1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @c This file is part of lilypond.tely
4 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
5 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
6 @c to automatically fill in these menus before saving changes
8 @node Instrument-specific notation
9 @chapter Instrument-specific notation
11 This chapter explains how to use notation for specific instruments.
21 * Other instrument specific notation::
29 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
30 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
31 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
32 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
33 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
34 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
37 * Automatic staff changes::
38 * Manual staff switches::
40 * Staff switch lines::
46 Dynamics are not centered, but workarounds do exist. See the
47 ``piano centered dynamics'' template in @ref{Piano templates}.
49 @cindex cross staff stem
50 @cindex stem, cross staff
51 @cindex distance between staves in piano music
53 The distance between the two staves is the same for all systems in the
54 score. It is possible to override this per system, but it does require
55 an arcane command incantation. See
56 @inputfileref{input/@/test,piano@/-staff@/-distance@/.ly}.
59 @node Automatic staff changes
60 @subsection Automatic staff changes
61 @cindex Automatic staff changes
63 Voices can be made to switch automatically between the top and the bottom
64 staff. The syntax for this is
68 \autochange @dots{}@var{music}@dots{}
73 This will create two staves inside the current PianoStaff, called
74 @code{up} and @code{down}. The lower staff will be in bass clef by
77 A @code{\relative} section that is outside of @code{\autochange} has
78 no effect on the pitches of @var{music}, so, if necessary, put
79 @code{\relative} inside @code{\autochange} like
83 \autochange \relative @dots{} @dots{}
88 The autochanger switches on basis of the pitch (middle C is the turning
89 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch in
90 advance. Here is a practical example
92 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
94 \autochange \relative c'
103 In this manual: @ref{Manual staff switches}.
105 Program reference: @internalsref{AutoChangeMusic}.
111 The staff switches may not end up in optimal places. For high
112 quality output, staff switches should be specified manually.
115 @code{\autochange} cannot be inside @code{\times}.
118 @node Manual staff switches
119 @subsection Manual staff switches
121 @cindex manual staff switches
122 @cindex staff switch, manual
124 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the command
126 \change Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
130 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
131 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
132 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
133 @code{"down"}. The @context{Staff} referred to must already exist, so
134 usually the setup for a score will start with a setup of the staves,
139 \skip 1 * 10 % @emph{keep staff alive}
141 \new Staff = "down" @{
142 \skip 1 * 10 % @emph{idem}
148 and the @context{Voice} is inserted afterwards
152 \new Voice @{ @dots{} \change Staff = up @dots{} @}
160 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound is produced. Generally, a
161 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
164 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
165 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
166 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
169 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
170 c'4\sustainDown c'4\sustainUp
173 What is printed can be modified by setting @code{pedal@var{X}Strings},
174 where @var{X} is one of the pedal types: @code{Sustain},
175 @code{Sostenuto} or @code{UnaCorda}. Refer to
176 @internalsref{SustainPedal} in the program reference for more
179 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
180 @code{pedalSustainStyle} property to bracket objects
182 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
183 \set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'bracket
185 b\sustainUp\sustainDown
186 b g \sustainUp a \sustainDown \bar "|."
189 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
190 obtained by setting the @code{pedalSustainStyle} property to
193 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
194 \set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'mixed
196 b\sustainUp\sustainDown
197 b g \sustainUp a \sustainDown \bar "|."
200 The default `*Ped.' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
201 style @code{#'text}. The sostenuto pedal uses @code{mixed} style by
204 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
205 c\sostenutoDown d e c, f g a\sostenutoUp
208 For fine-tuning the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
209 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
210 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (see
211 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket} in the Program reference) can be
212 modified. For example, the bracket may be extended to the right edge
215 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
216 \override Staff.PianoPedalBracket #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
217 c\sostenutoDown d e c, f g a\sostenutoUp
222 In this manual: @ref{Laissez vibrer ties}
224 @node Staff switch lines
225 @subsection Staff switch lines
229 @cindex staff switching
232 @cindex @code{followVoice}
234 Whenever a voice switches to another staff, a line connecting the notes
235 can be printed automatically. This is switched on by setting
236 @code{followVoice} to true
238 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
241 \set followVoice = ##t
246 \new Staff="two" { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
252 Program reference: @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
256 @cindex @code{\showStaffSwitch}
257 @code{\showStaffSwitch},
258 @cindex @code{\hideStaffSwitch}
259 @code{\hideStaffSwitch}.
262 @node Cross staff stems
263 @subsection Cross staff stems
265 Chords that cross staves may be produced by increasing the length
266 of the stem in the lower staff, so it reaches the stem in the upper
267 staff, or vice versa.
269 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote]
270 stemExtend = \once \override Stem #'length = #22
271 noFlag = \once \override Stem #'flag-style = #'no-flag
274 \stemDown \stemExtend
292 * Introducing chord names::
294 * Printing chord names::
298 @c awkward name; awkward section name.
299 @c still, the Basic "chords" seems like a good name... :(
300 @node Introducing chord names
301 @subsection Introducing chord names
304 LilyPond has support for printing chord names. Chords may be entered
305 in musical chord notation, i.e., @code{< .. >}, but they can also be
306 entered by name. Internally, the chords are represented as a set of
307 pitches, so they can be transposed
310 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,ragged-right]
311 twoWays = \transpose c c' {
320 << \new ChordNames \twoWays
321 \new Voice \twoWays >>
324 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
325 be intelligent. The last chord (@code{f bes d}) is not interpreted as
328 Note that the duration of chords must be specified outside the
337 @subsection Chords mode
340 In chord mode sets of pitches (chords) are entered with normal note
341 names. A chord is entered by the root, which is entered like a
344 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
345 \chordmode { es4. d8 c2 }
349 The mode is introduced by the keyword @code{\chordmode}.
354 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon and introducing a
355 modifier (which may include a number if desired)
356 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim]
357 \chordmode { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
359 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
360 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
362 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim]
363 \chordmode { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
366 @cindex root of chord
367 @cindex additions, in chords
368 @cindex removals, in chords
370 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
371 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
372 the colon and are separated by dots
373 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
374 \chordmode { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
376 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
378 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
379 \chordmode { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
381 Removals are specified similarly and are introduced by a caret. They
382 must come after the additions
383 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
384 \chordmode { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
387 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
392 The minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
395 The diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
399 The augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
402 The major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
405 The suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
406 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
410 Modifiers can be mixed with additions
411 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
412 \chordmode { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
415 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
422 Since an unaltered 11 does not sound good when combined with an
423 unaltered 3, the 11 is removed in this case (unless it is added
425 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
426 \chordmode { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
431 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
432 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
433 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord
434 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
435 \chordmode { c1 c/g c/f }
439 A bass note can be added instead transposed out of the chord,
440 by using @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
442 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
443 \chordmode { c1 c/+g c/+f }
446 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyricmode}, etc. Most
447 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
448 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and property
449 commands may be used to change various settings.
455 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
456 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
459 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment]
460 \chordmode { c:5.5-.5+ }
464 @node Printing chord names
465 @subsection Printing chord names
467 @cindex printing chord names
471 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
472 The chords may be entered either using the notation
473 described above, or directly using @code{<} and @code{>}
475 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
477 \chordmode {a1 b c} <d' f' a'> <e' g' b'>
480 \new ChordNames \harmonies
481 \new Staff \harmonies
485 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
486 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
487 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
488 the start of a new line
490 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
491 harmonies = \chordmode {
492 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
496 \set chordChanges = ##t
498 \new Staff \transpose c c' \harmonies
502 The previous examples all show chords over a staff. This is not
503 necessary. Chords may also be printed separately. It may be necessary
504 to add @internalsref{Volta_engraver} and @internalsref{Bar_engraver}
507 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim]
508 \new ChordNames \with {
509 \override BarLine #'bar-size = #4
510 voltaOnThisStaff = ##t
511 \consists Bar_engraver
512 \consists "Volta_engraver"
514 \chordmode { \repeat volta 2 {
524 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
525 Klaus Ignatzek (see @ref{Literature list}). It can be tuned through the
529 @cindex @code{chordNameExceptions}
530 @item chordNameExceptions
531 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
533 The exceptions list should be encoded as
535 @{ <c f g bes>1 \markup @{ \super "7" "wahh" @} @}
538 To get this information into @code{chordNameExceptions} takes a little
539 manoeuvring. The following code transforms @code{chExceptionMusic}
540 (which is a sequential music) into a list of exceptions.
542 (sequential-music-to-chord-exceptions chExceptionMusic #t)
547 (sequential-music-to-chord-exceptions chExceptionMusic #t)
550 adds the new exceptions to the default ones, which are defined in
551 @file{ly/@/chord@/-modifier@/-init@/.ly}.
553 For an example of tuning this property, see also
554 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-exceptions@/.ly}.
555 @cindex exceptions, chord names.
558 @cindex @code{majorSevenSymbol}
559 @item majorSevenSymbol
560 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
561 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup} and
562 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
563 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-major7@/.ly} for an example.
565 @cindex @code{chordNameSeparator}
566 @item chordNameSeparator
567 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
568 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
570 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
571 \new ChordNames \chordmode {
573 \set chordNameSeparator
574 = \markup { \typewriter "|" }
579 @cindex @code{chordRootNamer}
581 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
582 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
583 function. Special note names (for example, the German ``H'' for a
584 B-chord) can be produced by storing a new function in this property.
586 @cindex @code{chordNoteNamer}
588 The default is to print single pitch, e.g., the bass note, using the
589 @code{chordRootNamer}. The @code{chordNoteNamer} property can be set
590 to a specialized function to change this behavior. For example, the
591 base can be printed in lower case.
593 @cindex @code{chordPrefixSpacer}
594 @item chordPrefixSpacer
595 The ``m'' for minor chords is usually printed right after the root of
596 the chord. By setting @code{chordPrefixSpacer}, you can fix a spacer
597 between the root and ``m''. The spacer is not used when the root
602 The predefined variables @code{\germanChords},
603 @code{\semiGermanChords}, @code{\italianChords} and @code{\frenchChords}
604 set these variables. The effect is
607 @lilypondfile[ragged-right]{chord-names-languages.ly}
609 There are also two other chord name schemes implemented: an alternate
610 Jazz chord notation, and a systematic scheme called Banter chords. The
611 alternate Jazz notation is also shown on the chart in @ref{Chord name
612 chart}. Turning on these styles is described in the input file
613 @inputfileref{input/@/test,chord@/-names@/-jazz@/.ly}.
622 @cindex @code{\germanChords}
623 @code{\germanChords},
624 @cindex @code{\semiGermanChords}
625 @code{\semiGermanChords}.
626 @cindex @code{\italianChords}
627 @code{\italianChords}.
628 @cindex @code{\frenchChords}
629 @code{\frenchChords}.
636 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-major7@/.ly},
637 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-exceptions@/.ly},
638 @inputfileref{input/@/test,chord@/-names@/-jazz@/.ly}.
641 Init files: @file{scm/@/chords@/-ignatzek@/.scm}, and
642 @file{scm/@/chord@/-entry@/.scm}.
647 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
648 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
649 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
650 @code{< .. >} syntax.
657 There are three different issues when printing vocal music
661 Song texts must be entered as text, not notes. For example, the
662 input@tie{}@code{d} should be interpreted as a one letter syllable, not the
666 Song texts must be printed as text, not as notes.
669 Song texts must be aligned with the notes of their melody.
672 The simplest solution for printing music uses the @code{\addlyrics}
673 function to solve all these problems at once. However, these
674 three functions can be controlled separately, which is necessary
675 for complex vocal music.
679 * Setting simple songs::
681 * Hyphens and extenders::
682 * The Lyrics context::
683 * Flexibility in alignment::
686 * Other vocal issues::
692 Checking to make sure that text scripts and lyrics are within the margins is a relatively large computational task. To speed up processing, lilypond does not perform such calculations by default; to enable it, use
695 \override Score.PaperColumn #'keep-inside-line = ##t
698 To make lyrics avoid barlines as well, use
703 \consists "Bar_engraver"
704 \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver"
705 \override BarLine #'transparent = ##t
711 @node Setting simple songs
712 @subsection Setting simple songs
714 The easiest way to add lyrics to a melody is to append
717 \addlyrics @{ @var{the lyrics} @}
721 to a melody. Here is an example,
723 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,quote]
725 \relative { c2 e4 g2. }
726 \addlyrics { play the game }
729 More stanzas can be added by adding more
730 @code{\addlyrics} sections
732 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,quote]
734 \relative { c2 e4 g2. }
735 \addlyrics { play the game }
736 \addlyrics { speel het spel }
737 \addlyrics { joue le jeu }
740 Sometimes it is appropriate to have one stanza set
741 to the music, and the rest added in verse form at
742 the end of the piece. This can be accomplished by adding
743 the extra verses into a @code{\markup} section outside
744 of the main score block. Notice that there are two
745 different ways to force linebreaks when using
748 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote]
749 melody = \relative c' {
755 \set stanza = "1." Ma- ry had a lit- tle lamb,
756 its fleece was white as snow.
761 \new Voice = "one" { \melody }
762 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text
768 \line{ All the children laughed and played }
769 \line{ To see a lamb at school. }
776 Mary took it home again,
778 It was against the rule."
784 @c TODO - this isn't such a great place for this note, but I can't
785 @c find a better place without rearranging a lot of lyric stuff.
786 @c It's yet another thing to look at post-3.0.
788 The @code{\addlyrics} command is actually just a convienient way
789 to write a more complicated LilyPond structure that sets up the
790 lyrics. You should use @code{\addlyrics} unless you need to do
791 fancy things, in which case you should investigate
792 @code{\lyricsto} or @code{\lyricmode}.
796 \addlyrics @{ LYRICS @}
803 \new Voice = "blah" @{ music @}
804 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "blah" @{ LYRICS @}
809 @code{\addlyrics} cannot handle polyphony.
812 @node Entering lyrics
813 @subsection Entering lyrics
816 @cindex @code{\lyricmode}
819 Lyrics are entered in a special input mode. This mode is introduced
820 by the keyword @code{\lyricmode}, or by using @code{\addlyrics} or
821 @code{\lyricsto}. In this mode you can enter lyrics,
822 with punctuation and accents, and the input @code{d} is not parsed as
823 a pitch, but rather as a one letter syllable. Syllables are entered
824 like notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example,
826 \lyricmode @{ Twin-4 kle4 twin- kle litt- le star2 @}
829 There are two main methods to specify the horizontal placement
830 of the syllables, either by specifying the duration of each syllable
831 explicitly, like in the example above, or by automatically aligning
832 the lyrics to a melody or other voice of music, using @code{\addlyrics}
833 or @code{\lyricsto}. For more details see @ref{The Lyrics context}.
835 A word lyrics mode begins with an alphabetic character, and ends with
836 any space or digit. The following characters can be any character
837 that is not a digit or white space. One important consequence of this
838 is that a word can end with @code{@}}. The following example is
839 usually a mistake in the input file. The syllable includes a @code{@}}, so the
840 opening brace is not balanced
842 \lyricmode @{ twinkle@}
845 @cindex @code{\property}, in @code{\lyricmode}
847 Similarly, a period which follows an alphabetic sequence is included in
848 the resulting string. As a consequence, spaces must be inserted around
851 \override Score . LyricText #'font-shape = #'italic
855 @cindex spaces, in lyrics
856 @cindex quotes, in lyrics
858 Any @code{_} character that appears in an unquoted word is converted
859 to a space. This provides a mechanism for introducing spaces into words
860 without using quotes.
862 To enter lyrics with characters from non-English languages, or with
863 non-ascii characters (such as the heart symbol or slanted quotes),
864 simply insert the characters directly into the input file and save
865 it with utf-8 encoding. See @ref{Text encoding} for more info.
868 \lyricmode @{ He said: “Let my peo ple go”. @}
871 The full definition of a word start in Lyrics mode is somewhat more
874 A word in Lyrics mode begins with: an alphabetic character, @code{_},
875 @code{?}, @code{!}, @code{:}, @code{'}, the control characters @code{^A}
876 through @code{^F}, @code{^Q} through @code{^W}, @code{^Y}, @code{^^},
877 any 8-bit character with ASCII code over 127, or a two-character
878 combination of a backslash followed by one of @code{`}, @code{'},
879 @code{"}, or @code{^}.
885 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricText}, @internalsref{LyricSpace}.
889 The definition of lyrics mode is too complex.
891 @node Hyphens and extenders
892 @subsection Hyphens and extenders
896 Centered hyphens are entered as `@code{--}' between syllables.
897 The hyphen will have variable length depending on the space between
898 the syllables and it will be centered between the syllables.
903 When a lyric is sung over many notes (this is called a melisma), this is
904 indicated with a horizontal line centered between a syllable and the
905 next one. Such a line is called an extender line, and it is entered as
908 In tighly engraved music, hyphens can be removed. Whether this
909 happens can be controlled with the @code{minimum-distance} (minimum
910 distance between two syllables) and the @code{minimum-length}
911 (threshold below which hyphens are removed).
915 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricHyphen}, @internalsref{LyricExtender}.
919 @node The Lyrics context
920 @subsection The Lyrics context
923 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in a @internalsref{Lyrics} context
925 \new Lyrics \lyricmode @dots{}
928 @cindex automatic syllable durations
929 @cindex @code{\lyricsto}
930 @cindex lyrics and melodies
932 This will place the lyrics according to the durations that were
933 entered. The lyrics can also be aligned under a given melody
934 automatically. In this case, it is no longer necessary to enter the
935 correct duration for each syllable. This is achieved by combining the
936 melody and the lyrics with the @code{\lyricsto} expression
938 \new Lyrics \lyricsto @var{name} @dots{}
941 This aligns the lyrics to the
942 notes of the @internalsref{Voice} context called @var{name}, which has
943 to exist. Therefore, normally the @code{Voice} is specified first, and
944 then the lyrics are specified with @code{\lyricsto}. The command
945 @code{\lyricsto} switches to @code{\lyricmode} mode automatically, so the
946 @code{\lyricmode} keyword may be omitted.
948 For different or more complex orderings, the best way is to setup the
949 hierarchy of staves and lyrics first, e.g.,
952 \new Lyrics = "sopranoLyrics" @{ s1 @}
953 \new Voice = "soprano" @{ @emph{music} @}
954 \new Lyrics = "tenorLyrics" @{ s1 @}
955 \new Voice = "tenor" @{ @emph{music} @}
958 and then combine the appropriate melodies and lyric lines
960 \context Lyrics = sopranoLyrics \lyricsto "soprano"
965 The final input would resemble
968 <<\new ChoirStaff << @emph{setup the music} >>
969 \lyricsto "soprano" @emph{etc}
970 \lyricsto "alto" @emph{etc}
976 The @code{\lyricsto} command detects melismata: it only puts one
977 syllable under a tied or slurred group of notes. If you want to force
978 an unslurred group of notes to be a melisma, insert @code{\melisma}
979 after the first note of the group, and @code{\melismaEnd} after the
982 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
984 \new Voice = "lala" {
992 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lala" {
998 In addition, notes are considered a melisma if they are manually
999 beamed, and automatic beaming (see @ref{Setting automatic beam
1000 behavior}) is switched off.
1006 The criteria for deciding melismata can
1007 be tuned with the property @code{melismaBusyProperties}. See
1008 @internalsref{Melisma_translator} in the program reference for more
1013 Lyrics can also be entered without @code{\lyricsto}. In this case the
1014 duration of each syllable must be entered explicitly, for example,
1021 The alignment to a melody can be specified with the
1022 @code{associatedVoice} property,
1025 \set associatedVoice = #"lala"
1029 The value of the property (here: @code{"lala"}) should be the name of
1030 a @internalsref{Voice} context. Without this setting, extender lines
1031 will not be formatted properly.
1033 Here is an example demonstrating manual lyric durations,
1035 @lilypond[relative=1,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,quote]
1036 << \new Voice = "melody" {
1040 \new Lyrics \lyricmode {
1041 \set associatedVoice = #"melody"
1047 @cindex choral score
1049 A complete example of a SATB score setup is in section
1050 @ref{Vocal ensembles}.
1055 @code{\melisma}, @code{\melismaEnd}
1056 @cindex @code{\melismaEnd}
1057 @cindex @code{\melisma}
1061 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricCombineMusic},
1062 @internalsref{Lyrics}, @internalsref{Melisma_translator}.
1065 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,lyric@/-combine@/-new@/.ly}.
1066 @c TODO: make separate section for melismata
1070 Melismata are not detected automatically, and extender lines must be
1074 @c TODO: document \new Staff << Voice \lyricsto >> bug
1076 @node Flexibility in alignment
1077 @subsection Flexibility in alignment
1079 Often, different stanzas of one song are put to one melody in slightly
1080 differing ways. Such variations can still be captured with
1083 @subsubsection Lyrics to multiple notes of a melisma
1086 One possibility is that the text has a melisma in one stanza, but
1087 multiple syllables in another one. One solution is to make the faster
1088 voice ignore the melisma. This is done by setting
1089 @code{ignoreMelismata} in the Lyrics context.
1091 There has one tricky aspect. The setting for @code{ignoreMelismata}
1092 must be set one syllable @emph{before} the non-melismatic syllable
1093 in the text, as shown here,
1095 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1097 \relative \new Voice = "lahlah" {
1098 \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
1104 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1107 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1108 \set ignoreMelismata = ##t % applies to "fas"
1110 \unset ignoreMelismata
1117 The @code{ignoreMelismata} applies to the syllable ``fas'', so it
1118 should be entered before ``go''.
1120 The reverse is also possible: making a lyric line slower than the
1121 standard. This can be achieved by insert @code{\skip}s into the
1122 lyrics. For every @code{\skip}, the text will be delayed another note.
1125 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1126 \relative { c c g' }
1134 @subsection Switching the melody associated with a lyrics line
1138 More complex variations in text underlay are possible. It is possible
1139 to switch the melody for a line of lyrics during the text. This is
1140 done by setting the @code{associatedVoice} property. In the example
1142 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1144 \relative \new Voice = "lahlah" {
1145 \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
1148 \new Voice = "alternative" {
1151 % show associations clearly.
1152 \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #-3
1163 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1164 Ju -- ras -- sic Park
1166 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1167 % Tricky: need to set associatedVoice
1168 % one syllable too soon!
1169 \set associatedVoice = alternative % applies to "ran"
1173 \set associatedVoice = lahlah % applies to "rus"
1179 the text for the first stanza is set to a melody called ``lahlah'',
1182 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" @{
1183 Ju -- ras -- sic Park
1188 The second stanza initially is set to the @code{lahlah} context, but
1189 for the syllable ``ran'', it switches to a different melody.
1190 This is achieved with
1192 \set associatedVoice = alternative
1196 Here, @code{alternative} is the name of the @code{Voice} context
1197 containing the triplet.
1199 Again, the command must be one syllable too early, before ``Ty'' in
1203 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" @{
1204 \set associatedVoice = alternative % applies to "ran"
1208 \set associatedVoice = lahlah % applies to "rus"
1214 The underlay is switched back to the starting situation by assigning
1215 @code{lahlah} to @code{associatedVoice}.
1219 @subsection Specifying melismata within the lyrics
1221 It is also possible to define melismata entirely in the lyrics. This
1222 can be done by entering @code{_} for every note that is part of the
1225 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,fragment]
1226 { \set melismaBusyProperties = #'()
1227 c d( e) f f( e) e e }
1229 { Ky -- _ _ ri __ _ _ _ e }
1232 In this case, you can also have ties and slurs in the melody, if you
1233 set @code{melismaBusyProperties}, as is done in the example above.
1235 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,fragment]
1237 \set melismaBusyProperties = #'()
1241 { Ky -- _ _ ri __ _ _ _ e }
1244 @subsubsection Spacing lyrics
1246 @cindex Spacing lyrics
1247 @cindex Lyrics, increasing space between
1249 To increase the spacing between lyrics, set the minimum-distance property of
1252 @lilypond[relative,verbatim,fragment,quote,ragged-right]
1255 \override Lyrics.LyricSpace #'minimum-distance = #1.0
1259 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1260 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1264 To make this change for all lyrics in the score, set the property in the layout.
1266 @lilypond[relative,verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1273 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1274 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1279 \override LyricSpace #'minimum-distance = #1.0
1287 @subsection More stanzas
1289 @cindex phrasing, in lyrics
1292 @cindex stanza number
1293 @cindex singer's names
1294 @cindex name of singer
1296 Stanza numbers can be added by setting @code{stanza}, e.g.,
1298 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1300 \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2.
1303 Hi, my name is Bert.
1306 Oh, che -- ri, je t'aime
1310 These numbers are put just before the start of first syllable.
1312 Names of singers can also be added. They are printed at the start of
1313 the line, just like instrument names. They are created by setting
1314 @code{vocalName}. A short version may be entered as @code{vocNam}.
1317 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
1319 \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2.
1321 \set vocalName = "Bert "
1322 Hi, my name is Bert.
1324 \set vocalName = "Ernie "
1325 Oh, che -- ri, je t'aime
1329 You can display alternate (or divisi) lyrics by naming voice
1330 contexts and attaching lyrics to those specific contexts.
1332 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1334 \new Voice = "melody" {
1339 \new Voice = "splitpart" { \voiceTwo c4 }
1344 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" { we shall not o- ver- come }
1345 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "splitpart" { will }
1350 You can use this trick to display different lyrics for a repeated
1353 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1355 \new Voice = "melody" \relative c' {
1357 \new Voice = "verse" \repeat volta 2 {c4 d e f | g1 | }
1359 \new Lyrics = "mainlyrics" \lyricsto melody \lyricmode {
1362 \new Lyrics = "mainlyrics" \lyricsto verse \lyricmode {
1364 \new Lyrics = "repeatlyrics" \lyricsto verse \lyricmode {
1365 dodo rere mimi fafa solsol }
1373 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricText}, @internalsref{StanzaNumber}, @internalsref{VocalName}.
1381 The term @emph{ambitus} denotes a range of pitches for a given voice
1382 in a part of music. It may also denote the pitch range that a musical
1383 instrument is capable of playing. Ambits are printed on vocal parts,
1384 so performers can easily determine it meets their capabilities.
1386 Ambits are denoted at the beginning of a piece near the initial clef.
1387 The range is graphically specified by two note heads that represent the
1388 minimum and maximum pitch. To print such ambits, add the
1389 @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the @internalsref{Voice} context,
1396 \consists Ambitus_engraver
1401 This results in the following output
1403 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1407 \consists Ambitus_engraver
1411 \relative \new Staff {
1416 If you have multiple voices in a single staff and you want a single
1417 ambitus per staff rather than per each voice, add the
1418 @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the @internalsref{Staff} context
1419 rather than to the @internalsref{Voice} context. Here is an example,
1421 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1423 \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
1427 \remove "Ambitus_engraver"
1429 \override Ambitus #'X-offset = #-1.0
1434 \remove "Ambitus_engraver"
1443 This example uses one advanced feature,
1446 \override Ambitus #'X-offset = #-1.0
1450 This code moves the ambitus to the left. The same effect could have
1451 been achieved with @code{extra-offset}, but then the formatting system
1452 would not reserve space for the moved object.
1456 Program reference: @internalsref{Ambitus},
1457 @internalsref{AmbitusLine}, @internalsref{AmbitusNoteHead},
1458 @internalsref{AmbitusAccidental}.
1460 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,ambitus@/.ly}.
1464 There is no collision handling in the case of multiple per-voice
1468 @node Other vocal issues
1469 @subsection Other vocal issues
1472 yeah, I'm giving up somewhat by stuffing a bunch of things in
1473 here. But at least they're in the manual now; it's easier to
1474 move them around in the manual once they're already here.
1476 Besides, if users complain about everything stuffed in here, I
1477 can ask them for specific instructions about where to move these
1478 examples, and that might get them more involved in the docs. -gp
1481 ``Parlato'' is spoken without pitch but still with rhythm; it is
1482 notated by cross noteheads. This is demonstrated in
1483 @ref{Special noteheads}.
1489 @node Rhythmic music
1490 @section Rhythmic music
1492 Rhythmic music is primarily used for percussion and drum notation, but it can
1493 also be used to show the rhythms of melodies.
1496 * Showing melody rhythms::
1497 * Entering percussion::
1498 * Percussion staves::
1502 @node Showing melody rhythms
1503 @subsection Showing melody rhythms
1505 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This
1506 can be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a
1507 staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single line
1509 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
1510 \new RhythmicStaff {
1512 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1518 Program reference: @internalsref{RhythmicStaff}.
1520 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,rhythmic@/-staff@/.ly}.
1523 @node Entering percussion
1524 @subsection Entering percussion
1530 Percussion notes may be entered in @code{\drummode} mode, which is
1531 similar to the standard mode for entering notes. Each piece of
1532 percussion has a full name and an abbreviated name, and both can be used
1535 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1537 hihat hh bassdrum bd
1541 The complete list of drum names is in the init file
1542 @file{ly/@/drumpitch@/-init@/.ly}.
1543 @c TODO: properly document this.
1547 Program reference: @internalsref{note-event}.
1549 @node Percussion staves
1550 @subsection Percussion staves
1554 A percussion part for more than one instrument typically uses a
1555 multiline staff where each position in the staff refers to one piece
1559 To typeset the music, the notes must be interpreted in a
1560 @internalsref{DrumStaff} and @internalsref{DrumVoice} contexts
1562 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1563 up = \drummode { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
1564 down = \drummode { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
1566 \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
1567 \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
1571 The above example shows verbose polyphonic notation. The short
1572 polyphonic notation, described in @ref{Polyphony}, can also be used if
1573 the @internalsref{DrumVoice}s are instantiated by hand first. For example,
1575 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
1577 \new DrumVoice = "1" { s1 *2 }
1578 \new DrumVoice = "2" { s1 *2 }
1582 { \repeat unfold 16 hh16 }
1591 There are also other layout possibilities. To use these, set the
1592 property @code{drumStyleTable} in context @internalsref{DrumVoice}.
1593 The following variables have been predefined
1597 This is the default. It typesets a typical drum kit on a five-line staff
1599 @lilypond[quote,line-width=10.0\cm]
1601 cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp
1602 cb hc bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
1604 cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp \break
1605 cb hc bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
1607 << \new DrumStaff \with {
1608 \remove Bar_engraver
1609 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1610 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1611 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1612 \override VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
1619 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1620 \override BarNumber #'transparent =##T
1626 The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there are fewer toms,
1627 simply select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e., to get toms
1628 on the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml}, and
1631 @item timbales-style
1632 This typesets timbales on a two line staff
1634 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1635 nam = \lyricmode { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
1636 mus = \drummode { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
1639 \new DrumStaff \with {
1640 \remove Bar_engraver
1641 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1642 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1643 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1644 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #2
1645 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #2
1646 \override VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
1647 drumStyleTable = #timbales-style
1650 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1657 This typesets congas on a two line staff
1659 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1660 nam = \lyricmode { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
1661 mus = \drummode { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
1664 \new DrumStaff \with {
1665 \remove Bar_engraver
1666 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1667 drumStyleTable = #congas-style
1668 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #2
1670 %% this sucks; it will lengthen stems.
1671 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #2
1672 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1673 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1676 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1683 This typesets bongos on a two line staff
1685 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1686 nam = \lyricmode { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
1687 mus = \drummode { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
1690 \new DrumStaff \with {
1691 \remove Bar_engraver
1692 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1693 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #2
1694 drumStyleTable = #bongos-style
1696 %% this sucks; it will lengthen stems.
1697 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #2
1698 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1699 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1702 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1708 @item percussion-style
1709 To typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves.
1711 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1712 nam = \lyricmode { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
1713 mus = \drummode { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
1716 \new DrumStaff \with{
1717 \remove Bar_engraver
1718 drumStyleTable = #percussion-style
1719 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #1
1720 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1721 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1722 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1725 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1732 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
1733 list at the top of your file
1735 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1737 (bassdrum default #f -1)
1738 (snare default #f 0)
1740 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" 2)
1741 (lowtom diamond #f 3)))
1742 up = \drummode { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
1743 down = \drummode { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
1746 \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums)
1747 \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
1748 \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
1755 Init files: @file{ly/@/drumpitch@/-init@/.ly}.
1757 Program reference: @internalsref{DrumStaff}, @internalsref{DrumVoice}.
1761 Because general MIDI does not contain rim shots, the sidestick is used
1762 for this purpose instead.
1770 @cindex guitar tablature
1773 * String number indications::
1774 * Tablatures basic::
1775 * Non-guitar tablatures::
1776 * Banjo tablatures::
1778 * Other guitar issues::
1781 @node String number indications
1782 @subsection String number indications
1784 @cindex String numbers
1786 String numbers can be added to chords, by indicating the string number
1787 with @code{\}@var{number},
1789 @lilypond[relative,relative=1,ragged-right,fragment]
1793 See also @inputfileref{input/regression,string-number.ly}.
1798 Program reference: @internalsref{StringNumber}.
1801 @node Tablatures basic
1802 @subsection Tablatures basic
1803 @cindex Tablatures basic
1805 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
1806 instruments. Pitches are not denoted with note heads, but by
1807 numbers indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
1808 offers limited support for tablature.
1810 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
1811 followed by a number, e.g., @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
1812 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
1813 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
1814 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
1815 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts
1817 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
1824 @cindex @code{minimumFret}
1827 When no string is specified, the first string that does not give a
1828 fret number less than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default
1829 value for @code{minimumFret} is 0
1834 \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
1837 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1841 \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
1845 \new Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
1846 \new TabStaff { \frag }
1853 To print tablatures with stems down and horizontal beams,
1854 initialize the @code{TabStaff} with this code:
1858 \override Beam #'damping = #100000
1863 Program reference: @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}.
1867 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
1868 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
1872 @node Non-guitar tablatures
1873 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
1874 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
1876 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
1877 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
1878 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to middle C) of an
1879 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
1880 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
1881 by default middle C, in string order. LilyPond automatically calculates
1882 the number of strings by looking at @code{stringTuning}.
1884 In the next example,
1885 @code{stringTunings} is set for the pitches e, a, d, and g
1887 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
1889 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
1891 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
1896 LilyPond comes with predefined string tunings for banjo, mandolin, guitar
1900 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #bass-tuning
1903 The default string tuning is @code{guitar-tuning} (the standard EADGBE tuning).
1904 Some other predefined tunings are @code{guitar-open-g-tuning},
1905 @code{mandolin-tuning} and @code{banjo-open-g-tuning}.
1909 The file @file{scm/@/output@/-lib@/.scm} contains the predefined string tunings.
1910 Program reference: @internalsref{Tab_note_heads_engraver}.
1914 No guitar special effects have been implemented.
1918 @node Banjo tablatures
1919 @subsection Banjo tablatures
1920 @cindex Banjo tablatures
1922 LilyPond has basic support for five stringed banjo. When making tablatures
1923 for five stringed banjo, use the banjo tablature format function to get correct
1924 fret numbers for the fifth string:
1926 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
1928 \set TabStaff.tablatureFormat = #fret-number-tablature-format-banjo
1929 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #banjo-open-g-tuning
1932 g8 d' g'\5 a b g e d' |
1933 g4 d''8\5 b' a'\2 g'\5 e'\2 d' |
1939 A number of common tunings for banjo are predefined in LilyPond:
1940 @code{banjo-c-tuning} (gCGBD), @code{banjo-modal-tuning} (gDGCD),
1941 @code{banjo-open-d-tuning} (aDF#AD) and @code{banjo-open-dm-tuning}
1944 These tunings may be converted to four string banjo tunings using the
1945 @code{four-string-banjo} function:
1948 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #(four-string-banjo banjo-c-tuning)
1953 The file @file{scm/@/output@/-lib@/.scm} contains predefined banjo tunings.
1957 @subsection Fret diagrams
1958 @cindex fret diagrams
1959 @cindex chord diagrams
1961 Fret diagrams can be added to music as a markup to the desired note. The
1962 markup contains information about the desired fret diagram, as shown in the
1965 @lilypond[verbatim, ragged-right, quote]
1967 d'^\markup \fret-diagram #"6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2;2-3;1-2;"
1969 fis'^\markup \override #'(size . 0.75) {
1970 \override #'(finger-code . below-string) {
1971 \fret-diagram-verbose #'((place-fret 6 2 1) (barre 6 1 2)
1972 (place-fret 5 4 3) (place-fret 4 4 4)
1973 (place-fret 3 3 2) (place-fret 2 2 1)
1978 c'^\markup \override #'(dot-radius . 0.35) {
1979 \override #'(finger-code . in-dot) {
1980 \override #'(dot-color . white) {
1981 \fret-diagram-terse #"x;3-1-(;5-2;5-3;5-4;3-1-);"
1990 There are three different fret-diagram markup interfaces: standard, terse,
1991 and verbose. The three interfaces produce equivalent markups, but have
1992 varying amounts of information in the markup string. Details about the
1993 markup interfaces are found at @ref{Overview of text markup commands}.
1995 You can set a number of graphical properties according to your preference.
1996 Details about the property interface to fret diagrams are found at
1997 @internalsref{fret-diagram-interface}.
2002 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/test,fret@/-diagram@/.ly}
2005 @node Other guitar issues
2006 @subsection Other guitar issues
2008 This example demonstrates how to include guitar position and
2009 barring indications.
2011 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=0]
2015 \override TextSpanner #'edge-text = #'("XII " . "")
2017 b16 e16 g16 e16 b16 g16\stopTextSpan
2022 Stopped (X) note heads are used in guitar music to signal a place where the
2023 guitarist must play a certain note or chord, with its fingers just
2024 touching the strings instead of fully pressing them. This gives the sound a
2025 percussive noise-like sound that still maintains part of the original
2026 pitch. It is notated with cross noteheads; this is
2027 demonstrated in @ref{Special noteheads}.
2036 * Bagpipe definitions::
2041 @node Bagpipe definitions
2042 @subsection Bagpipe definitions
2044 LilyPond contains special definitions for music for the Scottish
2045 highland bagpipe; to use them, add
2048 \include "bagpipe.ly"
2052 at the top of your input file. This lets you add the special gracenotes
2053 common to bagpipe music with short commands. For example, you could
2054 write @code{\taor} instead of
2057 \grace @{ \small G32[ d G e] @}
2060 @code{bagpipe.ly} also contains pitch definitions for the bagpipe
2061 notes in the appropiate octaves, so you do not need to worry about
2062 @code{\relative} or @code{\transpose}.
2064 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote,notime]
2065 \include "bagpipe.ly"
2066 { \grg G4 \grg a \grg b \grg c \grg d \grg e \grg f \grA g A }
2069 Bagpipe music nominally uses the key of D Major (even though that
2070 isn't really true). However, since that is the only key that can be used,
2071 the key signature is normally not written out. To set this up correctly,
2072 always start your music with @code{\hideKeySignature}. If you for some
2073 reason want to show the key signature, you can use @code{\showKeySignature}
2076 Some modern music use cross fingering on c and f to flatten those notes.
2077 This can be indicated by @code{cflat} or @code{fflat}. Similarly, the
2078 piobaireachd high g can be written @code{gflat} when it occurs in light
2082 @node Bagpipe example
2083 @subsection Bagpipe example
2085 This is what the well known tune Amazing Grace looks like in bagpipe
2088 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
2089 \include "bagpipe.ly"
2092 \context { \Score \remove "Bar_number_engraver" }
2096 title = "Amazing Grace"
2098 arranger = "Trad. arr."
2104 \grg \partial 4 a8. d16
2105 \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
2108 \grG a2 \grg a8. d16
2109 \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
2110 \grg f2 \grg e8. f16
2113 \grg A2 \hdblf f8[ e32 d16.]
2116 \grG a2 \grg a8. d16
2117 \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
2126 @node Ancient notation
2127 @section Ancient notation
2129 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
2130 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
2135 Support for ancient notation includes features for mensural notation
2136 and Gregorian Chant notation. There is also limited support for
2137 figured bass notation.
2139 Many graphical objects provide a @code{style} property, see
2142 @ref{Ancient note heads},
2144 @ref{Ancient accidentals},
2146 @ref{Ancient rests},
2148 @ref{Ancient clefs},
2150 @ref{Ancient flags},
2152 @ref{Ancient time signatures}.
2155 By manipulating such a grob property, the typographical appearance of
2156 the affected graphical objects can be accommodated for a specific
2157 notation flavor without the need for introducing any new notational
2160 In addition to the standard articulation signs described in section
2161 @ref{Articulations}, specific articulation signs for ancient notation
2166 @ref{Ancient articulations}
2169 Other aspects of ancient notation can not that easily be expressed
2170 in terms of just changing a style property of a graphical object or
2171 adding articulation signs. Some notational concepts are introduced
2172 specifically for ancient notation,
2183 If this all is too much of documentation for you, and you just want to
2184 dive into typesetting without worrying too much about the details on
2185 how to customize a context, you may have a look at the predefined
2186 contexts. Use them to set up predefined style-specific voice and
2187 staff contexts, and directly go ahead with the note entry,
2191 @ref{Gregorian Chant contexts},
2193 @ref{Mensural contexts}.
2196 There is limited support for figured bass notation which came
2197 up during the baroque period.
2204 Here are all suptopics at a glance:
2207 * Ancient note heads::
2208 * Ancient accidentals::
2212 * Ancient time signatures::
2213 * Ancient articulations::
2217 * Gregorian Chant contexts::
2218 * Mensural contexts::
2219 * Musica ficta accidentals::
2225 @node Ancient note heads
2226 @subsection Ancient note heads
2231 For ancient notation, a note head style other than the @code{default}
2232 style may be chosen. This is accomplished by setting the @code{style}
2233 property of the @internalsref{NoteHead} object to @code{baroque},
2234 @code{neomensural}, @code{mensural} or @code{petrucci}. The
2235 @code{baroque} style differs from the @code{default} style only in
2236 using a square shape for @code{\breve} note heads. The
2237 @code{neomensural} style differs from the @code{baroque} style in that
2238 it uses rhomboidal heads for whole notes and all smaller durations.
2239 Stems are centered on the note heads. This style is particularly
2240 useful when transcribing mensural music, e.g., for the incipit. The
2241 @code{mensural} style produces note heads that mimic the look of note
2242 heads in historic printings of the 16th century. Finally, the
2243 @code{petrucci} style also mimicks historic printings, but uses bigger
2246 The following example demonstrates the @code{neomensural} style
2248 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
2249 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
2250 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
2251 a'\longa a'\breve a'1 a'2 a'4 a'8 a'16
2254 When typesetting a piece in Gregorian Chant notation, the
2255 @internalsref{Gregorian_ligature_engraver} will automatically select
2256 the proper note heads, so there is no need to explicitly set the
2257 note head style. Still, the note head style can be set, e.g., to
2258 @code{vaticana_punctum} to produce punctum neumes. Similarly, a
2259 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} is used to automatically
2260 assemble mensural ligatures. See @ref{Ligatures} for how ligature
2265 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,note@/-head@/-style@/.ly} gives an
2266 overview over all available note head styles.
2269 @node Ancient accidentals
2270 @subsection Ancient accidentals
2275 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{Accidental} to
2276 select ancient accidentals. Supported styles are
2277 @code{mensural}, @code{vaticana}, @code{hufnagel}, and @code{medicaea}.
2279 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,staffsize=26]
2286 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.vaticana-1"
2287 " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.vaticana0" }
2291 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.medicaea-1" }
2295 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.hufnagel-1" }
2299 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.mensural-1"
2300 " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.mensural1" }
2306 \context { \Score \remove "Bar_number_engraver" }
2308 \remove "Clef_engraver"
2309 \remove "Key_engraver"
2310 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
2311 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
2312 \override VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = ##f
2318 As shown, not all accidentals are supported by each style. When
2319 trying to access an unsupported accidental, LilyPond will switch to a
2320 different style, as demonstrated in
2321 @inputfileref{input/@/test,ancient@/-accidentals@/.ly}.
2323 Similarly to local accidentals, the style of the key signature can be
2324 controlled by the @code{style} property of the
2325 @internalsref{KeySignature} grob.
2329 In this manual: @ref{Pitches}, @ref{Cautionary accidentals} and
2330 @ref{Automatic accidentals} give a general introduction of the use of
2331 accidentals. @ref{Key signature} gives a general introduction of
2332 the use of key signatures.
2334 Program reference: @internalsref{KeySignature}.
2336 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/test,ancient@/-accidentals@/.ly}.
2339 @subsection Ancient rests
2341 @cindex rests, ancient
2344 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{Rest} to select
2345 ancient rests. Supported styles are @code{classical},
2346 @code{neomensural}, and @code{mensural}. @code{classical} differs
2347 from the @code{default} style only in that the quarter rest looks like
2348 a horizontally mirrored 8th rest. The @code{neomensural} style suits
2349 well for, e.g., the incipit of a transcribed mensural piece of music.
2350 The @code{mensural} style finally mimics the appearance of rests as
2351 in historic prints of the 16th century.
2353 The following example demonstrates the @code{neomensural} style
2355 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
2356 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
2357 \override Rest #'style = #'neomensural
2358 r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16
2361 There are no 32th and 64th rests specifically for the mensural or
2362 neo-mensural style. Instead, the rests from the default style will be
2363 taken. See @inputfileref{input/@/test,rests@/.ly} for a chart of all
2366 There are no rests in Gregorian Chant notation; instead, it uses
2371 In this manual: @ref{Rests} gives a general introduction into the use of rests.
2375 @subsection Ancient clefs
2380 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
2382 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
2383 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but
2384 differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such
2385 cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs.
2386 Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an
2387 arbitrary line, as described in @ref{Clef}. The note printed to the
2388 right side of each clef in the example column denotes the @code{c'}
2389 with respect to that clef.
2391 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .4 .2
2400 modern style mensural C clef
2402 @code{neomensural-c1}, @code{neomensural-c2},@*
2403 @code{neomensural-c3}, @code{neomensural-c4}
2405 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2406 \clef "neomensural-c2" c
2410 petrucci style mensural C clefs, for use on different staff lines
2411 (the examples show the 2nd staff line C clef)
2413 @code{petrucci-c1}, @code{petrucci-c2},@*
2414 @code{petrucci-c3}, @code{petrucci-c4},@*
2417 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2419 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2424 petrucci style mensural F clef
2428 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2430 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2435 petrucci style mensural G clef
2439 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2441 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2446 historic style mensural C clef
2448 @code{mensural-c1}, @code{mensural-c2},@*
2449 @code{mensural-c3}, @code{mensural-c4}
2451 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2453 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2458 historic style mensural F clef
2462 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2464 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2469 historic style mensural G clef
2473 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2475 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2480 Editio Vaticana style do clef
2482 @code{vaticana-do1}, @code{vaticana-do2},@*
2485 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2486 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2487 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2488 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2489 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2490 \override NoteHead #'style = #'vaticana.punctum
2491 \clef "vaticana-do2"
2496 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
2498 @code{vaticana-fa1}, @code{vaticana-fa2}
2500 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2501 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2502 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2503 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2504 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2505 \override NoteHead #'style = #'vaticana.punctum
2506 \clef "vaticana-fa2"
2511 Editio Medicaea style do clef
2513 @code{medicaea-do1}, @code{medicaea-do2},@*
2516 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2517 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2518 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2519 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2520 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2521 \override NoteHead #'style = #'medicaea.punctum
2522 \clef "medicaea-do2"
2527 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
2529 @code{medicaea-fa1}, @code{medicaea-fa2}
2531 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2532 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2533 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2534 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2535 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2536 \override NoteHead #'style = #'medicaea.punctum
2537 \clef "medicaea-fa2"
2542 historic style hufnagel do clef
2544 @code{hufnagel-do1}, @code{hufnagel-do2},@*
2547 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2548 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2549 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2550 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2551 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2552 \override NoteHead #'style = #'hufnagel.punctum
2553 \clef "hufnagel-do2"
2558 historic style hufnagel fa clef
2560 @code{hufnagel-fa1}, @code{hufnagel-fa2}
2562 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2563 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2564 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2565 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2566 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2567 \override NoteHead #'style = #'hufnagel.punctum
2568 \clef "hufnagel-fa2"
2573 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
2575 @code{hufnagel-do-fa}
2577 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2578 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2579 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2580 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2581 \override NoteHead #'style = #'hufnagel.punctum
2582 \clef "hufnagel-do-fa"
2589 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
2590 transcribed mensural music''.
2592 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
2593 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
2595 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
2596 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
2598 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
2600 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
2601 beams, depending on which staff line it is printed.
2605 In this manual: see @ref{Clef}.
2609 The mensural g clef is mapped to the Petrucci g clef.
2614 @subsection Ancient flags
2619 Use the @code{flag-style} property of grob @internalsref{Stem} to
2620 select ancient flags. Besides the @code{default} flag style,
2621 only the @code{mensural} style is supported
2623 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
2624 \override Stem #'flag-style = #'mensural
2625 \override Stem #'thickness = #1.0
2626 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2628 c'8 d'8 e'8 f'8 c'16 d'16 e'16 f'16 c'32 d'32 e'32 f'32 s8
2629 c''8 d''8 e''8 f''8 c''16 d''16 e''16 f''16 c''32 d''32 e''32 f''32
2632 Note that the innermost flare of each mensural flag always is
2633 vertically aligned with a staff line.
2635 There is no particular flag style for neo-mensural notation. Hence,
2636 when typesetting the incipit of a transcribed piece of mensural
2637 music, the default flag style should be used. There are no flags in
2638 Gregorian Chant notation.
2642 The attachment of ancient flags to stems is slightly off due to a
2643 change in early 2.3.x.
2645 Vertically aligning each flag with a staff line assumes that stems
2646 always end either exactly on or exactly in the middle between two
2647 staff lines. This may not always be true when using advanced layout
2648 features of classical notation (which however are typically out of
2649 scope for mensural notation).
2651 @node Ancient time signatures
2652 @subsection Ancient time signatures
2654 @cindex time signatures
2657 There is limited support for mensural time signatures. The
2658 glyphs are hard-wired to particular time fractions. In other words,
2659 to get a particular mensural signature glyph with the @code{\time n/m}
2660 command, @code{n} and @code{m} have to be chosen according to the
2663 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2668 \remove Staff_symbol_engraver
2669 \remove Clef_engraver
2670 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2674 \set Score.timing = ##f
2675 \set Score.barAlways = ##t
2676 s_\markup { "\\time 4/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural44" }
2678 s_\markup { "\\time 2/2" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural22" }
2680 s_\markup { "\\time 6/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural64" }
2682 s_\markup { "\\time 6/8" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural68" }
2684 s_\markup { "\\time 3/2" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural32" }
2686 s_\markup { "\\time 3/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural34" }
2688 s_\markup { "\\time 9/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural94" }
2690 s_\markup { "\\time 9/8" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural98" }
2692 s_\markup { "\\time 4/8" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural48" }
2694 s_\markup { "\\time 2/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural24" }
2698 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{TimeSignature} to
2699 select ancient time signatures. Supported styles are
2700 @code{neomensural} and @code{mensural}. The above table uses the
2701 @code{neomensural} style. This style is appropriate for the
2702 incipit of transcriptions of mensural pieces. The @code{mensural}
2703 style mimics the look of historical printings of the 16th century.
2705 The following examples show the differences in style,
2707 @lilypond[ragged-right,fragment,relative=1,quote]
2712 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter default }
2714 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'numbered
2716 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter numbered }
2718 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'mensural
2720 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter mensural }
2722 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
2724 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter neomensural }
2725 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'single-digit
2727 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter single-digit }
2733 This manual: @ref{Time signature} gives a general introduction to
2734 the use of time signatures.
2738 Ratios of note durations do not change with the time signature. For
2739 example, the ratio of 1 brevis = 3 semibrevis (tempus perfectum) must
2740 be made by hand, by setting
2743 breveTP = #(ly:make-duration -1 0 3 2)
2749 This sets @code{breveTP} to 3/2 times 2 = 3 times a whole note.
2751 The @code{old6/8alt} symbol (an alternate symbol for 6/8) is not
2752 addressable with @code{\time}. Use a @code{\markup} instead
2754 @node Ancient articulations
2755 @subsection Ancient articulations
2757 @cindex articulations
2759 In addition to the standard articulation signs described in section
2760 @ref{Articulations}, articulation signs for ancient notation are
2761 provided. These are specifically designed for use with notation in
2762 Editio Vaticana style.
2764 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
2765 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
2767 \new VaticanaVoice {
2768 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2769 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2770 \override TextScript #'font-family = #'typewriter
2771 \override TextScript #'font-shape = #'upright
2772 \override Script #'padding = #-0.1
2774 a4\circulus_"circulus" s1
2775 a4\semicirculus_"semicirculus" s1 s
2776 a4\accentus_"accentus" s1
2777 \[ a4_"episem" \episemInitium \pes b \flexa a \episemFinis \]
2784 Some articulations are vertically placed too closely to the
2785 correpsonding note heads.
2788 @subsection Custodes
2793 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; Latin word for `guard') is a
2794 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
2795 of the first note(s) of the following line thus helping the performer
2796 to manage line breaks during performance.
2798 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th
2799 century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms
2800 of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant
2801 like the @emph{editio vaticana}. There are different custos glyphs
2802 used in different flavors of notational style.
2804 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
2805 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\layout} block,
2806 as shown in the following example
2812 \consists Custos_engraver
2813 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2818 The result looks like this
2820 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2824 \override Staff.Custos #'style = #'mensural
2829 \context { \Staff \consists Custos_engraver }
2834 The custos glyph is selected by the @code{style} property. The styles
2835 supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel}, and
2836 @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the following fragment
2838 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
2839 \new Lyrics \lyricmode {
2841 \typewriter "vaticana"
2842 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.vaticana.u0" }
2845 \typewriter "medicaea"
2846 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.medicaea.u0" }
2849 \typewriter "hufnagel"
2850 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.hufnagel.u0" }
2853 \typewriter "mensural"
2854 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.mensural.u0" }
2861 Program reference: @internalsref{Custos}.
2863 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,custos@/.ly}.
2867 @subsection Divisiones
2873 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; Latin word for
2874 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
2875 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
2876 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior}, and @emph{divisio maxima}
2877 can be characterized as short, medium, and long pause, somewhat like
2878 the breathmarks from @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not
2879 only marks the end of a chant, but is also frequently used within a
2880 single antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
2883 To use divisiones, include the file @file{gregorian@/-init@/.ly}. It
2884 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
2885 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
2886 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
2887 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
2888 Therefore, @file{gregorian@/-init@/.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
2891 @lilypondfile[quote,ragged-right]{divisiones.ly}
2895 @cindex @code{\virgula}
2897 @cindex @code{\caesura}
2899 @cindex @code{\divisioMinima}
2900 @code{\divisioMinima},
2901 @cindex @code{\divisioMaior}
2902 @code{\divisioMaior},
2903 @cindex @code{\divisioMaxima}
2904 @code{\divisioMaxima},
2905 @cindex @code{\finalis}
2910 In this manual: @ref{Breath marks}.
2912 Program reference: @internalsref{BreathingSign}.
2914 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/test,divisiones@/.ly}.
2917 @subsection Ligatures
2921 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
2922 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
2924 A ligature is a graphical symbol that represents at least two distinct
2925 notes. Ligatures originally appeared in the manuscripts of Gregorian
2926 chant notation to denote ascending or descending sequences of notes.
2928 Ligatures are entered by enclosing them in @code{\[} and @code{\]}.
2929 Some ligature styles may need additional input syntax specific for
2930 this particular type of ligature. By default, the
2931 @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a square bracket
2934 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
2942 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver
2943 has to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in
2944 the following subsections. Only white mensural ligatures
2945 are supported with certain limitations.
2951 Ligatures need special spacing that has not yet been implemented. As
2952 a result, there is too much space between ligatures most of the time,
2953 and line breaking often is unsatisfactory. Also, lyrics do not
2954 correctly align with ligatures.
2956 Accidentals must not be printed within a ligature, but instead need to
2957 be collected and printed in front of it.
2959 Augmentum dots within ligatures are not handled correctly.
2961 The syntax still uses the deprecated infix style @code{\[ music expr
2962 \]}. For consistency reasons, it will eventually be changed to
2963 postfix style @code{note\[ ... note\]}. Alternatively, the file
2964 @file{gregorian@/-init@/.ly} can be included; it provides a scheme
2967 \ligature @var{music expr}
2969 with the same effect and is believed to be stable.
2972 * White mensural ligatures::
2973 * Gregorian square neumes ligatures::
2976 @node White mensural ligatures
2977 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
2979 @cindex Mensural ligatures
2980 @cindex White mensural ligatures
2982 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures.
2984 To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the layout block put the
2985 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} into the
2986 @internalsref{Voice} context, and remove the
2987 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}, like this
2993 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
2994 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
2999 There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a
3000 white mensural ligature. The shape is rather determined solely from
3001 the pitch and duration of the enclosed notes. While this approach may
3002 take a new user a while to get accustomed to, it has the great advantage
3003 that the full musical information of the ligature is known internally.
3004 This is not only required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for
3005 automatic transcription of the ligatures.
3010 \set Score.timing = ##f
3011 \set Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
3012 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
3013 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
3017 \[ d\longa c\breve f e d \]
3019 \[ c'\maxima d'\longa \]
3023 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3026 \set Score.timing = ##f
3027 \set Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
3028 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
3029 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
3033 \[ d\longa c\breve f e d \]
3035 \[ c'\maxima d'\longa \]
3042 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
3043 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
3049 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
3050 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
3053 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3055 \set Score.timing = ##f
3056 \set Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
3057 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
3058 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
3062 \[ d\longa c\breve f e d \]
3064 \[ c'\maxima d'\longa \]
3072 The invisible rests (@code{s4}) in the example are used to compensate
3073 for the poor horizontal spacing.
3075 @node Gregorian square neumes ligatures
3076 @subsubsection Gregorian square neumes ligatures
3078 @cindex Square neumes ligatures
3079 @cindex Gregorian square neumes ligatures
3081 There is limited support for Gregorian square neumes notation
3082 (following the style of the Editio Vaticana). Core ligatures can
3083 already be typeset, but essential issues for serious typesetting are
3084 still lacking, such as (among others) horizontal alignment of multiple
3085 ligatures, lyrics alignment and proper handling of accidentals.
3088 The following table contains the extended neumes table of the 2nd
3089 volume of the Antiphonale Romanum (@emph{Liber Hymnarius}), published
3090 1983 by the monks of Solesmes.
3092 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .2 .2 .2
3109 @c TODO: \layout block is identical in all of the below examples.
3110 @c Therefore, it should somehow be included rather than duplicated all
3113 @c why not make identifiers in ly/engraver-init.ly? --hwn
3115 @c Because it's just used to typeset plain notes without
3116 @c a staff for demonstration purposes rather than something
3117 @c special of Gregorian chant notation. --jr
3122 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.5\cm]
3123 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3128 \noBreak s^\markup {"a"} \noBreak
3130 % Punctum Inclinatum
3132 \noBreak s^\markup {"b"}
3134 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3137 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=2.5\cm]
3138 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3141 % Punctum Auctum Ascendens
3142 \[ \auctum \ascendens b \]
3143 \noBreak s^\markup {"c"} \noBreak
3145 % Punctum Auctum Descendens
3146 \[ \auctum \descendens b \]
3147 \noBreak s^\markup {"d"} \noBreak
3149 % Punctum Inclinatum Auctum
3150 \[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]
3151 \noBreak s^\markup {"e"}
3153 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3156 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3157 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3160 % Punctum Inclinatum Parvum
3161 \[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]
3162 \noBreak s^\markup {"f"}
3164 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3170 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3171 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3176 \noBreak s^\markup {"g"}
3178 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3184 @code{3. Apostropha vel Stropha}
3186 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3187 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3192 \noBreak s^\markup {"h"}
3194 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3197 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3198 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3202 \[ \stropha \auctum b \]
3203 \noBreak s^\markup {"i"}
3205 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3212 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3213 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3218 \noBreak s^\markup {"j"}
3220 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3226 @code{5. Clivis vel Flexa}
3228 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3229 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3236 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3239 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=2.0\cm]
3240 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3243 % Clivis Aucta Descendens
3244 \[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
3245 \noBreak s^\markup {"l"} \noBreak
3247 % Clivis Aucta Ascendens
3248 \[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]
3249 \noBreak s^\markup {"m"}
3251 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3254 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3255 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3259 \[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]
3262 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3266 @code{6. Podatus vel Pes}
3268 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3269 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3276 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3279 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=2.0\cm]
3280 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3283 % Pes Auctus Descendens
3284 \[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3285 \noBreak s^\markup {"p"} \noBreak
3287 % Pes Auctus Ascendens
3288 \[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]
3289 \noBreak s^\markup {"q"}
3291 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3294 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3295 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3299 \[ g \pes \deminutum b \]
3302 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3306 @code{7. Pes Quassus}
3308 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3309 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3313 \[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]
3316 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3319 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3320 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3323 % Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens
3324 \[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3327 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3332 @code{8. Quilisma Pes}
3334 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3335 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3339 \[ \quilisma g \pes b \]
3342 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3345 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3346 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3349 % Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens
3350 \[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3353 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3358 @code{9. Podatus Initio Debilis}
3360 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3361 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3364 % Pes Initio Debilis
3365 \[ \deminutum g \pes b \]
3368 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3371 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3372 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3375 % Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
3376 \[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3379 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3386 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3387 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3391 \[ a \pes b \flexa g \]
3394 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3397 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3398 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3401 % Torculus Auctus Descendens
3402 \[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
3405 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3408 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3409 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3412 % Torculus Deminutus
3413 \[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
3416 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3420 @code{11. Torculus Initio Debilis}
3422 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3423 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3426 % Torculus Initio Debilis
3427 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]
3430 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3433 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3434 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3437 % Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
3438 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
3441 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3444 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3445 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3448 % Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis
3449 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
3452 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3456 @code{12. Porrectus}
3458 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3459 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3463 \[ a \flexa g \pes b \]
3466 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3469 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3470 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3473 % Porrectus Auctus Descendens
3474 \[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3477 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3480 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3481 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3484 % Porrectus Deminutus
3485 \[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]
3488 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3494 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3495 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3499 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]
3502 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }
3506 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3507 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3511 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]
3514 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3517 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3518 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3521 % Climacus Deminutus
3522 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]
3525 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3529 @code{14. Scandicus}
3531 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3532 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3536 \[ g \pes a \virga b \]
3539 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3542 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3543 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3546 % Scandicus Auctus Descendens
3547 \[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3550 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3553 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3554 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3557 % Scandicus Deminutus
3558 \[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]
3561 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3567 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3568 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3572 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]
3575 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3578 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3579 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3582 % Salicus Auctus Descendens
3583 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3586 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3593 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3594 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3598 \[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]
3601 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }
3610 Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the input language for
3611 neumes does not reflect the typographical appearance, but is designed
3612 to focus on musical meaning. For example, @code{\[ a \pes b
3613 \flexa g \]} produces a Torculus consisting of three Punctum heads,
3614 while @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]} produces a Porrectus with a
3615 curved flexa shape and only a single Punctum head. There is no
3616 command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa shape; the decision of
3617 when to typeset a curved flexa shape is based on the musical
3618 input. The idea of this approach is to separate the musical aspects
3619 of the input from the notation style of the output. This way, the
3620 same input can be reused to typeset the same music in a different
3621 style of Gregorian chant notation.
3623 The following table shows the code fragments that produce the
3624 ligatures in the above neumes table. The letter in the first column
3625 in each line of the below table indicates to which ligature in the
3626 above table it refers. The second column gives the name of the
3627 ligature. The third column shows the code fragment that produces this
3628 ligature, using @code{g}, @code{a}, and @code{b} as example pitches.
3630 @multitable @columnfractions .02 .31 .67
3650 @code{\[ \inclinatum b \]}
3658 @code{\[ \auctum \ascendens b \]}
3666 @code{\[ \auctum \descendens b \]}
3671 Punctum Inclinatum@*
3674 @code{\[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]}
3679 Punctum Inclinatum@*
3681 @code{\[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]}
3688 @code{\[ \virga b \]}
3695 @code{\[ \stropha b \]}
3702 @code{\[ \stropha \auctum b \]}
3709 @code{\[ \oriscus b \]}
3716 @code{\[ b \flexa g \]}
3724 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
3732 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]}
3739 @code{\[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
3746 @code{\[ g \pes b \]}
3754 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3762 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]}
3769 @code{\[ g \pes \deminutum b \]}
3776 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]}
3782 Auctus Descendens @tab
3783 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3790 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes b \]}
3798 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3805 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes b \]}
3810 Pes Auctus Descendens@*
3813 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3820 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]}
3828 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
3835 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
3840 Torculus Initio Debilis
3842 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]}
3848 Descendens Initio Debilis
3850 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
3855 Torculus Deminutus@*
3858 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
3865 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]}
3873 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3880 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]}
3887 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]}
3894 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]}
3901 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]}
3908 @code{\[ g \pes a \virga b \]}
3916 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3923 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]}
3930 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]}
3935 Salicus Auctus Descendens
3937 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3944 @code{\[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]}
3947 The ligatures listed above mainly serve as a limited, but still
3948 representative pool of Gregorian ligature examples. Virtually, within
3949 the ligature delimiters @code{\[} and @code{\]}, any number of heads
3950 may be accumulated to form a single ligature, and head prefixes like
3951 @code{\pes}, @code{\flexa}, @code{\virga}, @code{\inclinatum},
3952 etc. may be mixed in as desired. The use of the set of rules that
3953 underlies the construction of the ligatures in the above table is
3954 accordingly extrapolated. This way, infinitely many different
3955 ligatures can be created.
3957 @c TODO: create a regression or tips & tricks example document with
3958 @c even more Gregorian ligatures, and add a link to this document
3963 The following head prefixes are supported
3965 @cindex @code{\virga}
3967 @cindex @code{\stropha}
3969 @cindex @code{\inclinatum}
3971 @cindex @code{\auctum}
3973 @cindex @code{\descendens}
3975 @cindex @code{\ascendens}
3977 @cindex @code{\oriscus}
3979 @cindex @code{\quilisma}
3981 @cindex @code{\deminutum}
3983 @cindex @code{\cavum}
3985 @cindex @code{\linea}
3988 Head prefixes can be accumulated, though restrictions apply. For
3989 example, either @code{\descendens} or @code{\ascendens} can be applied
3990 to a head, but not both to the same head.
3993 @cindex @code{\flexa}
3994 Two adjacent heads can be tied together with the @code{\pes} and
3995 @code{\flexa} infix commands for a rising and falling line of melody,
4000 @node Gregorian Chant contexts
4001 @subsection Gregorian Chant contexts
4003 @cindex VaticanaVoiceContext
4004 @cindex VaticanaStaffContext
4006 The predefined @code{VaticanaVoiceContext} and
4007 @code{VaticanaStaffContext} can be used to engrave a piece of
4008 Gregorian Chant in the style of the Editio Vaticana. These contexts
4009 initialize all relevant context properties and grob properties to
4010 proper values, so you can immediately go ahead entering the chant, as
4011 the following excerpt demonstrates
4013 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,packed,verbatim]
4014 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
4017 \new VaticanaVoice = "cantus" {
4018 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
4019 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
4020 \override Score.BarNumber #'transparent = ##t {
4021 \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \]
4022 \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \]
4024 \[ f\melisma \pes a c' c' \pes d'\melismaEnd \]
4025 c' \divisioMinima \break
4026 \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \]
4027 \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \] f \divisioMinima
4030 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "cantus" {
4031 San- ctus, San- ctus, San- ctus
4038 @node Mensural contexts
4039 @subsection Mensural contexts
4041 @cindex MensuralVoiceContext
4042 @cindex MensuralStaffContext
4044 The predefined @code{MensuralVoiceContext} and
4045 @code{MensuralStaffContext} can be used to engrave a piece in mensural
4046 style. These contexts initialize all relevant context properties and
4047 grob properties to proper values, so you can immediately go ahead
4048 entering the chant, as the following excerpt demonstrates
4050 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
4053 \new MensuralVoice = "discantus" \transpose c c' {
4054 \override Score.BarNumber #'transparent = ##t {
4055 c'1\melisma bes a g\melismaEnd
4057 \[ f1\melisma a c'\breve d'\melismaEnd \]
4059 c'\breve\melisma a1 g1\melismaEnd
4060 fis\longa^\signumcongruentiae
4063 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "discantus" {
4064 San -- ctus, San -- ctus, San -- ctus
4070 @node Musica ficta accidentals
4071 @subsection Musica ficta accidentals
4073 In European music from before about 1600, singers were often expected
4074 to chromatically alter notes at their own initiative. This is called
4075 ``Musica Ficta''. In modern transcriptions, these accidentals are
4076 usually printed over the note.
4078 @cindex Musica ficta
4080 Support for such suggested accidentals is included, and can be
4081 switched on by setting @code{suggestAccidentals} to true.
4083 @cindex @code{suggestAccidentals}
4085 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
4087 \set suggestAccidentals = ##t
4093 Program reference: @internalsref{Accidental_engraver} engraver and the
4094 @internalsref{AccidentalSuggestion} object.
4097 @subsection Figured bass
4099 @cindex Basso continuo
4101 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
4104 LilyPond has support for figured bass
4106 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment]
4108 \new Voice { \clef bass dis4 c d ais g fis}
4109 \new FiguredBass \figuremode {
4110 < 6 >4 < 7\+ >8 < 6+ [_!] >
4117 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
4118 mode, introduced by @code{\figuremode}, where you can enter bass figures
4119 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass} that
4120 takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
4122 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
4123 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>}
4127 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
4129 \figuremode { <4 6> }
4132 Accidentals are added when you append @code{-}, @code{!}, and @code{+}
4133 to the numbers. A plus sign is added when you append @code{\+}, and
4134 diminished fifths and sevenths can be obtained with @code{5/} and @code{7/}.
4137 <4- 6+ 7!> <5++> <3--> <7/> r <6\+ 5/>
4139 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
4140 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> <5++> <3--> <7/> r <6\+ 5/> }
4143 Spaces may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
4144 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}. You can also include text
4145 strings and text markups, see @ref{Overview of text markup commands}.
4148 < [4 6] 8 [_! 12] > < 5 \markup @{ \number 6 \super (1) @} >
4150 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
4152 \figuremode { < [4 6] 8 [_! 12] > < 5 \markup{ \tiny \number 6 \super (1)} > }
4156 It is also possible to use continuation lines for repeated figures,
4158 @lilypond[verbatim,relative=1]
4165 \set useBassFigureExtenders = ##t
4172 In this case, the extender lines always replace existing figures.
4174 The @code{FiguredBass} context doesn't pay attention to the actual
4175 bass line. As a consequence, you may have to insert extra figures to
4176 get extender lines below all notes, and you may have to add @code{\!}
4177 to avoid getting an extender line, e.g.
4179 @lilypond[relative=1]
4183 \set useBassFigureExtenders = ##t
4184 <6 4->4. <6 4->16. <6 4->32 <5>8. r16 <6>8 <6\! 5->
4188 f16. g32 f16. g32 f16. g32 f16. g32 f8. es16 d8 es
4193 When using continuation lines, common figures are always put in the
4194 same vertical position. When this is unwanted, you can insert a rest
4195 with @code{r}. The rest will clear any previous alignment. For
4196 example, you can write
4208 Accidentals and plus signs can appear before or after the numbers,
4209 depending on the @code{figuredBassAlterationDirection} and @code{figuredBassPlusDirection}
4215 \set figuredBassAlterationDirection = #1
4217 \set figuredBassPlusDirection = #1
4219 \set figuredBassAlterationDirection = #-1
4225 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
4226 support, it is much simpler. The @code{\figuremode} mode simply
4227 stores the numbers and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints them
4228 as entered. There is no conversion to pitches and no realizations of
4229 the bass are played in the MIDI file.
4231 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
4232 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
4233 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
4237 Program reference: @internalsref{NewBassFigure},
4238 @internalsref{BassFigureAlignment}, @internalsref{BassFigureLine},
4239 @internalsref{BassFigureBracket}, and
4240 @internalsref{BassFigureContinuation} objects and
4241 @internalsref{FiguredBass} context.
4245 @node Other instrument specific notation
4246 @section Other instrument specific notation
4248 This section includes extra information for writing for instruments.
4251 * Artificial harmonics (strings)::
4254 @node Artificial harmonics (strings)
4255 @subsection Artificial harmonics (strings)
4257 @cindex artificial harmonics
4259 Artificial harmonics are notated with a different notehead style. They
4260 are entered by marking the harmonic pitch with @code{\harmonic}.
4262 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote,fragment,relative=1]