1 \input texinfo @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @setfilename music-glosssary.info
3 @settitle Music Glossary
5 @documentencoding UTF-8
10 @c see lilypond.tely for info installation note
13 * Glossary: (lilypond/music-glossary). Glossary of music terms.
17 This document is also available in
18 @uref{source/Documentation/user/music-glossary.pdf,PDF}
19 and as @uref{source/Documentation/user/music-glossary-big-page.html,one big page}.
24 @author Christian Mondrup @c Original author of LilyPond glossary
26 @author François Pinard @c Original glossary of GNU music project,
28 @author Mats Bengtsson @c Swedish glossary
29 @author David González @c Spanish glossary
30 @author Bjoern Jacke @c German glossary
31 @author Neil Jerram @c English glossary translations
32 @author Heikki Junes @c Finnish glossary
33 @author Kurtis Kroon @c English glossary maintenance, beg. Oct. 2007
34 @author Adrian Mariano @c Italian glossary
35 @author Han-Wen Nienhuys @c Dutch glossary
36 @author Jan Nieuwenhuizen @c Dutch glossary
38 @c Fixes by Jean-Pierre Coulon and `Dirk', alphabetized by last name, KK, 10/07
39 @c Updates to the German translation by Till Rettig, 12/07
41 Copyright @copyright{} 1999--2007 by the authors
43 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
44 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
45 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation,
46 without Invariant Sections.
51 @c TODO: multiple omfcreators?
53 @omfcreator Christian Mondrup
54 @omfdescription Glossary of musical terms with translations
56 @omfcategory Applications|Publishing
68 This glossary was brought you by
75 @item Christian Mondrup
76 Original author of LilyPond glossary, Danish glossary,
80 Original glossary of GNU music project, French glossary,
81 @item Han-Wen Nienhuys
84 Finnish glossary translations,
85 @item Jan Nieuwenhuizen
92 English glossary translations.
95 Copyright 1999--2007 by the authors
97 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
98 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
99 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation,
100 without Invariant Sections.
106 @c @everyheading @| @thispage @|
107 @c @evenheading @thispage @| @|
108 @c @oddheading @| @| @thispage @|
110 @include macros.itexi
115 @w{@expansion{}@strong{\word\}}@c
118 @expansion{}@ref{\word\, @strong{\word\}}@c
123 * Musical terms A-Z::
124 * Duration names notes and rests::
128 @node Musical terms A-Z
129 @chapter Musical terms A-Z
131 Languages in this order.
138 @item UK - British English
158 * ancient minor scale::
163 * ascending interval::
164 * augmented interval::
198 * compound interval::
201 * conjunct movement::
214 * descending interval::
216 * diminished interval::
219 * disjunct movement::
221 * dissonant interval::
222 * dominant ninth chord::
223 * dominant seventh chord::
226 * dot (augmentation dot)::
228 * double appoggiatura::
230 * double dotted note::
233 * double time signature::
241 * ecclesiastical mode::
248 * equal temperament::
264 * functional harmony::
280 * inverted interval::
294 * long appoggiatura::
300 * meantone temperament::
306 * mensural notation::
309 * metronomic indication::
320 * multi-measure rest::
348 * polymetric time signature::
353 * Pythagorean comma::
380 * sixty-fourth note::
381 * sixty-fourth rest::
410 * thirty-second note::
411 * thirty-second rest::
467 FI: aksentti, korostus.
469 The stress of one tone over others.
483 ES: alteración accidental,
485 F: altération accidentelle,
486 D: Versetzungszeichen, Akzidenz,
487 NL: toevallig (verplaatsings)teken,
489 S: tillfälligt förtecken,
490 FI: tilapäinen etumerkki.
492 An accidental has the effect of an @ref{alteration} of a note. A
493 sharp raises a tone by a @ref{semitone}, a double sharp raises it by a
494 @ref{whole tone}, a flat lowers it by a semitone and a double flat
495 lowers it by a whole tone. A natural cancels the effect of a previous
496 accidental, or a sharp or flat in the key signature.
498 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
499 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
501 \context Staff \relative c'' {
502 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
503 gisis1 gis g! ges geses
506 \override Lyrics .LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
507 "db. sharp" sharp natural flat "db. flat"
518 F: accelerando, en accélérant,
519 D: accelerando, schneller werden,
523 FI: accelerando, kiihdyttäen.
529 @section acciaccatura
531 A grace note which takes its time from the rest or note preceding the
532 principal note to which it is attached. The acciaccatura is drawn as a
533 small eighth note (quaver) with a line drawn through the flag and
538 @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes}, @ref{ornament}.
551 FI: adagio, hitaasti.
553 It.@: comfortable, easy.
557 @item Slow tempo, slower -- especially in even meter -- than
558 @ref{andante} and faster than @ref{largo}.
560 @item A movement in slow tempo, especially the second (slow) movement
561 of @ref{sonata}s, symphonies, etc.
572 D: Allegro, Schnell, Fröhlich, Lustig,
576 FI: allegro, nopeasti.
578 It.@: cheerful. Quick tempo. Also used as a title for pieces in a quick
579 tempo, especially the first and last movements of a @ref{sonata}.
589 NL: verhoging of verlaging,
594 An alteration is the modification, raising or lowering, of a note's
595 pitch. It is established by an @ref{accidental}.
608 FI: altto, matala naisääni.
610 A female voice of low range (@emph{contralto}). Originally the alto
611 was a high male voice (hence the name), which by the use of falsetto
612 reached the height of the female voice. This type of voice is also
613 known as @ref{counter tenor}.
619 ES: clave de do en tercera,
620 I: chiave di contralto,
621 F: clef d'ut troisième ligne,
622 D: Altschlüssel, Bratschenschlüssel,
628 C clef setting middle C on the middle line of the staff.
645 FI: ambitus, ääniala, soitinala.
647 The term ambit (from Latin: ambitus, plural: ambitus) denotes a range
648 of pitches for a given voice in a part of music. It may also denote
649 the pitch range that a musical instrument is capable of playing.
664 An anacrusis (also known as pickup or upbeat) is an incomplete measure
665 of music before a section of music. It also refers to the initial
666 note(s) of a melody occurring in that incomplete measure.
670 @ref{measure}, @ref{meter}.
672 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
676 \partial 4 f4 | bes4. a8 bes4 c |
677 bes( a) g f | bes4. a8 bes4 c | f,2. \bar "||" }
681 @node ancient minor scale
682 @section ancient minor scale
684 ES: escala menor antigua,
685 I: scala minore naturale,
686 F: forme du mode mineur ancien, troisème mode, mode hellénique,
687 D: reines Moll, natürliches Moll,
688 NL: authentieke mineurtoonladder,
691 FI: luonnollinen molliasteikko.
695 @ref{diatonic scale}.
697 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
698 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
716 Walking tempo/character.
720 @section appoggiatura
724 F: appoggiature, (port de voix),
725 D: Vorschlag, Vorhalt
729 FI: appoggiatura, etuhele.
731 Ornamental note, usually a second, that is melodically connected with
732 the main note following it. In music before the 19th century
733 appoggiature were usually performed on the beat, after that mostly
734 before the beat. While the short appoggiatura is performed as a short
735 note regardless of the duration of the main note the duration of the
736 long appoggiatura is proportional to that of the main note.
738 @lilypond[line-width=13.0\cm]
739 \context Voice \relative c'' {
743 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
744 <d a fis>4_"notation" r
745 { \override Stem #'flag-style = #'()
747 \revert Stem #'flag-style
750 { \override Stem #'flag-style = #'()
752 \revert Stem #'flag-style
755 \cadenzaOn a4 \bar "||" \cadenzaOff
757 <d, a fis>4_"performance" r g16 ( fis) e fis a ( g) fis g |
758 \cadenzaOn a4 \bar "||" \cadenzaOff
762 An appoggiatura may have more notes preceding the main note.
764 @lilypond[line-width=13.0\cm]
768 % \override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
769 \grace { bes16 } as8_"notation" as16 bes as8 g |
770 \grace { as16[( bes] } < c as >4-)
771 \grace { as16[( bes] } < c as >4-) \bar "||"
772 \grace { bes16 } as8_"performance" as16 bes as8 g |
773 << \context Voice = va { \stemUp\tieUp as32 bes c8. as32 bes c8. }
774 \context Voice = vb { \stemDown\tieDown as16 ~ as8. as16 ~ as8. } >>
786 D: Arpeggio, Akkordbrechungen, gebro@-chener Akkord,
788 DK: arpeggio, akkordbrydning,
790 FI: arpeggio, murtosointu.
792 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
793 \context PianoStaff <<
794 \context Staff = SA \relative c'' {
797 r8 g16 c e g, c e r8 g,16 c e g, c e |
798 r8 a,16 d f a, d f r8 a,16 d f a, d f \bar "||" }
799 \context Staff = SB \relative c' {
801 << \context Voice = va {
803 r16 e8. ( e4) r16 e8. ( e4) |
804 r16 d8. ( d4) r16 d8. ( d4) }
805 \context Voice = vb {
814 @section articulation
823 FI: artikulaatio, ilmaisu.
825 Articulation refers to notation which indicates how a note or notes
826 should be played. Slurs, accents, staccato, and legato are all
827 examples of articulation.
830 @node ascending interval
831 @section ascending interval
833 ES: intervalo ascendente,
834 I: intervallo ascendente,
835 F: intervalle ascendant,
836 D: steigendes Intervall,
837 NL: stijgend interval,
838 DK:@w{ }stigende interval,
839 S: stigande intervall,
840 FI: nouseva intervalli.
842 A distance between a starting lower note and a higher ending note.
845 @node augmented interval
846 @section augmented interval
848 ES: intervalo aumentado,
849 I: intervallo aumentato,
850 F: intervalle augmenté,
851 D: übermäßiges Intervall,
852 NL: overmatig interval,
853 DK: forstørret interval,
854 S: överstigande intervall,
855 FI: ylinouseva intervalli.
867 F: manuscrit, autographe
868 D: Autograph, Handschrift,
870 DK: håndskrift, autograf,
872 FI: käsinkirjoitettu nuotti.
876 @item A manuscript in the composer's own hand.
878 @item Music prepared for photoreproduction by freehand drawing, with
879 the aid of a straightedge ruler and T-square only, which attempts to
880 emulate engraving. This required more skill than did engraving.
921 ES: barra, línea divisoria,
922 I: stanghetta, barra (di divisione),
923 F: barre (de mesure),
941 FI: baritoni, keskikorkuinen miesääni.
943 The male voice intermediate between the @ref{bass} and the
946 @c F: clef de troisième ligne dropped
950 @section baritone clef
952 ES: clave de fa en tercera,
953 I: chiave di baritono,
954 F: clef d' Ut cinquième ligne, clef de Fa troisième,
961 C or F clef setting middle C on the upper staff line.
965 @ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}.
971 ES: clave de fa en cuarta,
973 F: clef de fa quatrième ligne,
980 A clef setting with middle C on the first top ledger line.
997 FI: basso, matala miesääni.
1001 @item The lowest male voice.
1003 @item Sometimes, especially in jazz music, used as an abbreviation for
1025 Line connecting a series of notes (shorter than a quarter note). The
1026 number of beams determines the note value of the connected notes.
1028 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1029 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1030 %\override TextScript #'font-style = #'large
1032 g8_"1/8"[ g g g] s16
1033 g16_"1/16"[ g g g] s16
1034 g32_"1/32"[ s32 g32 s32 g32 s32 g32] s16
1035 g64_"1/64"[ s32 g64 s32 g64 s32 g64] s32 }
1040 @ref{feathered beam}.
1046 ES: tiempo, parte (de compás)
1049 D: Takt, Taktschlag, Zeit (im Takt),
1055 Note value used for counting, most often half-, fourth-, and eighth
1056 notes. The base counting value and the number of them per measure is
1057 indicated at the start of the music.
1059 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
1062 \relative c'' { g4 c b a | g1 \bar "||"}
1064 \relative c'' { g8 d' c | b c a | g4. \bar "||"}
1079 ES: llave, corchete,
1082 D: Klammer, Akkolade,
1083 NL: accolade, teksthaak,
1086 FI: yhdistävä sulkumerkki.
1088 Symbol at the start of a system connecting staves. Curly braces are
1089 used for connecting piano staves, angular brackets for connecting
1090 parts in an orchestral or choral score.
1092 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
1093 \context GrandStaff <<
1094 \relative c''\context Staff = SA { \clef treble g4 e c2 }
1095 \relative c \context Staff = SB { \clef bass c1 \bar "|." } >>
1098 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
1099 \context StaffGroup <<
1100 % \set StaffGroup.minVerticalAlign = #12
1101 \relative c'' \context Staff = SA { \clef treble g4 e c2 }
1102 \relative c \context Staff = SB { \clef bass c1 \bar "|." } >>
1112 NL: koper (blazers),
1115 S: brassinstrument, mässingsinstrument,
1118 A family of blown musical instruments made of brass, all using a cup
1119 formed mouth piece. The brass instruments commonly used in a symphony
1120 orchestra are trumpet, trombone, french horn, and tube.
1124 @section breath mark
1129 D: Atemzeichen, Trennungszeichen,
1130 NL: repercussieteken,
1131 DK: vejrtrækningstegn,
1135 Indication of where to breathe in vocal and wind instrument parts.
1140 ES: cuadrada, breve,
1149 @ref{note value}, twice as long as a whole note. Mainly used in
1150 pre-1650 music. The shortest note value generally used in white
1151 mensural notation, hence the name, which originally meant "of short
1154 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
1155 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1156 \relative c'' { g\breve }
1189 Clef symbol indicating the position of the middle C. Used on all note
1192 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1193 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1194 \override Score.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
1196 \context Staff \relative c' {
1198 \clef mezzosoprano c
1203 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
1204 \override Lyrics .LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
1205 "Soprano " "Mezzosoprano " "Alto " "Tenor " Baritone
1221 FI: kadenssi, lopuke.
1225 @ref{harmonic cadence}, @ref{functional harmony}.
1238 FI: kadenssi, lopuke.
1240 An extended, improvisatory style section inserted near the end of
1241 movement. The purpose of a cadenza is to give singers or players a
1242 chance to exhibit their technical skill and -- not last -- their
1243 ability to improvise. Since the middle of the 19th century, however,
1244 most cadenzas have been written down by the composer.
1257 FI: kaanon, tarkka jäljittely.
1274 FI: sentti, puolisävelaskeleen sadasosa tasavireisessä
1275 viritysjärjestelmässä.
1277 Logarithmic unit of measurement. 1@tie{}cent is 1/1200 of an octave
1278 (1/100 of an equally tempered @ref{semitone}).
1282 @ref{equal temperament}.
1305 Three or more tones sounding simultaneously. In traditional European
1306 music the base chord is a @emph{triad} consisting of 2@w{ }thirds.
1307 @emph{Major} (major + minor @ref{third}) as well as @emph{minor}
1308 (minor + major third) chords may be extended with more thirds.
1309 Four-tone @emph{seventh chords} and five-tone @emph{ninth} major
1310 chords are most often used as dominants (@ref{functional harmony}). A
1311 special case is chords having no third above the lower notes to define
1312 their quality as major or minor. Such chords are denoted open chords
1314 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1315 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1316 %\override TextScript #'font-style = #'large
1318 \context Staff \relative c'' {
1319 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
1339 @node chromatic scale
1340 @section chromatic scale
1342 ES: escala cromática,
1344 F: gamme chromatique,
1345 D: chro@-ma@-ti@-sche Tonleiter,
1346 NL: chromatische toonladder,
1347 DK: kromatisk skala,
1349 FI: kromaattinen asteikko.
1351 A scale consisting of all 12 @ref{semitone}s.
1353 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
1354 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
1355 \relative c' { c1 cis d dis e f fis g gis a ais b c }
1360 @section chromaticism
1371 Use of tones extraneous to a @ref{diatonic scale} (minor, major).
1375 @section church mode
1377 ES: modo eclesiástico,
1378 I: modo ecclesiastico,
1379 F: mode ecclésiastique,
1384 FI: moodi, kirkkosävellaji.
1388 @ref{diatonic scale}.
1397 D: Schlüssel, Notenschlüssel,
1401 FI: avain, nuottiavain.
1405 @ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}, @ref{G clef}.
1407 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
1408 pitches. The three clef symbols in common use are:
1410 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1413 \line { "The Treble or G clef: " \musicglyph #"clefs.G" }
1414 \line { "The Bass or F clef: " \musicglyph #"clefs.F" }
1415 \line { "The Alto or C clef: " \musicglyph #"clefs.C" }
1420 Imagine a large staff of 11 lines centered on middle C, sometimes
1421 called a @q{grand staff}, with the bottom line representing low G and
1422 the top line high F:
1424 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1427 %-- Treble Staff --%
1429 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1430 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
1431 % Allow the treble clef to overlap the lower staves:
1432 % \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1433 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1435 s1^\markup { "g," \transparent "g" }
1436 s^ \markup { "b," \transparent "g" }
1437 s^ \markup { "d" \transparent "g" }
1438 s^ \markup { "f" \transparent "g" }
1439 s^ \markup { "a" \transparent "g" }
1440 s^ \markup { \with-color #red c' \transparent "g"}
1441 e'^\markup { "e'" \transparent "g" }
1442 g'^\markup { "g'" \transparent "g" }
1443 b'^\markup { "b'" \transparent "g" }
1444 d''^\markup { "d''" \transparent "g" }
1445 f''^\markup { "f ''" \transparent "g" }
1448 %-- Alto Staff reduced to a single line on middle C --%
1450 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 1 % One line only
1451 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red % Coloured red
1452 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1455 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1456 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1457 % Specify height to give correct spacing between treble and bass staves
1458 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1460 s1 s s s s % Space along to align horizonatally
1461 \override NoteHead #'color = #red
1463 s1 s s s s s % Keep staff (ie the red line) showing
1467 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1468 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-3 . 2)
1469 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1472 s s s s s s s % Keep staff showing
1476 % Reduce horizontal spacing so semibreves can be used without exceeding 1 line
1477 \context { \Score \override SpacingSpanner #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 1)
1479 % Reduce apparent vertical size of note heads to permit them to overlap other grobs vertically
1480 \context { \Score \override NoteHead #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1482 % Remove all barlines
1483 \context { \Score \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1485 % Remove time signature from all staves
1486 \context { \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver
1492 Staves of five lines are usually used, and the clef superimposed on
1493 them indicates which five lines have been selected from this
1494 @samp{grand staff}. For example, the treble or G clef indicates that
1495 the top five lines have been selected:
1497 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1500 %-- Treble Staff --%
1502 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1503 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup
1504 #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1505 % Allow the treble clef to overlap the lower staves:
1506 % \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1507 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required here
1509 s1^\markup { "g," \transparent "g" }
1510 s^ \markup { "b," \transparent "g" }
1511 s^ \markup { "d" \transparent "g" }
1512 s^ \markup { "f" \transparent "g" }
1513 s^ \markup { "a" \transparent "g" }
1514 s^ \markup { \with-color #red c' \transparent "g"}
1515 \stopStaff \startStaff
1516 \clef "C" % Dummy to force next clef to be printed
1517 s % Need at least one note for \clef to take effect
1518 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##t % Clef now required
1519 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0) % Permit overlap
1521 e'^\markup { "e'" \transparent "g" }
1522 g'^\markup { "g'" \transparent "g" }
1523 b'^\markup { "b'" \transparent "g" }
1524 d''^\markup { "d''" \transparent "g" }
1525 f''^\markup { "f ''" \transparent "g" }
1527 %-- Alto Staff reduced to a single line on middle C --%
1529 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 1 % One line only
1530 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red % Coloured red
1531 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1534 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1535 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup
1536 #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1537 % Specify height to give correct spacing between the staves
1538 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1540 s1 s s s s % Space along to align horizonatally
1541 \override NoteHead #'color = #red
1543 % s1 s s s s % Keep staff (ie the red line) showing
1547 % Allow this staff to be placed close to the others
1548 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup
1549 #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1550 \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f % No clef required
1553 % s s s s s s % Keep staff showing
1557 % Reduce horizontal spacing so semibreves can be used
1558 % without exceeding 1 line
1559 \context { \Score \override SpacingSpanner
1560 #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 1)
1562 % Reduce apparent vertical size of note heads to
1563 % permit them to overlap other grobs vertically
1564 \context { \Score \override NoteHead #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1566 % Remove all barlines
1567 \context { \Score \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1569 % Remove time signature from all staves
1570 \context { \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver
1576 The @q{curl} of the G clef in centered on the line that represents the
1579 In the same way, the bass or F clef indicates that the bottom five
1580 lines have been selected from the @samp{grand staff}, and the alto or
1581 C clef indicates the middle five lines have been selected. This
1582 relationship is shown below, where the notes show an arpeggio on a C
1585 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1588 %-- Treble Staff --%
1589 \new Staff = "G" \with {
1590 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1593 % The following two overrides are required to make the two middle C's overlap
1594 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1595 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
1597 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1599 s1 s s s s e' g' c''
1602 \new Staff = "C" \with {
1603 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1606 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 1
1607 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'stencil = ##f
1608 \once \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
1609 \clef "G" % A frig. This clef is invisible; use G to force the later C clef to be shown
1610 \override Score.BarLine #'stencil = ##f
1612 % The following two overrides are required to align the C staff to the G and F staves
1613 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1614 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1617 \stopStaff \startStaff
1618 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
1619 \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'stencil
1620 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
1621 b'1 % A frig. This really shows as a middle C in the score
1623 \stopStaff \startStaff
1624 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = 5
1625 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1626 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1627 \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'color
1628 \stopStaff \startStaff
1630 s1 s s c e g c' e' g' c''
1633 \new Staff = "F" \with {
1634 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1637 \override Staff.Clef #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1638 % The following two overrides are required to make the two middle C's overlap
1639 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1640 \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'Y-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
1648 \Score \override SpacingSpanner #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 2 1)
1651 \Score \override NoteHead #'Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1654 \Score \override NoteHead #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(0 . 0)
1671 FI: klusteri, cluster.
1673 A @emph{cluster} is a range of simultaneously sounding pitches that
1674 may change over time. The set of available pitches to apply usually
1675 depends on the acoustic source. Thus, in piano music, a cluster
1676 typically consists of a continuous range of the semitones as provided
1677 by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic scale. In choral music, each
1678 singer of the choir typically may sing an arbitrary pitch within the
1679 cluster's range that is not bound to any diatonic, chromatic or other
1680 scale. In electronic music, a cluster (theoretically) may even cover
1681 a continuous range of pitches, thus resulting in colored noise, such
1684 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
1685 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
1686 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
1687 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by
1688 the shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical
1689 extent of the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster
1690 geometrically describes the development of a range of pitches
1691 (vertical extent) over time (horizontal extent). Still, the
1692 geometrical shape of a cluster covers the area in which any single
1693 pitch contained in the cluster would be notated as an ordinary note.
1695 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,ragged-right]
1696 \makeClusters { <c e> <b f'> <b g'> <c g> <f e> }
1710 FI: komma, korvinkuultava ero äänenkorkeudessa.
1712 Difference in pitch between a note derived from pure tuning and the
1713 same note derived from some other tuning method.
1721 @section common meter
1731 @section common time
1733 4/4 time. The symbol, which resembles a capital letter C derives from
1734 mensural notation (q.v.).
1744 ES: intervalo invertido,
1746 F: intervalle complémentaire,
1747 D: Komplementärintervall,
1748 NL: complementair interval,
1749 DK: komplementærinterval,
1750 S: komplementärintervall (?),
1751 FI: täydentävä intervalli.
1755 @ref{inverted interval}.
1758 @node compound interval
1759 @section compound interval
1761 ES: intervalo compuesto,
1762 I: intervallo composto,
1763 F: intervalle composé,
1764 D: weites Intervall,
1765 NL: samengesteld interval,
1766 DK: sammensat interval,
1767 S: sammansatt intervall,
1768 FI: oktaavia laajempi intervalli.
1770 Intervals larger than an octave.
1777 @node compound meter
1778 @section compound meter
1789 A meter that includes a triplet subdivision within the beat, such as
1794 @ref{meter}, @ref{simple meter}.
1798 @section compound time
1809 @ref{compound meter}
1816 @node conjunct movement
1817 @section conjunct movement
1819 ES: movimiento conjunto,
1821 F: mouvement conjoint,
1822 D: schritt@-weise, stufenweise Bewegung,
1823 NL: stapsgewijze, trapsgewijze beweging,
1824 DK: trinvis bevægelse,
1826 FI: asteittainen liike.
1828 Progressing melodically by intervals of a second. The opposite of a
1829 @ref{disjunct movement}.
1831 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
1832 \key g \major \time 4/4
1833 \relative c'' { g4 g g a | b2 a | g4 b a a | g1 \bar "||" }
1847 FI: konsonanssi, sopusointi.
1872 @section counterpoint
1881 FI: kontrapunkti, ääni ääntä vastaan.
1883 From Latin @emph{punctus contra punctum}, note against note. The
1884 combination into a single musical fabric of lines or parts which have
1885 distinct melodic significance. A frequently used polyphonic technique
1886 is imitation, in its strictest form found in the canon needing only
1887 one part to be written down while the other parts are performed with a
1888 given displacement. Imitation is also the contrapunctal technique
1889 used in the @emph{fugue} which, since the music of the baroque era,
1890 has been one of the most popular polyphonic composition methods.
1892 @lilypond[fragment,staffsize=12,line-width=13.0\cm]
1893 \set Score.implicitTimeSignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
1894 \override Score.TimeSignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible
1895 \context PianoStaff <<
1896 \context Staff = SA \relative c' {
1900 << \context Voice = rha {
1902 r1 | r2 r8 g'8 bes d, |
1903 cis4 d r8 e!16 f g8 f16 e |
1904 f8 g16 a bes8 a16 g a8
1906 \context Voice = rhb {
1912 \context Staff = SB \relative c' {
1915 << \context Voice = lha {
1917 r8 d es g, fis4 g | r8 a16 bes c8 bes16 a bes4 g |
1918 r8 a16 g f8 g16 a bes8 g e! cis' |
1921 \context Voice = lhb {
1931 @section counter tenor
1936 D: Countertenor, Kontratenor,
1939 S: kontratenor, counter tenor,
1948 @section copying music
1950 A music copyist did fast freehand scores and parts on preprinted staff
1951 lines for performance. Some of their conventions (e.g., the placement
1952 of note heads on stems) varied slightly from those of engravers. Some
1953 of their working methods were superior and could well be adopted by
1954 music typesetters. Copying music required more skill than engraving.
1963 D: Crescendo, lauter werden,
1967 FI: cresendo, voimistuen.
1969 Increasing volume. Indicated by a rightwards opening horizontal wedge
1970 or the abbreviation @samp{cresc.}.
1972 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
1973 \key g \major \time 4/4
1974 \relative c'' { g4 \< a b c | d1\! \bar "|." }
1983 F: petites notes précédent l'entrée d'un instrument, réplique,
1990 In a separate part notes belonging to another part with the purpose of
1991 hinting when to start playing. Usually printed in a smaller type.
2000 D: Notenzeiger, Custos,
2006 A custos (plural: custodes) is a staff symbol that appears at the end
2007 of a staff line with monophonic musical contents (i.e., with a single
2008 voice). It anticipates the pitch of the first note of the following
2009 line and thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
2010 performance, thus enhancing readability of a score.
2012 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 16th
2013 century. There were different appearences for different notation
2014 styles. Nowadays, they have survived only in special forms of musical
2015 notation such as via the Editio Vaticana dating back to the beginning
2021 % \override Staff.Custos #'neutral-position = #4
2022 \override Staff.Custos #'neutral-direction = #down
2023 \override Staff.Custos #'style = #'hufnagel
2031 \consists Custos_engraver
2061 F: da capo, depuis le commencement,
2062 D: da capo, von Anfang,
2066 FI: da capo, alusta.
2068 The term indicates repetition of the piece from the beginning to the
2069 end or to a certain place marked @emph{fine}. Usually abbreviated as
2078 F: dal segno, depuis le signe,
2079 D: dal segno, ab dem Zeichen,
2083 FI: dal segno, lähtien merkistä.
2085 Abbreviated @samp{D.S.}. Repetition, not from the beginning, but from
2086 another place frequently near the beginning marked by a sign:
2088 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2089 %\override TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2090 \override TextScript #'font-shape = #'italic
2091 \key g \major \time 4/4
2096 \line { "d.s. " \tiny \raise #1 \musicglyph #"scripts.segno" } }
2103 @section decrescendo
2107 D: Decrescendo, leiser werden,
2111 FI: decresendo, hiljentyen.
2113 Decreasing tone volume. Indicated by a leftwards opening horizontal wedge
2114 or the abbreviation @samp{decresc.}.
2116 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2118 \key g \major \time 4/4
2119 d4 \> c b a | g1 \! \bar "|."
2124 @node descending interval
2125 @section descending interval
2127 ES: intervalo descendente,
2128 I: intervallo discendente,
2129 F: intervalle descendant,
2130 D: fallendes Intervall, absteigendes Intervall,
2131 NL: dalend interval,
2132 DK: faldende interval,
2133 S: fallande intervall,
2134 FI: laskeva intervalli.
2136 A distance between a starting higher note and a lower ending note.
2139 @node diatonic scale
2140 @section diatonic scale
2142 ES: escala diatónica,
2144 F: gamme diatonique,
2145 D: diatonische Tonleiter,
2146 NL: diatonische toonladder,
2147 DK: diatonisk skala,
2149 FI: diatoninen asteikko.
2151 A scale consisting of 5@w{ }@ref{whole tone}s and 2@w{
2152 }@ref{semitone}s (S). Scales played on the white keys of a piano
2153 keybord are diatonic.
2155 The church modes are used in gregorian chant and in pre-baroque early
2156 music but also to some extent in newer jazz music.
2158 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2159 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2160 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2161 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2163 \context Staff \relative c' {
2165 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2166 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c
2168 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2174 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2175 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2177 \context Staff \relative c' {
2179 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2180 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c d
2188 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2189 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2192 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2193 e1^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c d e
2201 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2202 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2206 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2207 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f
2215 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2216 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2220 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2221 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g }
2228 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2229 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2230 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2231 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2235 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2236 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a
2244 From the beginning of the 17th century the scales used in European
2245 compositional music are primarily the major and the minor scales. In
2246 the harmonic minor scale type an augmented second (A) occurs between
2247 the 6th and 7th tone.
2249 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2250 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2254 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2255 e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c
2263 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2264 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2268 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2269 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a
2277 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
2278 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2282 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2283 b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f!^"~~ A" gis^"~~ S" a
2285 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2291 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
2292 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2293 %\override Score.LyricText #'font-style = #'large
2294 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
2298 \override TextScript #'padding = #-4
2299 b^"~~ S" c d e fis gis^"~~ S"
2300 a g! f!^"~~ S" e d c^"~~ S" b a
2309 @node diminished interval
2310 @section diminished interval
2312 ES: intervalo disminuido,
2313 I: intervallo diminuito,
2314 F: intervalle diminué,
2315 D: vermindertes Intervall,
2316 NL: verminderd interval,
2317 DK: formindsket interval,
2318 S: förminskat intervall,
2319 FI: vähennetty intervalli.
2336 FI: diminuendo, hiljentyen.
2360 @node disjunct movement
2361 @section disjunct movement
2363 ES: movimiento disjunto,
2365 F: mouvement disjoint,
2366 D: sprunghafte Bewegung,
2367 NL: sprongsgewijze beweging,
2368 DK: springende bevægelse,
2369 S: hoppande rörelse,
2370 FI: melodian hyppivä liike.
2372 Progressing melodically by intervals larger than a major second, as
2373 opposed to @ref{conjunct movement}.
2375 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
2380 a4. gis8 b a e cis |
2381 fis2 d4. \bar "||" }
2388 @ref{dissonant interval}.
2391 @node dissonant interval
2392 @section dissonant interval
2394 ES: intervalo disonante, disonancia,
2395 I: intervallo dissonante, dissonanza,
2398 NL: dissonant interval, dissonant,
2399 DK: dissonerende interval, dissonans,
2401 FI: dissonanssi, dissonoiva intervalli, riitasointi.
2408 @node dominant ninth chord
2409 @section dominant ninth chord
2411 ES: acorde de novena de dominante,
2412 I: accordo di nona di dominante,
2413 F: accord de neuvième dominante,
2414 D: Domi@-nant@-nonen@-akkord,
2415 NL: dominant noon akkoord,
2416 DK: dominantnoneakkord,
2417 S: dominantnonackord,
2418 FI: dominanttinoonisointu.
2422 @ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}.
2425 @node dominant seventh chord
2426 @section dominant seventh chord
2428 ES: acorde de séptima de dominante,
2429 I: accordo di settima di dominante,
2430 F: accord de septième dominante,
2431 D: Dominantseptakkord,
2432 NL: dominant septiem akkoord,
2433 DK: dominantseptimakkord,
2434 S: dominantseptimackord,
2435 FI: dominanttiseptimisointu.
2439 @ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}.
2452 FI: dominantti, huippusointu.
2454 The fifth @ref{scale degree} in @ref{functional harmony}.
2458 @section dorian mode
2463 D: dorisch, dorischer Kirchenton,
2464 NL: dorische toonladder,
2471 @ref{diatonic scale}.
2474 @node dot (augmentation dot)
2475 @section dot (augmentation dot)
2478 I: punto (di valore),
2480 D: Punkt (Verlängerungspunkt),
2488 @ref{dotted note}, @ref{note value}.
2492 @section dotted note
2494 ES: nota con puntillo,
2498 NL: gepuncteerde noot,
2501 FI: pisteellinen nuotti.
2508 @node double appoggiatura
2509 @section double appoggiatura
2511 ES: apoyatura doble,
2512 I: appoggiatura doppia,
2513 F: appoggiature double,
2514 D: doppelter Vorschlag,
2515 NL: dubbele voorslag,
2516 DK: dobbelt forslag,
2518 FI: kaksoisappogiatura, kaksoisetuhele.
2525 @node double bar line
2526 @section double bar line
2532 NL: dubbele maatstreep,
2535 FI: kaksoistahtiviiva.
2537 Indicates the end of a section within a movement.
2540 @node double dotted note
2541 @section double dotted note
2543 ES: nota con doble puntillo,
2544 I: nota doppiamente puntata,
2545 F: note doublement pointée,
2546 D: doppelt punktierte Note,
2547 NL: dubbelgepuncteerde noot,
2548 DK: dob@-belt@-punk@-te@-ret node,
2549 S: dub@-bel@-punk@-te@-rad not,
2550 FI: kaksoispisteellinen nuotti.
2558 @section double flat
2567 FI: kaksoisalennusmerkki.
2575 @section double sharp
2577 ES: doble sostenido,
2582 DK: dob@-belt@-kryds,
2584 FI: kaksoisylennysmerkki.
2591 @node double time signature
2592 @section double time signature
2605 @ref{polymetric time signature}.
2609 @section double trill
2615 NL: dubbele triller,
2620 A simultaneous trill on two notes, usually in the distance of a third.
2624 @section duple meter
2629 D: in zwei, grader Takt,
2630 NL: tweedelige maatsoort,
2667 FI: kesto, aika-arvo.
2675 @section dydimic comma
2679 @ref{syntonic comma}.
2688 D: Dynamik, Lautstärke,
2694 The aspect of music relating to degrees of loudness, or changes from
2695 one degree to another. The terms, abbreviations, and symbols used to
2696 indicate this information are called dynamic marks.
2700 @ref{piano}, @ref{forte}, @ref{crescendo}, @ref{decrescendo},
2721 @node ecclesiastical mode
2722 @section ecclesiastical mode
2730 @section eighth note
2736 D: Achtel, Achtelnote,
2738 DK: ottendedelsnode,
2740 FI: kahdeksasosanuotti.
2748 @section eighth rest
2750 ES: silencio de corchea,
2756 DK: ottendedelspause,
2758 FI: kahdeksasosatauko.
2768 @c TODO: add languages
2779 @c TODO definition -- referenced from lyric tie
2783 @section embellishment
2796 D: Notenstich, Notendruck
2802 Engraving means incising or etching a metal plate for printing.
2803 Photoengraving means drawing music with ink in a manner similar to
2804 drafting or engineering drawing, using similar tools.
2806 The traditional process of music printing is done through cutting in a
2807 plate of metal. Now also the term for the art of music typesetting.
2822 Two notes, intervals, or scales are enharmonic if they have different
2823 names but equal pitch.
2825 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
2826 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2828 \context Staff \relative c'' {
2829 gis1 as <des g,!> <cis g!>
2831 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
2832 \override Lyrics .LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
2833 "g sharp " "a flat " "dim fifth " "augm fourth"
2839 @node equal temperament
2840 @section equal temperament
2842 ES: temperamento igual,
2843 I: temperamento equabile,
2844 F: tempérament égal,
2845 D: gleichschwebende Stimmung,
2846 NL: ge@-lijk@-zwe@-ven@-de temperatuur,
2847 DK: ligesvævende temperatur,
2848 S: liksvävande temperatur,
2851 Tuning system dividing the octave into 12 equal @ref{semitone}s
2852 (precisely 100 @ref{cent}s).
2859 @node expression mark
2860 @section expression mark
2863 I: segno d'espressione,
2864 F: signe d'expression, indication de nuance,
2866 NL: voordrachtsteken,
2867 DK: foredragsbetegnelse,
2868 S: föredragsbeteckning,
2869 FI: nyanssiosoitus, esitysmerkki.
2871 Performance indications concerning:
2875 @item volume, dynamics (for example @ref{forte}, @ref{crescendo}),
2877 @item tempo (for example @ref{andante}, @ref{allegro}).
2883 @section extender line
2885 ES: línea de extención [de melisma, de bajo cifrado, etc.],
2887 F: ligne d'extension [de mélisme, de basse chiffrée, etc.],
2894 The generic term for a line (or dash) of arbitrary length that extends
2895 text (without indicating the musical @emph{function} of that text).
2897 Used in many contexts, for example:
2901 @item In vocal music to indicate the syllable for a melisma. Called
2902 @q{extension} in the
2903 @uref{http://www.dolmetsch.com/defse1.htm,Dolmetsch Online Music
2907 In figured (or thorough) bass to indicate that:
2911 @item The extended note should be held through a change in
2912 harmony, when applied to one figure --OR--
2914 @item The chord thus represented should be held above a moving
2915 bass line, when applied to more than one figure.
2917 @item These uses were not completely standardized, and some
2918 composers used a single extender line to indicate the
2924 In string music to indicate that all notes in the passage thus
2925 indicated should be played on the same string. On the violin, for
2926 example, a series of notes to be played on the G string would be
2927 indicated @samp{sul G}, another series to be played on the D string
2928 would be indicated @samp{sul D}, and so on.
2934 @ref{melisma}, @ref{sul G}, @ref{thorough bass}
2966 The position between the dots of the key symbol is the line of the F
2967 below central@w{ }C. Used on the third, fourth and fifth note line.
2968 A digit@w{ }8 above the clef symbol indicates that the notes must be
2969 played an octave higher (for example, bass recorder) while 8@w{ }below
2970 the clef symbol indicates playing an octave lower (for example, on
2971 double bass @ref{strings}).
2973 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
2974 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
2975 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
3003 @c F: 'point d'orgue' on a note, 'point d'arret' on a rest.
3006 @node feathered beam
3007 @section feathered beam
3011 F: liens de croches en soufflet,
3012 D: gespreizter Balken,
3018 A type of beam used to indicate that a small group of notes should be
3019 played at an increasing or decreasing tempo -- depending on the
3020 direction of @q{feathering} -- but without changing the overall tempo
3025 Internals Reference: @ruser{Manual beams}
3033 F: point d'orgue, point d'arrêt,
3038 FI: fermaatti, pidäke.
3040 Prolonged note or rest of indefinite duration.
3042 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
3045 a4 b c2^\fermata \bar "|."
3068 @section figured bass
3072 @ref{thorough bass}.
3087 The methodical use of fingers in the playing of instruments.
3094 I: coda (uncinata), bandiera,
3102 Ornament at the end of the stem of a note used for notes with values
3103 less than a quarter note. The number of flags determines the
3106 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
3107 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3108 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3153 FI: forte, voimakkaasti.
3155 Loud, abbreviated @samp{@b{f}}, @emph{fortissimo} (@samp{@b{ff}}) very loud,
3156 @emph{mezzo forte} (@samp{@b{mf}}) medium loud.
3193 @node functional harmony
3194 @section functional harmony
3196 ES: armonía funcional,
3197 I: armonia funzionale,
3198 F: étude des functions,
3200 NL: functionele harmonie,
3201 DK: funktionsanalyse, funktionsharmonik,
3203 FI: harmoniajärjestelmä.
3205 A system of harmonic analysis. It is based on the idea that, in a
3206 given key, there are only three functionally different chords: tonic
3207 (T, the chord on the first note of the scale), subdominant (S, the
3208 chord on the fourth note), and dominant (D, the chord on the fifth
3209 note). Others are considered to be variants of the base chords.
3211 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3212 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3214 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3215 <g e c >1 < a f d > < b g e >
3216 <c a f > < d b g > < e c a > < f d b > }
3217 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3218 T Sp Dp S D Tp \markup{ D\translate #(cons -2 0) {"|"} } }
3246 D: G-Schlüssel, Violinschlüssel,
3252 A clef symbol indicating the G above middle@w{ }C. Used on the first
3253 and second note lines. A digit 8 above the clef symbol indicates that
3254 the notes must be played an octave higher while 8 below the clef
3255 symbol indicates playing or singing an octave lower (most tenor parts
3256 in choral scores are notated like that).
3258 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
3260 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3261 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
3264 \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
3274 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3275 \override Lyrics . LyricText #'X-offset = #-5
3276 "french violin clef"
3295 FI: glissando, liukuen.
3297 Letting the pitch slide fluently from one note to the other.
3301 @section grace notes
3303 ES: notas de adorno,
3306 D: Verzierungen, Vorschläge, Vor@-schlags@-noten,
3312 Notes printed in small types to indicate that their time values are not
3313 counted in the rhythm of the bar.
3317 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes},
3322 @section grand staff
3324 ES: sistema de piano,
3327 D: Akkolade, Klaviersystem,
3330 S: ackolad, böjd klammer,
3331 FI: kaksoisnuottiviivasto.
3333 A combination of two staves with a brace. Usually used for piano music.
3350 FI: grave, raskaasti.
3375 Letter name used for @samp{B natural} in German and Scandinavian
3376 usage. In the standard usage of these countries, @samp{B} means
3381 @ref{Pitch names}, @ref{B}
3391 D: Halbe, halbe Note,
3405 ES: silencio de blanca,
3420 @node harmonic cadence
3421 @section harmonic cadence
3423 ES: cadencia (armónica),
3424 I: cadenza (armonica),
3425 F: cadence harmonique,
3427 NL: harmonische cadens,
3428 DK: harmonisk kadence,
3429 S: (harmonisk) kadens,
3430 FI: harmoninen kadenssi.
3432 A sequence of chords that terminates a musical phrase or section.
3434 @ref{functional harmony}.
3436 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
3437 \context PianoStaff <<
3438 \context Staff = SA \relative c'' {
3442 \partial 4 < c g e >4 |
3443 < c a f > < b g d > < c g e >2
3446 \context Staff = SB \relative c {
3448 \partial 4 c4 | f, g c2
3466 D: Harmonie, Zusammenklang,
3470 FI: harmonia, yhteissointi.
3472 Tones sounding simultaneously. Two note harmonies fall into the
3473 categories @emph{consonances} and @emph{dissonances}.
3477 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3478 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3479 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3480 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3493 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3494 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3495 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3496 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3497 <g a>1_"second " s s
3498 <g f'>_"seventh " s s
3503 Three note harmony @ref{chord}.
3518 [From Greek: in Latin, @emph{sesquialtera}] The ratio 3:2. Refers to
3519 the use of three notes of equal value in the time normally occupied by
3520 of two notes of equal value. The resulting rhythm can be expressed in
3521 modern terms as a substitution (for example) of a bar in 3/2 for one
3522 of 6/4, or of a bar in 3/4 for one of 6/8. During the Baroque era,
3523 hemiola is most frequently as a special effect (or @emph{affect}) at
3526 @c TODO: prepare example - {\time 6/4 c2. c2. | c2 c c} or
3527 @c cont'd: {\time 6/4 c2. c2. | \time 3/2 c2 c2 c2 }
3531 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}
3544 FI: homofonia, yksiäänisyys.
3546 Music in which one voice leads melodically followed by the other
3547 voices more or less in the same rhythm. In contrast to
3561 FI: intervalli, kahden sävelen korkeusero.
3563 Difference in pitch between two notes. Intervals may be perfect,
3564 minor, major, diminished, or augmented. The augmented fourth and the
3565 diminished fifth are identical (@ref{enharmonic}) and are called
3566 @emph{tritonus} because they consist of three @ref{whole tone}s. The
3567 addition of such two intervals forms an octave.
3569 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3570 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3572 \context Voice \relative c'' {
3582 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3583 "unison " "second " "second " "second "
3584 "third " "third " "third " "third"
3589 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3590 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3592 \context Staff \relative c'' {
3603 "fourth " "fourth " "fifth " "fifth "
3604 "sixth " "sixth " "sixth " "sixth"
3609 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3610 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3612 \context Staff \relative c'' {
3613 < gis f'! >1^"dimin"
3622 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
3623 "seventh " "seventh " "seventh " "octave "
3624 "ninth " "ninth " "tenth " "tenth"
3630 @node inverted interval
3631 @section inverted interval
3633 ES: intervalo invertido,
3634 I: intervallo rivolto,
3635 F: intervalle reversé,
3636 D: umgekehrtes Intervall,
3637 NL: interval inversie,
3638 DK: omvendingsinterval,
3639 S: intervallets omvändning,
3640 FI: käänteisintervalli.
3642 The difference between an interval and an octave.
3644 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3645 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3646 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
3647 \context Staff \relative c'' {
3648 < g a >1_"second " s s < g' a, >_"seventh " s s \bar "||"
3649 < g, b >_"third " s s < g' b, >_"sixth " s s \bar "||"
3650 < g, c >_"fourth " s s < g' c, >_"fifth " s s \bar "||"
3655 @node just intonation
3656 @section just intonation
3658 ES: entonación justa,
3659 I: intonazione giusta,
3660 F: intonation juste,
3667 Tuning system in which the notes are obtained by adding and subtracting
3668 natural fifths and thirds.
3685 According to the 12@w{ }tones of the @ref{chromatic scale}
3686 there are 12@w{ }keys, one on@w{ }c, one on c-sharp, etc.
3690 @ref{key signature}.
3694 @section key signature
3696 ES: armadura (de la clave),
3697 I: armatura di chiave,
3698 F: armure, armature [de la clé],
3699 D: Vorzeichen, Tonart,
3700 NL: toon@-soort (voortekens),
3703 FI: sävellajiosoitus.
3705 The sharps or flats appearing at the beginning of each staff indicating the
3711 @node laissez vibrer
3712 @section laisser vibrer
3723 [From French] "Let vibrate". Most frequently associated with harp
3724 parts. Marked @samp{l.v.} in the score.
3733 D: Largo, Langsam, Breit,
3737 FI: largo, hitaasti, leveästi.
3739 Very slow in tempo, usually combined with great
3740 expressiveness. @emph{Larghetto} is less slow than largo.
3744 @section leading note
3755 The seventh @ref{scale degree}, a @ref{semitone} below the tonic; so
3756 called because of its strong tendency to @q{lead up} (resolve upwards)
3757 to the tonic scale degree.
3761 @section ledger line
3763 ES: línea adicional,
3764 I: tagli addizionali,
3765 F: ligne supplémentaire,
3772 A ledger line is an extension of the staff.
3774 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
3775 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3776 \relative c'' { a,1 s c'' }
3786 D: legato, gebunden,
3792 To be performed (a) without any perceptible interruption between the
3793 notes, unlike (b) @emph{leggiero} or @emph{non-legato}, (c)
3794 @emph{portato}, and (d) @ref{staccato}.
3796 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
3797 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3799 \context Staff \relative c'' {
3800 c4-( d e-) \bar "||"
3801 c4-- d-- e-- \bar "||"
3802 c4-.-( d-. e-.-) \bar "||"
3803 c4-. d-. e-. \bar "||"
3816 @section legato curve
3820 @ref{slur}, @ref{legato}.
3834 ES: estanque de nenúfares,
3835 I: stagno del giglio,
3839 NL: le@-lie@-vij@-ver,
3844 A pond with lilies floating in it, also the name of a music typesetter.
3859 A ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that represents at least two
3860 distinct notes. Ligatures originally appeared in the manuscripts of
3861 Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th century to denote
3862 ascending or descending sequences of notes. In early notation,
3863 ligatures were used for monophonic tunes (Gregorian chant) and very
3864 soon denoted also the way of performance in the sense of articulation.
3865 With the invention of the metric system of the white mensural
3866 notation, the need for ligatures to denote such patterns disappeared.
3875 D: Linie, Notenlinie,
3879 FI: viiva, nuottiviiva.
3886 @node long appoggiatura
3887 @section long appoggiatura
3889 ES: apoyatura larga,
3890 I: appoggiatura lunga,
3891 F: appoggiature longue,
3896 FI: pitkä appoggiatura, pitkä etuhele.
3915 Note value: double length of @ref{breve}.
3917 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
3918 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
3920 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
3933 ES: letra (de la canción),
3936 D: Liedtext, Gesangtext,
3955 @c TODO: add languages
3962 @node major interval
3963 @section major interval
3965 ES: intervalo mayor,
3966 I: intervallo maggiore,
3967 F: intervalle majeur,
3968 D: großes Intervall,
3972 FI: suuri intervalli.
3993 @ref{diatonic scale}.
3996 @node meantone temperament
3997 @section meantone temperament
3999 ES: afinación mesotónica,
4000 I: accordatura mesotonica,
4001 F: tempérament mésotonique,
4002 D: mitteltönige Stimmung,
4003 NL: middenstemming, middentoonstemming,
4004 DK: middeltonetemperatur,
4005 S: medeltonstemperatur,
4006 FI: keskisävelviritys.
4008 Temperament yielding acoustically pure thirds by decreasing the
4009 natural fifth by 16@w{ }@ref{cent}s. Due to the non-circular
4010 character of this @ref{temperament} only a limited set of keys are
4011 playable. Used for tuning keyboard instruments for performance of
4027 A group of @ref{beat}s (units of musical time) the first of which
4028 bears an accent. Such groups in numbers of two or more recur
4029 consistently throughout the composition and are marked from each other
4039 I: mediante, modale,
4049 @item The third @b{scale degree}.
4051 @item A @ref{chord} having its base tone a third from that of another
4052 chord. For example, the tonic chord may be replaced by its lower
4053 mediant (variant tonic).
4058 @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{relative key}.
4068 FI: melisma, laulettavan tavun sävelkuvio.
4070 A melisma (plural, from Greek: melismata) is a group of notes or tones
4071 sung on one syllable, especially as applied to liturgical chant.
4075 @section melisma line
4077 @c TODO: add languages
4081 @ref{extender line}.
4084 @node melodic cadence
4085 @section melodic cadence
4092 @node mensural notation
4093 @section mensural notation
4095 @c FIXME: add languages
4106 @c TODO: add definition (inc. info on proportional notation)
4108 @c FIXME: add cross-references.
4116 F: indication de mesure, mesure,
4123 The basic pattern of @ref{note value}s and @ref{accent}s that remains
4124 unaltered throughout a composition or a section of it. Meters can be
4125 @emph{duple} or @emph{triple} depending on how the beat is grouped in
4126 the composition (or in sections thereof):
4130 @item In duple meters, the beat recurs in groups of two.
4132 @item In triple meters, the beat recurs in groups of three.
4136 Other recurrence patterns are possible:
4140 @item Quadruple meter: groups of four. A special case of duple meter.
4142 @item Quintuple meter: groups of five
4144 @item Sextuple meter: groups of six. A special case of:
4147 @item Duple meter, subdivided in three (less frequent); or
4148 @item Triple meter, subdivided in two (more frequent).
4151 @item Septuple meter: groups of seven.
4157 Other than quadruple and sextuple meters, these other recurrence
4158 patterns were not frequently used prior to the 20th Century.
4160 In addition to classification by @emph{tactus}, meters can be further
4161 classified by how the tactus is subdivided: in two, the meter is
4162 @emph{simple}; in three, the meter is @emph{compound}.
4169 @item duple: 2/2, 2/4, 2/8
4170 @item triple: 3/2, 3/4, 3/8
4171 @item quadruple: 4/2, 4/4 (also called common time), 4/8
4174 @item Compound meter
4179 @item quadruple: 12/8
4184 Time signatures are placed at the beginning of a composition (or
4185 section) to indicate the meter. For instance, a piece written in
4186 simple triple meter with a beat on each quarter note has a time
4191 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4195 c4. d8 | e4 d | f e | d8 b c4 \bar "||"}
4198 Simple triple meter:
4200 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4204 c es d8 c | d4 b g | d' f es8 d | es d c2 \bar "||"}
4207 Simple quadruple meter (French folk tune, @emph{Au clair de la lune}):
4209 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4213 g4 g g a | b2 a | g4 b a a | g1 \bar "||"}
4216 Simple quintuple meter (B. Marcello, 1686-1739):
4218 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4222 r4 cis8 bis ais4 dis c8 ais |
4223 aes4 bes8 aes ges4 aes f8 es \bar "||"}
4226 Compound duple meter:
4228 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4232 f8 f g a bes16 a g f |
4233 g8 g bes a c16 a bes g
4237 Compound triple meter (J.S. Bach, 1685-1750):
4239 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4243 r8 g( a) b( d c) c( e d) |
4244 d( c fis) g( d b) g( a b)
4248 Compound quadruple meter (P. Yon, 1886-1943):
4250 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4254 b8.( a16) gis8 a8.( gis16) fis8 gis8.( fis16) e8 fis4 b,8 |
4255 e4 e8 fis( gis) a b4.~ b4 b8
4261 @ref{hemiola}, @ref{time signature}
4276 Device indicating the exact tempo of a piece.
4280 @ref{metronomic indication}.
4283 @node metronomic indication
4284 @section metronomic indication
4286 ES: indicación metronómica,
4287 I: indicazione metronomica,
4288 F: indication métronomique,
4290 NL: metronoom aanduiding,
4292 S: metronomangivelse,
4293 FI: metronomiosoitus.
4295 Exact tempo indication (in beats per minute). Also denoted by
4296 M.M.@: (Mälzels Metronom).
4300 @section mezzo-soprano
4311 The female voice between @ref{soprano} and @ref{contralto}.
4320 D: eingestrichenes@w{ }c,
4322 DK: enstreget@w{ }c,
4323 S: ettstruket@w{ }c,
4326 First C below the 440 Hz A.
4328 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
4329 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4330 \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
4353 @ref{diatonic scale}.
4356 @node minor interval
4357 @section minor interval
4359 ES: intervalo menor,
4360 I: intervallo minore,
4361 F: intervalle mineur,
4362 D: kleines Intervall,
4366 FI: pieni intervalli.
4379 D: Kirchentonart, Modus,
4383 FI: moodi, kirkkosävelasteikko.
4387 @ref{church mode}, @ref{diatonic scale}.
4400 FI: modulaatio, sävellajin vaihdos.
4402 Moving from one @ref{key} to another. For example, the second subject
4403 of a @ref{sonata form} movement modulates to the dominant key if the
4404 key is major and to the @ref{relative key} if the key is minor.
4416 FI: mordent, korukuvio.
4441 FI: teema, sävelaihe.
4443 The briefest intelligible and self-contained fragment of a musical
4446 @lilypond[line-width=13.0\cm]
4449 \set Score.implicitTimeSignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
4450 \override Score.TimeSignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible
4453 \partial 8 g16\startGroup fis |
4454 g8\stopGroup d16\startGroup c d8\stopGroup g16 fis g8 b,16 a b8 g'16 fis |
4455 g8 g,16 a b8 cis d16 s
4459 \Staff \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
4477 Greater musical works like @ref{symphony} and @ref{sonata} most often
4478 consist of several -- more or less -- independant pieces called
4482 @node multi-measure rest
4483 @section multi-measure rest
4485 ES: compases de espera,
4489 D: mehrtaktige Pause, Kirchenpause,
4492 FI: usean tahdin mittainen tauko.
4494 Multi-measure rests are conventionally typeset with a combination of
4495 longa, breve and whole rests for shorter and a long horizontal bar for
4496 longer spans of rest, with a number above to indicate the duration (in
4497 measures) of the rest. The former style is called @q{Kirchenpausen} in
4498 German, as a reminiscence of its use in Renaissance vocal polyphony.
4500 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
4503 \set Score.skipBars = ##t R1*3
4505 \set Score.skipBars = ##t R1*122
4512 @ref{longa}, @ref{breve}.
4515 @node mixolydian mode
4516 @section mixolydian mode
4520 @ref{diatonic scale}.
4529 D: Auflösungszeichen,
4530 NL: herstellingsteken,
4531 DK: op@-løsningstegn,
4532 S: återställningstecken,
4540 @node neighbour tones
4541 @section neighbour tones
4545 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes},
4586 Notes are signs by means of which music is fixed in writing. The term is also
4587 used for the sound indicated by a note, and even for the key of the piano
4588 which produces the sound. However, a clear distinction between the terms tone
4589 and @ref{note} is strongly recommended. Briefly, one sees a note,
4597 I: testa, testina, capocchia,
4605 A head-like sign which indicates pitch by its position on a
4606 @ref{staff} provided with a @ref{clef}, and duration
4607 by a variety of shapes such as hollow or black heads with or without
4608 @ref{stem}s, @ref{flag}s, etc. For percussion
4609 instruments (often having no defined pitch) the note head may indicate the
4622 ES: valor (duración),
4624 F: durée, valeur (d'une note),
4629 FI: nuotin aika-arvo.
4631 Note values (durations) are measured as fractions, normally 1/2, of
4632 the next higher note value. The longest duration normally used is
4633 called @emph{brevis}, but sometimes (mostly in pre-baroque music) the
4634 double-length note value @emph{longa} or the quadruple-length note
4635 value @emph{maxima} are used.
4637 @c TODO -- add maxima to this example, in a way that doesn't break it.
4639 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4640 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4641 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4643 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
4644 a\longa_"longa" a\breve_"breve"
4645 \revert NoteHead #'style
4646 a1_"1/1" a2_"1/2" a4_"1/4" s16 a8_"1/8" s16
4647 a16_"1/16" s16 a32_"1/32" s16 a64_"1/64" s32 }
4650 @c TODO -- add maxima rest to this example
4652 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
4653 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4654 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
4656 r\longa_"longa" r\breve_"breve"
4657 r1_"1/1" r2_"1/2" r4_"1/4" s16 r8_"1/8" s16
4658 r16_"1/16" s16 r32_"1/32" s16 r64_"1/64" s32 }
4661 An augmentation dot after a note multiplies the duration by one and a
4662 half. Another dot adds yet a fourth of the duration.
4664 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4665 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4668 g4._"pointed" g8 g2 | g4 ~ g8 g g2 \bar "||"
4669 g4.._"double pointed" g16 g2 | g4 ~ g8 ~ g16 g g2 \bar "||" }
4672 Alternatively note values may be subdivided by other ratios. Most common is
4673 subdivision by@w{ }3 (@emph{triplets}) and@w{ }5 (@emph{quintuplets}).
4674 Subdivisions by@w{ }2 (@emph{duplets}) or@w{ }4 (@emph{quadruplets}) of
4675 dotted notes are also frequently used.
4677 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4678 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4681 \times 2/3 {g8_"triplets" g g} g4 g8 g g4 \bar "||"
4682 \times 2/5 {g8_"quintuplets" g g g g} g4 g8 g g4 \bar "||"
4686 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4689 \times 3/2 {g4_"duplets" g} |
4691 \times 6/4 {g8_"quadruplets" g g g} |
4692 g8 g g g g4 \bar "||"
4698 @section octave sign
4702 @ref{G clef}, @ref{F clef}.
4719 @ref{ottava}, @ref{interval}.
4726 I: abbellimento, fioriture,
4727 F: agrément, ornement,
4728 D: Verzierung, Ornament,
4734 Most commonly used is the @emph{trill}, the rapid alternation of a given note
4735 with the diatonic @ref{second} above it. In the music from the
4736 middle of the 19th century and onwards the trill is performed with the main
4737 note first while in the music from the preceding baroque and classic periods
4738 the upper note is played first.
4740 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4742 \context Staff = sa {
4743 % \override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4745 c2._"pre-1850" b4\trill | c1 \bar "||"
4746 c2._"post-1850" b4\trill | c1 \bar "||"
4750 c2. c32 b c b c b c b | c1
4751 c2. b32 c b c \times 4/5 { b c b c b } | c1
4756 Other frequently used ornaments are the @emph{turn}, the @emph{mordent}, and
4758 @emph{prall} (inverted mordent).
4760 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
4762 \context Staff = sa {
4763 % \override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
4765 a4_"turn" b\turn c2 \bar "||"
4766 g4_"mordent" a b\mordent a \bar "||"
4767 e'4_"prall" d\prall c2 \bar "||"
4773 e'4 e32[ d e d ~ d8] c2
4780 @ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes}.
4793 FI: ossia, vaihtoehtoinen esitystapa.
4795 Ossia (otherwise) marks an alternative. It is an added staff or piano
4796 score, usually only a few measures long, which presents another version
4797 of the music, for example for small hands.
4803 @c TODO: translations
4814 [From Italian] The interval of an octave, abbreviated 8va.
4816 @emph{All'ottava}, @emph{ottava alta}, @emph{ottava sopra}, or
4817 @emph{8va} written above a passage indicates that it should be played
4818 an octave higher than written. @emph{Ottava bassa}, @emph{ottava
4819 sotto}, or @emph{8va} written below a passage indicates that it should
4820 be played an octave lower than written.
4837 FI: stemma, instrumenttiosuus.
4841 @item In instrumental or choral music, the music for a single
4842 instrument or voice.
4844 @item in contrapuntal music, a single melodic line in the contrapuntal
4876 D: Schlagzeug, Schlagwerk,
4882 A family of musical instruments which are played on by striking or
4883 shaking. Percussion instruments commonly used in a symphony orchestra are
4884 kettledrums (I: @emph{timpani}, D: @emph{Pauken}), snare drum, bass drum,
4885 tambourine, cymbals, chinese gong (tam-tam), triangle, celesta, glockenspiel,
4889 @node perfect interval
4890 @section perfect interval
4892 ES: intervalo justo,
4893 I: intervallo giusto,
4894 F: intervalle juste,
4895 D: reines Intervall,
4899 FI: puhdas intervalli.
4918 A natural division of the melodic line, comparable to a sentence of speech.
4931 FI: fraseeraus, jäsentäminen.
4933 The clear rendering in musical performance of the @ref{phrase}s of
4934 the melody. Phrasing may be indicated by a @ref{slur}.
4942 F: anacrouse, levée,
4966 @emph{piano} (@b{p}) soft, @emph{pianissimo} (@b{pp}) very soft,
4967 @emph{mezzo piano} (@b{mp}) medium soft.
4990 NL: pizzicato, getokkeld,
4993 FI: pizzicato, näppäillen.
4995 Abbr. @emph{pizz}. Play by plucking the strings. (Technique for
4996 stringed instruments.)
5011 The simultaneous use of two or more meters. The term is sometimes
5012 applied to the @emph{successive} use of different meters in one or
5017 @ref{polymetric} (adj.)
5032 Using two or more metric frameworks simultaneously or in regular
5037 @ref{polymeter} (noun)
5040 @node polymetric time signature
5041 @section polymetric time signature
5052 Time signature indicating regularly alternating polymetric time.
5065 D: Polyphonie, Mehrstimmigkeit,
5069 FI: polyfonia, moniäänisyys.
5071 Music written in a combination of several simultaneous voices (parts)
5072 of a more or less pronounced individuality.
5091 D: Presto, Sehr schnell,
5092 NL: presto, Sehr schnell,
5095 FI: presto, hyvin nopeasti.
5097 Very quick, i.e., quicker than @ref{allegro}; @emph{prestissimo}
5098 denotes the highest possible degree of speed.
5113 [From Latin @emph{proportio}] In mensural notation, a ratio that
5114 expresses the relationship between the note values that follow with
5115 those that precede; or between the note values of a passage and an
5116 assumed @q{normal} relationship of note values to the metrical pulse.
5118 @c TODO: add an example or two. O => 4/3, and its modern equivalent
5122 @ref{mensural notation}
5125 @node Pythagorean comma
5126 @section Pythagorean comma
5128 ES: coma pitagórica,
5129 I: comma pitagorico,
5130 F: comma pythagoricien,
5131 D: Pythagoräisches Komma,
5132 NL: komma van Pythagoras,
5133 DK: pythagoræisk komma,
5134 S: pytagoreiskt komma,
5135 FI: pytagorinen komma.
5137 A sequence of fifths starting on@w{ }C eventually circles back to@w{ }C,
5138 but this@w{ }C, obtained by adding 12@w{ }fifths, is
5139 24 @ref{cent}s higher than the@w{ }C obtained by adding
5140 7@w{ }octaves. The difference between those two pitches is called the
5162 @section quarter note
5165 I: semiminima, nera,
5168 D: Viertel, Viertelnote,
5172 FI: neljännesosanuotti.
5180 @section quarter rest
5182 ES: silencio de negra,
5183 I: pausa di semiminima,
5188 DK:@w{ }fjerdedelspause,
5190 FI: neljännesosatauko.
5200 ES: cinquillo, quintillo.
5215 @section rallentando
5220 D: rallentando, langsamer werden,
5224 FI: rallerdando, hidastuen.
5226 Abbreviation "rall.".
5232 @section relative key
5235 I: tonalità relativa,
5236 F: tonalité relative,
5238 NL: paralleltoonsoort,
5239 DK: paralleltoneart,
5241 FI: rinnakkaissävellaji.
5243 @ref{major} and @ref{minor} @ref{key}s with the same @ref{key signature}.
5245 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5246 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5247 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5250 es1_"e flat major" f g as bes c d es
5255 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5256 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5257 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5260 c1_"c minor" d es f g a! b! c \bar "||"
5270 F: barre de reprise,
5273 DK: gen@-ta@-gel@-se,
5277 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
5281 \repeat volta 2 {g4 g d' d | e e d2 | c4 c b b | a a g2 }
5298 @c F: 'pause' if you mean a whole rest, 'silence' if you do not want to
5299 @c specify the rest's value.
5320 @item Metrical rhythm in which every time value is a multiple or
5321 fraction of a fixed unit of time, called @ref{beat}, and in which the
5322 normal @ref{accent} recurs in regular intervals, called @ref{measure}.
5323 The basic scheme of time values is called @ref{meter}.
5325 @item Measured rhythm which lacks regularly recurrent accent. In
5326 modern notation such music appears as a free alternation of different
5329 @item Free rhythm, i.e., the use of temporal values having no common
5330 metrical unit (beat).
5341 D: ritardando, langsamer werden,
5345 FI: ritardando, hidastuen,
5347 Gradually slackening in speed. Mostly abbreviated to rit.@: or ritard.
5360 FI: ritenuto, hidastaen.
5362 Immediate reduction of speed.
5375 FI: asteikko, sävelasteikko.
5379 @ref{diatonic scale}.
5383 @section scale degree
5385 ES: grado (de la escala),
5386 I: grado della scala,
5387 F: degré [de la gamme],
5389 NL: trap [van de toonladder],
5392 FI: sävelaste, asteikon sävel.
5394 Names and symbols used in harmonic analysis to denote tones of the
5395 scale as roots of chords. The most important are degrees I = tonic
5396 (T), IV = sub@-do@-mi@-nant (S) and V = dominant (D).
5398 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5399 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5401 \context Staff \relative c' {
5405 << { I II III IV V VI VII I }
5413 @ref{functional harmony}.
5421 F: à cordes ravallées,
5428 [From Italian, @emph{scordare}, @q{to mistune}.] Unconventional
5429 tuning of stringed instruments, particularly lutes or violins. Used
5434 @item facilitate pitch combinations that would otherwise be difficult
5437 @item alter the characteristic timbre of the instrument, for example,
5438 to increase brilliance)
5440 @item reinforce certain sonorities or tonalities by making them
5441 available on open strings
5443 @item imitate other instruments
5449 Tunings that could be called @var{scordatura} first appeared early in
5450 the 16th Century and became commonplace in the 17th.
5459 D: Partitur (full score), Klavierauszug (vocal score),
5465 A copy of orchestral, choral, or chamber music showing what each
5466 instrument is to play, each voice to sing, having each part arranged
5467 one underneath the other on different staves @ref{staff}.
5482 The @ref{interval} between two neigbouring tones of a scale. A
5483 @ref{diatonic scale} consists of alternating @ref{semitone}s and
5484 @ref{whole tone}s, hence the size of a se@-cond depends on the scale
5485 degrees in question.
5500 The @ref{interval} of a minor second. The (usually) smallest interval
5501 in European composed music. The interval between two neighbouring
5502 tones on the piano keyboard -- including black and white keys -- is a
5503 semitone. An octave may be divided into 12@w{ }semitones.
5504 @ref{interval}, @ref{chromatic scale}.
5506 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5507 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5508 \relative c'' { g1 gis s a bes s b! c }
5534 @ref{sextuplet}, @ref{note value}.
5580 @section simple meter
5592 A meter in which the basic beat is subdivided in two: that is, a meter
5593 that does not include triplet subdivision of the beat.
5597 @ref{compound meter}, @ref{meter}.
5600 @node sixteenth note
5601 @section sixteenth note
5607 D: Sechzehntel, Sechzehntelnote,
5608 NL: zes@-ti@-ende noot,
5609 DK: sekstendedelsnode,
5611 FI: kuudestoistaosanuotti.
5618 @node sixteenth rest
5619 @section sixteenth rest
5621 ES: silencio de semicorchea,
5622 I: pausa di semicroma,
5624 UK: semiquaver rest,
5625 D: Sechzehntelpause,
5627 DK: sekstendedelspause,
5653 @node sixty-fourth note
5654 @section sixty-fourth note
5658 F: quadruple croche,
5659 UK: hemidemisemiquaver,
5660 D: Vierundsechzigstel, Vierundsechzigstelnote,
5661 NL: vierenzestigste noot,
5662 DK: fi@-re@-og@-tred@-sinds@-ty@-ven@-de@-dels@-no@-de,
5663 S: sextiofjärdedelsnot,
5664 FI: kuudeskymmenesneljäsosanuotti.
5671 @node sixty-fourth rest
5672 @section sixty-fourth rest
5674 ES: silencio de semifusa,
5675 I: pausa di semibiscroma,
5676 F: seizième de soupir,
5677 UK: hemidemisemiquaver rest,
5678 D: Vierundsechzigstelpause,
5679 NL: vierenzestigste rust,
5680 DK: fi@-re@-og@-tred@-sinds@-ty@-ven@-de@-dels@-pau@-se,
5681 S: sextiofjärdedelspaus,
5682 FI: kuudeskymmenesneljäsosatauko.
5692 ES: ligadura (de expresión),
5693 I: legatura (di portamento or espressiva),
5695 D: Bogen (Legatobogen, Phrasierungsbogen),
5696 NL: fraseringsboog, legatoboog, streekboog,
5697 DK: legatobue, fraseringsbue,
5701 A slur above or below a group of notes indicates that they are to be
5702 played @ref{legato}, e.g., with one stroke of the violin bow or with
5703 one breath in singing.
5707 @section solmization
5716 FI: suhteelliset laulunimet.
5718 General term for systems of designating the degrees of the
5719 @ref{scale}, not by letters, but by syllables (@emph{do} (@emph{ut}),
5720 @emph{re}, @emph{mi}, @emph{fa}, @emph{sol}, @emph{la}, @emph{si}
5738 In its present-day meaning a sonata denotes an instrumental
5739 composition for piano or for some other instrument with piano
5740 accompaniment, which consists of three or four independant pieces,
5745 @section sonata form
5749 F: [en] forme de sonate,
5751 NL: hoofdvorm, sonatevorm,
5756 A form used frequently for single movements of the @ref{sonata},
5757 @ref{symphony}, quartet, etc. A movement written in sonata form falls
5758 into three sections called @emph{exposition}, @emph{development} and
5759 @emph{recapitulation}. In the exposition the composer introduces some
5760 musical ideas, consisting of a number of themes; in the development
5761 section the composer @q{develops} this material, and in the
5762 recapitulation the composer repeats the exposition, with certain
5763 modifications. The exposition contains a number of themes that fall
5764 into two groups, often called first and second subject. Other
5765 melodies occurring in each group are considered as continuations of
5766 these two. The second theme is in another key, normally in the key of
5767 the @ref{dominant} if the @ref{tonic} is @ref{major}, and in the
5768 @ref{relative key} if the tonic is @ref{minor}.
5789 FI: sopraano, korkea naisääni.
5791 The highest female voice.
5799 F: staccato, piqué, détaché,
5804 FI: staccato, lyhyesti, terävästi.
5806 Playing the note(s) short. Staccato is indicated by a dot above or
5807 below the note head.
5809 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
5814 d4-\staccato cis-\staccato b-\staccato cis-\staccato |
5824 I: pentagramma, rigo (musicale),
5826 D: Notensystem, Notenzeile,
5827 NL: (noten)balk, partij,
5832 A staff (plural: staves) is a series of (normally five) horizontal
5833 lines upon and between which the musical notes are written, thus
5834 indicating (in connection with a @ref{clef}) their pitch. Staves for
5835 @ref{percussion} instruments may have fewer lines.
5852 D: Hals, Notenhals, Stiel,
5858 Vertical line above or below a @ref{note head} shorter than a
5863 @lilypond[fragment,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
5864 \set Score.autoBeaming = ##f
5865 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
5866 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
5888 A family of stringed musical instruments played with a bow. Strings
5889 commonly used in a symphony orchestra are violin, viola, violoncello,
5894 @section strong beat
5899 D: betonter Taktteil oder Taktschlag,
5901 D: betonet taktslag,
5902 S: betonat taktslag,
5903 FI: tahdin vahva isku.
5907 @ref{beat}, @ref{accent}, @ref{measure}, @ref{rhythm}.
5911 @section subdominant
5920 FI: subdominantti, alidominantti.
5922 The fourth @ref{scale degree}.
5924 @ref{functional harmony}.
5939 The sixth @ref{scale degree}.
5952 FI: subtoonika, alitoonika.
5954 The seventh @ref{scale degree}.
5963 D: auf G, auf der G-Saite,
5969 Indicates that the indicated passage (or note) should be played on the
5974 @section superdominant
5985 The sixth @ref{scale degree}.
6000 The second @ref{scale degree}.
6009 D: Sinfonie, Symphonie,
6015 A symphony may be defined as a @ref{sonata} for orchestra.
6019 @section syncopation
6030 Any deliberate upsetting of the normal pulse of @ref{meter},
6031 @ref{accent}, and @ref{rhythm}. The occidental system of musical
6032 rhythm rests upon the grouping of equal beats into groups of two or
6033 three, with a regularly recurrent accent on the first beat of each
6034 group. Any deviation from this scheme is felt as a disturbance or
6035 contradiction between the underlaying (normal) pulse and the actual
6038 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right]
6043 e c'4 e,8 c'4 e,8 c' ( | c2)
6048 @node syntonic comma
6049 @section syntonic comma
6052 I: comma sintonico (o didimico),
6053 F: comma syntonique,
6054 D: syntonisches Komma,
6055 NL: syntonische komma,
6056 DK: syntonisk komma,
6057 S: syntoniskt komma,
6058 FI: syntoninen komma, terssien taajuusero luonnollisessa ja
6059 Pytagorisessa viritysjärjestelmässä.
6061 Difference between the natural third and the third obtained by
6062 Pythagorean tuning (@ref{Pythagorean comma}), equal to 22@w{ }cents.
6071 D: Notensystem, Partitur,
6075 FI: nuottijärjestelmä.
6077 The collection of staves (@ref{staff}), two or more, as used for writing
6078 down of keyboard, chamber, choral, or orchestral music.
6082 @section temperament
6087 D: Stimmung, Tem@-pe@-ra@-tur,
6088 NL: stemming, temperatuur,
6091 FI: viritysjärjestelmä.
6093 Systems of tuning in which the intervals deviate from the acoustically
6096 @ref{meantone temperament}, @ref{equal temperament}.
6099 @node tempo indication
6100 @section tempo indication
6102 ES: indicación de tempo,
6103 I: indicazione di tempo,
6104 F: indication de tempo,
6105 D: Zeitmaß, Tempobezeichnung,
6106 NL: tempo aanduiding,
6111 The rate of speed of a composition or a section thereof, ranging from
6112 the slowest to the quickest, as is indicated by tempo marks as
6113 @ref{largo}, @ref{adagio}, @ref{andante}, @ref{allegro}, and
6127 FI: tenori, korkea miesääni.
6129 The highest male voice (apart from @ref{counter tenor}).
6152 ES: subrayado (tenuto),
6161 An indication that a particular note should be held for the whole
6162 length, although this can vary depending on the composer and era.
6182 @node thirty-second note
6183 @section thirty-second note
6189 D: Zweiunddreissigstel, Zweiunddreissigstelnote,
6190 NL: twee-endertig@-ste noot,
6191 DK: toogtredivtedelsnode,
6192 S: trettiotvåondelsnot,
6193 FI: kolmanneskymmeneskahdesosanuotti.
6200 @node thirty-second rest
6201 @section thirty-second rest
6203 ES: silencio de fusa,
6204 I: pausa di biscroma,
6205 F: huitième de soupir,
6206 UK: demisemiquaver rest,
6207 D: Zweiunddreissigstel@-pause,
6209 DK: toogtredivtedelspause,
6210 S: trettiotvåondelspaus,
6211 FI: kolmanneskymmeneskahdesosatauko.
6219 @section thorough bass
6222 I: basso continuo, basso numerato,
6223 F: basse chiffrée, basse continue,
6224 D: Generalbass, bezifferter Bass,
6225 NL: basso continuo, becijferde bas
6228 FI: kenraalibasso, numeroitu basso.
6230 A method of indicating an accompaniment part by the bass notes only,
6231 together with figures designating the chief @ref{interval}s and
6232 @ref{chord}s to be played above the bass notes.
6234 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
6235 \context GrandStaff <<
6236 \context Staff = lh \relative c'' {
6240 << \context Voice = rha {
6243 \context Voice = rhb {
6245 < bes g >8 as < as f > g < g es > f < d f > es | < g es >4 }
6249 \context Staff = rh \relative c' {
6252 es8 c d bes c as bes16 as g f | es4
6254 \figures { s8 <6> s <4 2> s <6> s16 s <6> <4 2> }
6263 ES: ligadura de prolongación,
6264 I: legatura (di valore),
6266 D: Haltebogen, Bindebogen,
6267 NL: overbinding, bindingsboog,
6269 S: bindebåge, överbindning,
6272 A curved line, identical in appearance with the @ref{slur}, which
6273 connects two succesive notes of the same pitch, and which has the
6274 function of uniting them into a single sound (tone) equal to the
6277 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
6278 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6279 \relative c'' { g2 ~ g4. }
6291 @node time signature
6292 @section time signature
6294 ES: indicación de compás,
6296 F: chiffrage (chiffres indicateurs), signe de valeur, indication de mesure,
6297 D: Taktangabe, Angabe der Taktart,
6300 S: taktartssignatur,
6303 The sign placed at the beginning of a composition to indicate its
6304 meter. It most often takes the form of a fraction, but a few signs
6305 derived from mensural notation and proportions are also employed.
6309 @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}.
6324 A sound of definite pitch and duration, as distinct from @emph{noise}.
6325 Tone is a primary building material of music.
6327 Music from the 20th century may be based on atonal sounds.
6342 The first @ref{scale degree}.
6346 @ref{functional harmony}.
6350 @section transposition
6361 Shifting a melody up or down in pitch, while keeping the same
6364 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
6369 d4 g,8 a b c | d4 g, g | e' c8 d e fis | g4 g, g \bar "|."
6374 @lilypond[fragment,line-width=13.0\cm]
6377 \transpose c bes \relative c'' {
6379 d4 g,8 a b c | d4 g, g | e' c8 d e fis | g4 g, g \bar "|."
6386 @section treble clef
6389 I: chiave di violino,
6391 D: Violinschlüssel, Sopranschlüssel,
6393 DK:@w{ }diskantnøgle,
6414 On stringed instruments (@ref{strings}) the quick reiteration of the
6415 same tone, produced by a rapid up-and-down movement of the bow (a).
6416 The term is also used for the rapid alternation (b) between two notes
6417 of a @ref{chord}, usually in the distance of a third (@ref{interval}).
6419 @lilypond[fragment,notime,ragged-right]
6420 \set Score.automaticBars = ##f
6421 %\override Score.TextScript #'font-style = #'large
6424 f:32 [ e8:16 f:16 g:16 a:16 ] s4
6425 \repeat tremolo 8 { e32_"b" g }
6435 F: triade, accord parfait, accord de trois sons,
6452 F: trille, tremblement, battement (cadence),
6465 @section triple meter
6467 ES: compás ternario,
6470 D: in drei, ungerader Takt,
6471 NL: driedelige maatsoort,
6516 @section tuning fork
6519 I: diapason, corista,
6527 A two-pronged piece of steel used to indicate absolute pitch. Tuning
6528 forks give the international pitch for the tone @emph{a} (440
6529 vibrations per second).
6535 A non-standard subdivision of a beat or part of a beat, usually
6536 indicated with a bracket and a number indicating the number of
6541 @ref{triplet}, @ref{note value}.
6571 FI: unisono, yksiäänisesti.
6573 Playing of the same notes or the same melody by various instruments
6574 (voices) or by the whole orchestra (choir), either at exactly the same
6575 pitch or in a different octave.
6583 F: anacrouse, levée,
6605 FI: ääni, lauluääni.
6609 @item Human voices: @ref{soprano}, @ref{mezzo-soprano},
6610 @ref{contralto}, @ref{tenor}, @ref{baritone}, @ref{bass}.
6612 @item A melodic layer or part of a polyphonic composition.
6621 I: tempo debole, arsi,
6623 D: unbetonter Taktteil oder Taktschlag,
6625 DK: ubetonet taktslag,
6626 S: obetonat taktslag,
6627 FI: tahdin heikko isku.
6631 @ref{beat}, @ref{measure}, @ref{rhythm}.
6641 D: Ganze, ganze Note,
6655 ES: silencio de redonda,
6656 I: pausa di semibreve,
6659 D: ganze Pause, ganztaktige Pause,
6682 The @ref{interval} of a major second. The interval between two tones
6683 on the piano keyboard with exactly one key between them -- including
6684 black and white keys -- is a whole tone.
6699 A family of blown wooden musical instruments. Today some of these
6700 instruments are actually made from metal. The woodwind instruments
6701 commonly used in a symphony orchestra are flute, oboe, clarinet,
6702 saxophone, and bassoon.
6705 @node Duration names notes and rests
6706 @chapter Duration names, notes and rests
6709 @item DURATION NAMES, NOTES AND RESTS
6712 @multitable @columnfractions .15 .26 .33 .26
6717 @tab @strong{F (note name / rest name)}
6727 @c extra @items make this table harder to read, so I removed them.
6729 @item @strong{longa}
6742 @item @strong{breve}
6745 @tab brève / double-pause
6755 @item @strong{whole}
6765 @tab koko@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6771 @tab blanche / demi-pause
6778 @tab puoli@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6781 @item @strong{quarter}
6791 @tab neljännesosa@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6794 @item @strong{eighth}
6797 @tab croche / demi-soupir
6804 @tab kahdeksasosa@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6807 @item @strong{sixteenth}
6810 @tab double croche / quart de soupir
6817 @tab kuudestoistaosa@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6820 @item @strong{thirty-second}
6823 @tab triple croche / huitième de soupir
6825 @tab Zweiunddreissigstel
6826 @tab tweeendertigste
6827 @tab toogtredivtedel
6829 @tab trettiotvåondel
6830 @tab kolmaskymme@-neskahdesosa@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6833 @item @strong{sixty-fourth}
6834 @tab hemidemisemiquaver
6836 @tab quadruple croche / seizième de soupir
6838 @tab Vierundsechzigstel
6839 @tab vierenzestigste
6840 @tab fireogtred@-sindstyvendedel
6842 @tab sextiofjärdedel
6843 @tab kuudeskymme@-nesneljäsosa@-nuotti/@w{-tauko}
6850 @chapter Pitch names
6856 @c @multitable @columnfractions .105 .145 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125
6857 @c the extra @item's between each row makes the table hard to read ... so I removed them
6859 @multitable @columnfractions .11 .14 .14 .11 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1
6861 @c TODO -- figure out how to make _real_ table headers in TeXinfo
6863 @item @tab @strong{ES} @tab @strong{I} @tab @strong{F} @tab @strong{D}
6864 @tab @strong{NL} @tab @strong{DK} @tab @strong{S} @tab @strong{FI}
6866 @item @strong{c} @tab do @tab do @tab ut @tab C @tab c @tab c @tab c
6869 @item @strong{c-sharp} @tab do sostenido @tab do diesis @tab ut
6870 dièse @tab Cis @tab cis @tab cis @tab cis @tab cis
6872 @item @strong{d-flat} @tab re bemol @tab re bemolle @tab ré bémol
6873 @tab Des @tab des @tab des @tab des @tab des
6875 @item @strong{d} @tab re @tab re @tab ré @tab D @tab d @tab d
6878 @item @strong{e-flat} @tab mi bemol @tab mi bemolle @tab mi bémol
6879 @tab Es @tab es @tab es @tab es @tab es
6881 @item @strong{e} @tab mi @tab mi @tab mi @tab E @tab e @tab e @tab e
6884 @item @strong{f} @tab fa @tab fa @tab fa @tab F @tab f @tab f @tab f
6887 @item @strong{g} @tab sol @tab sol @tab sol @tab G @tab g @tab g
6890 @item @strong{a-flat} @tab la bemol @tab la bemolle @tab la bémol
6891 @tab As @tab as @tab as @tab as @tab as
6893 @item @strong{a} @tab la @tab la @tab la @tab A @tab a @tab a @tab a
6896 @item @strong{a-sharp} @tab la sostenido @tab la diesis @tab la
6897 dièse @tab Ais @tab ais @tab ais @tab ais @tab ais
6899 @item @strong{b-flat} @tab si bemol @tab si bemolle @tab si bémol
6900 @tab B @tab bes @tab b @tab b @tab b
6902 @item @strong{b} @tab si @tab si @tab si @tab H @tab b @tab h @tab h
6912 @node Literature used
6913 @unnumberedsec Literature used
6916 @item The Harvard Dictionary of Music, London 1944. Many
6917 more or less literal quotes from its articles have been included into
6918 the item explanation texts.
6920 @item Hugo Riemanns Musiklexicon, Berlin 1929.
6922 @item Polyglottes Wörterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie, Kassel
6925 @item Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, Third
6928 @item Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary, Springfield 1913.
6930 @item Felix Krohn, Lyhyt musiikkioppi, Porvoo, Helsinki, 1976.