1 \input texinfo @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @setfilename music-glosssary.info
3 @settitle Music Glossary
5 @documentencoding UTF-8
10 @c see lilypond.tely for info installation note
13 * Glossary: (lilypond/music-glossary). Glossary of music terms.
17 This document is also available in
18 @uref{source/Documentation/user/music-glossary.pdf,PDF}
19 and as @uref{source/Documentation/user/music-glossary-big-page.html,one big page}.
24 @author Christian Mondrup @c Original author of LilyPond glossary
26 @author François Pinard @c Original glossary of GNU music project,
28 @author Mats Bengtsson @c Swedish glossary
29 @author David González @c Spanish glossary
30 @author Bjoern Jacke @c German glossary
31 @author Neil Jerram @c English glossary translations
32 @author Heikki Junes @c Finnish glossary
33 @author Kurtis Kroon @c English glossary maintenance, beg. Oct. 2007
34 @author Adrian Mariano @c Italian glossary
35 @author Han-Wen Nienhuys @c Dutch glossary
36 @author Jan Nieuwenhuizen @c Dutch glossary
38 @c Fixes by Jean-Pierre Coulon and `Dirk', alphabetized by last name, KK, 10/07
39 @c Updates to the German translation by Till Rettig, 12/07
41 Copyright @copyright{} 1999--2007 by the authors
43 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
44 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
45 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation,
46 without Invariant Sections.
51 @c TODO: multiple omfcreators?
53 @omfcreator Christian Mondrup
54 @omfdescription Glossary of musical terms with translations
56 @omfcategory Applications|Publishing
68 This glossary was brought you by
75 @item Christian Mondrup
76 Original author of LilyPond glossary, Danish glossary,
80 Original glossary of GNU music project, French glossary,
81 @item Han-Wen Nienhuys
84 Finnish glossary translations,
85 @item Jan Nieuwenhuizen
92 English glossary translations.
95 Copyright 1999--2007 by the authors
97 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
98 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
99 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation,
100 without Invariant Sections.
106 @c @everyheading @| @thispage @|
107 @c @evenheading @thispage @| @|
108 @c @oddheading @| @| @thispage @|
110 @include macros.itexi
115 @w{@expansion{}@strong{\word\}}@c
118 @expansion{}@ref{\word\, @strong{\word\}}@c
123 * Musical terms A-Z::
124 * Duration names notes and rests::
128 @node Musical terms A-Z
129 @chapter Musical terms A-Z
131 Languages in this order.
138 @item UK - British English
159 * ancient minor scale::
164 * ascending interval::
165 * augmented interval::
200 * compound interval::
204 * conjunct movement::
217 * descending interval::
219 * diminished interval::
222 * disjunct movement::
224 * dissonant interval::
225 * dominant ninth chord::
226 * dominant seventh chord::
229 * dot (augmentation dot)::
231 * double appoggiatura::
233 * double dotted note::
236 * double time signature::
244 * ecclesiastical mode::
251 * equal temperament::
270 * functional harmony::
286 * inverted interval::
300 * long appoggiatura::
306 * meantone temperament::
312 * mensural notation::
315 * metronomic indication::
326 * multi-measure rest::
354 * polymetric time signature::
359 * Pythagorean comma::
386 * sixty-fourth note::
387 * sixty-fourth rest::
416 * thirty-second note::
417 * thirty-second rest::
424 * transposing instrument::
476 Abbreviated @samp{a2} or @samp{a 2}.
480 @item An indication in orchestral scores that a single part notated on a single
481 staff that normally carries parts for two players (e.g. first and second oboes)
482 is to be played by both players.
484 @item Or conversely, that two pitches or parts notated on a staff that normally
485 carries a single part (e.g. first violin) are to be played by different players,
486 or groups of players (@q{desks}).
505 FI: aksentti, korostus.
507 The stress of one tone over others.
521 ES: alteración accidental,
523 F: altération accidentelle,
524 D: Versetzungszeichen, Akzidenz,
525 NL: toevallig (verplaatsings)teken,
527 S: tillfälligt förtecken,
528 FI: tilapäinen etumerkki.
530 An accidental has the effect of an @ref{alteration} of a note. A
531 sharp raises a tone by a @ref{semitone}, a double sharp raises it by a
532 @ref{whole tone}, a flat lowers it by a semitone and a double flat
533 lowers it by a whole tone. A natural cancels the effect of a previous
534 accidental, or a sharp or flat in the key signature.
536 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
537 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
539 \context Staff \relative c'' {
540 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
541 gisis1 gis g! ges geses
544 \override Lyrics .LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
545 "db. sharp" sharp natural flat "db. flat"
556 F: accelerando, en accélérant,
557 D: accelerando, schneller werden,
561 FI: accelerando, kiihdyttäen.
567 @section acciaccatura
569 A grace note which takes its time from the rest or note preceding the
570 principal note to which it is attached. The acciaccatura is drawn as a
571 small eighth note (quaver) with a line drawn through the flag and
576 @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes}, @ref{ornament}.
589 FI: adagio, hitaasti.
591 It.@: comfortable, easy.
595 @item Slow tempo, slower -- especially in even meter -- than
596 @ref{andante} and faster than @ref{largo}.
598 @item A movement in slow tempo, especially the second (slow) movement
599 of @ref{sonata}s, symphonies, etc.
610 D: Allegro, Schnell, Fröhlich, Lustig,
614 FI: allegro, nopeasti.
616 It.@: cheerful. Quick tempo. Also used as a title for pieces in a quick
617 tempo, especially the first and last movements of a @ref{sonata}.
627 NL: verhoging of verlaging,
632 An alteration is the modification, raising or lowering, of a note's
633 pitch. It is established by an @ref{accidental}.
646 FI: altto, matala naisääni.
648 A female voice of low range (@emph{contralto}). Originally the alto
649 was a high male voice (hence the name), which by the use of falsetto
650 reached the height of the female voice. This type of voice is also
651 known as @ref{counter tenor}.
657 ES: clave de do en tercera,
658 I: chiave di contralto,
659 F: clef d'ut troisième ligne,
660 D: Altschlüssel, Bratschenschlüssel,
666 C clef setting middle C on the middle line of the staff.
683 FI: ambitus, ääniala, soitinala.
685 The term ambit (from Latin: ambitus, plural: ambitus) denotes a range
686 of pitches for a given voice in a part of music. It may also denote
687 the pitch range that a musical instrument is capable of playing.
702 An anacrusis (also known as pickup or upbeat) is an incomplete measure
703 of music before a section of music. It also refers to the initial
704 note(s) of a melody occurring in that incomplete measure.
708 @ref{measure}, @ref{meter}.
710 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
714 \partial 4 f4 | bes4. a8 bes4 c |
715 bes( a) g f | bes4. a8 bes4 c | f,2. \bar "||" }
719 @node ancient minor scale
720 @section ancient minor scale
722 ES: escala menor antigua,
723 I: scala minore naturale,
724 F: forme du mode mineur ancien, troisème mode, mode hellénique,
725 D: reines Moll, natürliches Moll,
726 NL: authentieke mineurtoonladder,
729 FI: luonnollinen molliasteikko.
733 @ref{diatonic scale}.
735 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
736 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
754 Walking tempo/character.
758 @section appoggiatura
762 F: appoggiature, (port de voix),
763 D: Vorschlag, Vorhalt
767 FI: appoggiatura, etuhele.
769 Ornamental note, usually a second, that is melodically connected with
770 the main note following it. In music before the 19th century
771 appoggiature were usually performed on the beat, after that mostly
772 before the beat. While the short appoggiatura is performed as a short
773 note regardless of the duration of the main note the duration of the
774 long appoggiatura is proportional to that of the main note.
776 @lilypond[line-width=13.0\cm]
777 \context Voice \relative c'' {
781 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
782 <d a fis>4_"notation" r
783 { \override Stem #'flag-style = #'()
785 \revert Stem #'flag-style
788 { \override Stem #'flag-style = #'()
790 \revert Stem #'flag-style
793 \cadenzaOn a4 \bar "||" \cadenzaOff
795 <d, a fis>4_"performance" r g16 ( fis) e fis a ( g) fis g |
796 \cadenzaOn a4 \bar "||" \cadenzaOff
800 An appoggiatura may have more notes preceding the main note.
802 @lilypond[line-width=13.0\cm]
806 % \override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
807 \grace { bes16 } as8_"notation" as16 bes as8 g |
808 \grace { as16[( bes] } < c as >4-)
809 \grace { as16[( bes] } < c as >4-) \bar "||"
810 \grace { bes16 } as8_"performance" as16 bes as8 g |
811 << \context Voice = va { \stemUp\tieUp as32 bes c8. as32 bes c8. }
812 \context Voice = vb { \stemDown\tieDown as16 ~ as8. as16 ~ as8. } >>
824 D: Arpeggio, Akkordbrechungen, gebro@-chener Akkord,
826 DK: arpeggio, akkordbrydning,
828 FI: arpeggio, murtosointu.
830 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
831 \context PianoStaff <<
832 \context Staff = SA \relative c'' {
835 r8 g16 c e g, c e r8 g,16 c e g, c e |
836 r8 a,16 d f a, d f r8 a,16 d f a, d f \bar "||" }
837 \context Staff = SB \relative c' {
839 << \context Voice = va {
841 r16 e8. ( e4) r16 e8. ( e4) |
842 r16 d8. ( d4) r16 d8. ( d4) }
843 \context Voice = vb {
852 @section articulation
861 FI: artikulaatio, ilmaisu.
863 Articulation refers to notation which indicates how a note or notes
864 should be played. Slurs, accents, staccato, and legato are all
865 examples of articulation.
868 @node ascending interval
869 @section ascending interval
871 ES: intervalo ascendente,
872 I: intervallo ascendente,
873 F: intervalle ascendant,
874 D: steigendes Intervall,
875 NL: stijgend interval,
876 DK:@w{ }stigende interval,
877 S: stigande intervall,
878 FI: nouseva intervalli.
880 A distance between a starting lower note and a higher ending note.
883 @node augmented interval
884 @section augmented interval
886 ES: intervalo aumentado,
887 I: intervallo aumentato,
888 F: intervalle augmenté,
889 D: übermäßiges Intervall,
890 NL: overmatig interval,
891 DK: forstørret interval,
892 S: överstigande intervall,
893 FI: ylinouseva intervalli.
905 F: manuscrit, autographe
906 D: Autograph, Handschrift,
908 DK: håndskrift, autograf,
910 FI: käsinkirjoitettu nuotti.
914 @item A manuscript in the composer's own hand.
916 @item Music prepared for photoreproduction by freehand drawing, with
917 the aid of a straightedge ruler and T-square only, which attempts to
918 emulate engraving. This required more skill than did engraving.
959 ES: barra, línea divisoria,
960 I: stanghetta, barra (di divisione),
961 F: barre (de mesure),
979 FI: baritoni, keskikorkuinen miesääni.
981 The male voice intermediate between the @ref{bass} and the
984 @c F: clef de troisième ligne dropped
988 @section baritone clef
990 ES: clave de fa en tercera,
991 I: chiave di baritono,
992 F: clef d' Ut cinquième ligne, clef de Fa troisième,
999 C or F clef setting middle C on the upper staff line.
1003 @ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}.
1009 ES: clave de fa en cuarta,
1011 F: clef de fa quatrième ligne,
1018 A clef setting with middle C on the first top ledger line.
1035 FI: basso, matala miesääni.
1039 @item The lowest male voice.
1041 @item Sometimes, especially in jazz music, used as an abbreviation for
1063 Line connecting a series of notes (shorter than a quarter note). The
1064 number of beams determines the note value of the connected notes.
1066 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1067 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1068 %\override TextScript #'font-style = #'large
1070 g8_"1/8"[ g g g] s16
1071 g16_"1/16"[ g g g] s16
1072 g32_"1/32"[ s32 g32 s32 g32 s32 g32] s16
1073 g64_"1/64"[ s32 g64 s32 g64 s32 g64] s32 }
1078 @ref{feathered beam}.
1084 ES: tiempo, parte (de compás)
1087 D: Takt, Taktschlag, Zeit (im Takt),
1093 Note value used for counting, most often half-, fourth-, and eighth
1094 notes. The base counting value and the number of them per measure is
1095 indicated at the start of the music.
1097 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
1100 \relative c'' { g4 c b a | g1 \bar "||"}
1102 \relative c'' { g8 d' c | b c a | g4. \bar "||"}
1117 ES: llave, corchete,
1120 D: Klammer, Akkolade,
1121 NL: accolade, teksthaak,
1124 FI: yhdistävä sulkumerkki.
1126 Symbol at the start of a system connecting staves.
1128 Curly braces are used for connecting piano staves, and sometimes for connecting
1129 the staves of like instruments in an orchestral score when written on different
1130 staves (e.g. first and second flutes):
1132 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
1133 \context GrandStaff <<
1134 \relative c''\context Staff = SA { \clef treble g4 e c2 }
1135 \relative c \context Staff = SB { \clef bass c1 \bar "|." } >>
1138 Angular brackets for connecting parts in an orchestral or choral score:
1140 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
1141 \context StaffGroup <<
1142 % \set StaffGroup.minVerticalAlign = #12
1143 \relative c'' \context Staff = SA { \clef treble g4 e c2 }
1144 \relative c \context Staff = SB { \clef bass c1 \bar "|." } >>
1171 NL: koper (blazers),
1174 S: brassinstrument, mässingsinstrument,
1177 A family of blown musical instruments made of brass, all using a cup
1178 formed mouth piece. The brass instruments commonly used in a symphony
1179 orchestra are trumpet, trombone, french horn, and tube.
1183 @section breath mark
1188 D: Atemzeichen, Trennungszeichen,
1189 NL: repercussieteken,
1190 DK: vejrtrækningstegn,
1194 Indication of where to breathe in vocal and wind instrument parts.
1199 ES: cuadrada, breve,
1208 @ref{note value}, twice as long as a whole note. Mainly used in
1209 pre-1650 music. The shortest note value generally used in white
1210 mensural notation, hence the name, which originally meant "of short
1213 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
1214 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1215 \relative c'' { g\breve }
1248 Clef symbol indicating the position of the middle C. Used on all note
1251 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1252 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1253 \override Score.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
1255 \context Staff \relative c' {
1257 \clef mezzosoprano c
1262 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1263 \override Lyrics .LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
1264 "Soprano " "Mezzosoprano " "Alto " "Tenor " Baritone
1280 FI: kadenssi, lopuke.
1284 @ref{harmonic cadence}, @ref{functional harmony}.
1297 FI: kadenssi, lopuke.
1299 An extended, improvisatory style section inserted near the end of
1300 movement. The purpose of a cadenza is to give singers or players a
1301 chance to exhibit their technical skill and -- not last -- their
1302 ability to improvise. Since the middle of the 19th century, however,
1303 most cadenzas have been written down by the composer.
1316 FI: kaanon, tarkka jäljittely.
1333 FI: sentti, puolisävelaskeleen sadasosa tasavireisessä
1334 viritysjärjestelmässä.
1336 Logarithmic unit of measurement. 1@tie{}cent is 1/1200 of an octave
1337 (1/100 of an equally tempered @ref{semitone}).
1341 @ref{equal temperament}.
1364 Three or more tones sounding simultaneously. In traditional European
1365 music the base chord is a @emph{triad} consisting of 2@w{ }thirds.
1366 @emph{Major} (major + minor @ref{third}) as well as @emph{minor}
1367 (minor + major third) chords may be extended with more thirds.
1368 Four-tone @emph{seventh chords} and five-tone @emph{ninth} major
1369 chords are most often used as dominants (@ref{functional harmony}). A
1370 special case is chords having no third above the lower notes to define
1371 their quality as major or minor. Such chords are denoted open chords
1373 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1374 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1375 %\override TextScript #'font-style = #'large
1377 \context Staff \relative c'' {
1378 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
1398 @node chromatic scale
1399 @section chromatic scale
1401 ES: escala cromática,
1403 F: gamme chromatique,
1404 D: chro@-ma@-ti@-sche Tonleiter,
1405 NL: chromatische toonladder,
1406 DK: kromatisk skala,
1408 FI: kromaattinen asteikko.
1410 A scale consisting of all 12 @ref{semitone}s.
1412 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1413 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1414 \relative c' { c1 cis d dis e f fis g gis a ais b c }
1419 @section chromaticism
1430 Use of tones extraneous to a @ref{diatonic scale} (minor, major).
1434 @section church mode
1436 ES: modo eclesiástico,
1437 I: modo ecclesiastico,
1438 F: mode ecclésiastique,
1443 FI: moodi, kirkkosävellaji.
1447 @ref{diatonic scale}.
1456 D: Schlüssel, Notenschlüssel,
1460 FI: avain, nuottiavain.
1464 @ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}, @ref{G clef}.
1466 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
1467 pitches. The three clef symbols in common use are:
1469 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1472 \line { "The Treble or G clef: " \musicglyph #"clefs.G" }
1473 \line { "The Bass or F clef: " \musicglyph #"clefs.F" }
1474 \line { "The Alto or C clef: " \musicglyph #"clefs.C" }
1479 Imagine a large staff of 11 lines centered on middle C, sometimes
1480 called a @q{grand staff}, with the bottom line representing low G and
1481 the top line high F:
1483 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1486 %-- Treble Staff --%
1488 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1489 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
1490 % Allow the treble clef to overlap the lower staves:
1491 % \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1492 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1494 s1^\markup { "g," \transparent "g" }
1495 s^ \markup { "b," \transparent "g" }
1496 s^ \markup { "d" \transparent "g" }
1497 s^ \markup { "f" \transparent "g" }
1498 s^ \markup { "a" \transparent "g" }
1499 s^ \markup { \with-color #red c' \transparent "g"}
1500 e'^\markup { "e'" \transparent "g" }
1501 g'^\markup { "g'" \transparent "g" }
1502 b'^\markup { "b'" \transparent "g" }
1503 d''^\markup { "d''" \transparent "g" }
1504 f''^\markup { "f ''" \transparent "g" }
1507 %-- Alto Staff reduced to a single line on middle C --%
1509 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 1 % One line only
1510 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red % Coloured red
1511 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1514 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1515 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1516 % Specify height to give correct spacing between treble and bass staves
1517 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1519 s1 s s s s % Space along to align horizonatally
1520 \override NoteHead #'color = #red
1522 s1 s s s s s % Keep staff (ie the red line) showing
1526 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1527 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-3 . 2)
1528 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1531 s s s s s s s % Keep staff showing
1535 % Reduce horizontal spacing so semibreves can be used without exceeding 1 line
1536 \context { \Score \override SpacingSpanner #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 1)
1538 % Reduce apparent vertical size of note heads to permit them to overlap other grobs vertically
1539 \context { \Score \override NoteHead #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1541 % Remove all barlines
1542 \context { \Score \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1544 % Remove time signature from all staves
1545 \context { \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver
1551 Staves of five lines are usually used, and the clef superimposed on
1552 them indicates which five lines have been selected from this
1553 @samp{grand staff}. For example, the treble or G clef indicates that
1554 the top five lines have been selected:
1556 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1559 %-- Treble Staff --%
1561 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1562 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup
1563 #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1564 % Allow the treble clef to overlap the lower staves:
1565 % \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1566 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required here
1568 s1^\markup { "g," \transparent "g" }
1569 s^ \markup { "b," \transparent "g" }
1570 s^ \markup { "d" \transparent "g" }
1571 s^ \markup { "f" \transparent "g" }
1572 s^ \markup { "a" \transparent "g" }
1573 s^ \markup { \with-color #red c' \transparent "g"}
1574 \stopStaff \startStaff
1575 \clef "C" % Dummy to force next clef to be printed
1576 s % Need at least one note for \clef to take effect
1577 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##t % Clef now required
1578 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0) % Permit overlap
1580 e'^\markup { "e'" \transparent "g" }
1581 g'^\markup { "g'" \transparent "g" }
1582 b'^\markup { "b'" \transparent "g" }
1583 d''^\markup { "d''" \transparent "g" }
1584 f''^\markup { "f ''" \transparent "g" }
1586 %-- Alto Staff reduced to a single line on middle C --%
1588 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 1 % One line only
1589 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red % Coloured red
1590 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1593 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1594 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup
1595 #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1596 % Specify height to give correct spacing between the staves
1597 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1599 s1 s s s s % Space along to align horizonatally
1600 \override NoteHead #'color = #red
1602 % s1 s s s s % Keep staff (ie the red line) showing
1606 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1607 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup
1608 #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1609 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1612 % s s s s s s % Keep staff showing
1616 % Reduce horizontal spacing so semibreves can be used
1617 % without exceeding 1 line
1618 \context { \Score \override SpacingSpanner
1619 #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 1)
1621 % Reduce apparent vertical size of note heads to
1622 % permit them to overlap other grobs vertically
1623 \context { \Score \override NoteHead #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1625 % Remove all barlines
1626 \context { \Score \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1628 % Remove time signature from all staves
1629 \context { \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver
1635 The @q{curl} of the G clef in centered on the line that represents the
1638 In the same way, the bass or F clef indicates that the bottom five
1639 lines have been selected from the @samp{grand staff}, and the alto or
1640 C clef indicates the middle five lines have been selected. This
1641 relationship is shown below, where the notes show an arpeggio on a C
1644 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1647 %-- Treble Staff --%
1648 \new Staff = "G" \with {
1649 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1652 % The following two overrides are required to make the two middle C's overlap
1653 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1654 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
1656 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1658 s1 s s s s e' g' c''
1661 \new Staff = "C" \with {
1662 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1665 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 1
1666 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'stencil = ##f
1667 \once \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
1668 \clef "G" % A frig. This clef is invisible; use G to force the later C clef to be shown
1669 \override Score.BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1671 % The following two overrides are required to align the C staff to the G and F staves
1672 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1673 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1676 \stopStaff \startStaff
1677 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1678 \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'stencil
1679 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
1680 b'1 % A frig. This really shows as a middle C in the score
1682 \stopStaff \startStaff
1683 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 5
1684 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1685 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1686 \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'color
1687 \stopStaff \startStaff
1689 s1 s s c e g c' e' g' c''
1692 \new Staff = "F" \with {
1693 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1696 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1697 % The following two overrides are required to make the two middle C's overlap
1698 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1699 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
1707 \Score \override SpacingSpanner #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 2 1)
1710 \Score \override NoteHead #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1713 \Score \override NoteHead #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1730 FI: klusteri, cluster.
1732 A @emph{cluster} is a range of simultaneously sounding pitches that
1733 may change over time. The set of available pitches to apply usually
1734 depends on the acoustic source. Thus, in piano music, a cluster
1735 typically consists of a continuous range of the semitones as provided
1736 by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic scale. In choral music, each
1737 singer of the choir typically may sing an arbitrary pitch within the
1738 cluster's range that is not bound to any diatonic, chromatic or other
1739 scale. In electronic music, a cluster (theoretically) may even cover
1740 a continuous range of pitches, thus resulting in colored noise, such
1743 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
1744 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
1745 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
1746 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by
1747 the shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical
1748 extent of the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster
1749 geometrically describes the development of a range of pitches
1750 (vertical extent) over time (horizontal extent). Still, the
1751 geometrical shape of a cluster covers the area in which any single
1752 pitch contained in the cluster would be notated as an ordinary note.
1754 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,ragged-right]
1755 \makeClusters { <c e> <b f'> <b g'> <c g> <f e> }
1769 FI: komma, korvinkuultava ero äänenkorkeudessa.
1771 Difference in pitch between a note derived from pure tuning and the
1772 same note derived from some other tuning method.
1780 @section common meter
1790 @section common time
1792 4/4 time. The symbol, which resembles a capital letter C derives from
1793 mensural notation (q.v.).
1803 ES: intervalo invertido,
1805 F: intervalle complémentaire,
1806 D: Komplementärintervall,
1807 NL: complementair interval,
1808 DK: komplementærinterval,
1809 S: komplementärintervall (?),
1810 FI: täydentävä intervalli.
1814 @ref{inverted interval}.
1817 @node compound interval
1818 @section compound interval
1820 ES: intervalo compuesto,
1821 I: intervallo composto,
1822 F: intervalle composé,
1823 D: weites Intervall,
1824 NL: samengesteld interval,
1825 DK: sammensat interval,
1826 S: sammansatt intervall,
1827 FI: oktaavia laajempi intervalli.
1829 Intervals larger than an octave.
1836 @node compound meter
1837 @section compound meter
1848 A meter that includes a triplet subdivision within the beat, such as
1853 @ref{meter}, @ref{simple meter}.
1857 @section compound time
1868 @ref{compound meter}
1876 @section concert pitch
1887 FIXME: this is a placeholder
1890 @node conjunct movement
1891 @section conjunct movement
1893 ES: movimiento conjunto,
1895 F: mouvement conjoint,
1896 D: schritt@-weise, stufenweise Bewegung,
1897 NL: stapsgewijze, trapsgewijze beweging,
1898 DK: trinvis bevægelse,
1900 FI: asteittainen liike.
1902 Progressing melodically by intervals of a second. The opposite of a
1903 @ref{disjunct movement}.
1905 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
1906 \key g \major \time 4/4
1907 \relative c'' { g4 g g a | b2 a | g4 b a a | g1 \bar "||" }
1921 FI: konsonanssi, sopusointi.
1946 @section counterpoint
1955 FI: kontrapunkti, ääni ääntä vastaan.
1957 From Latin @emph{punctus contra punctum}, note against note. The
1958 combination into a single musical fabric of lines or parts which have
1959 distinct melodic significance. A frequently used polyphonic technique
1960 is imitation, in its strictest form found in the canon needing only
1961 one part to be written down while the other parts are performed with a
1962 given displacement. Imitation is also the contrapunctal technique
1963 used in the @emph{fugue} which, since the music of the baroque era,
1964 has been one of the most popular polyphonic composition methods.
1966 @lilypond[fragment,staffsize=12,line-width=13.0\cm]
1967 \set Score.implicitTimeSignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
1968 \override Score.TimeSignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible
1969 \context PianoStaff <<
1970 \context Staff = SA \relative c' {
1974 << \context Voice = rha {
1976 r1 | r2 r8 g'8 bes d, |
1977 cis4 d r8 e!16 f g8 f16 e |
1978 f8 g16 a bes8 a16 g a8
1980 \context Voice = rhb {
1986 \context Staff = SB \relative c' {
1989 << \context Voice = lha {
1991 r8 d es g, fis4 g | r8 a16 bes c8 bes16 a bes4 g |
1992 r8 a16 g f8 g16 a bes8 g e! cis' |
1995 \context Voice = lhb {
2005 @section counter tenor
2010 D: Countertenor, Kontratenor,
2013 S: kontratenor, counter tenor,
2022 @section copying music
2024 A music copyist did fast freehand scores and parts on preprinted staff
2025 lines for performance. Some of their conventions (e.g., the placement
2026 of note heads on stems) varied slightly from those of engravers. Some
2027 of their working methods were superior and could well be adopted by
2028 music typesetters. Copying music required more skill than engraving.
2037 D: Crescendo, lauter werden,
2041 FI: cresendo, voimistuen.
2043 Increasing volume. Indicated by a rightwards opening horizontal wedge
2044 or the abbreviation @samp{cresc.}.
2046 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2047 \key g \major \time 4/4
2048 \relative c'' { g4 \< a b c | d1\! \bar "|." }
2057 F: petites notes précédent l'entrée d'un instrument, réplique,
2064 In a separate part notes belonging to another part with the purpose of
2065 hinting when to start playing. Usually printed in a smaller type.
2074 D: Notenzeiger, Custos,
2080 A custos (plural: custodes) is a staff symbol that appears at the end
2081 of a staff line with monophonic musical contents (i.e., with a single
2082 voice). It anticipates the pitch of the first note of the following
2083 line and thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2084 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2086 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 16th
2087 century. There were different appearences for different notation
2088 styles. Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical
2089 notation such as via the Editio Vaticana dating back to the beginning
2095 % \override Staff.Custos #'neutral-position = #4
2096 \override Staff.Custos #'neutral-direction = #down
2097 \override Staff.Custos #'style = #'hufnagel
2105 \consists Custos_engraver
2135 F: da capo, depuis le commencement,
2136 D: da capo, von Anfang,
2140 FI: da capo, alusta.
2142 The term indicates repetition of the piece from the beginning to the
2143 end or to a certain place marked @emph{fine}. Usually abbreviated as
2152 F: dal segno, depuis le signe,
2153 D: dal segno, ab dem Zeichen,
2157 FI: dal segno, lähtien merkistä.
2159 Abbreviated @samp{D.S.}. Repetition, not from the beginning, but from
2160 another place frequently near the beginning marked by a sign:
2162 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2163 %\override TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2164 \override TextScript #'font-shape = #'italic
2165 \key g \major \time 4/4
2170 \line { "d.s. " \tiny \raise #1 \musicglyph #"scripts.segno" } }
2177 @section decrescendo
2181 D: Decrescendo, leiser werden,
2185 FI: decresendo, hiljentyen.
2187 Decreasing tone volume. Indicated by a leftwards opening horizontal wedge
2188 or the abbreviation @samp{decresc.}.
2190 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2192 \key g \major \time 4/4
2193 d4 \> c b a | g1 \! \bar "|."
2198 @node descending interval
2199 @section descending interval
2201 ES: intervalo descendente,
2202 I: intervallo discendente,
2203 F: intervalle descendant,
2204 D: fallendes Intervall, absteigendes Intervall,
2205 NL: dalend interval,
2206 DK: faldende interval,
2207 S: fallande intervall,
2208 FI: laskeva intervalli.
2210 A distance between a starting higher note and a lower ending note.
2213 @node diatonic scale
2214 @section diatonic scale
2216 ES: escala diatónica,
2218 F: gamme diatonique,
2219 D: diatonische Tonleiter,
2220 NL: diatonische toonladder,
2221 DK: diatonisk skala,
2223 FI: diatoninen asteikko.
2225 A scale consisting of 5@w{ }@ref{whole tone}s and 2@w{
2226 }@ref{semitone}s (S). Scales played on the white keys of a piano
2227 keybord are diatonic.
2229 The church modes are used in gregorian chant and in pre-baroque early
2230 music but also to some extent in newer jazz music.
2232 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2233 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2234 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2235 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2237 \context Staff \relative c' {
2239 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2240 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c
2242 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2248 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2249 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2251 \context Staff \relative c' {
2253 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2254 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c d
2262 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2263 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2266 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2267 e1^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c d e
2275 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2276 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2280 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2281 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f
2289 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2290 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2294 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2295 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g }
2302 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2303 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2304 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2305 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2309 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2310 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a
2318 From the beginning of the 17th century the scales used in European
2319 compositional music are primarily the major and the minor scales. In
2320 the harmonic minor scale type an augmented second (A) occurs between
2321 the 6th and 7th tone.
2323 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2324 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2328 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2329 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c
2337 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2338 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2342 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2343 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a
2351 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2352 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2356 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2357 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f!^"~~ A" gis^"~~ S" a
2359 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2365 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
2366 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2367 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2368 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2372 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2373 b^"~~ S" c d e fis gis^"~~ S"
2374 a g! f!^"~~ S" e d c^"~~ S" b a
2383 @node diminished interval
2384 @section diminished interval
2386 ES: intervalo disminuido,
2387 I: intervallo diminuito,
2388 F: intervalle diminué,
2389 D: vermindertes Intervall,
2390 NL: verminderd interval,
2391 DK: formindsket interval,
2392 S: förminskat intervall,
2393 FI: vähennetty intervalli.
2410 FI: diminuendo, hiljentyen.
2434 @node disjunct movement
2435 @section disjunct movement
2437 ES: movimiento disjunto,
2439 F: mouvement disjoint,
2440 D: sprunghafte Bewegung,
2441 NL: sprongsgewijze beweging,
2442 DK: springende bevægelse,
2443 S: hoppande rörelse,
2444 FI: melodian hyppivä liike.
2446 Progressing melodically by intervals larger than a major second, as
2447 opposed to @ref{conjunct movement}.
2449 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2454 a4. gis8 b a e cis |
2455 fis2 d4. \bar "||" }
2462 @ref{dissonant interval}.
2465 @node dissonant interval
2466 @section dissonant interval
2468 ES: intervalo disonante, disonancia,
2469 I: intervallo dissonante, dissonanza,
2472 NL: dissonant interval, dissonant,
2473 DK: dissonerende interval, dissonans,
2475 FI: dissonanssi, dissonoiva intervalli, riitasointi.
2482 @node dominant ninth chord
2483 @section dominant ninth chord
2485 ES: acorde de novena de dominante,
2486 I: accordo di nona di dominante,
2487 F: accord de neuvième dominante,
2488 D: Domi@-nant@-nonen@-akkord,
2489 NL: dominant noon akkoord,
2490 DK: dominantnoneakkord,
2491 S: dominantnonackord,
2492 FI: dominanttinoonisointu.
2496 @ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}.
2499 @node dominant seventh chord
2500 @section dominant seventh chord
2502 ES: acorde de séptima de dominante,
2503 I: accordo di settima di dominante,
2504 F: accord de septième dominante,
2505 D: Dominantseptakkord,
2506 NL: dominant septiem akkoord,
2507 DK: dominantseptimakkord,
2508 S: dominantseptimackord,
2509 FI: dominanttiseptimisointu.
2513 @ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}.
2526 FI: dominantti, huippusointu.
2528 The fifth @ref{scale degree} in @ref{functional harmony}.
2532 @section dorian mode
2537 D: dorisch, dorischer Kirchenton,
2538 NL: dorische toonladder,
2545 @ref{diatonic scale}.
2548 @node dot (augmentation dot)
2549 @section dot (augmentation dot)
2552 I: punto (di valore),
2554 D: Punkt (Verlängerungspunkt),
2562 @ref{dotted note}, @ref{note value}.
2566 @section dotted note
2568 ES: nota con puntillo,
2572 NL: gepuncteerde noot,
2575 FI: pisteellinen nuotti.
2582 @node double appoggiatura
2583 @section double appoggiatura
2585 ES: apoyatura doble,
2586 I: appoggiatura doppia,
2587 F: appoggiature double,
2588 D: doppelter Vorschlag,
2589 NL: dubbele voorslag,
2590 DK: dobbelt forslag,
2592 FI: kaksoisappogiatura, kaksoisetuhele.
2599 @node double bar line
2600 @section double bar line
2606 NL: dubbele maatstreep,
2609 FI: kaksoistahtiviiva.
2611 Indicates the end of a section within a movement.
2614 @node double dotted note
2615 @section double dotted note
2617 ES: nota con doble puntillo,
2618 I: nota doppiamente puntata,
2619 F: note doublement pointée,
2620 D: doppelt punktierte Note,
2621 NL: dubbelgepuncteerde noot,
2622 DK: dob@-belt@-punk@-te@-ret node,
2623 S: dub@-bel@-punk@-te@-rad not,
2624 FI: kaksoispisteellinen nuotti.
2632 @section double flat
2641 FI: kaksoisalennusmerkki.
2649 @section double sharp
2651 ES: doble sostenido,
2656 DK: dob@-belt@-kryds,
2658 FI: kaksoisylennysmerkki.
2665 @node double time signature
2666 @section double time signature
2679 @ref{polymetric time signature}.
2683 @section double trill
2689 NL: dubbele triller,
2694 A simultaneous trill on two notes, usually in the distance of a third.
2698 @section duple meter
2703 D: in zwei, grader Takt,
2704 NL: tweedelige maatsoort,
2741 FI: kesto, aika-arvo.
2749 @section dydimic comma
2753 @ref{syntonic comma}.
2762 D: Dynamik, Lautstärke,
2768 The aspect of music relating to degrees of loudness, or changes from
2769 one degree to another. The terms, abbreviations, and symbols used to
2770 indicate this information are called dynamic marks.
2774 @ref{piano}, @ref{forte}, @ref{crescendo}, @ref{decrescendo},
2795 @node ecclesiastical mode
2796 @section ecclesiastical mode
2804 @section eighth note
2810 D: Achtel, Achtelnote,
2812 DK: ottendedelsnode,
2814 FI: kahdeksasosanuotti.
2822 @section eighth rest
2824 ES: silencio de corchea,
2830 DK: ottendedelspause,
2832 FI: kahdeksasosatauko.
2842 @c TODO: add languages
2853 @c TODO definition -- referenced from lyric tie
2857 @section embellishment
2870 D: Notenstich, Notendruck
2876 Engraving means incising or etching a metal plate for printing.
2877 Photoengraving means drawing music with ink in a manner similar to
2878 drafting or engineering drawing, using similar tools.
2880 The traditional process of music printing is done through cutting in a
2881 plate of metal. Now also the term for the art of music typesetting.
2896 Two notes, intervals, or scales are enharmonic if they have different
2897 names but equal pitch.
2899 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
2900 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2902 \context Staff \relative c'' {
2903 gis1 as <des g,!> <cis g!>
2905 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2906 \override Lyrics .LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
2907 "g sharp " "a flat " "dim fifth " "augm fourth"
2913 @node equal temperament
2914 @section equal temperament
2916 ES: temperamento igual,
2917 I: temperamento equabile,
2918 F: tempérament égal,
2919 D: gleichschwebende Stimmung,
2920 NL: ge@-lijk@-zwe@-ven@-de temperatuur,
2921 DK: ligesvævende temperatur,
2922 S: liksvävande temperatur,
2925 Tuning system dividing the octave into 12 equal @ref{semitone}s
2926 (precisely 100 @ref{cent}s).
2933 @node expression mark
2934 @section expression mark
2937 I: segno d'espressione,
2938 F: signe d'expression, indication de nuance,
2940 NL: voordrachtsteken,
2941 DK: foredragsbetegnelse,
2942 S: föredragsbeteckning,
2943 FI: nyanssiosoitus, esitysmerkki.
2945 Performance indications concerning:
2949 @item volume, dynamics (for example @ref{forte}, @ref{crescendo}),
2951 @item tempo (for example @ref{andante}, @ref{allegro}).
2957 @section extender line
2959 ES: línea de extención [de melisma, de bajo cifrado, etc.],
2961 F: ligne d'extension [de mélisme, de basse chiffrée, etc.],
2968 The generic term for a line (or dash) of arbitrary length that extends
2969 text (without indicating the musical @emph{function} of that text).
2971 Used in many contexts, for example:
2975 @item In vocal music to indicate the syllable for a melisma. Called
2976 @q{extension} in the
2977 @uref{http://www.dolmetsch.com/defse1.htm,Dolmetsch Online Music
2981 In figured (or thorough) bass to indicate that:
2985 @item The extended note should be held through a change in
2986 harmony, when applied to one figure --OR--
2988 @item The chord thus represented should be held above a moving
2989 bass line, when applied to more than one figure.
2991 @item These uses were not completely standardized, and some
2992 composers used a single extender line to indicate the
2998 In string music to indicate that all notes in the passage thus
2999 indicated should be played on the same string. On the violin, for
3000 example, a series of notes to be played on the G string would be
3001 indicated @samp{sul G}, another series to be played on the D string
3002 would be indicated @samp{sul D}, and so on.
3008 @ref{melisma}, @ref{sul G}, @ref{thorough bass}
3040 The position between the dots of the key symbol is the line of the F
3041 below central@w{ }C. Used on the third, fourth and fifth note line.
3042 A digit@w{ }8 above the clef symbol indicates that the notes must be
3043 played an octave higher (for example, bass recorder) while 8@w{ }below
3044 the clef symbol indicates playing an octave lower (for example, on
3045 double bass @ref{strings}).
3047 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3048 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3049 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
3077 @c F: 'point d'orgue' on a note, 'point d'arret' on a rest.
3080 @node feathered beam
3081 @section feathered beam
3085 F: liens de croches en soufflet,
3086 D: gespreizter Balken,
3092 A type of beam used to indicate that a small group of notes should be
3093 played at an increasing or decreasing tempo -- depending on the
3094 direction of @q{feathering} -- but without changing the overall tempo
3099 Internals Reference: @ruser{Manual beams}
3107 F: point d'orgue, point d'arrêt,
3112 FI: fermaatti, pidäke.
3114 Prolonged note or rest of indefinite duration.
3116 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
3119 a4 b c2^\fermata \bar "|."
3142 @section figured bass
3146 @ref{thorough bass}.
3161 The methodical use of fingers in the playing of instruments.
3168 I: coda (uncinata), bandiera,
3176 Ornament at the end of the stem of a note used for notes with values
3177 less than a quarter note. The number of flags determines the
3180 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
3181 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3182 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3227 FI: forte, voimakkaasti.
3229 Loud, abbreviated @samp{@b{f}}, @emph{fortissimo} (@samp{@b{ff}}) very loud,
3230 @emph{mezzo forte} (@samp{@b{mf}}) medium loud.
3250 @node Frenched score
3251 @section Frenched score
3262 A @q{condensed} score, produced by omitting staves for instruments that are not
3263 playing at the moment, and by moving up additional systems from following pages
3264 to take up the space thus liberated, which reduces the total number of pages
3265 used to print the work.
3267 The specific rules for @q{frenching} a score differ from publisher to publisher.
3268 If you are producing scores for eventual publication by a commercial publisher,
3269 you may wish to procure a copy of their style manual.
3273 @ref{Frenched staff}.
3276 @node Frenched staff
3277 @section Frenched staff
3288 Analogous to Frenched scores (@emph{q.v}), a Frenched staff has unneeded
3289 measures or sections removed. This would be useful for producing, for example,
3290 an @emph{ossia} staff.
3297 @node Frenched staves
3298 @section Frenched staves
3309 The plural of @ref{Frenched staff}, @emph{q.v.}.
3329 @node functional harmony
3330 @section functional harmony
3332 ES: armonía funcional,
3333 I: armonia funzionale,
3334 F: étude des functions,
3336 NL: functionele harmonie,
3337 DK: funktionsanalyse, funktionsharmonik,
3339 FI: harmoniajärjestelmä.
3341 A system of harmonic analysis. It is based on the idea that, in a
3342 given key, there are only three functionally different chords: tonic
3343 (T, the chord on the first note of the scale), subdominant (S, the
3344 chord on the fourth note), and dominant (D, the chord on the fifth
3345 note). Others are considered to be variants of the base chords.
3347 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3348 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3350 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3351 <g e c >1 < a f d > < b g e >
3352 <c a f > < d b g > < e c a > < f d b > }
3353 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3354 T Sp Dp S D Tp \markup{ D\translate #(cons -2 0) {"|"} } }
3382 D: G-Schlüssel, Violinschlüssel,
3388 A clef symbol indicating the G above middle@w{ }C. Used on the first
3389 and second note lines. A digit 8 above the clef symbol indicates that
3390 the notes must be played an octave higher while 8 below the clef
3391 symbol indicates playing or singing an octave lower (most tenor parts
3392 in choral scores are notated like that).
3394 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
3396 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3397 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
3400 \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
3410 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3411 \override Lyrics . LyricText #'X-offset = #-5
3412 "french violin clef"
3431 FI: glissando, liukuen.
3433 Letting the pitch slide fluently from one note to the other.
3437 @section grace notes
3439 ES: notas de adorno,
3442 D: Verzierungen, Vorschläge, Vor@-schlags@-noten,
3448 Notes printed in small types to indicate that their time values are not
3449 counted in the rhythm of the bar.
3453 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes},
3458 @section grand staff
3460 ES: sistema de piano,
3463 D: Akkolade, Klaviersystem,
3466 S: ackolad, böjd klammer,
3467 FI: kaksoisnuottiviivasto.
3469 A combination of two staves with a brace. Usually used for piano music.
3486 FI: grave, raskaasti.
3511 Letter name used for @samp{B natural} in German and Scandinavian
3512 usage. In the standard usage of these countries, @samp{B} means
3517 @ref{Pitch names}, @ref{B}
3527 D: Halbe, halbe Note,
3541 ES: silencio de blanca,
3556 @node harmonic cadence
3557 @section harmonic cadence
3559 ES: cadencia (armónica),
3560 I: cadenza (armonica),
3561 F: cadence harmonique,
3563 NL: harmonische cadens,
3564 DK: harmonisk kadence,
3565 S: (harmonisk) kadens,
3566 FI: harmoninen kadenssi.
3568 A sequence of chords that terminates a musical phrase or section.
3570 @ref{functional harmony}.
3572 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
3573 \context PianoStaff <<
3574 \context Staff = SA \relative c'' {
3578 \partial 4 < c g e >4 |
3579 < c a f > < b g d > < c g e >2
3582 \context Staff = SB \relative c {
3584 \partial 4 c4 | f, g c2
3602 D: Harmonie, Zusammenklang,
3606 FI: harmonia, yhteissointi.
3608 Tones sounding simultaneously. Two note harmonies fall into the
3609 categories @emph{consonances} and @emph{dissonances}.
3613 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3614 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3615 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3616 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3629 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3630 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3631 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3632 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3633 <g a>1_"second " s s
3634 <g f'>_"seventh " s s
3639 Three note harmony @ref{chord}.
3654 [From Greek: in Latin, @emph{sesquialtera}] The ratio 3:2. Refers to
3655 the use of three notes of equal value in the time normally occupied by
3656 of two notes of equal value. The resulting rhythm can be expressed in
3657 modern terms as a substitution (for example) of a bar in 3/2 for one
3658 of 6/4, or of a bar in 3/4 for one of 6/8. During the Baroque era,
3659 hemiola is most frequently as a special effect (or @emph{affect}) at
3662 @c TODO: prepare example - {\time 6/4 c2. c2. | c2 c c} or
3663 @c cont'd: {\time 6/4 c2. c2. | \time 3/2 c2 c2 c2 }
3667 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}
3680 FI: homofonia, yksiäänisyys.
3682 Music in which one voice leads melodically followed by the other
3683 voices more or less in the same rhythm. In contrast to
3697 FI: intervalli, kahden sävelen korkeusero.
3699 Difference in pitch between two notes. Intervals may be perfect,
3700 minor, major, diminished, or augmented. The augmented fourth and the
3701 diminished fifth are identical (@ref{enharmonic}) and are called
3702 @emph{tritonus} because they consist of three @ref{whole tone}s. The
3703 addition of such two intervals forms an octave.
3705 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3706 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3708 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3718 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3719 "unison " "second " "second " "second "
3720 "third " "third " "third " "third"
3725 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3726 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3728 \context Staff \relative c'' {
3739 "fourth " "fourth " "fifth " "fifth "
3740 "sixth " "sixth " "sixth " "sixth"
3745 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3746 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3748 \context Staff \relative c'' {
3749 < gis f'! >1^"dimin"
3758 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3759 "seventh " "seventh " "seventh " "octave "
3760 "ninth " "ninth " "tenth " "tenth"
3766 @node inverted interval
3767 @section inverted interval
3769 ES: intervalo invertido,
3770 I: intervallo rivolto,
3771 F: intervalle reversé,
3772 D: umgekehrtes Intervall,
3773 NL: interval inversie,
3774 DK: omvendingsinterval,
3775 S: intervallets omvändning,
3776 FI: käänteisintervalli.
3778 The difference between an interval and an octave.
3780 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3781 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3782 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3783 \context Staff \relative c'' {
3784 < g a >1_"second " s s < g' a, >_"seventh " s s \bar "||"
3785 < g, b >_"third " s s < g' b, >_"sixth " s s \bar "||"
3786 < g, c >_"fourth " s s < g' c, >_"fifth " s s \bar "||"
3791 @node just intonation
3792 @section just intonation
3794 ES: entonación justa,
3795 I: intonazione giusta,
3796 F: intonation juste,
3803 Tuning system in which the notes are obtained by adding and subtracting
3804 natural fifths and thirds.
3821 According to the 12@w{ }tones of the @ref{chromatic scale}
3822 there are 12@w{ }keys, one on@w{ }c, one on c-sharp, etc.
3826 @ref{key signature}.
3830 @section key signature
3832 ES: armadura (de la clave),
3833 I: armatura di chiave,
3834 F: armure, armature [de la clé],
3835 D: Vorzeichen, Tonart,
3836 NL: toon@-soort (voortekens),
3839 FI: sävellajiosoitus.
3841 The sharps or flats appearing at the beginning of each staff indicating the
3847 @node laissez vibrer
3848 @section laissez vibrer
3859 [From French] "Let vibrate". Most frequently associated with harp
3860 parts. Marked @samp{l.v.} in the score.
3869 D: Largo, Langsam, Breit,
3873 FI: largo, hitaasti, leveästi.
3875 Very slow in tempo, usually combined with great
3876 expressiveness. @emph{Larghetto} is less slow than largo.
3880 @section leading note
3891 The seventh @ref{scale degree}, a @ref{semitone} below the tonic; so
3892 called because of its strong tendency to @q{lead up} (resolve upwards)
3893 to the tonic scale degree.
3897 @section ledger line
3899 ES: línea adicional,
3900 I: tagli addizionali,
3901 F: ligne supplémentaire,
3908 A ledger line is an extension of the staff.
3910 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
3911 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3912 \relative c'' { a,1 s c'' }
3922 D: legato, gebunden,
3928 To be performed (a) without any perceptible interruption between the
3929 notes, unlike (b) @emph{leggiero} or @emph{non-legato}, (c)
3930 @emph{portato}, and (d) @ref{staccato}.
3932 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3933 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3935 \context Staff \relative c'' {
3936 c4-( d e-) \bar "||"
3937 c4-- d-- e-- \bar "||"
3938 c4-.-( d-. e-.-) \bar "||"
3939 c4-. d-. e-. \bar "||"
3952 @section legato curve
3956 @ref{slur}, @ref{legato}.
3970 ES: estanque de nenúfares,
3971 I: stagno del giglio,
3975 NL: le@-lie@-vij@-ver,
3980 A pond with lilies floating in it, also the name of a music typesetter.
3995 A ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that represents at least two
3996 distinct notes. Ligatures originally appeared in the manuscripts of
3997 Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th century to denote
3998 ascending or descending sequences of notes. In early notation,
3999 ligatures were used for monophonic tunes (Gregorian chant) and very
4000 soon denoted also the way of performance in the sense of articulation.
4001 With the invention of the metric system of the white mensural
4002 notation, the need for ligatures to denote such patterns disappeared.
4011 D: Linie, Notenlinie,
4015 FI: viiva, nuottiviiva.
4022 @node long appoggiatura
4023 @section long appoggiatura
4025 ES: apoyatura larga,
4026 I: appoggiatura lunga,
4027 F: appoggiature longue,
4032 FI: pitkä appoggiatura, pitkä etuhele.
4051 Note value: double length of @ref{breve}.
4053 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
4054 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4056 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
4069 ES: letra (de la canción),
4072 D: Liedtext, Gesangtext,
4091 @c TODO: add languages
4098 @node major interval
4099 @section major interval
4101 ES: intervalo mayor,
4102 I: intervallo maggiore,
4103 F: intervalle majeur,
4104 D: großes Intervall,
4108 FI: suuri intervalli.
4129 @ref{diatonic scale}.
4132 @node meantone temperament
4133 @section meantone temperament
4135 ES: afinación mesotónica,
4136 I: accordatura mesotonica,
4137 F: tempérament mésotonique,
4138 D: mitteltönige Stimmung,
4139 NL: middenstemming, middentoonstemming,
4140 DK: middeltonetemperatur,
4141 S: medeltonstemperatur,
4142 FI: keskisävelviritys.
4144 Temperament yielding acoustically pure thirds by decreasing the
4145 natural fifth by 16@w{ }@ref{cent}s. Due to the non-circular
4146 character of this @ref{temperament} only a limited set of keys are
4147 playable. Used for tuning keyboard instruments for performance of
4163 A group of @ref{beat}s (units of musical time) the first of which
4164 bears an accent. Such groups in numbers of two or more recur
4165 consistently throughout the composition and are marked from each other
4175 I: mediante, modale,
4185 @item The third @b{scale degree}.
4187 @item A @ref{chord} having its base tone a third from that of another
4188 chord. For example, the tonic chord may be replaced by its lower
4189 mediant (variant tonic).
4194 @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{relative key}.
4204 FI: melisma, laulettavan tavun sävelkuvio.
4206 A melisma (plural, from Greek: melismata) is a group of notes or tones
4207 sung on one syllable, especially as applied to liturgical chant.
4211 @section melisma line
4213 @c TODO: add languages
4217 @ref{extender line}.
4220 @node melodic cadence
4221 @section melodic cadence
4228 @node mensural notation
4229 @section mensural notation
4231 @c FIXME: add languages
4242 @c TODO: add definition (inc. info on proportional notation)
4244 @c FIXME: add cross-references.
4252 F: indication de mesure, mesure,
4259 The basic pattern of @ref{note value}s and @ref{accent}s that remains
4260 unaltered throughout a composition or a section of it. Meters can be
4261 @emph{duple} or @emph{triple} depending on how the beat is grouped in
4262 the composition (or in sections thereof):
4266 @item In duple meters, the beat recurs in groups of two.
4268 @item In triple meters, the beat recurs in groups of three.
4272 Other recurrence patterns are possible:
4276 @item Quadruple meter: groups of four. A special case of duple meter.
4278 @item Quintuple meter: groups of five
4280 @item Sextuple meter: groups of six. A special case of:
4283 @item Duple meter, subdivided in three (less frequent); or
4284 @item Triple meter, subdivided in two (more frequent).
4287 @item Septuple meter: groups of seven.
4293 Other than quadruple and sextuple meters, these other recurrence
4294 patterns were not frequently used prior to the 20th Century.
4296 In addition to classification by @emph{tactus}, meters can be further
4297 classified by how the tactus is subdivided: in two, the meter is
4298 @emph{simple}; in three, the meter is @emph{compound}.
4305 @item duple: 2/2, 2/4, 2/8
4306 @item triple: 3/2, 3/4, 3/8
4307 @item quadruple: 4/2, 4/4 (also called common time), 4/8
4310 @item Compound meter
4315 @item quadruple: 12/8
4320 Time signatures are placed at the beginning of a composition (or
4321 section) to indicate the meter. For instance, a piece written in
4322 simple triple meter with a beat on each quarter note has a time
4327 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4331 c4. d8 | e4 d | f e | d8 b c4 \bar "||"}
4334 Simple triple meter:
4336 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4340 c es d8 c | d4 b g | d' f es8 d | es d c2 \bar "||"}
4343 Simple quadruple meter (French folk tune, @emph{Au clair de la lune}):
4345 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4349 g4 g g a | b2 a | g4 b a a | g1 \bar "||"}
4352 Simple quintuple meter (B. Marcello, 1686-1739):
4354 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4358 r4 cis8 bis ais4 dis c8 ais |
4359 aes4 bes8 aes ges4 aes f8 es \bar "||"}
4362 Compound duple meter:
4364 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4368 f8 f g a bes16 a g f |
4369 g8 g bes a c16 a bes g
4373 Compound triple meter (J.S. Bach, 1685-1750):
4375 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4379 r8 g( a) b( d c) c( e d) |
4380 d( c fis) g( d b) g( a b)
4384 Compound quadruple meter (P. Yon, 1886-1943):
4386 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4390 b8.( a16) gis8 a8.( gis16) fis8 gis8.( fis16) e8 fis4 b,8 |
4391 e4 e8 fis( gis) a b4.~ b4 b8
4397 @ref{hemiola}, @ref{time signature}
4412 Device indicating the exact tempo of a piece.
4416 @ref{metronomic indication}.
4419 @node metronomic indication
4420 @section metronomic indication
4422 ES: indicación metronómica,
4423 I: indicazione metronomica,
4424 F: indication métronomique,
4426 NL: metronoom aanduiding,
4428 S: metronomangivelse,
4429 FI: metronomiosoitus.
4431 Exact tempo indication (in beats per minute). Also denoted by
4432 M.M.@: (Mälzels Metronom).
4436 @section mezzo-soprano
4447 The female voice between @ref{soprano} and @ref{contralto}.
4456 D: eingestrichenes@w{ }c,
4458 DK: enstreget@w{ }c,
4459 S: ettstruket@w{ }c,
4462 First C below the 440 Hz A.
4464 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
4465 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4466 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
4489 @ref{diatonic scale}.
4492 @node minor interval
4493 @section minor interval
4495 ES: intervalo menor,
4496 I: intervallo minore,
4497 F: intervalle mineur,
4498 D: kleines Intervall,
4502 FI: pieni intervalli.
4515 D: Kirchentonart, Modus,
4519 FI: moodi, kirkkosävelasteikko.
4523 @ref{church mode}, @ref{diatonic scale}.
4536 FI: modulaatio, sävellajin vaihdos.
4538 Moving from one @ref{key} to another. For example, the second subject
4539 of a @ref{sonata form} movement modulates to the dominant key if the
4540 key is major and to the @ref{relative key} if the key is minor.
4552 FI: mordent, korukuvio.
4577 FI: teema, sävelaihe.
4579 The briefest intelligible and self-contained fragment of a musical
4582 @lilypond[line-width=13.0\cm]
4585 \set Score.implicitTimeSignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
4586 \override Score.TimeSignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible
4589 \partial 8 g16\startGroup fis |
4590 g8\stopGroup d16\startGroup c d8\stopGroup g16 fis g8 b,16 a b8 g'16 fis |
4591 g8 g,16 a b8 cis d16 s
4595 \Staff \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
4613 Greater musical works like @ref{symphony} and @ref{sonata} most often
4614 consist of several -- more or less -- independant pieces called
4618 @node multi-measure rest
4619 @section multi-measure rest
4621 ES: compases de espera,
4625 D: mehrtaktige Pause, Kirchenpause,
4628 FI: usean tahdin mittainen tauko.
4630 Multi-measure rests are conventionally typeset with a combination of
4631 longa, breve and whole rests for shorter and a long horizontal bar for
4632 longer spans of rest, with a number above to indicate the duration (in
4633 measures) of the rest. The former style is called @q{Kirchenpausen} in
4634 German, as a reminiscence of its use in Renaissance vocal polyphony.
4636 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
4639 \set Score.skipBars = ##t R1*3
4641 \set Score.skipBars = ##t R1*122
4648 @ref{longa}, @ref{breve}.
4651 @node mixolydian mode
4652 @section mixolydian mode
4656 @ref{diatonic scale}.
4665 D: Auflösungszeichen,
4666 NL: herstellingsteken,
4667 DK: op@-løsningstegn,
4668 S: återställningstecken,
4676 @node neighbour tones
4677 @section neighbour tones
4681 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes},
4722 Notes are signs by means of which music is fixed in writing. The term is also
4723 used for the sound indicated by a note, and even for the key of the piano
4724 which produces the sound. However, a clear distinction between the terms tone
4725 and @ref{note} is strongly recommended. Briefly, one sees a note,
4733 I: testa, testina, capocchia,
4741 A head-like sign which indicates pitch by its position on a
4742 @ref{staff} provided with a @ref{clef}, and duration
4743 by a variety of shapes such as hollow or black heads with or without
4744 @ref{stem}s, @ref{flag}s, etc. For percussion
4745 instruments (often having no defined pitch) the note head may indicate the
4760 ES: valor (duración),
4762 F: durée, valeur (d'une note),
4767 FI: nuotin aika-arvo.
4769 Note values (durations) are measured as fractions, normally 1/2, of
4770 the next higher note value. The longest duration normally used is
4771 called @emph{brevis}, but sometimes (mostly in pre-baroque music) the
4772 double-length note value @emph{longa} or the quadruple-length note
4773 value @emph{maxima} are used.
4775 @c TODO -- add maxima to this example, in a way that doesn't break it.
4777 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4778 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4779 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4781 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
4782 a\longa_"longa" a\breve_"breve"
4783 \revert NoteHead #'style
4784 a1_"1/1" a2_"1/2" a4_"1/4" s16 a8_"1/8" s16
4785 a16_"1/16" s16 a32_"1/32" s16 a64_"1/64" s32 }
4788 @c TODO -- add maxima rest to this example
4790 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4791 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4792 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4794 r\longa_"longa" r\breve_"breve"
4795 r1_"1/1" r2_"1/2" r4_"1/4" s16 r8_"1/8" s16
4796 r16_"1/16" s16 r32_"1/32" s16 r64_"1/64" s32 }
4799 An augmentation dot after a note multiplies the duration by one and a
4800 half. Another dot adds yet a fourth of the duration.
4802 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4803 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4806 g4._"pointed" g8 g2 | g4 ~ g8 g g2 \bar "||"
4807 g4.._"double pointed" g16 g2 | g4 ~ g8 ~ g16 g g2 \bar "||" }
4810 Alternatively note values may be subdivided by other ratios. Most common is
4811 subdivision by@w{ }3 (@emph{triplets}) and@w{ }5 (@emph{quintuplets}).
4812 Subdivisions by@w{ }2 (@emph{duplets}) or@w{ }4 (@emph{quadruplets}) of
4813 dotted notes are also frequently used.
4815 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4816 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4819 \times 2/3 {g8_"triplets" g g} g4 g8 g g4 \bar "||"
4820 \times 2/5 {g8_"quintuplets" g g g g} g4 g8 g g4 \bar "||"
4824 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4827 \times 3/2 {g4_"duplets" g} |
4829 \times 6/4 {g8_"quadruplets" g g g} |
4830 g8 g g g g4 \bar "||"
4836 @section octave sign
4840 @ref{G clef}, @ref{F clef}.
4857 @ref{ottava}, @ref{interval}.
4864 I: abbellimento, fioriture,
4865 F: agrément, ornement,
4866 D: Verzierung, Ornament,
4872 Most commonly used is the @emph{trill}, the rapid alternation of a given note
4873 with the diatonic @ref{second} above it. In the music from the
4874 middle of the 19th century and onwards the trill is performed with the main
4875 note first while in the music from the preceding baroque and classic periods
4876 the upper note is played first.
4878 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4880 \context Staff = sa {
4881 % \override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4883 c2._"pre-1850" b4\trill | c1 \bar "||"
4884 c2._"post-1850" b4\trill | c1 \bar "||"
4888 c2. c32 b c b c b c b | c1
4889 c2. b32 c b c \times 4/5 { b c b c b } | c1
4894 Other frequently used ornaments are the @emph{turn}, the @emph{mordent}, and
4896 @emph{prall} (inverted mordent).
4898 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4900 \context Staff = sa {
4901 % \override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4903 a4_"turn" b\turn c2 \bar "||"
4904 g4_"mordent" a b\mordent a \bar "||"
4905 e'4_"prall" d\prall c2 \bar "||"
4911 e'4 e32[ d e d ~ d8] c2
4918 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes}.
4931 FI: ossia, vaihtoehtoinen esitystapa.
4933 Ossia (otherwise) marks an alternative. It is an added staff or piano
4934 score, usually only a few measures long, which presents another version
4935 of the music, for example for small hands.
4941 @c TODO: translations
4952 [From Italian] The interval of an octave, abbreviated 8va.
4954 @emph{All'ottava}, @emph{ottava alta}, @emph{ottava sopra}, or
4955 @emph{8va} written above a passage indicates that it should be played
4956 an octave higher than written. @emph{Ottava bassa}, @emph{ottava
4957 sotto}, or @emph{8va} written below a passage indicates that it should
4958 be played an octave lower than written.
4975 FI: stemma, instrumenttiosuus.
4979 @item In instrumental or choral music, the music for a single
4980 instrument or voice.
4982 @item in contrapuntal music, a single melodic line in the contrapuntal
5014 D: Schlagzeug, Schlagwerk,
5020 A family of musical instruments which are played on by striking or
5021 shaking. Percussion instruments commonly used in a symphony orchestra are
5022 kettledrums (I: @emph{timpani}, D: @emph{Pauken}), snare drum, bass drum,
5023 tambourine, cymbals, chinese gong (tam-tam), triangle, celesta, glockenspiel,
5027 @node perfect interval
5028 @section perfect interval
5030 ES: intervalo justo,
5031 I: intervallo giusto,
5032 F: intervalle juste,
5033 D: reines Intervall,
5037 FI: puhdas intervalli.
5056 A natural division of the melodic line, comparable to a sentence of speech.
5069 FI: fraseeraus, jäsentäminen.
5071 The clear rendering in musical performance of the @ref{phrase}s of
5072 the melody. Phrasing may be indicated by a @ref{slur}.
5080 F: anacrouse, levée,
5104 @emph{piano} (@b{p}) soft, @emph{pianissimo} (@b{pp}) very soft,
5105 @emph{mezzo piano} (@b{mp}) medium soft.
5128 NL: pizzicato, getokkeld,
5131 FI: pizzicato, näppäillen.
5133 Abbr. @emph{pizz}. Play by plucking the strings. (Technique for
5134 stringed instruments.)
5149 The simultaneous use of two or more meters. The term is sometimes
5150 applied to the @emph{successive} use of different meters in one or
5155 @ref{polymetric} (adj.)
5170 Using two or more metric frameworks simultaneously or in regular
5175 @ref{polymeter} (noun)
5178 @node polymetric time signature
5179 @section polymetric time signature
5190 Time signature indicating regularly alternating polymetric time.
5203 D: Polyphonie, Mehrstimmigkeit,
5207 FI: polyfonia, moniäänisyys.
5209 Music written in a combination of several simultaneous voices (parts)
5210 of a more or less pronounced individuality.
5229 D: Presto, Sehr schnell,
5230 NL: presto, Sehr schnell,
5233 FI: presto, hyvin nopeasti.
5235 Very quick, i.e., quicker than @ref{allegro}; @emph{prestissimo}
5236 denotes the highest possible degree of speed.
5251 [From Latin @emph{proportio}] In mensural notation, a ratio that
5252 expresses the relationship between the note values that follow with
5253 those that precede; or between the note values of a passage and an
5254 assumed @q{normal} relationship of note values to the metrical pulse.
5256 @c TODO: add an example or two. O => 4/3, and its modern equivalent
5260 @ref{mensural notation}
5263 @node Pythagorean comma
5264 @section Pythagorean comma
5266 ES: coma pitagórica,
5267 I: comma pitagorico,
5268 F: comma pythagoricien,
5269 D: Pythagoräisches Komma,
5270 NL: komma van Pythagoras,
5271 DK: pythagoræisk komma,
5272 S: pytagoreiskt komma,
5273 FI: pytagorinen komma.
5275 A sequence of fifths starting on@w{ }C eventually circles back to@w{ }C,
5276 but this@w{ }C, obtained by adding 12@w{ }fifths, is
5277 24 @ref{cent}s higher than the@w{ }C obtained by adding
5278 7@w{ }octaves. The difference between those two pitches is called the
5300 @section quarter note
5303 I: semiminima, nera,
5306 D: Viertel, Viertelnote,
5310 FI: neljännesosanuotti.
5318 @section quarter rest
5320 ES: silencio de negra,
5321 I: pausa di semiminima,
5326 DK:@w{ }fjerdedelspause,
5328 FI: neljännesosatauko.
5338 ES: cinquillo, quintillo.
5353 @section rallentando
5358 D: rallentando, langsamer werden,
5362 FI: rallerdando, hidastuen.
5364 Abbreviation "rall.".
5370 @section relative key
5373 I: tonalità relativa,
5374 F: tonalité relative,
5376 NL: paralleltoonsoort,
5377 DK: paralleltoneart,
5379 FI: rinnakkaissävellaji.
5381 @ref{major} and @ref{minor} @ref{key}s with the same @ref{key signature}.
5383 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5384 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5385 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5388 es1_"e flat major" f g as bes c d es
5393 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5394 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5395 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5398 c1_"c minor" d es f g a! b! c \bar "||"
5408 F: barre de reprise,
5411 DK: gen@-ta@-gel@-se,
5415 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
5419 \repeat volta 2 {g4 g d' d | e e d2 | c4 c b b | a a g2 }
5436 @c F: 'pause' if you mean a whole rest, 'silence' if you do not want to
5437 @c specify the rest's value.
5458 @item Metrical rhythm in which every time value is a multiple or
5459 fraction of a fixed unit of time, called @ref{beat}, and in which the
5460 normal @ref{accent} recurs in regular intervals, called @ref{measure}.
5461 The basic scheme of time values is called @ref{meter}.
5463 @item Measured rhythm which lacks regularly recurrent accent. In
5464 modern notation such music appears as a free alternation of different
5467 @item Free rhythm, i.e., the use of temporal values having no common
5468 metrical unit (beat).
5479 D: ritardando, langsamer werden,
5483 FI: ritardando, hidastuen,
5485 Gradually slackening in speed. Mostly abbreviated to rit.@: or ritard.
5498 FI: ritenuto, hidastaen.
5500 Immediate reduction of speed.
5513 FI: asteikko, sävelasteikko.
5517 @ref{diatonic scale}.
5521 @section scale degree
5523 ES: grado (de la escala),
5524 I: grado della scala,
5525 F: degré [de la gamme],
5527 NL: trap [van de toonladder],
5530 FI: sävelaste, asteikon sävel.
5532 Names and symbols used in harmonic analysis to denote tones of the
5533 scale as roots of chords. The most important are degrees I = tonic
5534 (T), IV = sub@-do@-mi@-nant (S) and V = dominant (D).
5536 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5537 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5539 \context Staff \relative c' {
5543 << { I II III IV V VI VII I }
5551 @ref{functional harmony}.
5559 F: à cordes ravallées,
5566 [From Italian, @emph{scordare}, @q{to mistune}.] Unconventional
5567 tuning of stringed instruments, particularly lutes or violins. Used
5572 @item facilitate pitch combinations that would otherwise be difficult
5575 @item alter the characteristic timbre of the instrument, for example,
5576 to increase brilliance)
5578 @item reinforce certain sonorities or tonalities by making them
5579 available on open strings
5581 @item imitate other instruments
5587 Tunings that could be called @var{scordatura} first appeared early in
5588 the 16th Century and became commonplace in the 17th.
5597 D: Partitur (full score), Klavierauszug (vocal score),
5603 A copy of orchestral, choral, or chamber music showing what each
5604 instrument is to play, each voice to sing, having each part arranged
5605 one underneath the other on different staves @ref{staff}.
5620 The @ref{interval} between two neigbouring tones of a scale. A
5621 @ref{diatonic scale} consists of alternating @ref{semitone}s and
5622 @ref{whole tone}s, hence the size of a se@-cond depends on the scale
5623 degrees in question.
5638 The @ref{interval} of a minor second. The (usually) smallest interval
5639 in European composed music. The interval between two neighbouring
5640 tones on the piano keyboard -- including black and white keys -- is a
5641 semitone. An octave may be divided into 12@w{ }semitones.
5642 @ref{interval}, @ref{chromatic scale}.
5644 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5645 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5646 \relative c'' { g1 gis s a bes s b! c }
5672 @ref{sextuplet}, @ref{note value}.
5718 @section simple meter
5730 A meter in which the basic beat is subdivided in two: that is, a meter
5731 that does not include triplet subdivision of the beat.
5735 @ref{compound meter}, @ref{meter}.
5738 @node sixteenth note
5739 @section sixteenth note
5745 D: Sechzehntel, Sechzehntelnote,
5746 NL: zes@-ti@-ende noot,
5747 DK: sekstendedelsnode,
5749 FI: kuudestoistaosanuotti.
5756 @node sixteenth rest
5757 @section sixteenth rest
5759 ES: silencio de semicorchea,
5760 I: pausa di semicroma,
5762 UK: semiquaver rest,
5763 D: Sechzehntelpause,
5765 DK: sekstendedelspause,
5791 @node sixty-fourth note
5792 @section sixty-fourth note
5796 F: quadruple croche,
5797 UK: hemidemisemiquaver,
5798 D: Vierundsechzigstel, Vierundsechzigstelnote,
5799 NL: vierenzestigste noot,
5800 DK: fi@-re@-og@-tred@-sinds@-ty@-ven@-de@-dels@-no@-de,
5801 S: sextiofjärdedelsnot,
5802 FI: kuudeskymmenesneljäsosanuotti.
5809 @node sixty-fourth rest
5810 @section sixty-fourth rest
5812 ES: silencio de semifusa,
5813 I: pausa di semibiscroma,
5814 F: seizième de soupir,
5815 UK: hemidemisemiquaver rest,
5816 D: Vierundsechzigstelpause,
5817 NL: vierenzestigste rust,
5818 DK: fi@-re@-og@-tred@-sinds@-ty@-ven@-de@-dels@-pau@-se,
5819 S: sextiofjärdedelspaus,
5820 FI: kuudeskymmenesneljäsosatauko.
5830 ES: ligadura (de expresión),
5831 I: legatura (di portamento or espressiva),
5833 D: Bogen (Legatobogen, Phrasierungsbogen),
5834 NL: fraseringsboog, legatoboog, streekboog,
5835 DK: legatobue, fraseringsbue,
5839 A slur above or below a group of notes indicates that they are to be
5840 played @ref{legato}, e.g., with one stroke of the violin bow or with
5841 one breath in singing.
5845 @section solmization
5854 FI: suhteelliset laulunimet.
5856 General term for systems of designating the degrees of the
5857 @ref{scale}, not by letters, but by syllables (@emph{do} (@emph{ut}),
5858 @emph{re}, @emph{mi}, @emph{fa}, @emph{sol}, @emph{la}, @emph{si}
5876 In its present-day meaning a sonata denotes an instrumental
5877 composition for piano or for some other instrument with piano
5878 accompaniment, which consists of three or four independant pieces,
5883 @section sonata form
5887 F: [en] forme de sonate,
5889 NL: hoofdvorm, sonatevorm,
5894 A form used frequently for single movements of the @ref{sonata},
5895 @ref{symphony}, quartet, etc. A movement written in sonata form falls
5896 into three sections called @emph{exposition}, @emph{development} and
5897 @emph{recapitulation}. In the exposition the composer introduces some
5898 musical ideas, consisting of a number of themes; in the development
5899 section the composer @q{develops} this material, and in the
5900 recapitulation the composer repeats the exposition, with certain
5901 modifications. The exposition contains a number of themes that fall
5902 into two groups, often called first and second subject. Other
5903 melodies occurring in each group are considered as continuations of
5904 these two. The second theme is in another key, normally in the key of
5905 the @ref{dominant} if the @ref{tonic} is @ref{major}, and in the
5906 @ref{relative key} if the tonic is @ref{minor}.
5927 FI: sopraano, korkea naisääni.
5929 The highest female voice.
5937 F: staccato, piqué, détaché,
5942 FI: staccato, lyhyesti, terävästi.
5944 Playing the note(s) short. Staccato is indicated by a dot above or
5945 below the note head.
5947 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
5952 d4-\staccato cis-\staccato b-\staccato cis-\staccato |
5962 I: pentagramma, rigo (musicale),
5964 D: Notensystem, Notenzeile,
5965 NL: (noten)balk, partij,
5970 A staff (plural: staves) is a series of (normally five) horizontal
5971 lines upon and between which the musical notes are written, thus
5972 indicating (in connection with a @ref{clef}) their pitch. Staves for
5973 @ref{percussion} instruments may have fewer lines.
5990 D: Hals, Notenhals, Stiel,
5996 Vertical line above or below a @ref{note head} shorter than a
6001 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
6002 \set Score.autoBeaming = ##f
6003 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6004 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
6026 A family of stringed musical instruments played with a bow. Strings
6027 commonly used in a symphony orchestra are violin, viola, violoncello,
6032 @section strong beat
6037 D: betonter Taktteil oder Taktschlag,
6039 D: betonet taktslag,
6040 S: betonat taktslag,
6041 FI: tahdin vahva isku.
6045 @ref{beat}, @ref{accent}, @ref{measure}, @ref{rhythm}.
6049 @section subdominant
6058 FI: subdominantti, alidominantti.
6060 The fourth @ref{scale degree}.
6062 @ref{functional harmony}.
6077 The sixth @ref{scale degree}.
6090 FI: subtoonika, alitoonika.
6092 The seventh @ref{scale degree}.
6101 D: auf G, auf der G-Saite,
6107 Indicates that the indicated passage (or note) should be played on the
6112 @section superdominant
6123 The sixth @ref{scale degree}.
6138 The second @ref{scale degree}.
6147 D: Sinfonie, Symphonie,
6153 A symphony may be defined as a @ref{sonata} for orchestra.
6157 @section syncopation
6168 Any deliberate upsetting of the normal pulse of @ref{meter},
6169 @ref{accent}, and @ref{rhythm}. The occidental system of musical
6170 rhythm rests upon the grouping of equal beats into groups of two or
6171 three, with a regularly recurrent accent on the first beat of each
6172 group. Any deviation from this scheme is felt as a disturbance or
6173 contradiction between the underlaying (normal) pulse and the actual
6176 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
6181 e c'4 e,8 c'4 e,8 c' ( | c2)
6186 @node syntonic comma
6187 @section syntonic comma
6190 I: comma sintonico (o didimico),
6191 F: comma syntonique,
6192 D: syntonisches Komma,
6193 NL: syntonische komma,
6194 DK: syntonisk komma,
6195 S: syntoniskt komma,
6196 FI: syntoninen komma, terssien taajuusero luonnollisessa ja
6197 Pytagorisessa viritysjärjestelmässä.
6199 Difference between the natural third and the third obtained by
6200 Pythagorean tuning (@ref{Pythagorean comma}), equal to 22@w{ }cents.
6209 D: Notensystem, Partitur,
6213 FI: nuottijärjestelmä.
6215 The collection of staves (@ref{staff}), two or more, as used for writing
6216 down of keyboard, chamber, choral, or orchestral music.
6220 @section temperament
6225 D: Stimmung, Tem@-pe@-ra@-tur,
6226 NL: stemming, temperatuur,
6229 FI: viritysjärjestelmä.
6231 Systems of tuning in which the intervals deviate from the acoustically
6234 @ref{meantone temperament}, @ref{equal temperament}.
6237 @node tempo indication
6238 @section tempo indication
6240 ES: indicación de tempo,
6241 I: indicazione di tempo,
6242 F: indication de tempo,
6243 D: Zeitmaß, Tempobezeichnung,
6244 NL: tempo aanduiding,
6249 The rate of speed of a composition or a section thereof, ranging from
6250 the slowest to the quickest, as is indicated by tempo marks as
6251 @ref{largo}, @ref{adagio}, @ref{andante}, @ref{allegro}, and
6265 FI: tenori, korkea miesääni.
6267 The highest male voice (apart from @ref{counter tenor}).
6290 ES: subrayado (tenuto),
6299 An indication that a particular note should be held for the whole
6300 length, although this can vary depending on the composer and era.
6320 @node thirty-second note
6321 @section thirty-second note
6327 D: Zweiunddreissigstel, Zweiunddreissigstelnote,
6328 NL: twee-endertig@-ste noot,
6329 DK: toogtredivtedelsnode,
6330 S: trettiotvåondelsnot,
6331 FI: kolmanneskymmeneskahdesosanuotti.
6338 @node thirty-second rest
6339 @section thirty-second rest
6341 ES: silencio de fusa,
6342 I: pausa di biscroma,
6343 F: huitième de soupir,
6344 UK: demisemiquaver rest,
6345 D: Zweiunddreissigstel@-pause,
6347 DK: toogtredivtedelspause,
6348 S: trettiotvåondelspaus,
6349 FI: kolmanneskymmeneskahdesosatauko.
6357 @section thorough bass
6360 I: basso continuo, basso numerato,
6361 F: basse chiffrée, basse continue,
6362 D: Generalbass, bezifferter Bass,
6363 NL: basso continuo, becijferde bas
6366 FI: kenraalibasso, numeroitu basso.
6368 A method of indicating an accompaniment part by the bass notes only,
6369 together with figures designating the chief @ref{interval}s and
6370 @ref{chord}s to be played above the bass notes.
6372 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
6373 \context GrandStaff <<
6374 \context Staff = lh \relative c'' {
6378 << \context Voice = rha {
6381 \context Voice = rhb {
6383 < bes g >8 as < as f > g < g es > f < d f > es | < g es >4 }
6387 \context Staff = rh \relative c' {
6390 es8 c d bes c as bes16 as g f | es4
6392 \figures { s8 <6> s <4 2> s <6> s16 s <6> <4 2> }
6401 ES: ligadura de prolongación,
6402 I: legatura (di valore),
6404 D: Haltebogen, Bindebogen,
6405 NL: overbinding, bindingsboog,
6407 S: bindebåge, överbindning,
6410 A curved line, identical in appearance with the @ref{slur}, which
6411 connects two succesive notes of the same pitch, and which has the
6412 function of uniting them into a single sound (tone) equal to the
6415 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
6416 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6417 \relative c'' { g2 ~ g4. }
6429 @node time signature
6430 @section time signature
6432 ES: indicación de compás,
6434 F: chiffrage (chiffres indicateurs), signe de valeur, indication de mesure,
6435 D: Taktangabe, Angabe der Taktart,
6438 S: taktartssignatur,
6441 The sign placed at the beginning of a composition to indicate its
6442 meter. It most often takes the form of a fraction, but a few signs
6443 derived from mensural notation and proportions are also employed.
6447 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}.
6462 A sound of definite pitch and duration, as distinct from @emph{noise}.
6463 Tone is a primary building material of music.
6465 Music from the 20th century may be based on atonal sounds.
6480 The first @ref{scale degree}.
6484 @ref{functional harmony}.
6487 @node transposing instrument
6488 @section transposing instrument
6499 FIXME: this is a placeholder
6503 @section transposition
6514 Shifting a melody up or down in pitch, while keeping the same
6517 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
6522 d4 g,8 a b c | d4 g, g | e' c8 d e fis | g4 g, g \bar "|."
6527 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
6530 \transpose c bes \relative c'' {
6532 d4 g,8 a b c | d4 g, g | e' c8 d e fis | g4 g, g \bar "|."
6539 @section treble clef
6542 I: chiave di violino,
6544 D: Violinschlüssel, Sopranschlüssel,
6546 DK:@w{ }diskantnøgle,
6567 On stringed instruments (@ref{strings}) the quick reiteration of the
6568 same tone, produced by a rapid up-and-down movement of the bow (a).
6569 The term is also used for the rapid alternation (b) between two notes
6570 of a @ref{chord}, usually in the distance of a third (@ref{interval}).
6572 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
6573 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6574 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
6577 f:32 [ e8:16 f:16 g:16 a:16 ] s4
6578 \repeat tremolo 8 { e32_"b" g }
6588 F: triade, accord parfait, accord de trois sons,
6605 F: trille, tremblement, battement (cadence),
6618 @section triple meter
6620 ES: compás ternario,
6623 D: in drei, ungerader Takt,
6624 NL: driedelige maatsoort,
6669 @section tuning fork
6672 I: diapason, corista,
6680 A two-pronged piece of steel used to indicate absolute pitch. Tuning
6681 forks give the international pitch for the tone @emph{a} (440
6682 vibrations per second).
6688 A non-standard subdivision of a beat or part of a beat, usually
6689 indicated with a bracket and a number indicating the number of
6694 @ref{triplet}, @ref{note value}.
6724 FI: unisono, yksiäänisesti.
6726 Playing of the same notes or the same melody by various instruments
6727 (voices) or by the whole orchestra (choir), either at exactly the same
6728 pitch or in a different octave.
6736 F: anacrouse, levée,
6758 FI: ääni, lauluääni.
6762 @item Human voices: @ref{soprano}, @ref{mezzo-soprano},
6763 @ref{contralto}, @ref{tenor}, @ref{baritone}, @ref{bass}.
6765 @item A melodic layer or part of a polyphonic composition.
6774 I: tempo debole, arsi,
6776 D: unbetonter Taktteil oder Taktschlag,
6778 DK: ubetonet taktslag,
6779 S: obetonat taktslag,
6780 FI: tahdin heikko isku.
6784 @ref{beat}, @ref{measure}, @ref{rhythm}.
6794 D: Ganze, ganze Note,
6808 ES: silencio de redonda,
6809 I: pausa di semibreve,
6812 D: ganze Pause, ganztaktige Pause,
6835 The @ref{interval} of a major second. The interval between two tones
6836 on the piano keyboard with exactly one key between them -- including
6837 black and white keys -- is a whole tone.
6852 A family of blown wooden musical instruments. Today some of these
6853 instruments are actually made from metal. The woodwind instruments
6854 commonly used in a symphony orchestra are flute, oboe, clarinet,
6855 saxophone, and bassoon.
6858 @node Duration names notes and rests
6859 @chapter Duration names, notes and rests
6862 @item DURATION NAMES, NOTES AND RESTS
6865 @multitable @columnfractions .15 .26 .33 .26
6870 @tab @strong{F (note name / rest name)}
6880 @c extra @items make this table harder to read, so I removed them.
6882 @item @strong{longa}
6895 @item @strong{breve}
6898 @tab brève / double-pause
6908 @item @strong{whole}
6918 @tab koko@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6924 @tab blanche / demi-pause
6931 @tab puoli@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6934 @item @strong{quarter}
6944 @tab neljännesosa@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6947 @item @strong{eighth}
6950 @tab croche / demi-soupir
6957 @tab kahdeksasosa@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6960 @item @strong{sixteenth}
6963 @tab double croche / quart de soupir
6970 @tab kuudestoistaosa@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6973 @item @strong{thirty-second}
6976 @tab triple croche / huitième de soupir
6978 @tab Zweiunddreissigstel
6979 @tab tweeendertigste
6980 @tab toogtredivtedel
6982 @tab trettiotvåondel
6983 @tab kolmaskymme@-neskahdesosa@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6986 @item @strong{sixty-fourth}
6987 @tab hemidemisemiquaver
6989 @tab quadruple croche / seizième de soupir
6991 @tab Vierundsechzigstel
6992 @tab vierenzestigste
6993 @tab fireogtred@-sindstyvendedel
6995 @tab sextiofjärdedel
6996 @tab kuudeskymme@-nesneljäsosa@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
7003 @chapter Pitch names
7005 @c -is/-es endings for Danish per Rune Zedeler
7006 @c and for Finnish per Risto Vääräniemi
7007 @c -iss/-ess endings for Swedish per Mats Bengtsson
7008 @c @columnfractions .105 .145 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125 -->
7010 @multitable {c-sharp} {do sostenido} {do diesis} {ut dièse} {Cis} {cis} {cis} {ciss} {cis}
7012 @tab ES @tab I @tab F @tab D
7013 @tab NL @tab DK @tab S @tab FI
7015 @tab do @tab do @tab ut @tab C
7016 @tab c @tab c @tab c @tab c
7017 @item @strong{c-sharp}
7018 @tab do sostenido @tab do diesis @tab ut dièse @tab Cis
7019 @tab cis @tab cis @tab ciss @tab cis
7020 @item @strong{d-flat}
7021 @tab re bemol @tab re bemolle @tab ré bémol @tab Des
7022 @tab des @tab des @tab dess @tab des
7024 @tab re @tab re @tab ré @tab D
7025 @tab d @tab d @tab d @tab d
7026 @item @strong{d-sharp}
7027 @tab re sostenido @tab re diesis @tab re dièse @tab Dis
7028 @tab dis @tab dis @tab diss @tab dis
7029 @item @strong{e-flat}
7030 @tab mi bemol @tab mi bemolle @tab mi bémol @tab Es
7031 @tab es @tab es @tab ess @tab es
7033 @tab mi @tab mi @tab mi @tab E
7034 @tab e @tab e @tab e @tab e
7035 @item @strong{f-flat} = e
7036 @tab fa bemol @tab fa bemolle @tab fa bémol @tab Fes
7037 @tab fes @tab fes @tab fess @tab fes
7039 @tab fa @tab fa @tab fa @tab F
7040 @tab f @tab f @tab f @tab f
7041 @item @strong{e-sharp} = f
7042 @tab mi sostenido @tab mi diesis @tab mi dièse @tab Eis
7043 @tab eis @tab eis @tab eiss @tab eis
7044 @item @strong{f-sharp}
7045 @tab fa sostenido @tab fa diesis @tab fa dièse @tab Fis
7046 @tab fis @tab fis @tab fiss @tab fis
7047 @item @strong{g-flat}
7048 @tab sol bemol @tab sol bemolle @tab sol bémol @tab Ges
7049 @tab ges @tab ges @tab gess @tab ges
7051 @tab sol @tab sol @tab sol @tab G
7052 @tab g @tab g @tab g @tab g
7053 @item @strong{g-sharp}
7054 @tab sol sostenido @tab sol diesis @tab sol dièse @tab Gis
7055 @tab gis @tab gis @tab giss @tab gis
7056 @item @strong{a-flat}
7057 @tab la bemol @tab la bemolle @tab la bémol @tab As
7058 @tab as @tab as @tab ass @tab as
7060 @tab la @tab la @tab la @tab A
7061 @tab a @tab a @tab a @tab a
7062 @item @strong{a-sharp}
7063 @tab la sostenido @tab la diesis @tab la dièse @tab Ais
7064 @tab ais @tab ais @tab aiss @tab ais
7065 @item @strong{b-flat}
7066 @tab si bemol @tab si bemolle @tab si bémol @tab B
7067 @tab bes @tab b @tab b @tab b
7069 @tab si @tab si @tab si @tab H
7070 @tab b @tab h @tab h @tab h
7078 @node Literature used
7079 @unnumberedsec Literature used
7082 @item The Harvard Dictionary of Music, London 1944. Many
7083 more or less literal quotes from its articles have been included into
7084 the item explanation texts.
7086 @item Hugo Riemanns Musiklexicon, Berlin 1929.
7088 @item Polyglottes Wörterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie, Kassel
7091 @item Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, Third
7094 @item Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary, Springfield 1913.
7096 @item Felix Krohn, Lyhyt musiikkioppi, Porvoo, Helsinki, 1976.
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