1 \input texinfo @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @setfilename music-glosssary.info
3 @settitle Music Glossary
5 @documentencoding UTF-8
10 @c see lilypond.tely for info installation note
13 * Glossary: (lilypond/music-glossary). Glossary of music terms.
17 This document is also available in
18 @uref{source/Documentation/user/music-glossary.pdf,PDF}
19 and as @uref{source/Documentation/user/music-glossary-big-page.html,one big page}.
24 @author Christian Mondrup @c Original author of LilyPond glossary
26 @author François Pinard @c Original glossary of GNU music project,
28 @author Mats Bengtsson @c Swedish glossary
29 @author David González @c Spanish glossary
30 @author Bjoern Jacke @c German glossary
31 @author Neil Jerram @c English glossary translations
32 @author Heikki Junes @c Finnish glossary
33 @author Kurtis Kroon @c English glossary maintenance, beg. Oct. 2007
34 @author Adrian Mariano @c Italian glossary
35 @author Han-Wen Nienhuys @c Dutch glossary
36 @author Jan Nieuwenhuizen @c Dutch glossary
38 @c Fixes by Jean-Pierre Coulon and `Dirk', alphabetized by last name, KK, 10/07
39 @c Updates to the German translation by Till Rettig, 12/07
41 Copyright @copyright{} 1999--2007 by the authors
43 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
44 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
45 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation,
46 without Invariant Sections.
51 @c TODO: multiple omfcreators?
53 @omfcreator Christian Mondrup
54 @omfdescription Glossary of musical terms with translations
56 @omfcategory Applications|Publishing
68 This glossary was brought you by
75 @item Christian Mondrup
76 Original author of LilyPond glossary, Danish glossary,
80 Original glossary of GNU music project, French glossary,
81 @item Han-Wen Nienhuys
84 Finnish glossary translations,
85 @item Jan Nieuwenhuizen
92 English glossary translations.
95 Copyright 1999--2007 by the authors
97 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
98 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
99 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation,
100 without Invariant Sections.
106 @c @everyheading @| @thispage @|
107 @c @evenheading @thispage @| @|
108 @c @oddheading @| @| @thispage @|
110 @include macros.itexi
115 @w{@expansion{}@strong{\word\}}@c
118 @expansion{}@ref{\word\, @strong{\word\}}@c
123 * Musical terms A-Z::
124 * Duration names notes and rests::
128 @node Musical terms A-Z
129 @chapter Musical terms A-Z
131 Languages in this order.
138 @item UK - British English
158 * ancient minor scale::
163 * ascending interval::
164 * augmented interval::
198 * compound interval::
201 * conjunct movement::
214 * descending interval::
216 * diminished interval::
219 * disjunct movement::
221 * dissonant interval::
222 * dominant ninth chord::
223 * dominant seventh chord::
226 * dot (augmentation dot)::
228 * double appoggiatura::
230 * double dotted note::
233 * double time signature::
241 * ecclesiastical mode::
248 * equal temperament::
264 * functional harmony::
280 * inverted interval::
294 * long appoggiatura::
300 * meantone temperament::
306 * mensural notation::
309 * metronomic indication::
320 * multi-measure rest::
347 * polymetric time signature::
352 * Pythagorean comma::
379 * sixty-fourth note::
380 * sixty-fourth rest::
409 * thirty-second note::
410 * thirty-second rest::
466 FI: aksentti, korostus.
468 The stress of one tone over others.
482 ES: alteración accidental,
484 F: altération accidentelle,
485 D: Versetzungszeichen, Akzidenz,
486 NL: toevallig (verplaatsings)teken,
488 S: tillfälligt förtecken,
489 FI: tilapäinen etumerkki.
491 An accidental has the effect of an @ref{alteration} of a note. A
492 sharp raises a tone by a @ref{semitone}, a double sharp raises it by a
493 @ref{whole tone}, a flat lowers it by a semitone and a double flat
494 lowers it by a whole tone. A natural cancels the effect of a previous
495 accidental, or a sharp or flat in the key signature.
497 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
498 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
500 \context Staff \relative c'' {
501 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
502 gisis1 gis g! ges geses
505 \override Lyrics .LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
506 "db. sharp" sharp natural flat "db. flat"
517 F: accelerando, en accélérant,
518 D: accelerando, schneller werden,
522 FI: accelerando, kiihdyttäen.
528 @section acciaccatura
530 A grace note which takes its time from the rest or note preceding the
531 principal note to which it is attached. The acciaccatura is drawn as a
532 small eighth note (quaver) with a line drawn through the flag and
537 @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes}, @ref{ornament}.
550 FI: adagio, hitaasti.
552 It.@: comfortable, easy.
556 @item Slow tempo, slower -- especially in even meter -- than
557 @ref{andante} and faster than @ref{largo}.
559 @item A movement in slow tempo, especially the second (slow) movement
560 of @ref{sonata}s, symphonies, etc.
571 D: Allegro, Schnell, Fröhlich, Lustig,
575 FI: allegro, nopeasti.
577 It.@: cheerful. Quick tempo. Also used as a title for pieces in a quick
578 tempo, especially the first and last movements of a @ref{sonata}.
588 NL: verhoging of verlaging,
593 An alteration is the modification, raising or lowering, of a note's
594 pitch. It is established by an @ref{accidental}.
607 FI: altto, matala naisääni.
609 A female voice of low range (@emph{contralto}). Originally the alto
610 was a high male voice (hence the name), which by the use of falsetto
611 reached the height of the female voice. This type of voice is also
612 known as @ref{counter tenor}.
618 ES: clave de do en tercera,
619 I: chiave di contralto,
620 F: clef d'ut troisième ligne,
621 D: Altschlüssel, Bratschenschlüssel,
627 C clef setting middle C on the middle line of the staff.
644 FI: ambitus, ääniala, soitinala.
646 The term ambit (from Latin: ambitus, plural: ambitus) denotes a range
647 of pitches for a given voice in a part of music. It may also denote
648 the pitch range that a musical instrument is capable of playing.
663 An anacrusis (also known as pickup or upbeat) is an incomplete measure
664 of music before a section of music. It also refers to the initial
665 note(s) of a melody occurring in that incomplete measure.
669 @ref{measure}, @ref{meter}.
671 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
675 \partial 4 f4 | bes4. a8 bes4 c |
676 bes( a) g f | bes4. a8 bes4 c | f,2. \bar "||" }
680 @node ancient minor scale
681 @section ancient minor scale
683 ES: escala menor antigua,
684 I: scala minore naturale,
685 F: forme du mode mineur ancien, troisème mode, mode hellénique,
686 D: reines Moll, natürliches Moll,
687 NL: authentieke mineurtoonladder,
690 FI: luonnollinen molliasteikko.
694 @ref{diatonic scale}.
696 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
697 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
715 Walking tempo/character.
719 @section appoggiatura
723 F: appoggiature, (port de voix),
724 D: Vorschlag, Vorhalt
728 FI: appoggiatura, etuhele.
730 Ornamental note, usually a second, that is melodically connected with
731 the main note following it. In music before the 19th century
732 appoggiature were usually performed on the beat, after that mostly
733 before the beat. While the short appoggiatura is performed as a short
734 note regardless of the duration of the main note the duration of the
735 long appoggiatura is proportional to that of the main note.
737 @lilypond[line-width=13.0\cm]
738 \context Voice \relative c'' {
742 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
743 <d a fis>4_"notation" r
744 { \override Stem #'flag-style = #'()
746 \revert Stem #'flag-style
749 { \override Stem #'flag-style = #'()
751 \revert Stem #'flag-style
754 \cadenzaOn a4 \bar "||" \cadenzaOff
756 <d, a fis>4_"performance" r g16 ( fis) e fis a ( g) fis g |
757 \cadenzaOn a4 \bar "||" \cadenzaOff
761 An appoggiatura may have more notes preceding the main note.
763 @lilypond[line-width=13.0\cm]
767 % \override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
768 \grace { bes16 } as8_"notation" as16 bes as8 g |
769 \grace { as16[( bes] } < c as >4-)
770 \grace { as16[( bes] } < c as >4-) \bar "||"
771 \grace { bes16 } as8_"performance" as16 bes as8 g |
772 << \context Voice = va { \stemUp\tieUp as32 bes c8. as32 bes c8. }
773 \context Voice = vb { \stemDown\tieDown as16 ~ as8. as16 ~ as8. } >>
785 D: Arpeggio, Akkordbrechungen, gebro@-chener Akkord,
787 DK: arpeggio, akkordbrydning,
789 FI: arpeggio, murtosointu.
791 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
792 \context PianoStaff <<
793 \context Staff = SA \relative c'' {
796 r8 g16 c e g, c e r8 g,16 c e g, c e |
797 r8 a,16 d f a, d f r8 a,16 d f a, d f \bar "||" }
798 \context Staff = SB \relative c' {
800 << \context Voice = va {
802 r16 e8. ( e4) r16 e8. ( e4) |
803 r16 d8. ( d4) r16 d8. ( d4) }
804 \context Voice = vb {
813 @section articulation
822 FI: artikulaatio, ilmaisu.
824 Articulation refers to notation which indicates how a note or notes
825 should be played. Slurs, accents, staccato, and legato are all
826 examples of articulation.
829 @node ascending interval
830 @section ascending interval
832 ES: intervalo ascendente,
833 I: intervallo ascendente,
834 F: intervalle ascendant,
835 D: steigendes Intervall,
836 NL: stijgend interval,
837 DK:@w{ }stigende interval,
838 S: stigande intervall,
839 FI: nouseva intervalli.
841 A distance between a starting lower note and a higher ending note.
844 @node augmented interval
845 @section augmented interval
847 ES: intervalo aumentado,
848 I: intervallo aumentato,
849 F: intervalle augmenté,
850 D: übermäßiges Intervall,
851 NL: overmatig interval,
852 DK: forstørret interval,
853 S: överstigande intervall,
854 FI: ylinouseva intervalli.
866 F: manuscrit, autographe
867 D: Autograph, Handschrift,
869 DK: håndskrift, autograf,
871 FI: käsinkirjoitettu nuotti.
875 @item A manuscript in the composer's own hand.
877 @item Music prepared for photoreproduction by freehand drawing, with
878 the aid of a straightedge ruler and T-square only, which attempts to
879 emulate engraving. This required more skill than did engraving.
920 ES: barra, línea divisoria,
921 I: stanghetta, barra (di divisione),
922 F: barre (de mesure),
940 FI: baritoni, keskikorkuinen miesääni.
942 The male voice intermediate between the @ref{bass} and the
945 @c F: clef de troisième ligne dropped
949 @section baritone clef
951 ES: clave de fa en tercera,
952 I: chiave di baritono,
953 F: clef d' Ut cinquième ligne, clef de Fa troisième,
960 C or F clef setting middle C on the upper staff line.
964 @ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}.
970 ES: clave de fa en cuarta,
972 F: clef de fa quatrième ligne,
979 A clef setting with middle C on the first top ledger line.
996 FI: basso, matala miesääni.
1000 @item The lowest male voice.
1002 @item Sometimes, especially in jazz music, used as an abbreviation for
1024 Line connecting a series of notes (shorter than a quarter note). The
1025 number of beams determines the note value of the connected notes.
1027 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1028 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1029 %\override TextScript #'font-style = #'large
1031 g8_"1/8"[ g g g] s16
1032 g16_"1/16"[ g g g] s16
1033 g32_"1/32"[ s32 g32 s32 g32 s32 g32] s16
1034 g64_"1/64"[ s32 g64 s32 g64 s32 g64] s32 }
1039 @ref{feathered beam}.
1045 ES: tiempo, parte (de compás)
1048 D: Takt, Taktschlag, Zeit (im Takt),
1054 Note value used for counting, most often half-, fourth-, and eighth
1055 notes. The base counting value and the number of them per measure is
1056 indicated at the start of the music.
1058 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
1061 \relative c'' { g4 c b a | g1 \bar "||"}
1063 \relative c'' { g8 d' c | b c a | g4. \bar "||"}
1078 ES: llave, corchete,
1081 D: Klammer, Akkolade,
1082 NL: accolade, teksthaak,
1085 FI: yhdistävä sulkumerkki.
1087 Symbol at the start of a system connecting staves. Curly braces are
1088 used for connecting piano staves, angular brackets for connecting
1089 parts in an orchestral or choral score.
1091 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
1092 \context GrandStaff <<
1093 \relative c''\context Staff = SA { \clef treble g4 e c2 }
1094 \relative c \context Staff = SB { \clef bass c1 \bar "|." } >>
1097 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
1098 \context StaffGroup <<
1099 % \set StaffGroup.minVerticalAlign = #12
1100 \relative c'' \context Staff = SA { \clef treble g4 e c2 }
1101 \relative c \context Staff = SB { \clef bass c1 \bar "|." } >>
1111 NL: koper (blazers),
1114 S: brassinstrument, mässingsinstrument,
1117 A family of blown musical instruments made of brass, all using a cup
1118 formed mouth piece. The brass instruments commonly used in a symphony
1119 orchestra are trumpet, trombone, french horn, and tube.
1123 @section breath mark
1128 D: Atemzeichen, Trennungszeichen,
1129 NL: repercussieteken,
1130 DK: vejrtrækningstegn,
1134 Indication of where to breathe in vocal and wind instrument parts.
1139 ES: cuadrada, breve,
1148 @ref{note value}, twice as long as a whole note. Mainly used in
1149 pre-1650 music. The shortest note value generally used in white
1150 mensural notation, hence the name, which originally meant "of short
1153 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
1154 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1155 \relative c'' { g\breve }
1188 Clef symbol indicating the position of the middle C. Used on all note
1191 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1192 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1193 \override Score.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
1195 \context Staff \relative c' {
1197 \clef mezzosoprano c
1202 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1203 \override Lyrics .LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
1204 "Soprano " "Mezzosoprano " "Alto " "Tenor " Baritone
1220 FI: kadenssi, lopuke.
1224 @ref{harmonic cadence}, @ref{functional harmony}.
1237 FI: kadenssi, lopuke.
1239 An extended, improvisatory style section inserted near the end of
1240 movement. The purpose of a cadenza is to give singers or players a
1241 chance to exhibit their technical skill and -- not last -- their
1242 ability to improvise. Since the middle of the 19th century, however,
1243 most cadenzas have been written down by the composer.
1256 FI: kaanon, tarkka jäljittely.
1273 FI: sentti, puolisävelaskeleen sadasosa tasavireisessä
1274 viritysjärjestelmässä.
1276 Logarithmic unit of measurement. 1@tie{}cent is 1/1200 of an octave
1277 (1/100 of an equally tempered @ref{semitone}).
1281 @ref{equal temperament}.
1304 Three or more tones sounding simultaneously. In traditional European
1305 music the base chord is a @emph{triad} consisting of 2@w{ }thirds.
1306 @emph{Major} (major + minor @ref{third}) as well as @emph{minor}
1307 (minor + major third) chords may be extended with more thirds.
1308 Four-tone @emph{seventh chords} and five-tone @emph{ninth} major
1309 chords are most often used as dominants (@ref{functional harmony}). A
1310 special case is chords having no third above the lower notes to define
1311 their quality as major or minor. Such chords are denoted open chords
1313 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1314 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1315 %\override TextScript #'font-style = #'large
1317 \context Staff \relative c'' {
1318 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
1338 @node chromatic scale
1339 @section chromatic scale
1341 ES: escala cromática,
1343 F: gamme chromatique,
1344 D: chro@-ma@-ti@-sche Tonleiter,
1345 NL: chromatische toonladder,
1346 DK: kromatisk skala,
1348 FI: kromaattinen asteikko.
1350 A scale consisting of all 12 @ref{semitone}s.
1352 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1353 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1354 \relative c' { c1 cis d dis e f fis g gis a ais b c }
1359 @section chromaticism
1370 Use of tones extraneous to a @ref{diatonic scale} (minor, major).
1374 @section church mode
1376 ES: modo eclesiástico,
1377 I: modo ecclesiastico,
1378 F: mode ecclésiastique,
1383 FI: moodi, kirkkosävellaji.
1387 @ref{diatonic scale}.
1396 D: Schlüssel, Notenschlüssel,
1400 FI: avain, nuottiavain.
1404 @ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}, @ref{G clef}.
1406 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
1407 pitches. The three clef symbols in common use are:
1409 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1412 \line { "The Treble or G clef: " \musicglyph #"clefs.G" }
1413 \line { "The Bass or F clef: " \musicglyph #"clefs.F" }
1414 \line { "The Alto or C clef: " \musicglyph #"clefs.C" }
1419 Imagine a large staff of 11 lines centered on middle C, sometimes
1420 called a @q{grand staff}, with the bottom line representing low G and
1421 the top line high F:
1423 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1426 %-- Treble Staff --%
1428 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1429 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
1430 % Allow the treble clef to overlap the lower staves:
1431 % \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1432 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1434 s1^\markup { "g," \transparent "g" }
1435 s^ \markup { "b," \transparent "g" }
1436 s^ \markup { "d" \transparent "g" }
1437 s^ \markup { "f" \transparent "g" }
1438 s^ \markup { "a" \transparent "g" }
1439 s^ \markup { \with-color #red c' \transparent "g"}
1440 e'^\markup { "e'" \transparent "g" }
1441 g'^\markup { "g'" \transparent "g" }
1442 b'^\markup { "b'" \transparent "g" }
1443 d''^\markup { "d''" \transparent "g" }
1444 f''^\markup { "f ''" \transparent "g" }
1447 %-- Alto Staff reduced to a single line on middle C --%
1449 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 1 % One line only
1450 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red % Coloured red
1451 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1454 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1455 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1456 % Specify height to give correct spacing between treble and bass staves
1457 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1459 s1 s s s s % Space along to align horizonatally
1460 \override NoteHead #'color = #red
1462 s1 s s s s s % Keep staff (ie the red line) showing
1466 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1467 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-3 . 2)
1468 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1471 s s s s s s s % Keep staff showing
1475 % Reduce horizontal spacing so semibreves can be used without exceeding 1 line
1476 \context { \Score \override SpacingSpanner #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 1)
1478 % Reduce apparent vertical size of note heads to permit them to overlap other grobs vertically
1479 \context { \Score \override NoteHead #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1481 % Remove all barlines
1482 \context { \Score \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1484 % Remove time signature from all staves
1485 \context { \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver
1491 Staves of five lines are usually used, and the clef superimposed on
1492 them indicates which five lines have been selected from this
1493 @samp{grand staff}. For example, the treble or G clef indicates that
1494 the top five lines have been selected:
1496 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1499 %-- Treble Staff --%
1501 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1502 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup
1503 #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1504 % Allow the treble clef to overlap the lower staves:
1505 % \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1506 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required here
1508 s1^\markup { "g," \transparent "g" }
1509 s^ \markup { "b," \transparent "g" }
1510 s^ \markup { "d" \transparent "g" }
1511 s^ \markup { "f" \transparent "g" }
1512 s^ \markup { "a" \transparent "g" }
1513 s^ \markup { \with-color #red c' \transparent "g"}
1514 \stopStaff \startStaff
1515 \clef "C" % Dummy to force next clef to be printed
1516 s % Need at least one note for \clef to take effect
1517 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##t % Clef now required
1518 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0) % Permit overlap
1520 e'^\markup { "e'" \transparent "g" }
1521 g'^\markup { "g'" \transparent "g" }
1522 b'^\markup { "b'" \transparent "g" }
1523 d''^\markup { "d''" \transparent "g" }
1524 f''^\markup { "f ''" \transparent "g" }
1526 %-- Alto Staff reduced to a single line on middle C --%
1528 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 1 % One line only
1529 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red % Coloured red
1530 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1533 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1534 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup
1535 #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1536 % Specify height to give correct spacing between the staves
1537 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1539 s1 s s s s % Space along to align horizonatally
1540 \override NoteHead #'color = #red
1542 % s1 s s s s % Keep staff (ie the red line) showing
1546 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1547 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup
1548 #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1549 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1552 % s s s s s s % Keep staff showing
1556 % Reduce horizontal spacing so semibreves can be used
1557 % without exceeding 1 line
1558 \context { \Score \override SpacingSpanner
1559 #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 1)
1561 % Reduce apparent vertical size of note heads to
1562 % permit them to overlap other grobs vertically
1563 \context { \Score \override NoteHead #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1565 % Remove all barlines
1566 \context { \Score \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1568 % Remove time signature from all staves
1569 \context { \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver
1575 The @q{curl} of the G clef in centered on the line that represents the
1578 In the same way, the bass or F clef indicates that the bottom five
1579 lines have been selected from the @samp{grand staff}, and the alto or
1580 C clef indicates the middle five lines have been selected. This
1581 relationship is shown below, where the notes show an arpeggio on a C
1584 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1587 %-- Treble Staff --%
1588 \new Staff = "G" \with {
1589 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1592 % The following two overrides are required to make the two middle C's overlap
1593 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1594 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
1596 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1598 s1 s s s s e' g' c''
1601 \new Staff = "C" \with {
1602 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1605 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 1
1606 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'stencil = ##f
1607 \once \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
1608 \clef "G" % A frig. This clef is invisible; use G to force the later C clef to be shown
1609 \override Score.BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1611 % The following two overrides are required to align the C staff to the G and F staves
1612 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1613 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1616 \stopStaff \startStaff
1617 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1618 \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'stencil
1619 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
1620 b'1 % A frig. This really shows as a middle C in the score
1622 \stopStaff \startStaff
1623 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 5
1624 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1625 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1626 \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'color
1627 \stopStaff \startStaff
1629 s1 s s c e g c' e' g' c''
1632 \new Staff = "F" \with {
1633 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1636 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1637 % The following two overrides are required to make the two middle C's overlap
1638 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1639 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
1647 \Score \override SpacingSpanner #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 2 1)
1650 \Score \override NoteHead #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1653 \Score \override NoteHead #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1670 FI: klusteri, cluster.
1672 A @emph{cluster} is a range of simultaneously sounding pitches that
1673 may change over time. The set of available pitches to apply usually
1674 depends on the acoustic source. Thus, in piano music, a cluster
1675 typically consists of a continuous range of the semitones as provided
1676 by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic scale. In choral music, each
1677 singer of the choir typically may sing an arbitrary pitch within the
1678 cluster's range that is not bound to any diatonic, chromatic or other
1679 scale. In electronic music, a cluster (theoretically) may even cover
1680 a continuous range of pitches, thus resulting in colored noise, such
1683 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
1684 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
1685 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
1686 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by
1687 the shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical
1688 extent of the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster
1689 geometrically describes the development of a range of pitches
1690 (vertical extent) over time (horizontal extent). Still, the
1691 geometrical shape of a cluster covers the area in which any single
1692 pitch contained in the cluster would be notated as an ordinary note.
1694 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,ragged-right]
1695 \makeClusters { <c e> <b f'> <b g'> <c g> <f e> }
1709 FI: komma, korvinkuultava ero äänenkorkeudessa.
1711 Difference in pitch between a note derived from pure tuning and the
1712 same note derived from some other tuning method.
1720 @section common meter
1730 @section common time
1732 4/4 time. The symbol, which resembles a capital letter C derives from
1733 mensural notation (q.v.).
1743 ES: intervalo invertido,
1745 F: intervalle complémentaire,
1746 D: Komplementärintervall,
1747 NL: complementair interval,
1748 DK: komplementærinterval,
1749 S: komplementärintervall (?),
1750 FI: täydentävä intervalli.
1754 @ref{inverted interval}.
1757 @node compound interval
1758 @section compound interval
1760 ES: intervalo compuesto,
1761 I: intervallo composto,
1762 F: intervalle composé,
1763 D: weites Intervall,
1764 NL: samengesteld interval,
1765 DK: sammensat interval,
1766 S: sammansatt intervall,
1767 FI: oktaavia laajempi intervalli.
1769 Intervals larger than an octave.
1776 @node compound meter
1777 @section compound meter
1788 A meter that includes a triplet subdivision within the beat, such as
1793 @ref{meter}, @ref{simple meter}.
1797 @section compound time
1808 @ref{compound meter}
1815 @node conjunct movement
1816 @section conjunct movement
1818 ES: movimiento conjunto,
1820 F: mouvement conjoint,
1821 D: schritt@-weise, stufenweise Bewegung,
1822 NL: stapsgewijze, trapsgewijze beweging,
1823 DK: trinvis bevægelse,
1825 FI: asteittainen liike.
1827 Progressing melodically by intervals of a second. The opposite of a
1828 @ref{disjunct movement}.
1830 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
1831 \key g \major \time 4/4
1832 \relative c'' { g4 g g a | b2 a | g4 b a a | g1 \bar "||" }
1846 FI: konsonanssi, sopusointi.
1871 @section counterpoint
1880 FI: kontrapunkti, ääni ääntä vastaan.
1882 From Latin @emph{punctus contra punctum}, note against note. The
1883 combination into a single musical fabric of lines or parts which have
1884 distinct melodic significance. A frequently used polyphonic technique
1885 is imitation, in its strictest form found in the canon needing only
1886 one part to be written down while the other parts are performed with a
1887 given displacement. Imitation is also the contrapunctal technique
1888 used in the @emph{fugue} which, since the music of the baroque era,
1889 has been one of the most popular polyphonic composition methods.
1891 @lilypond[fragment,staffsize=12,line-width=13.0\cm]
1892 \set Score.implicitTimeSignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
1893 \override Score.TimeSignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible
1894 \context PianoStaff <<
1895 \context Staff = SA \relative c' {
1899 << \context Voice = rha {
1901 r1 | r2 r8 g'8 bes d, |
1902 cis4 d r8 e!16 f g8 f16 e |
1903 f8 g16 a bes8 a16 g a8
1905 \context Voice = rhb {
1911 \context Staff = SB \relative c' {
1914 << \context Voice = lha {
1916 r8 d es g, fis4 g | r8 a16 bes c8 bes16 a bes4 g |
1917 r8 a16 g f8 g16 a bes8 g e! cis' |
1920 \context Voice = lhb {
1930 @section counter tenor
1935 D: Countertenor, Kontratenor,
1938 S: kontratenor, counter tenor,
1947 @section copying music
1949 A music copyist did fast freehand scores and parts on preprinted staff
1950 lines for performance. Some of their conventions (e.g., the placement
1951 of note heads on stems) varied slightly from those of engravers. Some
1952 of their working methods were superior and could well be adopted by
1953 music typesetters. Copying music required more skill than engraving.
1962 D: Crescendo, lauter werden,
1966 FI: cresendo, voimistuen.
1968 Increasing volume. Indicated by a rightwards opening horizontal wedge
1969 or the abbreviation @samp{cresc.}.
1971 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
1972 \key g \major \time 4/4
1973 \relative c'' { g4 \< a b c | d1\! \bar "|." }
1982 F: petites notes précédent l'entrée d'un instrument, réplique,
1989 In a separate part notes belonging to another part with the purpose of
1990 hinting when to start playing. Usually printed in a smaller type.
1999 D: Notenzeiger, Custos,
2005 A custos (plural: custodes) is a staff symbol that appears at the end
2006 of a staff line with monophonic musical contents (i.e., with a single
2007 voice). It anticipates the pitch of the first note of the following
2008 line and thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2009 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2011 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 16th
2012 century. There were different appearences for different notation
2013 styles. Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical
2014 notation such as via the Editio Vaticana dating back to the beginning
2020 % \override Staff.Custos #'neutral-position = #4
2021 \override Staff.Custos #'neutral-direction = #down
2022 \override Staff.Custos #'style = #'hufnagel
2030 \consists Custos_engraver
2060 F: da capo, depuis le commencement,
2061 D: da capo, von Anfang,
2065 FI: da capo, alusta.
2067 The term indicates repetition of the piece from the beginning to the
2068 end or to a certain place marked @emph{fine}. Usually abbreviated as
2077 F: dal segno, depuis le signe,
2078 D: dal segno, ab dem Zeichen,
2082 FI: dal segno, lähtien merkistä.
2084 Abbreviated @samp{D.S.}. Repetition, not from the beginning, but from
2085 another place frequently near the beginning marked by a sign:
2087 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2088 %\override TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2089 \override TextScript #'font-shape = #'italic
2090 \key g \major \time 4/4
2095 \line { "d.s. " \tiny \raise #1 \musicglyph #"scripts.segno" } }
2102 @section decrescendo
2106 D: Decrescendo, leiser werden,
2110 FI: decresendo, hiljentyen.
2112 Decreasing tone volume. Indicated by a leftwards opening horizontal wedge
2113 or the abbreviation @samp{decresc.}.
2115 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2117 \key g \major \time 4/4
2118 d4 \> c b a | g1 \! \bar "|."
2123 @node descending interval
2124 @section descending interval
2126 ES: intervalo descendente,
2127 I: intervallo discendente,
2128 F: intervalle descendant,
2129 D: fallendes Intervall, absteigendes Intervall,
2130 NL: dalend interval,
2131 DK: faldende interval,
2132 S: fallande intervall,
2133 FI: laskeva intervalli.
2135 A distance between a starting higher note and a lower ending note.
2138 @node diatonic scale
2139 @section diatonic scale
2141 ES: escala diatónica,
2143 F: gamme diatonique,
2144 D: diatonische Tonleiter,
2145 NL: diatonische toonladder,
2146 DK: diatonisk skala,
2148 FI: diatoninen asteikko.
2150 A scale consisting of 5@w{ }@ref{whole tone}s and 2@w{
2151 }@ref{semitone}s (S). Scales played on the white keys of a piano
2152 keybord are diatonic.
2154 The church modes are used in gregorian chant and in pre-baroque early
2155 music but also to some extent in newer jazz music.
2157 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2158 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2159 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2160 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2162 \context Staff \relative c' {
2164 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2165 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c
2167 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2173 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2174 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2176 \context Staff \relative c' {
2178 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2179 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c d
2187 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2188 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2191 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2192 e1^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c d e
2200 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2201 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2205 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2206 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f
2214 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2215 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2219 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2220 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g }
2227 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2228 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2229 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2230 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2234 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2235 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a
2243 From the beginning of the 17th century the scales used in European
2244 compositional music are primarily the major and the minor scales. In
2245 the harmonic minor scale type an augmented second (A) occurs between
2246 the 6th and 7th tone.
2248 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2249 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2253 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2254 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c
2262 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2263 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2267 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2268 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a
2276 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2277 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2281 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2282 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f!^"~~ A" gis^"~~ S" a
2284 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2290 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
2291 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2292 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2293 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2297 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2298 b^"~~ S" c d e fis gis^"~~ S"
2299 a g! f!^"~~ S" e d c^"~~ S" b a
2308 @node diminished interval
2309 @section diminished interval
2311 ES: intervalo disminuido,
2312 I: intervallo diminuito,
2313 F: intervalle diminué,
2314 D: vermindertes Intervall,
2315 NL: verminderd interval,
2316 DK: formindsket interval,
2317 S: förminskat intervall,
2318 FI: vähennetty intervalli.
2335 FI: diminuendo, hiljentyen.
2359 @node disjunct movement
2360 @section disjunct movement
2362 ES: movimiento disjunto,
2364 F: mouvement disjoint,
2365 D: sprunghafte Bewegung,
2366 NL: sprongsgewijze beweging,
2367 DK: springende bevægelse,
2368 S: hoppande rörelse,
2369 FI: melodian hyppivä liike.
2371 Progressing melodically by intervals larger than a major second, as
2372 opposed to @ref{conjunct movement}.
2374 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2379 a4. gis8 b a e cis |
2380 fis2 d4. \bar "||" }
2387 @ref{dissonant interval}.
2390 @node dissonant interval
2391 @section dissonant interval
2393 ES: intervalo disonante, disonancia,
2394 I: intervallo dissonante, dissonanza,
2397 NL: dissonant interval, dissonant,
2398 DK: dissonerende interval, dissonans,
2400 FI: dissonanssi, dissonoiva intervalli, riitasointi.
2407 @node dominant ninth chord
2408 @section dominant ninth chord
2410 ES: acorde de novena de dominante,
2411 I: accordo di nona di dominante,
2412 F: accord de neuvième dominante,
2413 D: Domi@-nant@-nonen@-akkord,
2414 NL: dominant noon akkoord,
2415 DK: dominantnoneakkord,
2416 S: dominantnonackord,
2417 FI: dominanttinoonisointu.
2421 @ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}.
2424 @node dominant seventh chord
2425 @section dominant seventh chord
2427 ES: acorde de séptima de dominante,
2428 I: accordo di settima di dominante,
2429 F: accord de septième dominante,
2430 D: Dominantseptakkord,
2431 NL: dominant septiem akkoord,
2432 DK: dominantseptimakkord,
2433 S: dominantseptimackord,
2434 FI: dominanttiseptimisointu.
2438 @ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}.
2451 FI: dominantti, huippusointu.
2453 The fifth @ref{scale degree} in @ref{functional harmony}.
2457 @section dorian mode
2462 D: dorisch, dorischer Kirchenton,
2463 NL: dorische toonladder,
2470 @ref{diatonic scale}.
2473 @node dot (augmentation dot)
2474 @section dot (augmentation dot)
2477 I: punto (di valore),
2479 D: Punkt (Verlängerungspunkt),
2487 @ref{dotted note}, @ref{note value}.
2491 @section dotted note
2493 ES: nota con puntillo,
2497 NL: gepuncteerde noot,
2500 FI: pisteellinen nuotti.
2507 @node double appoggiatura
2508 @section double appoggiatura
2510 ES: apoyatura doble,
2511 I: appoggiatura doppia,
2512 F: appoggiature double,
2513 D: doppelter Vorschlag,
2514 NL: dubbele voorslag,
2515 DK: dobbelt forslag,
2517 FI: kaksoisappogiatura, kaksoisetuhele.
2524 @node double bar line
2525 @section double bar line
2531 NL: dubbele maatstreep,
2534 FI: kaksoistahtiviiva.
2536 Indicates the end of a section within a movement.
2539 @node double dotted note
2540 @section double dotted note
2542 ES: nota con doble puntillo,
2543 I: nota doppiamente puntata,
2544 F: note doublement pointée,
2545 D: doppelt punktierte Note,
2546 NL: dubbelgepuncteerde noot,
2547 DK: dob@-belt@-punk@-te@-ret node,
2548 S: dub@-bel@-punk@-te@-rad not,
2549 FI: kaksoispisteellinen nuotti.
2557 @section double flat
2566 FI: kaksoisalennusmerkki.
2574 @section double sharp
2576 ES: doble sostenido,
2581 DK: dob@-belt@-kryds,
2583 FI: kaksoisylennysmerkki.
2590 @node double time signature
2591 @section double time signature
2604 @ref{polymetric time signature}.
2608 @section double trill
2614 NL: dubbele triller,
2619 A simultaneous trill on two notes, usually in the distance of a third.
2623 @section duple meter
2628 D: in zwei, grader Takt,
2629 NL: tweedelige maatsoort,
2666 FI: kesto, aika-arvo.
2674 @section dydimic comma
2678 @ref{syntonic comma}.
2687 D: Dynamik, Lautstärke,
2693 The aspect of music relating to degrees of loudness, or changes from
2694 one degree to another. The terms, abbreviations, and symbols used to
2695 indicate this information are called dynamic marks.
2699 @ref{piano}, @ref{forte}, @ref{crescendo}, @ref{decrescendo},
2720 @node ecclesiastical mode
2721 @section ecclesiastical mode
2729 @section eighth note
2735 D: Achtel, Achtelnote,
2737 DK: ottendedelsnode,
2739 FI: kahdeksasosanuotti.
2747 @section eighth rest
2749 ES: silencio de corchea,
2755 DK: ottendedelspause,
2757 FI: kahdeksasosatauko.
2767 @c TODO: add languages
2778 @c TODO definition -- referenced from lyric tie
2782 @section embellishment
2795 D: Notenstich, Notendruck
2801 Engraving means incising or etching a metal plate for printing.
2802 Photoengraving means drawing music with ink in a manner similar to
2803 drafting or engineering drawing, using similar tools.
2805 The traditional process of music printing is done through cutting in a
2806 plate of metal. Now also the term for the art of music typesetting.
2821 Two notes, intervals, or scales are enharmonic if they have different
2822 names but equal pitch.
2824 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
2825 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2827 \context Staff \relative c'' {
2828 gis1 as <des g,!> <cis g!>
2830 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2831 \override Lyrics .LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
2832 "g sharp " "a flat " "dim fifth " "augm fourth"
2838 @node equal temperament
2839 @section equal temperament
2841 ES: temperamento igual,
2842 I: temperamento equabile,
2843 F: tempérament égal,
2844 D: gleichschwebende Stimmung,
2845 NL: ge@-lijk@-zwe@-ven@-de temperatuur,
2846 DK: ligesvævende temperatur,
2847 S: liksvävande temperatur,
2850 Tuning system dividing the octave into 12 equal @ref{semitone}s
2851 (precisely 100 @ref{cent}s).
2858 @node expression mark
2859 @section expression mark
2862 I: segno d'espressione,
2863 F: signe d'expression, indication de nuance,
2865 NL: voordrachtsteken,
2866 DK: foredragsbetegnelse,
2867 S: föredragsbeteckning,
2868 FI: nyanssiosoitus, esitysmerkki.
2870 Performance indications concerning:
2874 @item volume, dynamics (for example @ref{forte}, @ref{crescendo}),
2876 @item tempo (for example @ref{andante}, @ref{allegro}).
2882 @section extender line
2884 ES: línea de extención [de melisma, de bajo cifrado, etc.],
2886 F: ligne d'extension [de mélisme, de basse chiffrée, etc.],
2893 The generic term for a line (or dash) of arbitrary length that extends
2894 text (without indicating the musical @emph{function} of that text).
2896 Used in many contexts, for example:
2900 @item In vocal music to indicate the syllable for a melisma. Called
2901 @q{extension} in the
2902 @uref{http://www.dolmetsch.com/defse1.htm,Dolmetsch Online Music
2906 In figured (or thorough) bass to indicate that:
2910 @item The extended note should be held through a change in
2911 harmony, when applied to one figure --OR--
2913 @item The chord thus represented should be held above a moving
2914 bass line, when applied to more than one figure.
2916 @item These uses were not completely standardized, and some
2917 composers used a single extender line to indicate the
2923 In string music to indicate that all notes in the passage thus
2924 indicated should be played on the same string. On the violin, for
2925 example, a series of notes to be played on the G string would be
2926 indicated @samp{sul G}, another series to be played on the D string
2927 would be indicated @samp{sul D}, and so on.
2933 @ref{melisma}, @ref{sul G}, @ref{thorough bass}
2965 The position between the dots of the key symbol is the line of the F
2966 below central@w{ }C. Used on the third, fourth and fifth note line.
2967 A digit@w{ }8 above the clef symbol indicates that the notes must be
2968 played an octave higher (for example, bass recorder) while 8@w{ }below
2969 the clef symbol indicates playing an octave lower (for example, on
2970 double bass @ref{strings}).
2972 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
2973 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2974 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
3002 @c F: 'point d'orgue' on a note, 'point d'arret' on a rest.
3005 @node feathered beam
3006 @section feathered beam
3010 F: liens de croches en soufflet,
3011 D: gespreizter Balken,
3017 A type of beam used to indicate that a small group of notes should be
3018 played at an increasing or decreasing tempo -- depending on the
3019 direction of @q{feathering} -- but without changing the overall tempo
3024 Internals Reference: @ruser{Manual beams}
3032 F: point d'orgue, point d'arrêt,
3037 FI: fermaatti, pidäke.
3039 Prolonged note or rest of indefinite duration.
3041 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
3044 a4 b c2^\fermata \bar "|."
3067 @section figured bass
3071 @ref{thorough bass}.
3086 The methodical use of fingers in the playing of instruments.
3093 I: coda (uncinata), bandiera,
3101 Ornament at the end of the stem of a note used for notes with values
3102 less than a quarter note. The number of flags determines the
3105 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
3106 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3107 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3152 FI: forte, voimakkaasti.
3154 Loud, abbreviated @samp{@b{f}}, @emph{fortissimo} (@samp{@b{ff}}) very loud,
3155 @emph{mezzo forte} (@samp{@b{mf}}) medium loud.
3192 @node functional harmony
3193 @section functional harmony
3195 ES: armonía funcional,
3196 I: armonia funzionale,
3197 F: étude des functions,
3199 NL: functionele harmonie,
3200 DK: funktionsanalyse, funktionsharmonik,
3202 FI: harmoniajärjestelmä.
3204 A system of harmonic analysis. It is based on the idea that, in a
3205 given key, there are only three functionally different chords: tonic
3206 (T, the chord on the first note of the scale), subdominant (S, the
3207 chord on the fourth note), and dominant (D, the chord on the fifth
3208 note). Others are considered to be variants of the base chords.
3210 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3211 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3213 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3214 <g e c >1 < a f d > < b g e >
3215 <c a f > < d b g > < e c a > < f d b > }
3216 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3217 T Sp Dp S D Tp \markup{ D\translate #(cons -2 0) {"|"} } }
3245 D: G-Schlüssel, Violinschlüssel,
3251 A clef symbol indicating the G above middle@w{ }C. Used on the first
3252 and second note lines. A digit 8 above the clef symbol indicates that
3253 the notes must be played an octave higher while 8 below the clef
3254 symbol indicates playing or singing an octave lower (most tenor parts
3255 in choral scores are notated like that).
3257 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
3259 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3260 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
3263 \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
3273 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3274 \override Lyrics . LyricText #'X-offset = #-5
3275 "french violin clef"
3294 FI: glissando, liukuen.
3296 Letting the pitch slide fluently from one note to the other.
3300 @section grace notes
3302 ES: notas de adorno,
3305 D: Verzierungen, Vorschläge, Vor@-schlags@-noten,
3311 Notes printed in small types to indicate that their time values are not
3312 counted in the rhythm of the bar.
3316 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes},
3321 @section grand staff
3323 ES: sistema de piano,
3326 D: Akkolade, Klaviersystem,
3329 S: ackolad, böjd klammer,
3330 FI: kaksoisnuottiviivasto.
3332 A combination of two staves with a brace. Usually used for piano music.
3349 FI: grave, raskaasti.
3374 Letter name used for @samp{B natural} in German and Scandinavian
3375 usage. In the standard usage of these countries, @samp{B} means
3380 @ref{Pitch names}, @ref{B}
3390 D: Halbe, halbe Note,
3404 ES: silencio de blanca,
3419 @node harmonic cadence
3420 @section harmonic cadence
3422 ES: cadencia (armónica),
3423 I: cadenza (armonica),
3424 F: cadence harmonique,
3426 NL: harmonische cadens,
3427 DK: harmonisk kadence,
3428 S: (harmonisk) kadens,
3429 FI: harmoninen kadenssi.
3431 A sequence of chords that terminates a musical phrase or section.
3433 @ref{functional harmony}.
3435 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
3436 \context PianoStaff <<
3437 \context Staff = SA \relative c'' {
3441 \partial 4 < c g e >4 |
3442 < c a f > < b g d > < c g e >2
3445 \context Staff = SB \relative c {
3447 \partial 4 c4 | f, g c2
3465 D: Harmonie, Zusammenklang,
3469 FI: harmonia, yhteissointi.
3471 Tones sounding simultaneously. Two note harmonies fall into the
3472 categories @emph{consonances} and @emph{dissonances}.
3476 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3477 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3478 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3479 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3492 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3493 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3494 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3495 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3496 <g a>1_"second " s s
3497 <g f'>_"seventh " s s
3502 Three note harmony @ref{chord}.
3517 [From Greek: in Latin, @emph{sesquialtera}] The ratio 3:2. Refers to
3518 the use of three notes of equal value in the time normally occupied by
3519 of two notes of equal value. The resulting rhythm can be expressed in
3520 modern terms as a substitution (for example) of a bar in 3/2 for one
3521 of 6/4, or of a bar in 3/4 for one of 6/8. During the Baroque era,
3522 hemiola is most frequently as a special effect (or @emph{affect}) at
3525 @c TODO: prepare example - {\time 6/4 c2. c2. | c2 c c} or
3526 @c cont'd: {\time 6/4 c2. c2. | \time 3/2 c2 c2 c2 }
3530 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}
3543 FI: homofonia, yksiäänisyys.
3545 Music in which one voice leads melodically followed by the other
3546 voices more or less in the same rhythm. In contrast to
3560 FI: intervalli, kahden sävelen korkeusero.
3562 Difference in pitch between two notes. Intervals may be perfect,
3563 minor, major, diminished, or augmented. The augmented fourth and the
3564 diminished fifth are identical (@ref{enharmonic}) and are called
3565 @emph{tritonus} because they consist of three @ref{whole tone}s. The
3566 addition of such two intervals forms an octave.
3568 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3569 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3571 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3581 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3582 "unison " "second " "second " "second "
3583 "third " "third " "third " "third"
3588 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3589 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3591 \context Staff \relative c'' {
3602 "fourth " "fourth " "fifth " "fifth "
3603 "sixth " "sixth " "sixth " "sixth"
3608 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3609 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3611 \context Staff \relative c'' {
3612 < gis f'! >1^"dimin"
3621 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3622 "seventh " "seventh " "seventh " "octave "
3623 "ninth " "ninth " "tenth " "tenth"
3629 @node inverted interval
3630 @section inverted interval
3632 ES: intervalo invertido,
3633 I: intervallo rivolto,
3634 F: intervalle reversé,
3635 D: umgekehrtes Intervall,
3636 NL: interval inversie,
3637 DK: omvendingsinterval,
3638 S: intervallets omvändning,
3639 FI: käänteisintervalli.
3641 The difference between an interval and an octave.
3643 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3644 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3645 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3646 \context Staff \relative c'' {
3647 < g a >1_"second " s s < g' a, >_"seventh " s s \bar "||"
3648 < g, b >_"third " s s < g' b, >_"sixth " s s \bar "||"
3649 < g, c >_"fourth " s s < g' c, >_"fifth " s s \bar "||"
3654 @node just intonation
3655 @section just intonation
3657 ES: entonación justa,
3658 I: intonazione giusta,
3659 F: intonation juste,
3666 Tuning system in which the notes are obtained by adding and subtracting
3667 natural fifths and thirds.
3684 According to the 12@w{ }tones of the @ref{chromatic scale}
3685 there are 12@w{ }keys, one on@w{ }c, one on c-sharp, etc.
3689 @ref{key signature}.
3693 @section key signature
3695 ES: armadura (de la clave),
3696 I: armatura di chiave,
3697 F: armure, armature [de la clé],
3698 D: Vorzeichen, Tonart,
3699 NL: toon@-soort (voortekens),
3702 FI: sävellajiosoitus.
3704 The sharps or flats appearing at the beginning of each staff indicating the
3710 @node laissez vibrer
3711 @section laisser vibrer
3722 [From French] "Let vibrate". Most frequently associated with harp
3723 parts. Marked @samp{l.v.} in the score.
3732 D: Largo, Langsam, Breit,
3736 FI: largo, hitaasti, leveästi.
3738 Very slow in tempo, usually combined with great
3739 expressiveness. @emph{Larghetto} is less slow than largo.
3743 @section leading note
3754 The seventh @ref{scale degree}, a @ref{semitone} below the tonic; so
3755 called because of its strong tendency to @q{lead up} (resolve upwards)
3756 to the tonic scale degree.
3760 @section ledger line
3762 ES: línea adicional,
3763 I: tagli addizionali,
3764 F: ligne supplémentaire,
3771 A ledger line is an extension of the staff.
3773 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
3774 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3775 \relative c'' { a,1 s c'' }
3785 D: legato, gebunden,
3791 To be performed (a) without any perceptible interruption between the
3792 notes, unlike (b) @emph{leggiero} or @emph{non-legato}, (c)
3793 @emph{portato}, and (d) @ref{staccato}.
3795 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3796 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3798 \context Staff \relative c'' {
3799 c4-( d e-) \bar "||"
3800 c4-- d-- e-- \bar "||"
3801 c4-.-( d-. e-.-) \bar "||"
3802 c4-. d-. e-. \bar "||"
3815 @section legato curve
3819 @ref{slur}, @ref{legato}.
3833 ES: estanque de nenúfares,
3834 I: stagno del giglio,
3838 NL: le@-lie@-vij@-ver,
3843 A pond with lilies floating in it, also the name of a music typesetter.
3858 A ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that represents at least two
3859 distinct notes. Ligatures originally appeared in the manuscripts of
3860 Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th century to denote
3861 ascending or descending sequences of notes. In early notation,
3862 ligatures were used for monophonic tunes (Gregorian chant) and very
3863 soon denoted also the way of performance in the sense of articulation.
3864 With the invention of the metric system of the white mensural
3865 notation, the need for ligatures to denote such patterns disappeared.
3874 D: Linie, Notenlinie,
3878 FI: viiva, nuottiviiva.
3885 @node long appoggiatura
3886 @section long appoggiatura
3888 ES: apoyatura larga,
3889 I: appoggiatura lunga,
3890 F: appoggiature longue,
3895 FI: pitkä appoggiatura, pitkä etuhele.
3914 Note value: double length of @ref{breve}.
3916 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
3917 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3919 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
3932 ES: letra (de la canción),
3935 D: Liedtext, Gesangtext,
3954 @c TODO: add languages
3961 @node major interval
3962 @section major interval
3964 ES: intervalo mayor,
3965 I: intervallo maggiore,
3966 F: intervalle majeur,
3967 D: großes Intervall,
3971 FI: suuri intervalli.
3992 @ref{diatonic scale}.
3995 @node meantone temperament
3996 @section meantone temperament
3998 ES: afinación mesotónica,
3999 I: accordatura mesotonica,
4000 F: tempérament mésotonique,
4001 D: mitteltönige Stimmung,
4002 NL: middenstemming, middentoonstemming,
4003 DK: middeltonetemperatur,
4004 S: medeltonstemperatur,
4005 FI: keskisävelviritys.
4007 Temperament yielding acoustically pure thirds by decreasing the
4008 natural fifth by 16@w{ }@ref{cent}s. Due to the non-circular
4009 character of this @ref{temperament} only a limited set of keys are
4010 playable. Used for tuning keyboard instruments for performance of
4026 A group of @ref{beat}s (units of musical time) the first of which
4027 bears an accent. Such groups in numbers of two or more recur
4028 consistently throughout the composition and are marked from each other
4038 I: mediante, modale,
4048 @item The third @b{scale degree}.
4050 @item A @ref{chord} having its base tone a third from that of another
4051 chord. For example, the tonic chord may be replaced by its lower
4052 mediant (variant tonic).
4057 @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{relative key}.
4067 FI: melisma, laulettavan tavun sävelkuvio.
4069 A melisma (plural, from Greek: melismata) is a group of notes or tones
4070 sung on one syllable, especially as applied to liturgical chant.
4074 @section melisma line
4076 @c TODO: add languages
4080 @ref{extender line}.
4083 @node melodic cadence
4084 @section melodic cadence
4091 @node mensural notation
4092 @section mensural notation
4094 @c FIXME: add languages
4105 @c TODO: add definition (inc. info on proportional notation)
4107 @c FIXME: add cross-references.
4115 F: indication de mesure, mesure,
4122 The basic pattern of @ref{note value}s and @ref{accent}s that remains
4123 unaltered throughout a composition or a section of it. Meters can be
4124 @emph{duple} or @emph{triple} depending on how the beat is grouped in
4125 the composition (or in sections thereof):
4129 @item In duple meters, the beat recurs in groups of two.
4131 @item In triple meters, the beat recurs in groups of three.
4135 Other recurrence patterns are possible:
4139 @item Quadruple meter: groups of four. A special case of duple meter.
4141 @item Quintuple meter: groups of five
4143 @item Sextuple meter: groups of six. A special case of:
4146 @item Duple meter, subdivided in three (less frequent); or
4147 @item Triple meter, subdivided in two (more frequent).
4150 @item Septuple meter: groups of seven.
4156 Other than quadruple and sextuple meters, these other recurrence
4157 patterns were not frequently used prior to the 20th Century.
4159 In addition to classification by @emph{tactus}, meters can be further
4160 classified by how the tactus is subdivided: in two, the meter is
4161 @emph{simple}; in three, the meter is @emph{compound}.
4168 @item duple: 2/2, 2/4, 2/8
4169 @item triple: 3/2, 3/4, 3/8
4170 @item quadruple: 4/2, 4/4 (also called common time), 4/8
4173 @item Compound meter
4178 @item quadruple: 12/8
4183 Time signatures are placed at the beginning of a composition (or
4184 section) to indicate the meter. For instance, a piece written in
4185 simple triple meter with a beat on each quarter note has a time
4190 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4194 c4. d8 | e4 d | f e | d8 b c4 \bar "||"}
4197 Simple triple meter:
4199 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4203 c es d8 c | d4 b g | d' f es8 d | es d c2 \bar "||"}
4206 Simple quadruple meter (French folk tune, @emph{Au clair de la lune}):
4208 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4212 g4 g g a | b2 a | g4 b a a | g1 \bar "||"}
4215 Simple quintuple meter (B. Marcello, 1686-1739):
4217 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4221 r4 cis8 bis ais4 dis c8 ais |
4222 aes4 bes8 aes ges4 aes f8 es \bar "||"}
4225 Compound duple meter:
4227 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4231 f8 f g a bes16 a g f |
4232 g8 g bes a c16 a bes g
4236 Compound triple meter (J.S. Bach, 1685-1750):
4238 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4242 r8 g( a) b( d c) c( e d) |
4243 d( c fis) g( d b) g( a b)
4247 Compound quadruple meter (P. Yon, 1886-1943):
4249 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4253 b8.( a16) gis8 a8.( gis16) fis8 gis8.( fis16) e8 fis4 b,8 |
4254 e4 e8 fis( gis) a b4.~ b4 b8
4260 @ref{hemiola}, @ref{time signature}
4275 Device indicating the exact tempo of a piece.
4279 @ref{metronomic indication}.
4282 @node metronomic indication
4283 @section metronomic indication
4285 ES: indicación metronómica,
4286 I: indicazione metronomica,
4287 F: indication métronomique,
4289 NL: metronoom aanduiding,
4291 S: metronomangivelse,
4292 FI: metronomiosoitus.
4294 Exact tempo indication (in beats per minute). Also denoted by
4295 M.M.@: (Mälzels Metronom).
4299 @section mezzo-soprano
4310 The female voice between @ref{soprano} and @ref{contralto}.
4319 D: eingestrichenes@w{ }c,
4321 DK: enstreget@w{ }c,
4322 S: ettstruket@w{ }c,
4325 First C below the 440 Hz A.
4327 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
4328 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4329 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
4352 @ref{diatonic scale}.
4355 @node minor interval
4356 @section minor interval
4358 ES: intervalo menor,
4359 I: intervallo minore,
4360 F: intervalle mineur,
4361 D: kleines Intervall,
4365 FI: pieni intervalli.
4378 D: Kirchentonart, Modus,
4382 FI: moodi, kirkkosävelasteikko.
4386 @ref{church mode}, @ref{diatonic scale}.
4399 FI: modulaatio, sävellajin vaihdos.
4401 Moving from one @ref{key} to another. For example, the second subject
4402 of a @ref{sonata form} movement modulates to the dominant key if the
4403 key is major and to the @ref{relative key} if the key is minor.
4415 FI: mordent, korukuvio.
4440 FI: teema, sävelaihe.
4442 The briefest intelligible and self-contained fragment of a musical
4445 @lilypond[line-width=13.0\cm]
4448 \set Score.implicitTimeSignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
4449 \override Score.TimeSignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible
4452 \partial 8 g16\startGroup fis |
4453 g8\stopGroup d16\startGroup c d8\stopGroup g16 fis g8 b,16 a b8 g'16 fis |
4454 g8 g,16 a b8 cis d16 s
4458 \Staff \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
4476 Greater musical works like @ref{symphony} and @ref{sonata} most often
4477 consist of several -- more or less -- independant pieces called
4481 @node multi-measure rest
4482 @section multi-measure rest
4484 ES: compases de espera,
4488 D: mehrtaktige Pause, Kirchenpause,
4491 FI: usean tahdin mittainen tauko.
4493 Multi-measure rests are conventionally typeset with a combination of
4494 longa, breve and whole rests for shorter and a long horizontal bar for
4495 longer spans of rest, with a number above to indicate the duration (in
4496 measures) of the rest. The former style is called @q{Kirchenpausen} in
4497 German, as a reminiscence of its use in Renaissance vocal polyphony.
4499 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
4502 \set Score.skipBars = ##t R1*3
4504 \set Score.skipBars = ##t R1*122
4511 @ref{longa}, @ref{breve}.
4514 @node mixolydian mode
4515 @section mixolydian mode
4519 @ref{diatonic scale}.
4528 D: Auflösungszeichen,
4529 NL: herstellingsteken,
4530 DK: op@-løsningstegn,
4531 S: återställningstecken,
4539 @node neighbour tones
4540 @section neighbour tones
4544 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes},
4585 Notes are signs by means of which music is fixed in writing. The term is also
4586 used for the sound indicated by a note, and even for the key of the piano
4587 which produces the sound. However, a clear distinction between the terms tone
4588 and @ref{note} is strongly recommended. Briefly, one sees a note,
4596 I: testa, testina, capocchia,
4604 A head-like sign which indicates pitch by its position on a
4605 @ref{staff} provided with a @ref{clef}, and duration
4606 by a variety of shapes such as hollow or black heads with or without
4607 @ref{stem}s, @ref{flag}s, etc. For percussion
4608 instruments (often having no defined pitch) the note head may indicate the
4615 ES: valor (duración),
4617 F: durée, valeur (d'une note),
4622 FI: nuotin aika-arvo.
4624 Note values (durations) are measured as fractions, normally 1/2, of
4625 the next higher note value. The longest duration normally used is
4626 called @emph{brevis}, but sometimes (mostly in pre-baroque music) the
4627 double-length note value @emph{longa} or the quadruple-length note
4628 value @emph{maxima} are used.
4630 @c TODO -- add maxima to this example, in a way that doesn't break it.
4632 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4633 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4634 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4636 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
4637 a\longa_"longa" a\breve_"breve"
4638 \revert NoteHead #'style
4639 a1_"1/1" a2_"1/2" a4_"1/4" s16 a8_"1/8" s16
4640 a16_"1/16" s16 a32_"1/32" s16 a64_"1/64" s32 }
4643 @c TODO -- add maxima rest to this example
4645 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4646 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4647 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4649 r\longa_"longa" r\breve_"breve"
4650 r1_"1/1" r2_"1/2" r4_"1/4" s16 r8_"1/8" s16
4651 r16_"1/16" s16 r32_"1/32" s16 r64_"1/64" s32 }
4654 An augmentation dot after a note multiplies the duration by one and a
4655 half. Another dot adds yet a fourth of the duration.
4657 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4658 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4661 g4._"pointed" g8 g2 | g4 ~ g8 g g2 \bar "||"
4662 g4.._"double pointed" g16 g2 | g4 ~ g8 ~ g16 g g2 \bar "||" }
4665 Alternatively note values may be subdivided by other ratios. Most common is
4666 subdivision by@w{ }3 (@emph{triplets}) and@w{ }5 (@emph{quintuplets}).
4667 Subdivisions by@w{ }2 (@emph{duplets}) or@w{ }4 (@emph{quadruplets}) of
4668 dotted notes are also frequently used.
4670 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4671 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4674 \times 2/3 {g8_"triplets" g g} g4 g8 g g4 \bar "||"
4675 \times 2/5 {g8_"quintuplets" g g g g} g4 g8 g g4 \bar "||"
4679 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4682 \times 3/2 {g4_"duplets" g} |
4684 \times 6/4 {g8_"quadruplets" g g g} |
4685 g8 g g g g4 \bar "||"
4691 @section octave sign
4695 @ref{G clef}, @ref{F clef}.
4712 @ref{ottava}, @ref{interval}.
4719 I: abbellimento, fioriture,
4720 F: agrément, ornement,
4721 D: Verzierung, Ornament,
4727 Most commonly used is the @emph{trill}, the rapid alternation of a given note
4728 with the diatonic @ref{second} above it. In the music from the
4729 middle of the 19th century and onwards the trill is performed with the main
4730 note first while in the music from the preceding baroque and classic periods
4731 the upper note is played first.
4733 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4735 \context Staff = sa {
4736 % \override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4738 c2._"pre-1850" b4\trill | c1 \bar "||"
4739 c2._"post-1850" b4\trill | c1 \bar "||"
4743 c2. c32 b c b c b c b | c1
4744 c2. b32 c b c \times 4/5 { b c b c b } | c1
4749 Other frequently used ornaments are the @emph{turn}, the @emph{mordent}, and
4751 @emph{prall} (inverted mordent).
4753 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4755 \context Staff = sa {
4756 % \override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4758 a4_"turn" b\turn c2 \bar "||"
4759 g4_"mordent" a b\mordent a \bar "||"
4760 e'4_"prall" d\prall c2 \bar "||"
4766 e'4 e32[ d e d ~ d8] c2
4773 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes}.
4786 FI: ossia, vaihtoehtoinen esitystapa.
4788 Ossia (otherwise) marks an alternative. It is an added staff or piano
4789 score, usually only a few measures long, which presents another version
4790 of the music, for example for small hands.
4796 @c TODO: translations
4807 [From Italian] The interval of an octave, abbreviated 8va.
4809 @emph{All'ottava}, @emph{ottava alta}, @emph{ottava sopra}, or
4810 @emph{8va} written above a passage indicates that it should be played
4811 an octave higher than written. @emph{Ottava bassa}, @emph{ottava
4812 sotto}, or @emph{8va} written below a passage indicates that it should
4813 be played an octave lower than written.
4830 FI: stemma, instrumenttiosuus.
4834 @item In instrumental or choral music, the music for a single
4835 instrument or voice.
4837 @item in contrapuntal music, a single melodic line in the contrapuntal
4869 D: Schlagzeug, Schlagwerk,
4875 A family of musical instruments which are played on by striking or
4876 shaking. Percussion instruments commonly used in a symphony orchestra are
4877 kettledrums (I: @emph{timpani}, D: @emph{Pauken}), snare drum, bass drum,
4878 tambourine, cymbals, chinese gong (tam-tam), triangle, celesta, glockenspiel,
4882 @node perfect interval
4883 @section perfect interval
4885 ES: intervalo justo,
4886 I: intervallo giusto,
4887 F: intervalle juste,
4888 D: reines Intervall,
4892 FI: puhdas intervalli.
4911 A natural division of the melodic line, comparable to a sentence of speech.
4924 FI: fraseeraus, jäsentäminen.
4926 The clear rendering in musical performance of the @ref{phrase}s of
4927 the melody. Phrasing may be indicated by a @ref{slur}.
4935 F: anacrouse, levée,
4959 @emph{piano} (@b{p}) soft, @emph{pianissimo} (@b{pp}) very soft,
4960 @emph{mezzo piano} (@b{mp}) medium soft.
4983 NL: pizzicato, getokkeld,
4986 FI: pizzicato, näppäillen.
4988 Abbr. @emph{pizz}. Play by plucking the strings. (Technique for
4989 stringed instruments.)
5004 The simultaneous use of two or more meters. The term is sometimes
5005 applied to the @emph{successive} use of different meters in one or
5010 @ref{polymetric} (adj.)
5025 Using two or more metric frameworks simultaneously or in regular
5030 @ref{polymeter} (noun)
5033 @node polymetric time signature
5034 @section polymetric time signature
5045 Time signature indicating regularly alternating polymetric time.
5058 D: Polyphonie, Mehrstimmigkeit,
5062 FI: polyfonia, moniäänisyys.
5064 Music written in a combination of several simultaneous voices (parts)
5065 of a more or less pronounced individuality.
5084 D: Presto, Sehr schnell,
5085 NL: presto, Sehr schnell,
5088 FI: presto, hyvin nopeasti.
5090 Very quick, i.e., quicker than @ref{allegro}; @emph{prestissimo}
5091 denotes the highest possible degree of speed.
5106 [From Latin @emph{proportio}] In mensural notation, a ratio that
5107 expresses the relationship between the note values that follow with
5108 those that precede; or between the note values of a passage and an
5109 assumed @q{normal} relationship of note values to the metrical pulse.
5111 @c TODO: add an example or two. O => 4/3, and its modern equivalent
5115 @ref{mensural notation}
5118 @node Pythagorean comma
5119 @section Pythagorean comma
5121 ES: coma pitagórica,
5122 I: comma pitagorico,
5123 F: comma pythagoricien,
5124 D: Pythagoräisches Komma,
5125 NL: komma van Pythagoras,
5126 DK: pythagoræisk komma,
5127 S: pytagoreiskt komma,
5128 FI: pytagorinen komma.
5130 A sequence of fifths starting on@w{ }C eventually circles back to@w{ }C,
5131 but this@w{ }C, obtained by adding 12@w{ }fifths, is
5132 24 @ref{cent}s higher than the@w{ }C obtained by adding
5133 7@w{ }octaves. The difference between those two pitches is called the
5155 @section quarter note
5158 I: semiminima, nera,
5161 D: Viertel, Viertelnote,
5165 FI: neljännesosanuotti.
5173 @section quarter rest
5175 ES: silencio de negra,
5176 I: pausa di semiminima,
5181 DK:@w{ }fjerdedelspause,
5183 FI: neljännesosatauko.
5193 ES: cinquillo, quintillo.
5208 @section rallentando
5213 D: rallentando, langsamer werden,
5217 FI: rallerdando, hidastuen.
5219 Abbreviation "rall.".
5225 @section relative key
5228 I: tonalità relativa,
5229 F: tonalité relative,
5231 NL: paralleltoonsoort,
5232 DK: paralleltoneart,
5234 FI: rinnakkaissävellaji.
5236 @ref{major} and @ref{minor} @ref{key}s with the same @ref{key signature}.
5238 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5239 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5240 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5243 es1_"e flat major" f g as bes c d es
5248 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5249 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5250 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5253 c1_"c minor" d es f g a! b! c \bar "||"
5263 F: barre de reprise,
5266 DK: gen@-ta@-gel@-se,
5270 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
5274 \repeat volta 2 {g4 g d' d | e e d2 | c4 c b b | a a g2 }
5291 @c F: 'pause' if you mean a whole rest, 'silence' if you do not want to
5292 @c specify the rest's value.
5313 @item Metrical rhythm in which every time value is a multiple or
5314 fraction of a fixed unit of time, called @ref{beat}, and in which the
5315 normal @ref{accent} recurs in regular intervals, called @ref{measure}.
5316 The basic scheme of time values is called @ref{meter}.
5318 @item Measured rhythm which lacks regularly recurrent accent. In
5319 modern notation such music appears as a free alternation of different
5322 @item Free rhythm, i.e., the use of temporal values having no common
5323 metrical unit (beat).
5334 D: ritardando, langsamer werden,
5338 FI: ritardando, hidastuen,
5340 Gradually slackening in speed. Mostly abbreviated to rit.@: or ritard.
5353 FI: ritenuto, hidastaen.
5355 Immediate reduction of speed.
5368 FI: asteikko, sävelasteikko.
5372 @ref{diatonic scale}.
5376 @section scale degree
5378 ES: grado (de la escala),
5379 I: grado della scala,
5380 F: degré [de la gamme],
5382 NL: trap [van de toonladder],
5385 FI: sävelaste, asteikon sävel.
5387 Names and symbols used in harmonic analysis to denote tones of the
5388 scale as roots of chords. The most important are degrees I = tonic
5389 (T), IV = sub@-do@-mi@-nant (S) and V = dominant (D).
5391 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5392 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5394 \context Staff \relative c' {
5398 << { I II III IV V VI VII I }
5406 @ref{functional harmony}.
5414 F: à cordes ravallées,
5421 [From Italian, @emph{scordare}, @q{to mistune}.] Unconventional
5422 tuning of stringed instruments, particularly lutes or violins. Used
5427 @item facilitate pitch combinations that would otherwise be difficult
5430 @item alter the characteristic timbre of the instrument, for example,
5431 to increase brilliance)
5433 @item reinforce certain sonorities or tonalities by making them
5434 available on open strings
5436 @item imitate other instruments
5442 Tunings that could be called @var{scordatura} first appeared early in
5443 the 16th Century and became commonplace in the 17th.
5452 D: Partitur (full score), Klavierauszug (vocal score),
5458 A copy of orchestral, choral, or chamber music showing what each
5459 instrument is to play, each voice to sing, having each part arranged
5460 one underneath the other on different staves @ref{staff}.
5475 The @ref{interval} between two neigbouring tones of a scale. A
5476 @ref{diatonic scale} consists of alternating @ref{semitone}s and
5477 @ref{whole tone}s, hence the size of a se@-cond depends on the scale
5478 degrees in question.
5493 The @ref{interval} of a minor second. The (usually) smallest interval
5494 in European composed music. The interval between two neighbouring
5495 tones on the piano keyboard -- including black and white keys -- is a
5496 semitone. An octave may be divided into 12@w{ }semitones.
5497 @ref{interval}, @ref{chromatic scale}.
5499 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5500 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5501 \relative c'' { g1 gis s a bes s b! c }
5527 @ref{sextuplet}, @ref{note value}.
5573 @section simple meter
5585 A meter in which the basic beat is subdivided in two: that is, a meter
5586 that does not include triplet subdivision of the beat.
5590 @ref{compound meter}, @ref{meter}.
5593 @node sixteenth note
5594 @section sixteenth note
5600 D: Sechzehntel, Sechzehntelnote,
5601 NL: zes@-ti@-ende noot,
5602 DK: sekstendedelsnode,
5604 FI: kuudestoistaosanuotti.
5611 @node sixteenth rest
5612 @section sixteenth rest
5614 ES: silencio de semicorchea,
5615 I: pausa di semicroma,
5617 UK: semiquaver rest,
5618 D: Sechzehntelpause,
5620 DK: sekstendedelspause,
5646 @node sixty-fourth note
5647 @section sixty-fourth note
5651 F: quadruple croche,
5652 UK: hemidemisemiquaver,
5653 D: Vierundsechzigstel, Vierundsechzigstelnote,
5654 NL: vierenzestigste noot,
5655 DK: fi@-re@-og@-tred@-sinds@-ty@-ven@-de@-dels@-no@-de,
5656 S: sextiofjärdedelsnot,
5657 FI: kuudeskymmenesneljäsosanuotti.
5664 @node sixty-fourth rest
5665 @section sixty-fourth rest
5667 ES: silencio de semifusa,
5668 I: pausa di semibiscroma,
5669 F: seizième de soupir,
5670 UK: hemidemisemiquaver rest,
5671 D: Vierundsechzigstelpause,
5672 NL: vierenzestigste rust,
5673 DK: fi@-re@-og@-tred@-sinds@-ty@-ven@-de@-dels@-pau@-se,
5674 S: sextiofjärdedelspaus,
5675 FI: kuudeskymmenesneljäsosatauko.
5685 ES: ligadura (de expresión),
5686 I: legatura (di portamento or espressiva),
5688 D: Bogen (Legatobogen, Phrasierungsbogen),
5689 NL: fraseringsboog, legatoboog, streekboog,
5690 DK: legatobue, fraseringsbue,
5694 A slur above or below a group of notes indicates that they are to be
5695 played @ref{legato}, e.g., with one stroke of the violin bow or with
5696 one breath in singing.
5700 @section solmization
5709 FI: suhteelliset laulunimet.
5711 General term for systems of designating the degrees of the
5712 @ref{scale}, not by letters, but by syllables (@emph{do} (@emph{ut}),
5713 @emph{re}, @emph{mi}, @emph{fa}, @emph{sol}, @emph{la}, @emph{si}
5731 In its present-day meaning a sonata denotes an instrumental
5732 composition for piano or for some other instrument with piano
5733 accompaniment, which consists of three or four independant pieces,
5738 @section sonata form
5742 F: [en] forme de sonate,
5744 NL: hoofdvorm, sonatevorm,
5749 A form used frequently for single movements of the @ref{sonata},
5750 @ref{symphony}, quartet, etc. A movement written in sonata form falls
5751 into three sections called @emph{exposition}, @emph{development} and
5752 @emph{recapitulation}. In the exposition the composer introduces some
5753 musical ideas, consisting of a number of themes; in the development
5754 section the composer @q{develops} this material, and in the
5755 recapitulation the composer repeats the exposition, with certain
5756 modifications. The exposition contains a number of themes that fall
5757 into two groups, often called first and second subject. Other
5758 melodies occurring in each group are considered as continuations of
5759 these two. The second theme is in another key, normally in the key of
5760 the @ref{dominant} if the @ref{tonic} is @ref{major}, and in the
5761 @ref{relative key} if the tonic is @ref{minor}.
5782 FI: sopraano, korkea naisääni.
5784 The highest female voice.
5792 F: staccato, piqué, détaché,
5797 FI: staccato, lyhyesti, terävästi.
5799 Playing the note(s) short. Staccato is indicated by a dot above or
5800 below the note head.
5802 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
5807 d4-\staccato cis-\staccato b-\staccato cis-\staccato |
5817 I: pentagramma, rigo (musicale),
5819 D: Notensystem, Notenzeile,
5820 NL: (noten)balk, partij,
5825 A staff (plural: staves) is a series of (normally five) horizontal
5826 lines upon and between which the musical notes are written, thus
5827 indicating (in connection with a @ref{clef}) their pitch. Staves for
5828 @ref{percussion} instruments may have fewer lines.
5845 D: Hals, Notenhals, Stiel,
5851 Vertical line above or below a @ref{note head} shorter than a
5856 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5857 \set Score.autoBeaming = ##f
5858 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5859 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5881 A family of stringed musical instruments played with a bow. Strings
5882 commonly used in a symphony orchestra are violin, viola, violoncello,
5887 @section strong beat
5892 D: betonter Taktteil oder Taktschlag,
5894 D: betonet taktslag,
5895 S: betonat taktslag,
5896 FI: tahdin vahva isku.
5900 @ref{beat}, @ref{accent}, @ref{measure}, @ref{rhythm}.
5904 @section subdominant
5913 FI: subdominantti, alidominantti.
5915 The fourth @ref{scale degree}.
5917 @ref{functional harmony}.
5932 The sixth @ref{scale degree}.
5945 FI: subtoonika, alitoonika.
5947 The seventh @ref{scale degree}.
5956 D: auf G, auf der G-Saite,
5962 Indicates that the indicated passage (or note) should be played on the
5967 @section superdominant
5978 The sixth @ref{scale degree}.
5993 The second @ref{scale degree}.
6002 D: Sinfonie, Symphonie,
6008 A symphony may be defined as a @ref{sonata} for orchestra.
6012 @section syncopation
6023 Any deliberate upsetting of the normal pulse of @ref{meter},
6024 @ref{accent}, and @ref{rhythm}. The occidental system of musical
6025 rhythm rests upon the grouping of equal beats into groups of two or
6026 three, with a regularly recurrent accent on the first beat of each
6027 group. Any deviation from this scheme is felt as a disturbance or
6028 contradiction between the underlaying (normal) pulse and the actual
6031 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
6036 e c'4 e,8 c'4 e,8 c' ( | c2)
6041 @node syntonic comma
6042 @section syntonic comma
6045 I: comma sintonico (o didimico),
6046 F: comma syntonique,
6047 D: syntonisches Komma,
6048 NL: syntonische komma,
6049 DK: syntonisk komma,
6050 S: syntoniskt komma,
6051 FI: syntoninen komma, terssien taajuusero luonnollisessa ja
6052 Pytagorisessa viritysjärjestelmässä.
6054 Difference between the natural third and the third obtained by
6055 Pythagorean tuning (@ref{Pythagorean comma}), equal to 22@w{ }cents.
6064 D: Notensystem, Partitur,
6068 FI: nuottijärjestelmä.
6070 The collection of staves (@ref{staff}), two or more, as used for writing
6071 down of keyboard, chamber, choral, or orchestral music.
6075 @section temperament
6080 D: Stimmung, Tem@-pe@-ra@-tur,
6081 NL: stemming, temperatuur,
6084 FI: viritysjärjestelmä.
6086 Systems of tuning in which the intervals deviate from the acoustically
6089 @ref{meantone temperament}, @ref{equal temperament}.
6092 @node tempo indication
6093 @section tempo indication
6095 ES: indicación de tempo,
6096 I: indicazione di tempo,
6097 F: indication de tempo,
6098 D: Zeitmaß, Tempobezeichnung,
6099 NL: tempo aanduiding,
6104 The rate of speed of a composition or a section thereof, ranging from
6105 the slowest to the quickest, as is indicated by tempo marks as
6106 @ref{largo}, @ref{adagio}, @ref{andante}, @ref{allegro}, and
6120 FI: tenori, korkea miesääni.
6122 The highest male voice (apart from @ref{counter tenor}).
6145 ES: subrayado (tenuto),
6154 An indication that a particular note should be held for the whole
6155 length, although this can vary depending on the composer and era.
6175 @node thirty-second note
6176 @section thirty-second note
6182 D: Zweiunddreissigstel, Zweiunddreissigstelnote,
6183 NL: twee-endertig@-ste noot,
6184 DK: toogtredivtedelsnode,
6185 S: trettiotvåondelsnot,
6186 FI: kolmanneskymmeneskahdesosanuotti.
6193 @node thirty-second rest
6194 @section thirty-second rest
6196 ES: silencio de fusa,
6197 I: pausa di biscroma,
6198 F: huitième de soupir,
6199 UK: demisemiquaver rest,
6200 D: Zweiunddreissigstel@-pause,
6202 DK: toogtredivtedelspause,
6203 S: trettiotvåondelspaus,
6204 FI: kolmanneskymmeneskahdesosatauko.
6212 @section thorough bass
6215 I: basso continuo, basso numerato,
6216 F: basse chiffrée, basse continue,
6217 D: Generalbass, bezifferter Bass,
6218 NL: basso continuo, becijferde bas
6221 FI: kenraalibasso, numeroitu basso.
6223 A method of indicating an accompaniment part by the bass notes only,
6224 together with figures designating the chief @ref{interval}s and
6225 @ref{chord}s to be played above the bass notes.
6227 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
6228 \context GrandStaff <<
6229 \context Staff = lh \relative c'' {
6233 << \context Voice = rha {
6236 \context Voice = rhb {
6238 < bes g >8 as < as f > g < g es > f < d f > es | < g es >4 }
6242 \context Staff = rh \relative c' {
6245 es8 c d bes c as bes16 as g f | es4
6247 \figures { s8 <6> s <4 2> s <6> s16 s <6> <4 2> }
6256 ES: ligadura de prolongación,
6257 I: legatura (di valore),
6259 D: Haltebogen, Bindebogen,
6260 NL: overbinding, bindingsboog,
6262 S: bindebåge, överbindning,
6265 A curved line, identical in appearance with the @ref{slur}, which
6266 connects two succesive notes of the same pitch, and which has the
6267 function of uniting them into a single sound (tone) equal to the
6270 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
6271 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6272 \relative c'' { g2 ~ g4. }
6284 @node time signature
6285 @section time signature
6287 ES: indicación de compás,
6289 F: chiffrage (chiffres indicateurs), signe de valeur, indication de mesure,
6290 D: Taktangabe, Angabe der Taktart,
6293 S: taktartssignatur,
6296 The sign placed at the beginning of a composition to indicate its
6297 meter. It most often takes the form of a fraction, but a few signs
6298 derived from mensural notation and proportions are also employed.
6302 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}.
6317 A sound of definite pitch and duration, as distinct from @emph{noise}.
6318 Tone is a primary building material of music.
6320 Music from the 20th century may be based on atonal sounds.
6335 The first @ref{scale degree}.
6339 @ref{functional harmony}.
6343 @section transposition
6354 Shifting a melody up or down in pitch, while keeping the same
6357 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
6362 d4 g,8 a b c | d4 g, g | e' c8 d e fis | g4 g, g \bar "|."
6367 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
6370 \transpose c bes \relative c'' {
6372 d4 g,8 a b c | d4 g, g | e' c8 d e fis | g4 g, g \bar "|."
6379 @section treble clef
6382 I: chiave di violino,
6384 D: Violinschlüssel, Sopranschlüssel,
6386 DK:@w{ }diskantnøgle,
6407 On stringed instruments (@ref{strings}) the quick reiteration of the
6408 same tone, produced by a rapid up-and-down movement of the bow (a).
6409 The term is also used for the rapid alternation (b) between two notes
6410 of a @ref{chord}, usually in the distance of a third (@ref{interval}).
6412 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
6413 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6414 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
6417 f:32 [ e8:16 f:16 g:16 a:16 ] s4
6418 \repeat tremolo 8 { e32_"b" g }
6428 F: triade, accord parfait, accord de trois sons,
6445 F: trille, tremblement, battement (cadence),
6458 @section triple meter
6460 ES: compás ternario,
6463 D: in drei, ungerader Takt,
6464 NL: driedelige maatsoort,
6509 @section tuning fork
6512 I: diapason, corista,
6520 A two-pronged piece of steel used to indicate absolute pitch. Tuning
6521 forks give the international pitch for the tone @emph{a} (440
6522 vibrations per second).
6528 A non-standard subdivision of a beat or part of a beat, usually
6529 indicated with a bracket and a number indicating the number of
6534 @ref{triplet}, @ref{note value}.
6564 FI: unisono, yksiäänisesti.
6566 Playing of the same notes or the same melody by various instruments
6567 (voices) or by the whole orchestra (choir), either at exactly the same
6568 pitch or in a different octave.
6576 F: anacrouse, levée,
6598 FI: ääni, lauluääni.
6602 @item Human voices: @ref{soprano}, @ref{mezzo-soprano},
6603 @ref{contralto}, @ref{tenor}, @ref{baritone}, @ref{bass}.
6605 @item A melodic layer or part of a polyphonic composition.
6614 I: tempo debole, arsi,
6616 D: unbetonter Taktteil oder Taktschlag,
6618 DK: ubetonet taktslag,
6619 S: obetonat taktslag,
6620 FI: tahdin heikko isku.
6624 @ref{beat}, @ref{measure}, @ref{rhythm}.
6634 D: Ganze, ganze Note,
6648 ES: silencio de redonda,
6649 I: pausa di semibreve,
6652 D: ganze Pause, ganztaktige Pause,
6675 The @ref{interval} of a major second. The interval between two tones
6676 on the piano keyboard with exactly one key between them -- including
6677 black and white keys -- is a whole tone.
6692 A family of blown wooden musical instruments. Today some of these
6693 instruments are actually made from metal. The woodwind instruments
6694 commonly used in a symphony orchestra are flute, oboe, clarinet,
6695 saxophone, and bassoon.
6698 @node Duration names notes and rests
6699 @chapter Duration names, notes and rests
6702 @item DURATION NAMES, NOTES AND RESTS
6705 @multitable @columnfractions .15 .26 .33 .26
6710 @tab @strong{F (note name / rest name)}
6720 @c extra @items make this table harder to read, so I removed them.
6722 @item @strong{longa}
6735 @item @strong{breve}
6738 @tab brève / double-pause
6748 @item @strong{whole}
6758 @tab koko@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6764 @tab blanche / demi-pause
6771 @tab puoli@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6774 @item @strong{quarter}
6784 @tab neljännesosa@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6787 @item @strong{eighth}
6790 @tab croche / demi-soupir
6797 @tab kahdeksasosa@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6800 @item @strong{sixteenth}
6803 @tab double croche / quart de soupir
6810 @tab kuudestoistaosa@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6813 @item @strong{thirty-second}
6816 @tab triple croche / huitième de soupir
6818 @tab Zweiunddreissigstel
6819 @tab tweeendertigste
6820 @tab toogtredivtedel
6822 @tab trettiotvåondel
6823 @tab kolmaskymme@-neskahdesosa@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6826 @item @strong{sixty-fourth}
6827 @tab hemidemisemiquaver
6829 @tab quadruple croche / seizième de soupir
6831 @tab Vierundsechzigstel
6832 @tab vierenzestigste
6833 @tab fireogtred@-sindstyvendedel
6835 @tab sextiofjärdedel
6836 @tab kuudeskymme@-nesneljäsosa@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6843 @chapter Pitch names
6849 @c @multitable @columnfractions .105 .145 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125
6850 @c the extra @item's between each row makes the table hard to read ... so I removed them
6852 @multitable @columnfractions .11 .14 .14 .11 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1
6854 @c TODO -- figure out how to make _real_ table headers in TeXinfo
6856 @item @tab @strong{ES} @tab @strong{I} @tab @strong{F} @tab @strong{D}
6857 @tab @strong{NL} @tab @strong{DK} @tab @strong{S} @tab @strong{FI}
6859 @item @strong{c} @tab do @tab do @tab ut @tab C @tab c @tab c @tab c
6862 @item @strong{c-sharp} @tab do sostenido @tab do diesis @tab ut
6863 dièse @tab Cis @tab cis @tab cis @tab cis @tab cis
6865 @item @strong{d-flat} @tab re bemol @tab re bemolle @tab ré bémol
6866 @tab Des @tab des @tab des @tab des @tab des
6868 @item @strong{d} @tab re @tab re @tab ré @tab D @tab d @tab d
6871 @item @strong{e-flat} @tab mi bemol @tab mi bemolle @tab mi bémol
6872 @tab Es @tab es @tab es @tab es @tab es
6874 @item @strong{e} @tab mi @tab mi @tab mi @tab E @tab e @tab e @tab e
6877 @item @strong{f} @tab fa @tab fa @tab fa @tab F @tab f @tab f @tab f
6880 @item @strong{g} @tab sol @tab sol @tab sol @tab G @tab g @tab g
6883 @item @strong{a-flat} @tab la bemol @tab la bemolle @tab la bémol
6884 @tab As @tab as @tab as @tab as @tab as
6886 @item @strong{a} @tab la @tab la @tab la @tab A @tab a @tab a @tab a
6889 @item @strong{a-sharp} @tab la sostenido @tab la diesis @tab la
6890 dièse @tab Ais @tab ais @tab ais @tab ais @tab ais
6892 @item @strong{b-flat} @tab si bemol @tab si bemolle @tab si bémol
6893 @tab B @tab bes @tab b @tab b @tab b
6895 @item @strong{b} @tab si @tab si @tab si @tab H @tab b @tab h @tab h
6905 @node Literature used
6906 @unnumberedsec Literature used
6909 @item The Harvard Dictionary of Music, London 1944. Many
6910 more or less literal quotes from its articles have been included into
6911 the item explanation texts.
6913 @item Hugo Riemanns Musiklexicon, Berlin 1929.
6915 @item Polyglottes Wörterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie, Kassel
6918 @item Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, Third
6921 @item Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary, Springfield 1913.
6923 @item Felix Krohn, Lyhyt musiikkioppi, Porvoo, Helsinki, 1976.