emph{croche} refers to the note's "hook".
8657 Therefore, from the eighth note on, the note names mean @q{hook}, @q{doubled
8658 hook}, @q{trebled hook}, and so on.
8660 The rest names are based on the @emph{soupir}, or quarter rest. Subsequent
8661 rests are expressed as fractions thereof: half a @emph{soupir}, a quarter of
8662 a @emph{soupir}, and so on.
8664 Each of the following tables contains one type of note and its matching rest,
8665 with abbreviations that apply to both notes and rests. Just switch the part
8666 that means @q{note} with the part that means @q{rest}, for example:
8670 @item English: 16th @strong{note}, 16th @strong{rest}
8671 @item German: 32tel-@strong{Note}, 32tel-@strong{Pause}
8672 @item Finnish: 64-osa@strong{nuotti}, 64-osa@strong{tauko}
8676 I put a dash @q{-} when I could not find a language-specific abbreviation for a
8677 duration name. If you know of one that I missed, please send it to me, care of
8678 the lilypond-user discussion list.
8680 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
8682 @headitem Lang. @tab Note name
8685 @item @strong{US} @tab sixteenth note
8688 @item @strong{UK} @tab semiquaver
8689 @tab semiquaver rest
8691 @item @strong{ES} @tab semicorchea
8692 @tab silencio de semicorchea
8694 @item @strong{IT} @tab semicroma
8695 @tab pausa di semicroma
8697 @item @strong{FR} @tab double croche
8698 @tab quart de soupir
8700 @item @strong{DE} @tab Sechzehntelnote
8701 @tab Sechzehntelpause
8703 @item @strong{NL} @tab zes@-ti@-ende noot
8704 @tab zes@-ti@-ende rust
8706 @item @strong{DK} @tab sekstendedelsnode
8707 @tab sekstendedelspause
8709 @item @strong{SE} @tab sextondelsnot
8712 @item @strong{FI} @tab kuudes@-toistaosa@-nuotti
8713 @tab kuudes@-toistaosa@-tauko
8718 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
8720 @headitem Lang. @tab Note name
8723 @item @strong{US} @tab thirty-second note
8724 @tab thirty-second rest
8726 @item @strong{UK} @tab demisemiquaver
8727 @tab demisemiquaver rest
8729 @item @strong{ES} @tab fusa
8730 @tab silencio de fusa
8732 @item @strong{IT} @tab biscroma
8733 @tab pausa di biscroma
8735 @item @strong{FR} @tab triple croche
8736 @tab huitième de soupir
8738 @item @strong{DE} @tab Zweiunddreißig@-stelnote
8739 @tab Zweiunddreißig@-stelpause
8741 @item @strong{NL} @tab twee@-endertigste noot
8742 @tab twee@-endertigste rust
8744 @item @strong{DK} @tab toogtredivtedelsnode
8745 @tab toogtredivtedelspause
8747 @item @strong{SE} @tab trettio@-tvåondelsnot
8748 @tab trettio@-tvåondelspaus
8750 @item @strong{FI} @tab kolmas@-kymmenes@-kahdesosa@-nuotti
8751 @tab kolmas@-kymmenes@-kahdesosa@-tauko
8756 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
8758 @headitem Lang. @tab Note name
8761 @item @strong{US} @tab sixty-fourth note
8762 @tab sixty-fourth rest
8764 @item @strong{UK} @tab hemidemisemiquaver
8765 @tab hemidemisemiquaver rest
8767 @item @strong{ES} @tab semifusa
8768 @tab silencio de semifusa
8770 @item @strong{IT} @tab semibiscroma
8771 @tab pausa di semibiscroma
8773 @item @strong{FR} @tab quadruple croche
8774 @tab seizième de soupir
8776 @item @strong{DE} @tab Vierundsechzigstelnote
8777 @tab Vierundsechzigstelpause
8779 @item @strong{NL} @tab vierenzestigste noot
8780 @tab vierenzestigste rust
8782 @item @strong{DK} @tab fireog@-tredsindstyven@-dedelsnode
8783 @tab fireog@-tredsindstyven@-dedelspause
8785 @item @strong{SE} @tab sextiofjärdedelsnot
8786 @tab sextiofjärdedelspaus
8788 @item @strong{FI} @tab kuudes@-kymmenes@-neljäsosa@-nuotti
8789 @tab kuudes@-kymmenes@-neljäsosa@-tauko
8794 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
8796 @headitem Lang. @tab Note name
8799 @item @strong{US} @tab one-hundred-twenty-eighth note
8800 @tab one-hundred-twenty-eighth rest
8802 @item @strong{UK} @tab semihemidemisemiquaver
8803 @tab semihemidemisemiquaver rest
8805 @item @strong{ES} @tab garrapatea
8806 @tab silencio de garrapatea
8808 @item @strong{IT} @tab fusa
8811 @item @strong{FR} @tab quintuple croche
8812 @tab trente-deuxième de soupir @tab -
8813 @item @strong{DE} @tab Hundert@-achtundzwanzigstel@-note
8814 @tab Hundert@-achtundzwanzigstel@-pause @tab 128tel-Note
8815 @item @strong{NL} @tab honderd@-acht@-en@-twintigste noot
8816 @tab honderd@-acht@-en@-twintigste rust
8818 @item @strong{DK} @tab hundrede@-otte@-og@-tyvendedels@-node
8819 @tab hundrede@-otte@-og@-tyvendedels@-pause
8821 @item @strong{SE} @tab hundratjugoåttondelsnot
8822 @tab hundratjugoåttondelspaus
8824 @item @strong{FI} @tab sadas@-kahdes@-kymmenes@-kahdeksasosa@-nuotti
8825 @tab sadas@-kahdes@-kymmenes@-kahdeksasosa@-tauko
8830 @multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20
8832 @headitem Lang. @tab Note name
8835 @item @strong{US} @tab two-hundred-fifty-sixth note
8836 @tab two-hundred-fifty-sixth rest
8838 @item @strong{UK} @tab demisemihemidemisemiquaver
8839 @tab demisemihemidemisemiquaver rest
8841 @item @strong{ES} @tab semigarrapatea
8842 @tab silencio de semigarrapatea @tab -
8843 @item @strong{IT} @tab semifusa
8844 @tab pausa di semifusa
8846 @item @strong{FR} @tab sextuple croche
8847 @tab soixante-quatrième de soupir @tab -
8848 @item @strong{DE} @tab Zweihundert@-sechsundfünfzigstel@-note
8849 @tab Zweihundert@-sechsundfünfzigstelpause @tab 256tel-Note
8850 @item @strong{NL} @tab tweehonderd@-zesenvijftigste noot
8851 @tab tweehonderd@-zesenvijftigste rust
8853 @item @strong{DK} @tab tohundrede@-seks@-og@-halvtredsendedels@-node
8854 @tab tohundrede@-seks@-og@-halvtredsendedels@-pause
8856 @item @strong{SE} @tab tvåhundra@-femtiosjättedelsnot
8857 @tab tvåhundra@-femtiosjättedelspaus
8859 @item @strong{FI} @tab kahdes@-sadas@-viides@-kymmenes@-kuudesosa@-nuotti
8860 @tab kahdes@-sadas@-viides@-kymmenes@-kuudesosa@-tauko
8867 @ref{mensural notation}
8871 @chapter Pitch names
8873 @c -is/-es endings for Danish per Rune Zedeler, pace
8874 @c and for Finnish per Risto Vääräniemi
8875 @c -iss/-ess endings for Swedish per Mats Bengtsson
8876 @c @columnfractions .105 .145 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125 -->
8878 @multitable {g-sharp} {sol sostenido} {sol diesis} {sol dièse} {Gis} {gis} {gis} {giss} {gis}
8880 @tab ES @tab I @tab F @tab D
8881 @tab NL @tab DK @tab S @tab FI
8882 @item @strong{c} @tab do @tab do @tab ut @tab C
8883 @tab c @tab c @tab c @tab c
8884 @item @strong{c-sharp} @tab do sostenido @tab do diesis @tab ut dièse @tab Cis
8885 @tab cis @tab cis @tab ciss @tab cis
8886 @item @strong{d-flat} @tab re bemol @tab re bemolle @tab ré bémol @tab Des
8887 @tab des @tab des @tab dess @tab des
8888 @item @strong{d} @tab re @tab re @tab ré @tab D
8889 @tab d @tab d @tab d @tab d
8890 @item @strong{d-sharp} @tab re sostenido @tab re diesis @tab re dièse @tab Dis
8891 @tab dis @tab dis @tab diss @tab dis
8892 @item @strong{e-flat} @tab mi bemol @tab mi bemolle @tab mi bémol @tab Es
8893 @tab es @tab es @tab ess @tab es
8894 @item @strong{e} @tab mi @tab mi @tab mi @tab E
8895 @tab e @tab e @tab e @tab e
8896 @item @strong{f-flat} = e
8897 @tab fa bemol @tab fa bemolle @tab fa bémol @tab Fes
8898 @tab fes @tab fes @tab fess @tab fes
8899 @item @strong{f} @tab fa @tab fa @tab fa @tab F
8900 @tab f @tab f @tab f @tab f
8901 @item @strong{e-sharp} = f
8902 @tab mi sostenido @tab mi diesis @tab mi dièse @tab Eis
8903 @tab eis @tab eis @tab eiss @tab eis
8904 @item @strong{f-sharp} @tab fa sostenido @tab fa diesis @tab fa dièse @tab Fis
8905 @tab fis @tab fis @tab fiss @tab fis
8906 @item @strong{g-flat} @tab sol bemol @tab sol bemolle @tab sol bémol @tab Ges
8907 @tab ges @tab ges @tab gess @tab ges
8908 @item @strong{g} @tab sol @tab sol @tab sol @tab G
8909 @tab g @tab g @tab g @tab g
8910 @item @strong{g-sharp} @tab sol sostenido @tab sol diesis @tab sol dièse @tab Gis
8911 @tab gis @tab gis @tab giss @tab gis
8912 @item @strong{a-flat} @tab la bemol @tab la bemolle @tab la bémol @tab As
8913 @tab as @tab as @tab ass @tab as
8914 @item @strong{a} @tab la @tab la @tab la @tab A
8915 @tab a @tab a @tab a @tab a
8916 @item @strong{a-sharp} @tab la sostenido @tab la diesis @tab la dièse @tab Ais
8917 @tab ais @tab ais @tab aiss @tab ais
8918 @item @strong{b-flat} @tab si bemol @tab si bemolle @tab si bémol @tab B
8919 @tab bes @tab b @tab b @tab b
8920 @item @strong{b} @tab si @tab si @tab si @tab H
8921 @tab b @tab h @tab h @tab h
8929 @node Literature used
8930 @unnumberedsec Literature used
8933 @item Apel, Willi, ed. @cite{The Harvard Dictionary of Music}.
8934 Cambridge: Belknap Press (Harvard University Press), 1944.
8936 @item Krohn, Felix. @cite{Lyhyt musiikkioppi}. Porvoo, Helsinki, Finland:
8939 @item Leuchtmann, Horst, ed. @cite{Polyglottes Wörterbuch der musikalischen
8940 Terminologie}. Kassel, 1980.
8942 @item Hornby, Albert Sydney. @cite{Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of
8943 Current English}, 3rd ed. London: Oxford University Press, 1974.
8945 @item Porter, Noah. @cite{Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary}.
8946 Springfield, Massachusetts: G. & C. Merriam Company, 1913.
8948 @item Randall, Don, ed. @cite{The New Harvard Dictionary of Music}.
8949 Cambridge: Belknap Press (Harvard University Press), 1986.
8951 @item Riemann, Hugo. @cite{Musik-lexicon}. Berlin, 1929.