1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @c This file is part of lilypond.tely
4 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
5 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
6 @c to automatically fill in these menus before saving changes
8 @node Instrument-specific notation
9 @chapter Instrument-specific notation
11 This chapter explains how to use notation for specific instruments.
21 * Other instrument specific notation::
29 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
30 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
31 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
32 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
33 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
34 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
37 * Automatic staff changes::
38 * Manual staff switches::
40 * Staff switch lines::
46 Dynamics are not centered, but workarounds do exist. See the
47 ``piano centered dynamics'' template in @ref{Piano templates}.
49 @cindex cross staff stem
50 @cindex stem, cross staff
51 @cindex distance between staves in piano music
53 The distance between the two staves is the same for all systems in the
54 score. It is possible to override this per system, but it does require
55 an arcane command incantation. See
56 @inputfileref{input/@/test,piano@/-staff@/-distance@/.ly}.
59 @node Automatic staff changes
60 @subsection Automatic staff changes
61 @cindex Automatic staff changes
63 Voices can be made to switch automatically between the top and the bottom
64 staff. The syntax for this is
68 \autochange @dots{}@var{music}@dots{}
73 This will create two staves inside the current PianoStaff, called
74 @code{up} and @code{down}. The lower staff will be in bass clef by
77 A @code{\relative} section that is outside of @code{\autochange} has
78 no effect on the pitches of @var{music}, so, if necessary, put
79 @code{\relative} inside @code{\autochange} like
83 \autochange \relative @dots{} @dots{}
88 The autochanger switches on basis of the pitch (middle C is the turning
89 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch in
90 advance. Here is a practical example
92 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
94 \autochange \relative c'
103 In this manual: @ref{Manual staff switches}.
105 Program reference: @internalsref{AutoChangeMusic}.
111 The staff switches may not end up in optimal places. For high
112 quality output, staff switches should be specified manually.
115 @code{\autochange} cannot be inside @code{\times}.
118 @node Manual staff switches
119 @subsection Manual staff switches
121 @cindex manual staff switches
122 @cindex staff switch, manual
124 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the command
126 \change Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
130 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
131 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
132 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
133 @code{"down"}. The @context{Staff} referred to must already exist, so
134 usually the setup for a score will start with a setup of the staves,
139 \skip 1 * 10 % @emph{keep staff alive}
141 \new Staff = "down" @{
142 \skip 1 * 10 % @emph{idem}
148 and the @context{Voice} is inserted afterwards
152 \new Voice @{ @dots{} \change Staff = up @dots{} @}
160 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound is produced. Generally, a
161 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
164 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
165 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
166 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
169 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
170 c'4\sustainDown c'4\sustainUp
173 What is printed can be modified by setting @code{pedal@var{X}Strings},
174 where @var{X} is one of the pedal types: @code{Sustain},
175 @code{Sostenuto} or @code{UnaCorda}. Refer to
176 @internalsref{SustainPedal} in the program reference for more
179 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
180 @code{pedalSustainStyle} property to bracket objects
182 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
183 \set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'bracket
185 b\sustainUp\sustainDown
186 b g \sustainUp a \sustainDown \bar "|."
189 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
190 obtained by setting the @code{pedalSustainStyle} property to
193 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
194 \set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'mixed
196 b\sustainUp\sustainDown
197 b g \sustainUp a \sustainDown \bar "|."
200 The default `*Ped.' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
201 style @code{#'text}. The sostenuto pedal uses @code{mixed} style by
204 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
205 c\sostenutoDown d e c, f g a\sostenutoUp
208 For fine-tuning the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
209 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
210 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (see
211 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket} in the Program reference) can be
212 modified. For example, the bracket may be extended to the right edge
215 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
216 \override Staff.PianoPedalBracket #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
217 c\sostenutoDown d e c, f g a\sostenutoUp
222 In this manual: @ref{Laissez vibrer ties}
224 @node Staff switch lines
225 @subsection Staff switch lines
229 @cindex staff switching
232 @cindex @code{followVoice}
234 Whenever a voice switches to another staff, a line connecting the notes
235 can be printed automatically. This is switched on by setting
236 @code{followVoice} to true
238 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
241 \set followVoice = ##t
246 \new Staff="two" { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
252 Program reference: @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
256 @cindex @code{\showStaffSwitch}
257 @code{\showStaffSwitch},
258 @cindex @code{\hideStaffSwitch}
259 @code{\hideStaffSwitch}.
262 @node Cross staff stems
263 @subsection Cross staff stems
265 Chords that cross staves may be produced by increasing the length
266 of the stem in the lower staff, so it reaches the stem in the upper
267 staff, or vice versa.
269 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote]
270 stemExtend = \once \override Stem #'length = #22
271 noFlag = \once \override Stem #'flag-style = #'no-flag
274 \stemDown \stemExtend
292 * Introducing chord names::
294 * Printing chord names::
298 @c awkward name; awkward section name.
299 @c still, the Basic "chords" seems like a good name... :(
300 @node Introducing chord names
301 @subsection Introducing chord names
304 LilyPond has support for printing chord names. Chords may be entered
305 in musical chord notation, i.e., @code{< .. >}, but they can also be
306 entered by name. Internally, the chords are represented as a set of
307 pitches, so they can be transposed
310 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,ragged-right]
311 twoWays = \transpose c c' {
320 << \new ChordNames \twoWays
321 \new Voice \twoWays >>
324 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
325 be intelligent. The last chord (@code{f bes d}) is not interpreted as
328 Note that the duration of chords must be specified outside the
337 @subsection Chords mode
340 In chord mode sets of pitches (chords) are entered with normal note
341 names. A chord is entered by the root, which is entered like a
344 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
345 \chordmode { es4. d8 c2 }
349 The mode is introduced by the keyword @code{\chordmode}.
354 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon and introducing a
355 modifier (which may include a number if desired)
356 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim]
357 \chordmode { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
359 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
360 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
362 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim]
363 \chordmode { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
366 @cindex root of chord
367 @cindex additions, in chords
368 @cindex removals, in chords
370 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
371 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
372 the colon and are separated by dots
373 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
374 \chordmode { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
376 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
378 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
379 \chordmode { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
381 Removals are specified similarly and are introduced by a caret. They
382 must come after the additions
383 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
384 \chordmode { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
387 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
392 The minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
395 The diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
399 The augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
402 The major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
405 The suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
406 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
410 Modifiers can be mixed with additions
411 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
412 \chordmode { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
415 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
422 Since an unaltered 11 does not sound good when combined with an
423 unaltered 3, the 11 is removed in this case (unless it is added
425 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
426 \chordmode { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
431 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
432 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
433 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord
434 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
435 \chordmode { c1 c/g c/f }
439 A bass note can be added instead transposed out of the chord,
440 by using @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
442 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
443 \chordmode { c1 c/+g c/+f }
446 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyricmode}, etc. Most
447 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
448 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and property
449 commands may be used to change various settings.
455 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
456 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
459 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment]
460 \chordmode { c:5.5-.5+ }
464 @node Printing chord names
465 @subsection Printing chord names
467 @cindex printing chord names
471 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
472 The chords may be entered either using the notation
473 described above, or directly using @code{<} and @code{>}
475 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
477 \chordmode {a1 b c} <d' f' a'> <e' g' b'>
480 \new ChordNames \harmonies
481 \new Staff \harmonies
485 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
486 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
487 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
488 the start of a new line
490 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
491 harmonies = \chordmode {
492 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
496 \set chordChanges = ##t
498 \new Staff \transpose c c' \harmonies
502 The previous examples all show chords over a staff. This is not
503 necessary. Chords may also be printed separately. It may be necessary
504 to add @internalsref{Volta_engraver} and @internalsref{Bar_engraver}
507 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim]
508 \new ChordNames \with {
509 \override BarLine #'bar-size = #4
510 voltaOnThisStaff = ##t
511 \consists Bar_engraver
512 \consists "Volta_engraver"
514 \chordmode { \repeat volta 2 {
524 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
525 Klaus Ignatzek (see @ref{Literature list}). It can be tuned through the
529 @cindex @code{chordNameExceptions}
530 @item chordNameExceptions
531 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
533 The exceptions list should be encoded as
535 @{ <c f g bes>1 \markup @{ \super "7" "wahh" @} @}
538 To get this information into @code{chordNameExceptions} takes a little
539 manoeuvring. The following code transforms @code{chExceptionMusic}
540 (which is a sequential music) into a list of exceptions.
542 (sequential-music-to-chord-exceptions chExceptionMusic #t)
547 (sequential-music-to-chord-exceptions chExceptionMusic #t)
550 adds the new exceptions to the default ones, which are defined in
551 @file{ly/@/chord@/-modifier@/-init@/.ly}.
553 For an example of tuning this property, see also
554 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-exceptions@/.ly}.
555 @cindex exceptions, chord names.
558 @cindex @code{majorSevenSymbol}
559 @item majorSevenSymbol
560 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
561 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup} and
562 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
563 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-major7@/.ly} for an example.
565 @cindex @code{chordNameSeparator}
566 @item chordNameSeparator
567 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
568 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
570 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
571 \new ChordNames \chordmode {
573 \set chordNameSeparator
574 = \markup { \typewriter "|" }
579 @cindex @code{chordRootNamer}
581 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
582 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
583 function. Special note names (for example, the German ``H'' for a
584 B-chord) can be produced by storing a new function in this property.
586 @cindex @code{chordNoteNamer}
588 The default is to print single pitch, e.g., the bass note, using the
589 @code{chordRootNamer}. The @code{chordNoteNamer} property can be set
590 to a specialized function to change this behavior. For example, the
591 base can be printed in lower case.
593 @cindex @code{chordPrefixSpacer}
594 @item chordPrefixSpacer
595 The ``m'' for minor chords is usually printed right after the root of
596 the chord. By setting @code{chordPrefixSpacer}, you can fix a spacer
597 between the root and ``m''. The spacer is not used when the root
602 The predefined variables @code{\germanChords},
603 @code{\semiGermanChords}, @code{\italianChords} and @code{\frenchChords}
604 set these variables. The effect is
607 @lilypondfile[ragged-right]{chord-names-languages.ly}
609 There are also two other chord name schemes implemented: an alternate
610 Jazz chord notation, and a systematic scheme called Banter chords. The
611 alternate Jazz notation is also shown on the chart in @ref{Chord name
612 chart}. Turning on these styles is described in the input file
613 @inputfileref{input/@/test,chord@/-names@/-jazz@/.ly}.
622 @cindex @code{\germanChords}
623 @code{\germanChords},
624 @cindex @code{\semiGermanChords}
625 @code{\semiGermanChords}.
626 @cindex @code{\italianChords}
627 @code{\italianChords}.
628 @cindex @code{\frenchChords}
629 @code{\frenchChords}.
636 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-major7@/.ly},
637 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-exceptions@/.ly},
638 @inputfileref{input/@/test,chord@/-names@/-jazz@/.ly}.
641 Init files: @file{scm/@/chords@/-ignatzek@/.scm}, and
642 @file{scm/@/chord@/-entry@/.scm}.
647 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
648 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
649 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
650 @code{< .. >} syntax.
657 Since LilyPond input files are text, there are two issues to
658 consider when working with vocal music:
662 Song texts must be entered as text, not notes. For example, the
663 input@tie{}@code{d} should be interpreted as a one letter syllable, not the
667 Song texts must be aligned with the notes of their melody.
670 There are a few different ways to define lyrics; the simplest
671 way is to use the @code{\addlyrics} function.
674 * Setting simple songs::
676 * Hyphens and extenders::
677 * The Lyrics context::
679 * Another way of entering lyrics::
680 * Flexibility in placement::
681 * More about stanzas::
683 * Other vocal issues::
689 Checking to make sure that text scripts and lyrics are within the margins is a relatively large computational task. To speed up processing, lilypond does not perform such calculations by default; to enable it, use
692 \override Score.PaperColumn #'keep-inside-line = ##t
695 To make lyrics avoid barlines as well, use
700 \consists "Bar_engraver"
701 \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver"
702 \override BarLine #'transparent = ##t
708 @node Setting simple songs
709 @subsection Setting simple songs
711 The easiest way to add lyrics to a melody is to append
714 \addlyrics @{ @var{the lyrics} @}
718 to a melody. Here is an example,
720 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,quote]
722 \relative { c2 e4 g2. }
723 \addlyrics { play the game }
726 More stanzas can be added by adding more
727 @code{\addlyrics} sections
729 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,quote]
731 \relative { c2 e4 g2. }
732 \addlyrics { play the game }
733 \addlyrics { speel het spel }
734 \addlyrics { joue le jeu }
737 The command @code{\addlyrics} cannot handle polyphony settings. For these cases you should use @code{\lyricsto} and @code{\lyricmode}.
741 @node Entering lyrics
742 @subsection Entering lyrics
745 @cindex @code{\lyricmode}
748 Lyrics are entered in a special input mode. This mode is introduced
749 by the keyword @code{\lyricmode}, or by using @code{\addlyrics} or
750 @code{\lyricsto}. In this mode you can enter lyrics,
751 with punctuation and accents, and the input @code{d} is not parsed as
752 a pitch, but rather as a one letter syllable. Syllables are entered
753 like notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example,
755 \lyricmode @{ Twin-4 kle4 twin- kle litt- le star2 @}
758 There are two main methods to specify the horizontal placement
759 of the syllables, either by specifying the duration of each syllable
760 explicitly, like in the example above, or by automatically aligning
761 the lyrics to a melody or other voice of music, using @code{\addlyrics}
762 or @code{\lyricsto}. For more details see @ref{The Lyrics context}.
764 A word or syllable of lyrics begins with an alphabetic character, and ends with
765 any space or digit. The following characters can be any character
766 that is not a digit or white space. One important consequence of this
767 is that a word can end with @code{@}}. The following example is
768 usually a mistake in the input file. The syllable includes a @code{@}}, so the
769 opening brace is not balanced
771 \lyricmode @{ twinkle@}
774 @cindex @code{\property}, in @code{\lyricmode}
776 Similarly, a period which follows an alphabetic sequence is included in
777 the resulting string. As a consequence, spaces must be inserted around
780 \override Score . LyricText #'font-shape = #'italic
784 @cindex spaces, in lyrics
785 @cindex quotes, in lyrics
787 In order to assign more than one syllable to a single note, you must
788 surround them with quotes or use a @code{_} character between the syllables.
790 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
792 \relative { c2 e4 g2 e4 }
793 \addlyrics { gran- de_a- mi- go }
794 \addlyrics { pu- "ro y ho-" nes- to }
797 To enter lyrics with characters from non-English languages, or with
798 non-ascii characters (such as the heart symbol or slanted quotes),
799 simply insert the characters directly into the input file and save
800 it with utf-8 encoding. See @ref{Text encoding} for more info.
803 \lyricmode @{ He said: “Let my peo ple go”. @}
806 To use normal quotes in lyrics, add a backslash before the
809 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
810 \relative c' { \time 3/4 e4 e4. e8 d4 e d c2. }
811 \addlyrics { "\"I" am so lone- "ly\"" said she }
814 The full definition of a word start in Lyrics mode is somewhat more
817 A word in Lyrics mode begins with: an alphabetic character, @code{_},
818 @code{?}, @code{!}, @code{:}, @code{'}, the control characters @code{^A}
819 through @code{^F}, @code{^Q} through @code{^W}, @code{^Y}, @code{^^},
820 any 8-bit character with ASCII code over 127, or a two-character
821 combination of a backslash followed by one of @code{`}, @code{'},
822 @code{"}, or @code{^}.
827 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricText}, @internalsref{LyricSpace}.
831 @node Hyphens and extenders
832 @subsection Hyphens and extenders
836 Centered hyphens are entered as `@code{--}' between syllables.
837 The hyphen will have variable length depending on the space between
838 the syllables and it will be centered between the syllables.
843 When a lyric is sung over many notes (this is called a melisma), this is
844 indicated with a horizontal line centered between a syllable and the
845 next one. Such a line is called an extender line, and it is entered as
848 In tighly engraved music, hyphens can be removed. Whether this
849 happens can be controlled with the @code{minimum-distance} (minimum
850 distance between two syllables) and the @code{minimum-length}
851 (threshold below which hyphens are removed).
855 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricHyphen}, @internalsref{LyricExtender}.
859 @node The Lyrics context
860 @subsection The Lyrics context
862 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the context caleld @internalsref{Lyrics}.
865 \new Lyrics \lyricmode @dots{}
868 @cindex automatic syllable durations
869 @cindex @code{\lyricsto}
870 @cindex lyrics and melodies
872 This will place the lyrics according to the durations that were
873 entered. The lyrics can also be aligned under a given melody
874 automatically. In this case, it is no longer necessary to enter the
875 correct duration for each syllable. This is achieved by combining the
876 melody and the lyrics with the @code{\lyricsto} expression
879 \new Lyrics \lyricsto @var{name} @dots{}
882 This aligns the lyrics to the
883 notes of the @internalsref{Voice} context called @var{name}, which has
884 to exist. Therefore, normally the @code{Voice} is specified first, and
885 then the lyrics are specified with @code{\lyricsto}. The command
886 @code{\lyricsto} switches to @code{\lyricmode} mode automatically, so the
887 @code{\lyricmode} keyword may be omitted.
889 The following example uses different commands for entering lyrics.
891 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
893 \new Voice = "one" \relative c'' {
896 c4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2
898 \new Lyrics \lyricmode { Joy4 to8. the16 world!4. the8 Lord4 is come.2 }
899 \new Lyrics \lyricmode { Joy to the earth! the Sav -- our reigns. }
900 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" { No more let sins and sor -- rows grow. }
904 The second stanza is not properly aligned because the durations
905 were not specified. A solution for that would be to use @code{\lyricsto}.
907 To define indentifiers containing lyrics, the function @code{lyricsmode}
911 verseOne = \lyricmode @{ Joy to the world the Lord is come @}
914 \new Voice = "one" \relative c'' @{
917 c4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2
919 \addlyrics @{ \verseOne @}
924 The @code{\addlyrics} command is actually just a convienient way
925 to write a more complicated LilyPond structure that sets up the
930 \addlyrics @{ LYRICS @}
937 \new Voice = "blah" @{ music @}
938 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "blah" @{ LYRICS @}
941 For different or more complex orderings, the best way is to setup the
942 hierarchy of staves and lyrics first, e.g.,
945 \new Voice = "soprano" @{ @emph{music} @}
946 \new Lyrics = "sopranoLyrics" @{ s1 @}
947 \new Lyrics = "tenorLyrics" @{ s1 @}
948 \new Voice = "tenor" @{ @emph{music} @}
952 and then combine the appropriate melodies and lyric lines
955 \context Lyrics = sopranoLyrics \lyricsto "soprano"
960 The final input would resemble
963 <<\new ChoirStaff << @emph{setup the music} >>
964 \lyricsto "soprano" @emph{etc}
965 \lyricsto "alto" @emph{etc}
972 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricCombineMusic},
973 @internalsref{Lyrics}.
977 @subsection Melismata
979 The @code{\lyricsto} command detects melismata: it only puts one
980 syllable under a tied or slurred group of notes. If you want to force
981 an unslurred group of notes to be a melisma, insert @code{\melisma}
982 after the first note of the group, and @code{\melismaEnd} after the
985 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
987 \new Voice = "lala" {
995 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lala" {
1001 In addition, notes are considered a melisma if they are manually
1002 beamed, and automatic beaming (see @ref{Setting automatic beam
1003 behavior}) is switched off.
1006 @cindex choral score
1008 A complete example of a SATB score setup is in section
1009 @ref{Vocal ensembles}.
1014 @code{\melisma}, @code{\melismaEnd}
1015 @cindex @code{\melismaEnd}
1016 @cindex @code{\melisma}
1020 Program reference: @internalsref{Melisma_translator}.
1023 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,lyric@/-combine@/-new@/.ly}.
1027 Melismata are not detected automatically, and extender lines must be
1031 @node Another way of entering lyrics
1032 @subsection Another way of entering lyrics
1034 Lyrics can also be entered without @code{\lyricsto}. In this case the
1035 duration of each syllable must be entered explicitly, for example,
1042 The alignment to a melody can be specified with the
1043 @code{associatedVoice} property,
1046 \set associatedVoice = #"lala"
1050 The value of the property (here: @code{"lala"}) should be the name of
1051 a @internalsref{Voice} context. Without this setting, extender lines
1052 will not be formatted properly.
1054 Here is an example demonstrating manual lyric durations,
1056 @lilypond[relative=1,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,quote]
1057 << \new Voice = "melody" {
1061 \new Lyrics \lyricmode {
1062 \set associatedVoice = #"melody"
1068 @c TODO: document \new Staff << Voice \lyricsto >> bug
1070 @node Flexibility in placement
1071 @subsection Flexibility in placement
1073 Often, different stanzas of one song are put to one melody in slightly
1074 differing ways. Such variations can still be captured with
1078 * Lyrics to multiple notes of a melisma::
1079 * Switching the melody associated with a lyrics line::
1080 * Specifying melismata within the lyrics::
1084 @node Lyrics to multiple notes of a melisma
1085 @subsubsection Lyrics to multiple notes of a melisma
1088 One possibility is that the text has a melisma in one stanza, but
1089 multiple syllables in another one. One solution is to make the faster
1090 voice ignore the melisma. This is done by setting
1091 @code{ignoreMelismata} in the Lyrics context.
1093 There is one tricky aspect: the setting for @code{ignoreMelismata}
1094 must be set one syllable @emph{before} the non-melismatic syllable
1095 in the text, as shown here,
1097 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1099 \relative \new Voice = "lahlah" {
1100 \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
1106 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1109 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1110 \set ignoreMelismata = ##t % applies to "fas"
1112 \unset ignoreMelismata
1119 The @code{ignoreMelismata} applies to the syllable ``fas'', so it
1120 should be entered before ``go''.
1122 The reverse is also possible: making a lyric line slower than the
1123 standard. This can be achieved by insert @code{\skip}s into the
1124 lyrics. For every @code{\skip}, the text will be delayed another note.
1127 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1128 \relative { c c g' }
1136 @node Switching the melody associated with a lyrics line
1137 @subsubsection Switching the melody associated with a lyrics line
1139 More complex variations in text underlay are possible. It is possible
1140 to switch the melody for a line of lyrics during the text. This is
1141 done by setting the @code{associatedVoice} property. In the example
1143 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1145 \relative \new Voice = "lahlah" {
1146 \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
1149 \new Voice = "alternative" {
1152 % show associations clearly.
1153 \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #-3
1164 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1165 Ju -- ras -- sic Park
1167 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1168 % Tricky: need to set associatedVoice
1169 % one syllable too soon!
1170 \set associatedVoice = alternative % applies to "ran"
1174 \set associatedVoice = lahlah % applies to "rus"
1180 the text for the first stanza is set to a melody called ``lahlah'',
1183 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" @{
1184 Ju -- ras -- sic Park
1189 The second stanza initially is set to the @code{lahlah} context, but
1190 for the syllable ``ran'', it switches to a different melody.
1191 This is achieved with
1193 \set associatedVoice = alternative
1197 Here, @code{alternative} is the name of the @code{Voice} context
1198 containing the triplet.
1200 Again, the command must be one syllable too early, before ``Ty'' in
1204 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" @{
1205 \set associatedVoice = alternative % applies to "ran"
1209 \set associatedVoice = lahlah % applies to "rus"
1215 The underlay is switched back to the starting situation by assigning
1216 @code{lahlah} to @code{associatedVoice}.
1219 @node Specifying melismata within the lyrics
1220 @subsubsection Specifying melismata within the lyrics
1222 It is also possible to define melismata entirely in the lyrics. This
1223 can be done by entering @code{_} for every note that is part of the
1226 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,fragment]
1227 { \set melismaBusyProperties = #'()
1228 c d( e) f f( e) e e }
1230 { Ky -- _ _ ri __ _ _ _ e }
1233 In this case, you can also have ties and slurs in the melody, if you
1234 set @code{melismaBusyProperties}, as is done in the example above.
1236 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,fragment]
1238 \set melismaBusyProperties = #'()
1242 { Ky -- _ _ ri __ _ _ _ e }
1249 @node Spacing lyrics
1250 @subsubsection Spacing lyrics
1252 @cindex Spacing lyrics
1253 @cindex Lyrics, increasing space between
1255 To increase the spacing between lyrics, set the minimum-distance property of
1258 @lilypond[relative,verbatim,fragment,quote,ragged-right]
1261 \override Lyrics.LyricSpace #'minimum-distance = #1.0
1265 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1266 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1270 To make this change for all lyrics in the score, set the property in the layout.
1272 @lilypond[relative,verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1279 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1280 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1285 \override LyricSpace #'minimum-distance = #1.0
1292 @node More about stanzas
1293 @subsection More about stanzas
1295 @cindex phrasing, in lyrics
1298 @cindex stanza number
1299 @cindex singer's names
1300 @cindex name of singer
1302 Stanza numbers can be added by setting @code{stanza}, e.g.,
1304 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1306 \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2.
1309 Hi, my name is Bert.
1312 Oh, che -- ri, je t'aime
1316 These numbers are put just before the start of first syllable.
1318 Sometimes it is appropriate to have one stanza set
1319 to the music, and the rest added in verse form at
1320 the end of the piece. This can be accomplished by adding
1321 the extra verses into a @code{\markup} section outside
1322 of the main score block. Notice that there are two
1323 different ways to force linebreaks when using
1326 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote]
1327 melody = \relative c' {
1333 \set stanza = "1." Ma- ry had a lit- tle lamb,
1334 its fleece was white as snow.
1339 \new Voice = "one" { \melody }
1340 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text
1346 \line{ All the children laughed and played }
1347 \line{ To see a lamb at school. }
1354 Mary took it home again,
1356 It was against the rule."
1362 Names of singers can also be added. They are printed at the start of
1363 the line, just like instrument names. They are created by setting
1364 @code{vocalName}. A short version may be entered as @code{vocNam}.
1367 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
1369 \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2.
1371 \set vocalName = "Bert "
1372 Hi, my name is Bert.
1374 \set vocalName = "Ernie "
1375 Oh, che -- ri, je t'aime
1379 You can display alternate (or divisi) lyrics by naming voice
1380 contexts and attaching lyrics to those specific contexts.
1382 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1384 \new Voice = "melody" {
1389 \new Voice = "splitpart" { \voiceTwo c4 }
1394 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" { we shall not o- ver- come }
1395 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "splitpart" { will }
1400 You can use this trick to display different lyrics for a repeated
1403 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1405 \new Voice = "melody" \relative c' {
1407 \new Voice = "verse" \repeat volta 2 {c4 d e f | g1 | }
1409 \new Lyrics = "mainlyrics" \lyricsto melody \lyricmode {
1412 \context Lyrics = "mainlyrics" \lyricsto verse \lyricmode {
1414 \new Lyrics = "repeatlyrics" \lyricsto verse \lyricmode {
1415 dodo rere mimi fafa solsol }
1423 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricText}, @internalsref{StanzaNumber}, @internalsref{VocalName}.
1431 The term @emph{ambitus} denotes a range of pitches for a given voice
1432 in a part of music. It may also denote the pitch range that a musical
1433 instrument is capable of playing. Ambits are printed on vocal parts,
1434 so performers can easily determine it meets their capabilities.
1436 Ambits are denoted at the beginning of a piece near the initial clef.
1437 The range is graphically specified by two note heads that represent the
1438 minimum and maximum pitch. To print such ambits, add the
1439 @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the @internalsref{Voice} context,
1446 \consists Ambitus_engraver
1451 This results in the following output
1453 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1457 \consists Ambitus_engraver
1461 \relative \new Staff {
1466 If you have multiple voices in a single staff and you want a single
1467 ambitus per staff rather than per each voice, add the
1468 @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the @internalsref{Staff} context
1469 rather than to the @internalsref{Voice} context. Here is an example,
1471 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1473 \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
1477 \remove "Ambitus_engraver"
1479 \override Ambitus #'X-offset = #-1.0
1484 \remove "Ambitus_engraver"
1493 This example uses one advanced feature,
1496 \override Ambitus #'X-offset = #-1.0
1500 This code moves the ambitus to the left. The same effect could have
1501 been achieved with @code{extra-offset}, but then the formatting system
1502 would not reserve space for the moved object.
1506 Program reference: @internalsref{Ambitus},
1507 @internalsref{AmbitusLine}, @internalsref{AmbitusNoteHead},
1508 @internalsref{AmbitusAccidental}.
1510 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,ambitus@/.ly}.
1514 There is no collision handling in the case of multiple per-voice
1518 @node Other vocal issues
1519 @subsection Other vocal issues
1522 yeah, I'm giving up somewhat by stuffing a bunch of things in
1523 here. But at least they're in the manual now; it's easier to
1524 move them around in the manual once they're already here.
1526 Besides, if users complain about everything stuffed in here, I
1527 can ask them for specific instructions about where to move these
1528 examples, and that might get them more involved in the docs. -gp
1531 ``Parlato'' is spoken without pitch but still with rhythm; it is
1532 notated by cross noteheads. This is demonstrated in
1533 @ref{Special noteheads}.
1539 @node Rhythmic music
1540 @section Rhythmic music
1542 Rhythmic music is primarily used for percussion and drum notation, but it can
1543 also be used to show the rhythms of melodies.
1546 * Showing melody rhythms::
1547 * Entering percussion::
1548 * Percussion staves::
1552 @node Showing melody rhythms
1553 @subsection Showing melody rhythms
1555 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This
1556 can be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a
1557 staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single line
1559 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
1560 \new RhythmicStaff {
1562 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1568 Program reference: @internalsref{RhythmicStaff}.
1570 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,rhythmic@/-staff@/.ly}.
1573 @node Entering percussion
1574 @subsection Entering percussion
1580 Percussion notes may be entered in @code{\drummode} mode, which is
1581 similar to the standard mode for entering notes. Each piece of
1582 percussion has a full name and an abbreviated name, and both can be used
1585 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1587 hihat hh bassdrum bd
1591 The complete list of drum names is in the init file
1592 @file{ly/@/drumpitch@/-init@/.ly}.
1593 @c TODO: properly document this.
1597 Program reference: @internalsref{note-event}.
1599 @node Percussion staves
1600 @subsection Percussion staves
1604 A percussion part for more than one instrument typically uses a
1605 multiline staff where each position in the staff refers to one piece
1609 To typeset the music, the notes must be interpreted in a
1610 @internalsref{DrumStaff} and @internalsref{DrumVoice} contexts
1612 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1613 up = \drummode { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
1614 down = \drummode { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
1616 \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
1617 \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
1621 The above example shows verbose polyphonic notation. The short
1622 polyphonic notation, described in @ref{Polyphony}, can also be used if
1623 the @internalsref{DrumVoice}s are instantiated by hand first. For example,
1625 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
1627 \new DrumVoice = "1" { s1 *2 }
1628 \new DrumVoice = "2" { s1 *2 }
1632 { \repeat unfold 16 hh16 }
1641 There are also other layout possibilities. To use these, set the
1642 property @code{drumStyleTable} in context @internalsref{DrumVoice}.
1643 The following variables have been predefined
1647 This is the default. It typesets a typical drum kit on a five-line staff
1649 @lilypond[quote,line-width=10.0\cm]
1651 cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp
1652 cb hc bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
1654 cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp \break
1655 cb hc bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
1657 << \new DrumStaff \with {
1658 \remove Bar_engraver
1659 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1660 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1661 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1662 \override VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
1669 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1670 \override BarNumber #'transparent =##T
1676 The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there are fewer toms,
1677 simply select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e., to get toms
1678 on the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml}, and
1681 @item timbales-style
1682 This typesets timbales on a two line staff
1684 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1685 nam = \lyricmode { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
1686 mus = \drummode { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
1689 \new DrumStaff \with {
1690 \remove Bar_engraver
1691 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1692 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1693 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1694 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #2
1695 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #2
1696 \override VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
1697 drumStyleTable = #timbales-style
1700 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1707 This typesets congas on a two line staff
1709 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1710 nam = \lyricmode { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
1711 mus = \drummode { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
1714 \new DrumStaff \with {
1715 \remove Bar_engraver
1716 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1717 drumStyleTable = #congas-style
1718 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #2
1720 %% this sucks; it will lengthen stems.
1721 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #2
1722 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1723 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1726 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1733 This typesets bongos on a two line staff
1735 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1736 nam = \lyricmode { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
1737 mus = \drummode { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
1740 \new DrumStaff \with {
1741 \remove Bar_engraver
1742 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1743 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #2
1744 drumStyleTable = #bongos-style
1746 %% this sucks; it will lengthen stems.
1747 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #2
1748 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1749 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1752 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1758 @item percussion-style
1759 To typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves.
1761 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1762 nam = \lyricmode { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
1763 mus = \drummode { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
1766 \new DrumStaff \with{
1767 \remove Bar_engraver
1768 drumStyleTable = #percussion-style
1769 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #1
1770 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1771 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1772 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1775 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1782 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
1783 list at the top of your file
1785 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1787 (bassdrum default #f -1)
1788 (snare default #f 0)
1790 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" 2)
1791 (lowtom diamond #f 3)))
1792 up = \drummode { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
1793 down = \drummode { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
1796 \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums)
1797 \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
1798 \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
1805 Init files: @file{ly/@/drumpitch@/-init@/.ly}.
1807 Program reference: @internalsref{DrumStaff}, @internalsref{DrumVoice}.
1811 Because general MIDI does not contain rim shots, the sidestick is used
1812 for this purpose instead.
1820 @cindex guitar tablature
1823 * String number indications::
1824 * Tablatures basic::
1825 * Non-guitar tablatures::
1826 * Banjo tablatures::
1828 * Other guitar issues::
1831 @node String number indications
1832 @subsection String number indications
1834 @cindex String numbers
1836 String numbers can be added to chords, by indicating the string number
1837 with @code{\}@var{number},
1839 @lilypond[relative,relative=1,ragged-right,fragment]
1843 See also @inputfileref{input/regression,string-number.ly}.
1848 Program reference: @internalsref{StringNumber}.
1851 @node Tablatures basic
1852 @subsection Tablatures basic
1853 @cindex Tablatures basic
1855 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
1856 instruments. Pitches are not denoted with note heads, but by
1857 numbers indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
1858 offers limited support for tablature.
1860 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
1861 followed by a number, e.g., @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
1862 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
1863 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
1864 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
1865 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts
1867 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
1874 @cindex @code{minimumFret}
1877 When no string is specified, the first string that does not give a
1878 fret number less than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default
1879 value for @code{minimumFret} is 0
1884 \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
1887 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1891 \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
1895 \new Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
1896 \new TabStaff { \frag }
1903 To print tablatures with stems down and horizontal beams,
1904 initialize the @code{TabStaff} with this code:
1908 \override Beam #'damping = #100000
1913 Program reference: @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}.
1917 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
1918 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
1922 @node Non-guitar tablatures
1923 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
1924 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
1926 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
1927 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
1928 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to middle C) of an
1929 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
1930 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
1931 by default middle C, in string order. LilyPond automatically calculates
1932 the number of strings by looking at @code{stringTuning}.
1934 In the next example,
1935 @code{stringTunings} is set for the pitches e, a, d, and g
1937 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
1939 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
1941 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
1946 LilyPond comes with predefined string tunings for banjo, mandolin, guitar
1950 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #bass-tuning
1953 The default string tuning is @code{guitar-tuning} (the standard EADGBE tuning).
1954 Some other predefined tunings are @code{guitar-open-g-tuning},
1955 @code{mandolin-tuning} and @code{banjo-open-g-tuning}.
1959 The file @file{scm/@/output@/-lib@/.scm} contains the predefined string tunings.
1960 Program reference: @internalsref{Tab_note_heads_engraver}.
1964 No guitar special effects have been implemented.
1968 @node Banjo tablatures
1969 @subsection Banjo tablatures
1970 @cindex Banjo tablatures
1972 LilyPond has basic support for five stringed banjo. When making tablatures
1973 for five stringed banjo, use the banjo tablature format function to get correct
1974 fret numbers for the fifth string:
1976 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
1978 \set TabStaff.tablatureFormat = #fret-number-tablature-format-banjo
1979 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #banjo-open-g-tuning
1982 g8 d' g'\5 a b g e d' |
1983 g4 d''8\5 b' a'\2 g'\5 e'\2 d' |
1989 A number of common tunings for banjo are predefined in LilyPond:
1990 @code{banjo-c-tuning} (gCGBD), @code{banjo-modal-tuning} (gDGCD),
1991 @code{banjo-open-d-tuning} (aDF#AD) and @code{banjo-open-dm-tuning}
1994 These tunings may be converted to four string banjo tunings using the
1995 @code{four-string-banjo} function:
1998 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #(four-string-banjo banjo-c-tuning)
2003 The file @file{scm/@/output@/-lib@/.scm} contains predefined banjo tunings.
2007 @subsection Fret diagrams
2008 @cindex fret diagrams
2009 @cindex chord diagrams
2011 Fret diagrams can be added to music as a markup to the desired note. The
2012 markup contains information about the desired fret diagram, as shown in the
2015 @lilypond[verbatim, ragged-right, quote]
2017 d'^\markup \fret-diagram #"6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2;2-3;1-2;"
2019 fis'^\markup \override #'(size . 0.75) {
2020 \override #'(finger-code . below-string) {
2021 \fret-diagram-verbose #'((place-fret 6 2 1) (barre 6 1 2)
2022 (place-fret 5 4 3) (place-fret 4 4 4)
2023 (place-fret 3 3 2) (place-fret 2 2 1)
2028 c'^\markup \override #'(dot-radius . 0.35) {
2029 \override #'(finger-code . in-dot) {
2030 \override #'(dot-color . white) {
2031 \fret-diagram-terse #"x;3-1-(;5-2;5-3;5-4;3-1-);"
2040 There are three different fret-diagram markup interfaces: standard, terse,
2041 and verbose. The three interfaces produce equivalent markups, but have
2042 varying amounts of information in the markup string. Details about the
2043 markup interfaces are found at @ref{Overview of text markup commands}.
2045 You can set a number of graphical properties according to your preference.
2046 Details about the property interface to fret diagrams are found at
2047 @internalsref{fret-diagram-interface}.
2052 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/test,fret@/-diagram@/.ly}
2055 @node Other guitar issues
2056 @subsection Other guitar issues
2058 This example demonstrates how to include guitar position and
2059 barring indications.
2061 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=0]
2065 \override TextSpanner #'edge-text = #'("XII " . "")
2067 b16 e16 g16 e16 b16 g16\stopTextSpan
2072 Stopped (X) note heads are used in guitar music to signal a place where the
2073 guitarist must play a certain note or chord, with its fingers just
2074 touching the strings instead of fully pressing them. This gives the sound a
2075 percussive noise-like sound that still maintains part of the original
2076 pitch. It is notated with cross noteheads; this is
2077 demonstrated in @ref{Special noteheads}.
2086 * Bagpipe definitions::
2091 @node Bagpipe definitions
2092 @subsection Bagpipe definitions
2094 LilyPond contains special definitions for music for the Scottish
2095 highland bagpipe; to use them, add
2098 \include "bagpipe.ly"
2102 at the top of your input file. This lets you add the special gracenotes
2103 common to bagpipe music with short commands. For example, you could
2104 write @code{\taor} instead of
2107 \grace @{ \small G32[ d G e] @}
2110 @code{bagpipe.ly} also contains pitch definitions for the bagpipe
2111 notes in the appropiate octaves, so you do not need to worry about
2112 @code{\relative} or @code{\transpose}.
2114 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote,notime]
2115 \include "bagpipe.ly"
2116 { \grg G4 \grg a \grg b \grg c \grg d \grg e \grg f \grA g A }
2119 Bagpipe music nominally uses the key of D Major (even though that
2120 isn't really true). However, since that is the only key that can be used,
2121 the key signature is normally not written out. To set this up correctly,
2122 always start your music with @code{\hideKeySignature}. If you for some
2123 reason want to show the key signature, you can use @code{\showKeySignature}
2126 Some modern music use cross fingering on c and f to flatten those notes.
2127 This can be indicated by @code{cflat} or @code{fflat}. Similarly, the
2128 piobaireachd high g can be written @code{gflat} when it occurs in light
2132 @node Bagpipe example
2133 @subsection Bagpipe example
2135 This is what the well known tune Amazing Grace looks like in bagpipe
2138 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
2139 \include "bagpipe.ly"
2142 \context { \Score \remove "Bar_number_engraver" }
2146 title = "Amazing Grace"
2148 arranger = "Trad. arr."
2154 \grg \partial 4 a8. d16
2155 \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
2158 \grG a2 \grg a8. d16
2159 \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
2160 \grg f2 \grg e8. f16
2163 \grg A2 \hdblf f8[ e32 d16.]
2166 \grG a2 \grg a8. d16
2167 \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
2176 @node Ancient notation
2177 @section Ancient notation
2179 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
2180 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
2185 Support for ancient notation includes features for mensural notation
2186 and Gregorian Chant notation. There is also limited support for
2187 figured bass notation.
2189 Many graphical objects provide a @code{style} property, see
2192 @ref{Ancient note heads},
2194 @ref{Ancient accidentals},
2196 @ref{Ancient rests},
2198 @ref{Ancient clefs},
2200 @ref{Ancient flags},
2202 @ref{Ancient time signatures}.
2205 By manipulating such a grob property, the typographical appearance of
2206 the affected graphical objects can be accommodated for a specific
2207 notation flavor without the need for introducing any new notational
2210 In addition to the standard articulation signs described in section
2211 @ref{Articulations}, specific articulation signs for ancient notation
2216 @ref{Ancient articulations}
2219 Other aspects of ancient notation can not that easily be expressed
2220 in terms of just changing a style property of a graphical object or
2221 adding articulation signs. Some notational concepts are introduced
2222 specifically for ancient notation,
2233 If this all is too much of documentation for you, and you just want to
2234 dive into typesetting without worrying too much about the details on
2235 how to customize a context, you may have a look at the predefined
2236 contexts. Use them to set up predefined style-specific voice and
2237 staff contexts, and directly go ahead with the note entry,
2241 @ref{Gregorian Chant contexts},
2243 @ref{Mensural contexts}.
2246 There is limited support for figured bass notation which came
2247 up during the baroque period.
2254 Here are all suptopics at a glance:
2257 * Ancient note heads::
2258 * Ancient accidentals::
2262 * Ancient time signatures::
2263 * Ancient articulations::
2267 * Gregorian Chant contexts::
2268 * Mensural contexts::
2269 * Musica ficta accidentals::
2275 @node Ancient note heads
2276 @subsection Ancient note heads
2281 For ancient notation, a note head style other than the @code{default}
2282 style may be chosen. This is accomplished by setting the @code{style}
2283 property of the @internalsref{NoteHead} object to @code{baroque},
2284 @code{neomensural}, @code{mensural} or @code{petrucci}. The
2285 @code{baroque} style differs from the @code{default} style only in
2286 using a square shape for @code{\breve} note heads. The
2287 @code{neomensural} style differs from the @code{baroque} style in that
2288 it uses rhomboidal heads for whole notes and all smaller durations.
2289 Stems are centered on the note heads. This style is particularly
2290 useful when transcribing mensural music, e.g., for the incipit. The
2291 @code{mensural} style produces note heads that mimic the look of note
2292 heads in historic printings of the 16th century. Finally, the
2293 @code{petrucci} style also mimicks historic printings, but uses bigger
2296 The following example demonstrates the @code{neomensural} style
2298 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
2299 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
2300 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
2301 a'\longa a'\breve a'1 a'2 a'4 a'8 a'16
2304 When typesetting a piece in Gregorian Chant notation, the
2305 @internalsref{Gregorian_ligature_engraver} will automatically select
2306 the proper note heads, so there is no need to explicitly set the
2307 note head style. Still, the note head style can be set, e.g., to
2308 @code{vaticana_punctum} to produce punctum neumes. Similarly, a
2309 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} is used to automatically
2310 assemble mensural ligatures. See @ref{Ligatures} for how ligature
2315 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,note@/-head@/-style@/.ly} gives an
2316 overview over all available note head styles.
2319 @node Ancient accidentals
2320 @subsection Ancient accidentals
2325 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{Accidental} to
2326 select ancient accidentals. Supported styles are
2327 @code{mensural}, @code{vaticana}, @code{hufnagel}, and @code{medicaea}.
2329 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,staffsize=26]
2336 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.vaticana-1"
2337 " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.vaticana0" }
2341 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.medicaea-1" }
2345 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.hufnagel-1" }
2349 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.mensural-1"
2350 " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.mensural1" }
2356 \context { \Score \remove "Bar_number_engraver" }
2358 \remove "Clef_engraver"
2359 \remove "Key_engraver"
2360 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
2361 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
2362 \override VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = ##f
2368 As shown, not all accidentals are supported by each style. When
2369 trying to access an unsupported accidental, LilyPond will switch to a
2370 different style, as demonstrated in
2371 @inputfileref{input/@/test,ancient@/-accidentals@/.ly}.
2373 Similarly to local accidentals, the style of the key signature can be
2374 controlled by the @code{style} property of the
2375 @internalsref{KeySignature} grob.
2379 In this manual: @ref{Pitches}, @ref{Cautionary accidentals} and
2380 @ref{Automatic accidentals} give a general introduction of the use of
2381 accidentals. @ref{Key signature} gives a general introduction of
2382 the use of key signatures.
2384 Program reference: @internalsref{KeySignature}.
2386 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/test,ancient@/-accidentals@/.ly}.
2389 @subsection Ancient rests
2391 @cindex rests, ancient
2394 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{Rest} to select
2395 ancient rests. Supported styles are @code{classical},
2396 @code{neomensural}, and @code{mensural}. @code{classical} differs
2397 from the @code{default} style only in that the quarter rest looks like
2398 a horizontally mirrored 8th rest. The @code{neomensural} style suits
2399 well for, e.g., the incipit of a transcribed mensural piece of music.
2400 The @code{mensural} style finally mimics the appearance of rests as
2401 in historic prints of the 16th century.
2403 The following example demonstrates the @code{neomensural} style
2405 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
2406 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
2407 \override Rest #'style = #'neomensural
2408 r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16
2411 There are no 32th and 64th rests specifically for the mensural or
2412 neo-mensural style. Instead, the rests from the default style will be
2413 taken. See @inputfileref{input/@/test,rests@/.ly} for a chart of all
2416 There are no rests in Gregorian Chant notation; instead, it uses
2421 In this manual: @ref{Rests} gives a general introduction into the use of rests.
2425 @subsection Ancient clefs
2430 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
2432 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
2433 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but
2434 differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such
2435 cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs.
2436 Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an
2437 arbitrary line, as described in @ref{Clef}. The note printed to the
2438 right side of each clef in the example column denotes the @code{c'}
2439 with respect to that clef.
2441 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .4 .2
2450 modern style mensural C clef
2452 @code{neomensural-c1}, @code{neomensural-c2},@*
2453 @code{neomensural-c3}, @code{neomensural-c4}
2455 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2456 \clef "neomensural-c2" c
2460 petrucci style mensural C clefs, for use on different staff lines
2461 (the examples show the 2nd staff line C clef)
2463 @code{petrucci-c1}, @code{petrucci-c2},@*
2464 @code{petrucci-c3}, @code{petrucci-c4},@*
2467 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2469 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2474 petrucci style mensural F clef
2478 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2480 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2485 petrucci style mensural G clef
2489 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2491 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2496 historic style mensural C clef
2498 @code{mensural-c1}, @code{mensural-c2},@*
2499 @code{mensural-c3}, @code{mensural-c4}
2501 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2503 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2508 historic style mensural F clef
2512 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2514 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2519 historic style mensural G clef
2523 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2525 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2530 Editio Vaticana style do clef
2532 @code{vaticana-do1}, @code{vaticana-do2},@*
2535 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2536 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2537 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2538 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2539 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2540 \override NoteHead #'style = #'vaticana.punctum
2541 \clef "vaticana-do2"
2546 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
2548 @code{vaticana-fa1}, @code{vaticana-fa2}
2550 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2551 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2552 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2553 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2554 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2555 \override NoteHead #'style = #'vaticana.punctum
2556 \clef "vaticana-fa2"
2561 Editio Medicaea style do clef
2563 @code{medicaea-do1}, @code{medicaea-do2},@*
2566 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2567 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2568 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2569 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2570 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2571 \override NoteHead #'style = #'medicaea.punctum
2572 \clef "medicaea-do2"
2577 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
2579 @code{medicaea-fa1}, @code{medicaea-fa2}
2581 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2582 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2583 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2584 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2585 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2586 \override NoteHead #'style = #'medicaea.punctum
2587 \clef "medicaea-fa2"
2592 historic style hufnagel do clef
2594 @code{hufnagel-do1}, @code{hufnagel-do2},@*
2597 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2598 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2599 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2600 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2601 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2602 \override NoteHead #'style = #'hufnagel.punctum
2603 \clef "hufnagel-do2"
2608 historic style hufnagel fa clef
2610 @code{hufnagel-fa1}, @code{hufnagel-fa2}
2612 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2613 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2614 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2615 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2616 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2617 \override NoteHead #'style = #'hufnagel.punctum
2618 \clef "hufnagel-fa2"
2623 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
2625 @code{hufnagel-do-fa}
2627 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2628 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2629 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2630 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2631 \override NoteHead #'style = #'hufnagel.punctum
2632 \clef "hufnagel-do-fa"
2639 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
2640 transcribed mensural music''.
2642 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
2643 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
2645 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
2646 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
2648 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
2650 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
2651 beams, depending on which staff line it is printed.
2655 In this manual: see @ref{Clef}.
2659 The mensural g clef is mapped to the Petrucci g clef.
2664 @subsection Ancient flags
2669 Use the @code{flag-style} property of grob @internalsref{Stem} to
2670 select ancient flags. Besides the @code{default} flag style,
2671 only the @code{mensural} style is supported
2673 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
2674 \override Stem #'flag-style = #'mensural
2675 \override Stem #'thickness = #1.0
2676 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2678 c'8 d'8 e'8 f'8 c'16 d'16 e'16 f'16 c'32 d'32 e'32 f'32 s8
2679 c''8 d''8 e''8 f''8 c''16 d''16 e''16 f''16 c''32 d''32 e''32 f''32
2682 Note that the innermost flare of each mensural flag always is
2683 vertically aligned with a staff line.
2685 There is no particular flag style for neo-mensural notation. Hence,
2686 when typesetting the incipit of a transcribed piece of mensural
2687 music, the default flag style should be used. There are no flags in
2688 Gregorian Chant notation.
2692 The attachment of ancient flags to stems is slightly off due to a
2693 change in early 2.3.x.
2695 Vertically aligning each flag with a staff line assumes that stems
2696 always end either exactly on or exactly in the middle between two
2697 staff lines. This may not always be true when using advanced layout
2698 features of classical notation (which however are typically out of
2699 scope for mensural notation).
2701 @node Ancient time signatures
2702 @subsection Ancient time signatures
2704 @cindex time signatures
2707 There is limited support for mensural time signatures. The
2708 glyphs are hard-wired to particular time fractions. In other words,
2709 to get a particular mensural signature glyph with the @code{\time n/m}
2710 command, @code{n} and @code{m} have to be chosen according to the
2713 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2718 \remove Staff_symbol_engraver
2719 \remove Clef_engraver
2720 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2724 \set Score.timing = ##f
2725 \set Score.barAlways = ##t
2726 s_\markup { "\\time 4/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural44" }
2728 s_\markup { "\\time 2/2" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural22" }
2730 s_\markup { "\\time 6/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural64" }
2732 s_\markup { "\\time 6/8" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural68" }
2734 s_\markup { "\\time 3/2" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural32" }
2736 s_\markup { "\\time 3/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural34" }
2738 s_\markup { "\\time 9/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural94" }
2740 s_\markup { "\\time 9/8" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural98" }
2742 s_\markup { "\\time 4/8" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural48" }
2744 s_\markup { "\\time 2/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural24" }
2748 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{TimeSignature} to
2749 select ancient time signatures. Supported styles are
2750 @code{neomensural} and @code{mensural}. The above table uses the
2751 @code{neomensural} style. This style is appropriate for the
2752 incipit of transcriptions of mensural pieces. The @code{mensural}
2753 style mimics the look of historical printings of the 16th century.
2755 The following examples show the differences in style,
2757 @lilypond[ragged-right,fragment,relative=1,quote]
2762 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter default }
2764 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'numbered
2766 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter numbered }
2768 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'mensural
2770 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter mensural }
2772 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
2774 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter neomensural }
2775 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'single-digit
2777 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter single-digit }
2783 This manual: @ref{Time signature} gives a general introduction to
2784 the use of time signatures.
2788 Ratios of note durations do not change with the time signature. For
2789 example, the ratio of 1 brevis = 3 semibrevis (tempus perfectum) must
2790 be made by hand, by setting
2793 breveTP = #(ly:make-duration -1 0 3 2)
2799 This sets @code{breveTP} to 3/2 times 2 = 3 times a whole note.
2801 The @code{old6/8alt} symbol (an alternate symbol for 6/8) is not
2802 addressable with @code{\time}. Use a @code{\markup} instead
2804 @node Ancient articulations
2805 @subsection Ancient articulations
2807 @cindex articulations
2809 In addition to the standard articulation signs described in section
2810 @ref{Articulations}, articulation signs for ancient notation are
2811 provided. These are specifically designed for use with notation in
2812 Editio Vaticana style.
2814 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
2815 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
2817 \new VaticanaVoice {
2818 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2819 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2820 \override TextScript #'font-family = #'typewriter
2821 \override TextScript #'font-shape = #'upright
2822 \override Script #'padding = #-0.1
2824 a4\circulus_"circulus" s1
2825 a4\semicirculus_"semicirculus" s1 s
2826 a4\accentus_"accentus" s1
2827 \[ a4_"episem" \episemInitium \pes b \flexa a \episemFinis \]
2834 Some articulations are vertically placed too closely to the
2835 correpsonding note heads.
2838 @subsection Custodes
2843 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; Latin word for `guard') is a
2844 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
2845 of the first note(s) of the following line thus helping the performer
2846 to manage line breaks during performance.
2848 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th
2849 century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms
2850 of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant
2851 like the @emph{editio vaticana}. There are different custos glyphs
2852 used in different flavors of notational style.
2854 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
2855 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\layout} block,
2856 as shown in the following example
2862 \consists Custos_engraver
2863 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2868 The result looks like this
2870 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2874 \override Staff.Custos #'style = #'mensural
2879 \context { \Staff \consists Custos_engraver }
2884 The custos glyph is selected by the @code{style} property. The styles
2885 supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel}, and
2886 @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the following fragment
2888 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
2889 \new Lyrics \lyricmode {
2891 \typewriter "vaticana"
2892 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.vaticana.u0" }
2895 \typewriter "medicaea"
2896 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.medicaea.u0" }
2899 \typewriter "hufnagel"
2900 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.hufnagel.u0" }
2903 \typewriter "mensural"
2904 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.mensural.u0" }
2911 Program reference: @internalsref{Custos}.
2913 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,custos@/.ly}.
2917 @subsection Divisiones
2923 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; Latin word for
2924 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
2925 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
2926 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior}, and @emph{divisio maxima}
2927 can be characterized as short, medium, and long pause, somewhat like
2928 the breathmarks from @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not
2929 only marks the end of a chant, but is also frequently used within a
2930 single antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
2933 To use divisiones, include the file @file{gregorian@/-init@/.ly}. It
2934 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
2935 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
2936 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
2937 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
2938 Therefore, @file{gregorian@/-init@/.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
2941 @lilypondfile[quote,ragged-right]{divisiones.ly}
2945 @cindex @code{\virgula}
2947 @cindex @code{\caesura}
2949 @cindex @code{\divisioMinima}
2950 @code{\divisioMinima},
2951 @cindex @code{\divisioMaior}
2952 @code{\divisioMaior},
2953 @cindex @code{\divisioMaxima}
2954 @code{\divisioMaxima},
2955 @cindex @code{\finalis}
2960 In this manual: @ref{Breath marks}.
2962 Program reference: @internalsref{BreathingSign}.
2964 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/test,divisiones@/.ly}.
2967 @subsection Ligatures
2971 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
2972 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
2974 A ligature is a graphical symbol that represents at least two distinct
2975 notes. Ligatures originally appeared in the manuscripts of Gregorian
2976 chant notation to denote ascending or descending sequences of notes.
2978 Ligatures are entered by enclosing them in @code{\[} and @code{\]}.
2979 Some ligature styles may need additional input syntax specific for
2980 this particular type of ligature. By default, the
2981 @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a square bracket
2984 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
2992 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver
2993 has to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in
2994 the following subsections. Only white mensural ligatures
2995 are supported with certain limitations.
3001 Ligatures need special spacing that has not yet been implemented. As
3002 a result, there is too much space between ligatures most of the time,
3003 and line breaking often is unsatisfactory. Also, lyrics do not
3004 correctly align with ligatures.
3006 Accidentals must not be printed within a ligature, but instead need to
3007 be collected and printed in front of it.
3009 Augmentum dots within ligatures are not handled correctly.
3011 The syntax still uses the deprecated infix style @code{\[ music expr
3012 \]}. For consistency reasons, it will eventually be changed to
3013 postfix style @code{note\[ ... note\]}. Alternatively, the file
3014 @file{gregorian@/-init@/.ly} can be included; it provides a scheme
3017 \ligature @var{music expr}
3019 with the same effect and is believed to be stable.
3022 * White mensural ligatures::
3023 * Gregorian square neumes ligatures::
3026 @node White mensural ligatures
3027 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
3029 @cindex Mensural ligatures
3030 @cindex White mensural ligatures
3032 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures.
3034 To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the layout block put the
3035 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} into the
3036 @internalsref{Voice} context, and remove the
3037 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}, like this
3043 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
3044 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
3049 There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a
3050 white mensural ligature. The shape is rather determined solely from
3051 the pitch and duration of the enclosed notes. While this approach may
3052 take a new user a while to get accustomed to, it has the great advantage
3053 that the full musical information of the ligature is known internally.
3054 This is not only required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for
3055 automatic transcription of the ligatures.
3060 \set Score.timing = ##f
3061 \set Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
3062 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
3063 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
3067 \[ d\longa c\breve f e d \]
3069 \[ c'\maxima d'\longa \]
3073 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3076 \set Score.timing = ##f
3077 \set Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
3078 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
3079 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
3083 \[ d\longa c\breve f e d \]
3085 \[ c'\maxima d'\longa \]
3092 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
3093 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
3099 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
3100 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
3103 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3105 \set Score.timing = ##f
3106 \set Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
3107 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
3108 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
3112 \[ d\longa c\breve f e d \]
3114 \[ c'\maxima d'\longa \]
3122 The invisible rests (@code{s4}) in the example are used to compensate
3123 for the poor horizontal spacing.
3125 @node Gregorian square neumes ligatures
3126 @subsubsection Gregorian square neumes ligatures
3128 @cindex Square neumes ligatures
3129 @cindex Gregorian square neumes ligatures
3131 There is limited support for Gregorian square neumes notation
3132 (following the style of the Editio Vaticana). Core ligatures can
3133 already be typeset, but essential issues for serious typesetting are
3134 still lacking, such as (among others) horizontal alignment of multiple
3135 ligatures, lyrics alignment and proper handling of accidentals.
3138 The following table contains the extended neumes table of the 2nd
3139 volume of the Antiphonale Romanum (@emph{Liber Hymnarius}), published
3140 1983 by the monks of Solesmes.
3142 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .2 .2 .2
3159 @c TODO: \layout block is identical in all of the below examples.
3160 @c Therefore, it should somehow be included rather than duplicated all
3163 @c why not make identifiers in ly/engraver-init.ly? --hwn
3165 @c Because it's just used to typeset plain notes without
3166 @c a staff for demonstration purposes rather than something
3167 @c special of Gregorian chant notation. --jr
3172 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.5\cm]
3173 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3178 \noBreak s^\markup {"a"} \noBreak
3180 % Punctum Inclinatum
3182 \noBreak s^\markup {"b"}
3184 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3187 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=2.5\cm]
3188 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3191 % Punctum Auctum Ascendens
3192 \[ \auctum \ascendens b \]
3193 \noBreak s^\markup {"c"} \noBreak
3195 % Punctum Auctum Descendens
3196 \[ \auctum \descendens b \]
3197 \noBreak s^\markup {"d"} \noBreak
3199 % Punctum Inclinatum Auctum
3200 \[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]
3201 \noBreak s^\markup {"e"}
3203 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3206 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3207 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3210 % Punctum Inclinatum Parvum
3211 \[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]
3212 \noBreak s^\markup {"f"}
3214 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3220 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3221 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3226 \noBreak s^\markup {"g"}
3228 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3234 @code{3. Apostropha vel Stropha}
3236 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3237 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3242 \noBreak s^\markup {"h"}
3244 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3247 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3248 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3252 \[ \stropha \auctum b \]
3253 \noBreak s^\markup {"i"}
3255 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3262 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3263 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3268 \noBreak s^\markup {"j"}
3270 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3276 @code{5. Clivis vel Flexa}
3278 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3279 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3286 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3289 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=2.0\cm]
3290 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3293 % Clivis Aucta Descendens
3294 \[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
3295 \noBreak s^\markup {"l"} \noBreak
3297 % Clivis Aucta Ascendens
3298 \[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]
3299 \noBreak s^\markup {"m"}
3301 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3304 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3305 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3309 \[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]
3312 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3316 @code{6. Podatus vel Pes}
3318 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3319 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3326 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3329 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=2.0\cm]
3330 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3333 % Pes Auctus Descendens
3334 \[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3335 \noBreak s^\markup {"p"} \noBreak
3337 % Pes Auctus Ascendens
3338 \[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]
3339 \noBreak s^\markup {"q"}
3341 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3344 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3345 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3349 \[ g \pes \deminutum b \]
3352 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3356 @code{7. Pes Quassus}
3358 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3359 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3363 \[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]
3366 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3369 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3370 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3373 % Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens
3374 \[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3377 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3382 @code{8. Quilisma Pes}
3384 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3385 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3389 \[ \quilisma g \pes b \]
3392 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3395 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3396 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3399 % Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens
3400 \[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3403 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3408 @code{9. Podatus Initio Debilis}
3410 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3411 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3414 % Pes Initio Debilis
3415 \[ \deminutum g \pes b \]
3418 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3421 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3422 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3425 % Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
3426 \[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3429 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3436 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3437 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3441 \[ a \pes b \flexa g \]
3444 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3447 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3448 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3451 % Torculus Auctus Descendens
3452 \[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
3455 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3458 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3459 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3462 % Torculus Deminutus
3463 \[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
3466 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3470 @code{11. Torculus Initio Debilis}
3472 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3473 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3476 % Torculus Initio Debilis
3477 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]
3480 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3483 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3484 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3487 % Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
3488 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
3491 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3494 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3495 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3498 % Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis
3499 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
3502 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3506 @code{12. Porrectus}
3508 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3509 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3513 \[ a \flexa g \pes b \]
3516 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3519 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3520 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3523 % Porrectus Auctus Descendens
3524 \[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3527 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3530 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3531 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3534 % Porrectus Deminutus
3535 \[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]
3538 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3544 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3545 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3549 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]
3552 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }
3556 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3557 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3561 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]
3564 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3567 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3568 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3571 % Climacus Deminutus
3572 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]
3575 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3579 @code{14. Scandicus}
3581 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3582 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3586 \[ g \pes a \virga b \]
3589 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3592 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3593 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3596 % Scandicus Auctus Descendens
3597 \[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3600 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3603 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3604 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3607 % Scandicus Deminutus
3608 \[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]
3611 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3617 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3618 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3622 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]
3625 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3628 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3629 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3632 % Salicus Auctus Descendens
3633 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3636 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3643 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3644 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3648 \[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]
3651 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }
3660 Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the input language for
3661 neumes does not reflect the typographical appearance, but is designed
3662 to focus on musical meaning. For example, @code{\[ a \pes b
3663 \flexa g \]} produces a Torculus consisting of three Punctum heads,
3664 while @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]} produces a Porrectus with a
3665 curved flexa shape and only a single Punctum head. There is no
3666 command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa shape; the decision of
3667 when to typeset a curved flexa shape is based on the musical
3668 input. The idea of this approach is to separate the musical aspects
3669 of the input from the notation style of the output. This way, the
3670 same input can be reused to typeset the same music in a different
3671 style of Gregorian chant notation.
3673 The following table shows the code fragments that produce the
3674 ligatures in the above neumes table. The letter in the first column
3675 in each line of the below table indicates to which ligature in the
3676 above table it refers. The second column gives the name of the
3677 ligature. The third column shows the code fragment that produces this
3678 ligature, using @code{g}, @code{a}, and @code{b} as example pitches.
3680 @multitable @columnfractions .02 .31 .67
3700 @code{\[ \inclinatum b \]}
3708 @code{\[ \auctum \ascendens b \]}
3716 @code{\[ \auctum \descendens b \]}
3721 Punctum Inclinatum@*
3724 @code{\[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]}
3729 Punctum Inclinatum@*
3731 @code{\[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]}
3738 @code{\[ \virga b \]}
3745 @code{\[ \stropha b \]}
3752 @code{\[ \stropha \auctum b \]}
3759 @code{\[ \oriscus b \]}
3766 @code{\[ b \flexa g \]}
3774 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
3782 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]}
3789 @code{\[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
3796 @code{\[ g \pes b \]}
3804 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3812 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]}
3819 @code{\[ g \pes \deminutum b \]}
3826 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]}
3832 Auctus Descendens @tab
3833 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3840 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes b \]}
3848 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3855 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes b \]}
3860 Pes Auctus Descendens@*
3863 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3870 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]}
3878 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
3885 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
3890 Torculus Initio Debilis
3892 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]}
3898 Descendens Initio Debilis
3900 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
3905 Torculus Deminutus@*
3908 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
3915 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]}
3923 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3930 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]}
3937 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]}
3944 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]}
3951 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]}
3958 @code{\[ g \pes a \virga b \]}
3966 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3973 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]}
3980 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]}
3985 Salicus Auctus Descendens
3987 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3994 @code{\[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]}
3997 The ligatures listed above mainly serve as a limited, but still
3998 representative pool of Gregorian ligature examples. Virtually, within
3999 the ligature delimiters @code{\[} and @code{\]}, any number of heads
4000 may be accumulated to form a single ligature, and head prefixes like
4001 @code{\pes}, @code{\flexa}, @code{\virga}, @code{\inclinatum},
4002 etc. may be mixed in as desired. The use of the set of rules that
4003 underlies the construction of the ligatures in the above table is
4004 accordingly extrapolated. This way, infinitely many different
4005 ligatures can be created.
4007 @c TODO: create a regression or tips & tricks example document with
4008 @c even more Gregorian ligatures, and add a link to this document
4013 The following head prefixes are supported
4015 @cindex @code{\virga}
4017 @cindex @code{\stropha}
4019 @cindex @code{\inclinatum}
4021 @cindex @code{\auctum}
4023 @cindex @code{\descendens}
4025 @cindex @code{\ascendens}
4027 @cindex @code{\oriscus}
4029 @cindex @code{\quilisma}
4031 @cindex @code{\deminutum}
4033 @cindex @code{\cavum}
4035 @cindex @code{\linea}
4038 Head prefixes can be accumulated, though restrictions apply. For
4039 example, either @code{\descendens} or @code{\ascendens} can be applied
4040 to a head, but not both to the same head.
4043 @cindex @code{\flexa}
4044 Two adjacent heads can be tied together with the @code{\pes} and
4045 @code{\flexa} infix commands for a rising and falling line of melody,
4050 @node Gregorian Chant contexts
4051 @subsection Gregorian Chant contexts
4053 @cindex VaticanaVoiceContext
4054 @cindex VaticanaStaffContext
4056 The predefined @code{VaticanaVoiceContext} and
4057 @code{VaticanaStaffContext} can be used to engrave a piece of
4058 Gregorian Chant in the style of the Editio Vaticana. These contexts
4059 initialize all relevant context properties and grob properties to
4060 proper values, so you can immediately go ahead entering the chant, as
4061 the following excerpt demonstrates
4063 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,packed,verbatim]
4064 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
4067 \new VaticanaVoice = "cantus" {
4068 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
4069 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
4070 \override Score.BarNumber #'transparent = ##t {
4071 \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \]
4072 \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \]
4074 \[ f\melisma \pes a c' c' \pes d'\melismaEnd \]
4075 c' \divisioMinima \break
4076 \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \]
4077 \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \] f \divisioMinima
4080 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "cantus" {
4081 San- ctus, San- ctus, San- ctus
4088 @node Mensural contexts
4089 @subsection Mensural contexts
4091 @cindex MensuralVoiceContext
4092 @cindex MensuralStaffContext
4094 The predefined @code{MensuralVoiceContext} and
4095 @code{MensuralStaffContext} can be used to engrave a piece in mensural
4096 style. These contexts initialize all relevant context properties and
4097 grob properties to proper values, so you can immediately go ahead
4098 entering the chant, as the following excerpt demonstrates
4100 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
4103 \new MensuralVoice = "discantus" \transpose c c' {
4104 \override Score.BarNumber #'transparent = ##t {
4105 c'1\melisma bes a g\melismaEnd
4107 \[ f1\melisma a c'\breve d'\melismaEnd \]
4109 c'\breve\melisma a1 g1\melismaEnd
4110 fis\longa^\signumcongruentiae
4113 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "discantus" {
4114 San -- ctus, San -- ctus, San -- ctus
4120 @node Musica ficta accidentals
4121 @subsection Musica ficta accidentals
4123 In European music from before about 1600, singers were often expected
4124 to chromatically alter notes at their own initiative. This is called
4125 ``Musica Ficta''. In modern transcriptions, these accidentals are
4126 usually printed over the note.
4128 @cindex Musica ficta
4130 Support for such suggested accidentals is included, and can be
4131 switched on by setting @code{suggestAccidentals} to true.
4133 @cindex @code{suggestAccidentals}
4135 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
4137 \set suggestAccidentals = ##t
4143 Program reference: @internalsref{Accidental_engraver} engraver and the
4144 @internalsref{AccidentalSuggestion} object.
4147 @subsection Figured bass
4149 @cindex Basso continuo
4151 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
4154 LilyPond has support for figured bass
4156 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment]
4158 \new Voice { \clef bass dis4 c d ais g fis}
4159 \new FiguredBass \figuremode {
4160 < 6 >4 < 7\+ >8 < 6+ [_!] >
4167 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
4168 mode, introduced by @code{\figuremode}, where you can enter bass figures
4169 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass} that
4170 takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
4172 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
4173 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>}
4177 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
4179 \figuremode { <4 6> }
4182 Accidentals are added when you append @code{-}, @code{!}, and @code{+}
4183 to the numbers. A plus sign is added when you append @code{\+}, and
4184 diminished fifths and sevenths can be obtained with @code{5/} and @code{7/}.
4187 <4- 6+ 7!> <5++> <3--> <7/> r <6\+ 5/>
4189 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
4190 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> <5++> <3--> <7/> r <6\+ 5/> }
4193 Spaces may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
4194 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}. You can also include text
4195 strings and text markups, see @ref{Overview of text markup commands}.
4198 < [4 6] 8 [_! 12] > < 5 \markup @{ \number 6 \super (1) @} >
4200 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
4202 \figuremode { < [4 6] 8 [_! 12] > < 5 \markup{ \tiny \number 6 \super (1)} > }
4206 It is also possible to use continuation lines for repeated figures,
4208 @lilypond[verbatim,relative=1]
4215 \set useBassFigureExtenders = ##t
4222 In this case, the extender lines always replace existing figures.
4224 The @code{FiguredBass} context doesn't pay attention to the actual
4225 bass line. As a consequence, you may have to insert extra figures to
4226 get extender lines below all notes, and you may have to add @code{\!}
4227 to avoid getting an extender line, e.g.
4229 @lilypond[relative=1]
4233 \set useBassFigureExtenders = ##t
4234 <6 4->4. <6 4->16. <6 4->32 <5>8. r16 <6>8 <6\! 5->
4238 f16. g32 f16. g32 f16. g32 f16. g32 f8. es16 d8 es
4243 When using continuation lines, common figures are always put in the
4244 same vertical position. When this is unwanted, you can insert a rest
4245 with @code{r}. The rest will clear any previous alignment. For
4246 example, you can write
4258 Accidentals and plus signs can appear before or after the numbers,
4259 depending on the @code{figuredBassAlterationDirection} and @code{figuredBassPlusDirection}
4265 \set figuredBassAlterationDirection = #1
4267 \set figuredBassPlusDirection = #1
4269 \set figuredBassAlterationDirection = #-1
4275 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
4276 support, it is much simpler. The @code{\figuremode} mode simply
4277 stores the numbers and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints them
4278 as entered. There is no conversion to pitches and no realizations of
4279 the bass are played in the MIDI file.
4281 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
4282 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
4283 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
4287 Program reference: @internalsref{NewBassFigure},
4288 @internalsref{BassFigureAlignment}, @internalsref{BassFigureLine},
4289 @internalsref{BassFigureBracket}, and
4290 @internalsref{BassFigureContinuation} objects and
4291 @internalsref{FiguredBass} context.
4295 @node Other instrument specific notation
4296 @section Other instrument specific notation
4298 This section includes extra information for writing for instruments.
4301 * Artificial harmonics (strings)::
4304 @node Artificial harmonics (strings)
4305 @subsection Artificial harmonics (strings)
4307 @cindex artificial harmonics
4309 Artificial harmonics are notated with a different notehead style. They
4310 are entered by marking the harmonic pitch with @code{\harmonic}.
4312 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote,fragment,relative=1]