1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @c This file is part of lilypond.tely
4 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
5 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
6 @c to automatically fill in these menus before saving changes
8 @node Instrument-specific notation
9 @chapter Instrument-specific notation
11 This chapter explains how to use notation for specific instruments.
21 * Other instrument specific notation::
29 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
30 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
31 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
32 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
33 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
34 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
37 * Automatic staff changes::
38 * Manual staff switches::
40 * Staff switch lines::
46 Dynamics are not centered, but workarounds do exist. See the
47 ``piano centered dynamics'' template in @ref{Piano templates}.
49 @cindex cross staff stem
50 @cindex stem, cross staff
51 @cindex distance between staves in piano music
53 The distance between the two staves is the same for all systems in the
54 score. It is possible to override this per system, but it does require
55 an arcane command incantation. See
56 @inputfileref{input/@/test,piano@/-staff@/-distance@/.ly}.
59 @node Automatic staff changes
60 @subsection Automatic staff changes
61 @cindex Automatic staff changes
63 Voices can be made to switch automatically between the top and the bottom
64 staff. The syntax for this is
68 \autochange @dots{}@var{music}@dots{}
73 This will create two staves inside the current PianoStaff, called
74 @code{up} and @code{down}. The lower staff will be in bass clef by
77 A @code{\relative} section that is outside of @code{\autochange} has
78 no effect on the pitches of @var{music}, so, if necessary, put
79 @code{\relative} inside @code{\autochange} like
83 \autochange \relative @dots{} @dots{}
88 The autochanger switches on basis of the pitch (middle C is the turning
89 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch in
90 advance. Here is a practical example
92 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
94 \autochange \relative c'
103 In this manual: @ref{Manual staff switches}.
105 Program reference: @internalsref{AutoChangeMusic}.
111 The staff switches may not end up in optimal places. For high
112 quality output, staff switches should be specified manually.
115 @code{\autochange} cannot be inside @code{\times}.
118 @node Manual staff switches
119 @subsection Manual staff switches
121 @cindex manual staff switches
122 @cindex staff switch, manual
124 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the command
126 \change Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
130 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
131 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
132 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
133 @code{"down"}. The @context{Staff} referred to must already exist, so
134 usually the setup for a score will start with a setup of the staves,
139 \skip 1 * 10 % @emph{keep staff alive}
141 \new Staff = "down" @{
142 \skip 1 * 10 % @emph{idem}
148 and the @context{Voice} is inserted afterwards
152 \new Voice @{ @dots{} \change Staff = up @dots{} @}
160 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound is produced. Generally, a
161 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
164 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
165 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
166 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
169 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
170 c'4\sustainDown c'4\sustainUp
173 What is printed can be modified by setting @code{pedal@var{X}Strings},
174 where @var{X} is one of the pedal types: @code{Sustain},
175 @code{Sostenuto} or @code{UnaCorda}. Refer to
176 @internalsref{SustainPedal} in the program reference for more
179 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
180 @code{pedalSustainStyle} property to bracket objects
182 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
183 \set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'bracket
185 b\sustainUp\sustainDown
186 b g \sustainUp a \sustainDown \bar "|."
189 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
190 obtained by setting the @code{pedalSustainStyle} property to
193 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
194 \set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'mixed
196 b\sustainUp\sustainDown
197 b g \sustainUp a \sustainDown \bar "|."
200 The default `*Ped.' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
201 style @code{#'text}. The sostenuto pedal uses @code{mixed} style by
204 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
205 c\sostenutoDown d e c, f g a\sostenutoUp
208 For fine-tuning the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
209 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
210 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (see
211 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket} in the Program reference) can be
212 modified. For example, the bracket may be extended to the right edge
215 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
216 \override Staff.PianoPedalBracket #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
217 c\sostenutoDown d e c, f g a\sostenutoUp
222 In this manual: @ref{Laissez vibrer ties}
224 @node Staff switch lines
225 @subsection Staff switch lines
229 @cindex staff switching
232 @funindex followVoice
234 Whenever a voice switches to another staff, a line connecting the notes
235 can be printed automatically. This is switched on by setting
236 @code{followVoice} to true
238 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
241 \set followVoice = ##t
246 \new Staff="two" { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
252 Program reference: @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
256 @funindex \showStaffSwitch
257 @code{\showStaffSwitch},
258 @funindex \hideStaffSwitch
259 @code{\hideStaffSwitch}.
262 @node Cross staff stems
263 @subsection Cross staff stems
265 Chords that cross staves may be produced by increasing the length
266 of the stem in the lower staff, so it reaches the stem in the upper
267 staff, or vice versa.
269 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote]
270 stemExtend = \once \override Stem #'length = #22
271 noFlag = \once \override Stem #'flag-style = #'no-flag
274 \stemDown \stemExtend
292 * Introducing chord names::
294 * Printing chord names::
298 @c awkward name; awkward section name.
299 @c still, the Basic "chords" seems like a good name... :(
300 @node Introducing chord names
301 @subsection Introducing chord names
304 LilyPond has support for printing chord names. Chords may be entered
305 in musical chord notation, i.e., @code{< .. >}, but they can also be
306 entered by name. Internally, the chords are represented as a set of
307 pitches, so they can be transposed
310 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,ragged-right]
311 twoWays = \transpose c c' {
320 << \new ChordNames \twoWays
321 \new Voice \twoWays >>
324 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
325 be intelligent. The last chord (@code{f bes d}) is not interpreted as
328 Note that the duration of chords must be specified outside the
337 @subsection Chords mode
340 In chord mode sets of pitches (chords) are entered with normal note
341 names. A chord is entered by the root, which is entered like a
344 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
345 \chordmode { es4. d8 c2 }
349 The mode is introduced by the keyword @code{\chordmode}.
354 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon and introducing a
355 modifier (which may include a number if desired)
356 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim]
357 \chordmode { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
359 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
360 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
362 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim]
363 \chordmode { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
366 @cindex root of chord
367 @cindex additions, in chords
368 @cindex removals, in chords
370 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
371 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
372 the colon and are separated by dots
373 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
374 \chordmode { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
376 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
378 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
379 \chordmode { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
381 Removals are specified similarly and are introduced by a caret. They
382 must come after the additions
383 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
384 \chordmode { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
387 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
392 The minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
395 The diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
399 The augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
402 The major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
405 The suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
406 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
410 Modifiers can be mixed with additions
411 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
412 \chordmode { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
415 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
422 Since an unaltered 11 does not sound good when combined with an
423 unaltered 3, the 11 is removed in this case (unless it is added
425 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
426 \chordmode { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
431 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
432 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
433 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord
434 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
435 \chordmode { c1 c/g c/f }
439 A bass note can be added instead transposed out of the chord,
440 by using @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
442 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
443 \chordmode { c1 c/+g c/+f }
446 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyricmode}, etc. Most
447 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
448 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and property
449 commands may be used to change various settings.
455 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
456 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
459 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment]
460 \chordmode { c:5.5-.5+ }
464 @node Printing chord names
465 @subsection Printing chord names
467 @cindex printing chord names
471 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
472 The chords may be entered either using the notation
473 described above, or directly using @code{<} and @code{>}
475 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
477 \chordmode {a1 b c} <d' f' a'> <e' g' b'>
480 \new ChordNames \harmonies
481 \new Staff \harmonies
485 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
486 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
487 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
488 the start of a new line
490 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
491 harmonies = \chordmode {
492 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
496 \set chordChanges = ##t
498 \new Staff \transpose c c' \harmonies
502 The previous examples all show chords over a staff. This is not
503 necessary. Chords may also be printed separately. It may be necessary
504 to add @internalsref{Volta_engraver} and @internalsref{Bar_engraver}
507 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim]
508 \new ChordNames \with {
509 \override BarLine #'bar-size = #4
510 voltaOnThisStaff = ##t
511 \consists Bar_engraver
512 \consists "Volta_engraver"
514 \chordmode { \repeat volta 2 {
524 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
525 Klaus Ignatzek (see @ref{Literature list}). It can be tuned through the
529 @funindex chordNameExceptions
530 @item chordNameExceptions
531 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
533 The exceptions list should be encoded as
535 @{ <c f g bes>1 \markup @{ \super "7" "wahh" @} @}
538 To get this information into @code{chordNameExceptions} takes a little
539 manoeuvring. The following code transforms @code{chExceptionMusic}
540 (which is a sequential music) into a list of exceptions.
542 (sequential-music-to-chord-exceptions chExceptionMusic #t)
547 (sequential-music-to-chord-exceptions chExceptionMusic #t)
550 adds the new exceptions to the default ones, which are defined in
551 @file{ly/@/chord@/-modifier@/-init@/.ly}.
553 For an example of tuning this property, see also
554 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-exceptions@/.ly}.
555 @cindex exceptions, chord names.
558 @funindex majorSevenSymbol
559 @item majorSevenSymbol
560 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
561 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup} and
562 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
563 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-major7@/.ly} for an example.
565 @funindex chordNameSeparator
566 @item chordNameSeparator
567 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
568 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
570 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
571 \new ChordNames \chordmode {
573 \set chordNameSeparator
574 = \markup { \typewriter "|" }
579 @funindex chordRootNamer
581 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
582 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
583 function. Special note names (for example, the German ``H'' for a
584 B-chord) can be produced by storing a new function in this property.
586 @funindex chordNoteNamer
588 The default is to print single pitch, e.g., the bass note, using the
589 @code{chordRootNamer}. The @code{chordNoteNamer} property can be set
590 to a specialized function to change this behavior. For example, the
591 base can be printed in lower case.
593 @funindex chordPrefixSpacer
594 @item chordPrefixSpacer
595 The ``m'' for minor chords is usually printed right after the root of
596 the chord. By setting @code{chordPrefixSpacer}, you can fix a spacer
597 between the root and ``m''. The spacer is not used when the root
602 The predefined variables @code{\germanChords},
603 @code{\semiGermanChords}, @code{\italianChords} and @code{\frenchChords}
604 set these variables. The effect is
607 @lilypondfile[ragged-right]{chord-names-languages.ly}
609 There are also two other chord name schemes implemented: an alternate
610 Jazz chord notation, and a systematic scheme called Banter chords. The
611 alternate Jazz notation is also shown on the chart in @ref{Chord name
612 chart}. Turning on these styles is described in the input file
613 @inputfileref{input/@/test,chord@/-names@/-jazz@/.ly}.
622 @funindex \germanChords
623 @code{\germanChords},
624 @funindex \semiGermanChords
625 @code{\semiGermanChords}.
626 @funindex \italianChords
627 @code{\italianChords}.
628 @funindex \frenchChords
629 @code{\frenchChords}.
636 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-major7@/.ly},
637 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-exceptions@/.ly},
638 @inputfileref{input/@/test,chord@/-names@/-jazz@/.ly}.
641 Init files: @file{scm/@/chords@/-ignatzek@/.scm}, and
642 @file{scm/@/chord@/-entry@/.scm}.
647 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
648 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
649 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
650 @code{< .. >} syntax.
657 Since LilyPond input files are text, there are two issues to
658 consider when working with vocal music:
662 Song texts must be entered as text, not notes. For example, the
663 input@tie{}@code{d} should be interpreted as a one letter syllable, not the
667 Song texts must be aligned with the notes of their melody.
670 There are a few different ways to define lyrics; the simplest
671 way is to use the @code{\addlyrics} function.
674 * Setting simple songs::
676 * Hyphens and extenders::
677 * The Lyrics context::
679 * Another way of entering lyrics::
680 * Flexibility in placement::
682 * More about stanzas::
684 * Other vocal issues::
690 Checking to make sure that text scripts and lyrics are within the margins is
691 a relatively large computational task. To speed up processing, lilypond does
692 not perform such calculations by default; to enable it, use
695 \override Score.PaperColumn #'keep-inside-line = ##t
698 To make lyrics avoid barlines as well, use
703 \consists "Bar_engraver"
704 \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver"
705 \override BarLine #'transparent = ##t
711 @node Setting simple songs
712 @subsection Setting simple songs
714 The easiest way to add lyrics to a melody is to append
717 \addlyrics @{ @var{the lyrics} @}
721 to a melody. Here is an example,
723 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,quote]
725 \relative { c2 e4 g2. }
726 \addlyrics { play the game }
729 More stanzas can be added by adding more
730 @code{\addlyrics} sections
732 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,quote]
734 \relative { c2 e4 g2. }
735 \addlyrics { play the game }
736 \addlyrics { speel het spel }
737 \addlyrics { joue le jeu }
740 The command @code{\addlyrics} cannot handle polyphony settings. For these
741 cases you should use @code{\lyricsto} and @code{\lyricmode}.
745 @node Entering lyrics
746 @subsection Entering lyrics
752 Lyrics are entered in a special input mode. This mode is introduced
753 by the keyword @code{\lyricmode}, or by using @code{\addlyrics} or
754 @code{\lyricsto}. In this mode you can enter lyrics,
755 with punctuation and accents, and the input @code{d} is not parsed as
756 a pitch, but rather as a one letter syllable. Syllables are entered
757 like notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example,
759 \lyricmode @{ Twin-4 kle4 twin- kle litt- le star2 @}
762 There are two main methods to specify the horizontal placement
763 of the syllables, either by specifying the duration of each syllable
764 explicitly, like in the example above, or by automatically aligning
765 the lyrics to a melody or other voice of music, using @code{\addlyrics}
766 or @code{\lyricsto}. For more details see @ref{The Lyrics context}.
768 A word or syllable of lyrics begins with an alphabetic character, and ends
770 any space or digit. The following characters can be any character
771 that is not a digit or white space. One important consequence of this
772 is that a word can end with @code{@}}. The following example is
773 usually a mistake in the input file. The syllable includes a @code{@}}, so
775 opening brace is not balanced
777 \lyricmode @{ twinkle@}
780 @funindex \property in \lyricmode
783 Similarly, a period which follows an alphabetic sequence is included in
784 the resulting string. As a consequence, spaces must be inserted around
787 \override Score . LyricText #'font-shape = #'italic
791 @cindex spaces, in lyrics
792 @cindex quotes, in lyrics
794 In order to assign more than one syllable to a single note, you must
795 surround them with quotes or use a @code{_} character between the syllables.
797 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
799 \relative { c2 e4 g2 e4 }
800 \addlyrics { gran- de_a- mi- go }
801 \addlyrics { pu- "ro y ho-" nes- to }
804 To enter lyrics with characters from non-English languages, or with
805 non-ascii characters (such as the heart symbol or slanted quotes),
806 simply insert the characters directly into the input file and save
807 it with utf-8 encoding. See @ref{Text encoding} for more info.
809 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
810 \relative { e4 f e d e f e2 }
811 \addlyrics { He said: “Let my peo ple go”. }
814 To use normal quotes in lyrics, add a backslash before the
817 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
818 \relative c' { \time 3/4 e4 e4. e8 d4 e d c2. }
819 \addlyrics { "\"I" am so lone- "ly\"" said she }
822 The full definition of a word start in Lyrics mode is somewhat more
825 A word in Lyrics mode begins with: an alphabetic character, @code{_},
826 @code{?}, @code{!}, @code{:}, @code{'}, the control characters @code{^A}
827 through @code{^F}, @code{^Q} through @code{^W}, @code{^Y}, @code{^^},
828 any 8-bit character with ASCII code over 127, or a two-character
829 combination of a backslash followed by one of @code{`}, @code{'},
830 @code{"}, or @code{^}.
832 To define indentifiers containing lyrics, the function @code{lyricmode}
836 verseOne = \lyricmode @{ Joy to the world the Lord is come @}
839 \new Voice = "one" \relative c'' @{
842 c4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2
844 \addlyrics @{ \verseOne @}
852 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricText}, @internalsref{LyricSpace}.
856 @node Hyphens and extenders
857 @subsection Hyphens and extenders
861 Centered hyphens are entered as `@code{--}' between syllables.
862 The hyphen will have variable length depending on the space between
863 the syllables and it will be centered between the syllables.
868 When a lyric is sung over many notes (this is called a melisma), this is
869 indicated with a horizontal line centered between a syllable and the
870 next one. Such a line is called an extender line, and it is entered as
873 In tighly engraved music, hyphens can be removed. Whether this
874 happens can be controlled with the @code{minimum-distance} (minimum
875 distance between two syllables) and the @code{minimum-length}
876 (threshold below which hyphens are removed).
880 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricHyphen}, @internalsref{LyricExtender}.
884 @node The Lyrics context
885 @subsection The Lyrics context
887 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the context caleld
888 @internalsref{Lyrics}.
891 \new Lyrics \lyricmode @dots{}
894 @cindex automatic syllable durations
896 @cindex lyrics and melodies
898 This will place the lyrics according to the durations that were
899 entered. The lyrics can also be aligned under a given melody
900 automatically. In this case, it is no longer necessary to enter the
901 correct duration for each syllable. This is achieved by combining the
902 melody and the lyrics with the @code{\lyricsto} expression
905 \new Lyrics \lyricsto @var{name} @dots{}
908 This aligns the lyrics to the
909 notes of the @internalsref{Voice} context called @var{name}, which must
910 already exist. Therefore normally the @code{Voice} is specified first, and
911 then the lyrics are specified with @code{\lyricsto}. The command
912 @code{\lyricsto} switches to @code{\lyricmode} mode automatically, so the
913 @code{\lyricmode} keyword may be omitted.
915 The following example uses different commands for entering lyrics.
917 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
919 \new Voice = "one" \relative c'' {
922 c4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2
924 \new Lyrics \lyricmode { Joy4 to8. the16 world!4. the8 Lord4 is come.2 }
925 \new Lyrics \lyricmode { Joy to the earth! the Sa -- viour reigns. }
926 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" { No more let sins and sor -- rows grow. }
930 The second stanza is not properly aligned because the durations
931 were not specified. A solution for that would be to use @code{\lyricsto}.
933 The @code{\addlyrics} command is actually just a convenient way
934 to write a more complicated LilyPond structure that sets up the
939 \addlyrics @{ LYRICS @}
946 \new Voice = "blah" @{ music @}
947 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "blah" @{ LYRICS @}
950 For different or more complex orderings, the best way is to setup the
951 hierarchy of staves and lyrics first, e.g.,
954 \new Voice = "soprano" @{ @emph{music} @}
955 \new Lyrics = "sopranoLyrics" @{ s1 @}
956 \new Lyrics = "tenorLyrics" @{ s1 @}
957 \new Voice = "tenor" @{ @emph{music} @}
961 and then combine the appropriate melodies and lyric lines
964 \context Lyrics = sopranoLyrics \lyricsto "soprano"
969 The final input would resemble
972 <<\new ChoirStaff << @emph{setup the music} >>
973 \lyricsto "soprano" @emph{etc}
974 \lyricsto "alto" @emph{etc}
981 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricCombineMusic},
982 @internalsref{Lyrics}.
986 @subsection Melismata
988 The @code{\lyricsto} command detects melismata: it only puts one
989 syllable under a tied or slurred group of notes. If you want to force
990 an unslurred group of notes to be a melisma, insert @code{\melisma}
991 after the first note of the group, and @code{\melismaEnd} after the
994 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
996 \new Voice = "lala" {
1004 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lala" {
1010 In addition, notes are considered a melisma if they are manually
1011 beamed, and automatic beaming (see @ref{Setting automatic beam
1012 behavior}) is switched off.
1015 @cindex choral score
1017 A complete example of a SATB score setup is in section
1018 @ref{Vocal ensembles}.
1023 @code{\melisma}, @code{\melismaEnd}
1024 @funindex \melismaEnd
1029 Program reference: @internalsref{Melisma_translator}.
1032 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,lyric@/-combine@/-new@/.ly}.
1036 Melismata are not detected automatically, and extender lines must be
1040 @node Another way of entering lyrics
1041 @subsection Another way of entering lyrics
1043 Lyrics can also be entered without @code{\lyricsto}. In this case the
1044 duration of each syllable must be entered explicitly, for example,
1051 The alignment to a melody can be specified with the
1052 @code{associatedVoice} property,
1055 \set associatedVoice = #"lala"
1059 The value of the property (here: @code{"lala"}) should be the name of
1060 a @internalsref{Voice} context. Without this setting, extender lines
1061 will not be formatted properly.
1063 Here is an example demonstrating manual lyric durations,
1065 @lilypond[relative=1,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,quote]
1066 << \new Voice = "melody" {
1070 \new Lyrics \lyricmode {
1071 \set associatedVoice = #"melody"
1077 @c TODO: document \new Staff << Voice \lyricsto >> bug
1079 @node Flexibility in placement
1080 @subsection Flexibility in placement
1082 Often, different stanzas of one song are put to one melody in slightly
1083 differing ways. Such variations can still be captured with
1087 * Lyrics to multiple notes of a melisma::
1089 * Switching the melody associated with a lyrics line::
1090 * Specifying melismata within the lyrics::
1091 * Lyrics independent of notes::
1094 @node Lyrics to multiple notes of a melisma
1095 @subsubsection Lyrics to multiple notes of a melisma
1098 One possibility is that the text has a melisma in one stanza, but
1099 multiple syllables in another one. One solution is to make the faster
1100 voice ignore the melisma. This is done by setting
1101 @code{ignoreMelismata} in the Lyrics context.
1103 There is one tricky aspect: the setting for @code{ignoreMelismata}
1104 must be set one syllable @emph{before} the non-melismatic syllable
1105 in the text, as shown here,
1107 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1109 \relative \new Voice = "lahlah" {
1110 \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
1116 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1119 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1120 \set ignoreMelismata = ##t % applies to "fas"
1122 \unset ignoreMelismata
1129 The @code{ignoreMelismata} applies to the syllable ``fas'', so it
1130 should be entered before ``go''.
1132 The reverse is also possible: making a lyric line slower than the
1133 standard. This can be achieved by insert @code{\skip}s into the
1134 lyrics. For every @code{\skip}, the text will be delayed another note.
1137 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1138 \relative { c c g' }
1147 @subsubsection Divisi lyrics
1149 You can display alternate (or divisi) lyrics by naming voice
1150 contexts and attaching lyrics to those specific contexts.
1152 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1154 \new Voice = "melody" {
1159 \new Voice = "splitpart" { \voiceTwo c4 }
1164 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" { we shall not o- ver- come }
1165 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "splitpart" { will }
1170 You can use this trick to display different lyrics for a repeated
1173 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1175 \new Voice = "melody" \relative c' {
1177 \new Voice = "verse" \repeat volta 2 {c4 d e f | g1 | }
1179 \new Lyrics = "mainlyrics" \lyricsto melody \lyricmode {
1182 \context Lyrics = "mainlyrics" \lyricsto verse \lyricmode {
1184 \new Lyrics = "repeatlyrics" \lyricsto verse \lyricmode {
1185 dodo rere mimi fafa solsol }
1192 @node Switching the melody associated with a lyrics line
1193 @subsubsection Switching the melody associated with a lyrics line
1195 More complex variations in text underlay are possible. It is possible
1196 to switch the melody for a line of lyrics during the text. This is
1197 done by setting the @code{associatedVoice} property. In the example
1199 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1201 \relative \new Voice = "lahlah" {
1202 \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
1205 \new Voice = "alternative" {
1208 % show associations clearly.
1209 \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #-3
1220 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1221 Ju -- ras -- sic Park
1223 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1224 % Tricky: need to set associatedVoice
1225 % one syllable too soon!
1226 \set associatedVoice = alternative % applies to "ran"
1230 \set associatedVoice = lahlah % applies to "rus"
1236 the text for the first stanza is set to a melody called ``lahlah'',
1239 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" @{
1240 Ju -- ras -- sic Park
1245 The second stanza initially is set to the @code{lahlah} context, but
1246 for the syllable ``ran'', it switches to a different melody.
1247 This is achieved with
1249 \set associatedVoice = alternative
1253 Here, @code{alternative} is the name of the @code{Voice} context
1254 containing the triplet.
1256 Again, the command must be one syllable too early, before ``Ty'' in
1260 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" @{
1261 \set associatedVoice = alternative % applies to "ran"
1265 \set associatedVoice = lahlah % applies to "rus"
1271 The underlay is switched back to the starting situation by assigning
1272 @code{lahlah} to @code{associatedVoice}.
1275 @node Specifying melismata within the lyrics
1276 @subsubsection Specifying melismata within the lyrics
1278 It is also possible to define melismata entirely in the lyrics. This
1279 can be done by entering @code{_} for every note that is part of the
1282 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,fragment]
1283 { \set melismaBusyProperties = #'()
1284 c d( e) f f( e) e e }
1286 { Ky -- _ _ ri __ _ _ _ e }
1289 In this case, you can also have ties and slurs in the melody, if you
1290 set @code{melismaBusyProperties}, as is done in the example above.
1292 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,fragment,quote]
1294 \set melismaBusyProperties = #'()
1298 { Ky -- _ _ ri __ _ _ _ e }
1302 @node Lyrics independent of notes
1303 @subsubsection Lyrics independent of notes
1305 In some complex vocal music, it may be desirable to place
1306 lyrics completely independently of notes. Music defined
1307 inside @code{lyricrhythm} disappears into the
1308 @code{Devnull} context, but the rhythms can still be used
1309 to place the lyrics.
1311 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1314 \tag #'music { c''2 }
1315 \tag #'lyricrhythm { c''4. c''8 }
1319 lyr = \lyricmode { I like my cat! }
1322 \new Staff \keepWithTag #'music \voice
1323 \new Devnull="nowhere" \keepWithTag #'lyricrhythm \voice
1324 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "nowhere" \lyr
1325 \new Staff { c'8 c' c' c' c' c' c' c'
1326 c' c' c' c' c' c' c' c' }
1331 @node Spacing lyrics
1332 @subsection Spacing lyrics
1334 @cindex Spacing lyrics
1335 @cindex Lyrics, increasing space between
1337 To increase the spacing between lyrics, set the minimum-distance property of
1340 @lilypond[relative,verbatim,fragment,quote,ragged-right]
1343 \override Lyrics.LyricSpace #'minimum-distance = #1.0
1347 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1348 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1352 To make this change for all lyrics in the score, set the property in the
1355 @lilypond[relative,verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1362 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1363 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1368 \override LyricSpace #'minimum-distance = #1.0
1375 @node More about stanzas
1376 @subsection More about stanzas
1378 @cindex phrasing, in lyrics
1381 @cindex stanza number
1382 @cindex singer's names
1383 @cindex name of singer
1385 Stanza numbers can be added by setting @code{stanza}, e.g.,
1387 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1389 \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2.
1392 Hi, my name is Bert.
1395 Oh, che -- ri, je t'aime
1399 These numbers are put just before the start of first syllable.
1401 Sometimes it is appropriate to have one stanza set
1402 to the music, and the rest added in verse form at
1403 the end of the piece. This can be accomplished by adding
1404 the extra verses into a @code{\markup} section outside
1405 of the main score block. Notice that there are two
1406 different ways to force linebreaks when using
1409 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote]
1410 melody = \relative c' {
1416 \set stanza = "1." Ma- ry had a lit- tle lamb,
1417 its fleece was white as snow.
1422 \new Voice = "one" { \melody }
1423 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text
1429 \line{ All the children laughed and played }
1430 \line{ To see a lamb at school. }
1437 Mary took it home again,
1439 It was against the rule."
1445 Names of singers can also be added. They are printed at the start of
1446 the line, just like instrument names. They are created by setting
1447 @code{vocalName}. A short version may be entered as @code{vocNam}.
1450 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
1452 \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2.
1454 \set vocalName = "Bert "
1455 Hi, my name is Bert.
1457 \set vocalName = "Ernie "
1458 Oh, che -- ri, je t'aime
1465 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricText}, @internalsref{StanzaNumber},
1466 @internalsref{VocalName}.
1474 The term @emph{ambitus} denotes a range of pitches for a given voice
1475 in a part of music. It may also denote the pitch range that a musical
1476 instrument is capable of playing. Ambits are printed on vocal parts,
1477 so performers can easily determine it meets their capabilities.
1479 Ambits are denoted at the beginning of a piece near the initial clef.
1480 The range is graphically specified by two note heads that represent the
1481 minimum and maximum pitch. To print such ambits, add the
1482 @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the @internalsref{Voice} context,
1489 \consists Ambitus_engraver
1494 This results in the following output
1496 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1500 \consists Ambitus_engraver
1504 \relative \new Staff {
1509 If you have multiple voices in a single staff and you want a single
1510 ambitus per staff rather than per each voice, add the
1511 @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the @internalsref{Staff} context
1512 rather than to the @internalsref{Voice} context. Here is an example,
1514 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1516 \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
1520 \remove "Ambitus_engraver"
1522 \override Ambitus #'X-offset = #-1.0
1527 \remove "Ambitus_engraver"
1536 This example uses one advanced feature,
1539 \override Ambitus #'X-offset = #-1.0
1543 This code moves the ambitus to the left. The same effect could have
1544 been achieved with @code{extra-offset}, but then the formatting system
1545 would not reserve space for the moved object.
1549 Program reference: @internalsref{Ambitus},
1550 @internalsref{AmbitusLine}, @internalsref{AmbitusNoteHead},
1551 @internalsref{AmbitusAccidental}.
1553 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,ambitus@/.ly}.
1557 There is no collision handling in the case of multiple per-voice
1561 @node Other vocal issues
1562 @subsection Other vocal issues
1565 yeah, I'm giving up somewhat by stuffing a bunch of things in
1566 here. But at least they're in the manual now; it's easier to
1567 move them around in the manual once they're already here.
1569 Besides, if users complain about everything stuffed in here, I
1570 can ask them for specific instructions about where to move these
1571 examples, and that might get them more involved in the docs. -gp
1574 ``Parlato'' is spoken without pitch but still with rhythm; it is
1575 notated by cross noteheads. This is demonstrated in
1576 @ref{Special noteheads}.
1582 @node Rhythmic music
1583 @section Rhythmic music
1585 Rhythmic music is primarily used for percussion and drum notation, but it can
1586 also be used to show the rhythms of melodies.
1589 * Showing melody rhythms::
1590 * Entering percussion::
1591 * Percussion staves::
1596 @node Showing melody rhythms
1597 @subsection Showing melody rhythms
1599 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This
1600 can be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a
1601 staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single line
1603 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
1604 \new RhythmicStaff {
1606 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1612 Program reference: @internalsref{RhythmicStaff}.
1614 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,rhythmic@/-staff@/.ly}.
1617 @node Entering percussion
1618 @subsection Entering percussion
1624 Percussion notes may be entered in @code{\drummode} mode, which is
1625 similar to the standard mode for entering notes. Each piece of
1626 percussion has a full name and an abbreviated name, and both can be used
1629 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1631 hihat hh bassdrum bd
1635 The complete list of drum names is in the init file
1636 @file{ly/@/drumpitch@/-init@/.ly}.
1637 @c TODO: properly document this.
1641 Program reference: @internalsref{note-event}.
1643 @node Percussion staves
1644 @subsection Percussion staves
1648 A percussion part for more than one instrument typically uses a
1649 multiline staff where each position in the staff refers to one piece
1653 To typeset the music, the notes must be interpreted in a
1654 @internalsref{DrumStaff} and @internalsref{DrumVoice} contexts
1656 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1657 up = \drummode { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
1658 down = \drummode { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
1660 \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
1661 \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
1665 The above example shows verbose polyphonic notation. The short
1666 polyphonic notation, described in @ref{Basic polyphony}, can also be used if
1667 the @internalsref{DrumVoice}s are instantiated by hand first. For example,
1669 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
1671 \new DrumVoice = "1" { s1 *2 }
1672 \new DrumVoice = "2" { s1 *2 }
1676 { \repeat unfold 16 hh16 }
1685 There are also other layout possibilities. To use these, set the
1686 property @code{drumStyleTable} in context @internalsref{DrumVoice}.
1687 The following variables have been predefined
1691 This is the default. It typesets a typical drum kit on a five-line staff
1693 @lilypond[quote,line-width=10.0\cm]
1695 cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp
1696 cb hc bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
1698 cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp \break
1699 cb hc bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
1701 << \new DrumStaff \with {
1702 \remove Bar_engraver
1703 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1704 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1705 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1706 \override VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
1713 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1714 \override BarNumber #'transparent =##T
1720 The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there are fewer toms,
1721 simply select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e., to get toms
1722 on the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml}, and
1725 @item timbales-style
1726 This typesets timbales on a two line staff
1728 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1729 nam = \lyricmode { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
1730 mus = \drummode { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
1733 \new DrumStaff \with {
1734 \remove Bar_engraver
1735 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1736 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1737 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1738 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #2
1739 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #2
1740 \override VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
1741 drumStyleTable = #timbales-style
1744 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1751 This typesets congas on a two line staff
1753 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1754 nam = \lyricmode { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
1755 mus = \drummode { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
1758 \new DrumStaff \with {
1759 \remove Bar_engraver
1760 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1761 drumStyleTable = #congas-style
1762 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #2
1764 %% this sucks; it will lengthen stems.
1765 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #2
1766 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1767 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1770 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1777 This typesets bongos on a two line staff
1779 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1780 nam = \lyricmode { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
1781 mus = \drummode { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
1784 \new DrumStaff \with {
1785 \remove Bar_engraver
1786 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1787 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #2
1788 drumStyleTable = #bongos-style
1790 %% this sucks; it will lengthen stems.
1791 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #2
1792 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1793 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1796 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1802 @item percussion-style
1803 To typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves.
1805 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1806 nam = \lyricmode { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
1807 mus = \drummode { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
1810 \new DrumStaff \with{
1811 \remove Bar_engraver
1812 drumStyleTable = #percussion-style
1813 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #1
1814 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1815 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1816 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1819 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1826 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
1827 list at the top of your file
1829 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1831 (bassdrum default #f -1)
1832 (snare default #f 0)
1834 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" 2)
1835 (lowtom diamond #f 3)))
1836 up = \drummode { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
1837 down = \drummode { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
1840 \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums)
1841 \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
1842 \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
1849 Init files: @file{ly/@/drumpitch@/-init@/.ly}.
1851 Program reference: @internalsref{DrumStaff}, @internalsref{DrumVoice}.
1855 Because general MIDI does not contain rim shots, the sidestick is used
1856 for this purpose instead.
1859 @c FIXME: check name -gp
1861 @subsection Ghost notes
1863 Ghost notes for drums and percussion may be created using the
1864 @code{\parenthesize} command detailed in @ref{Parentheses}. However,
1865 the default @code{\drummode} does
1866 not include the @code{Parenthesis_engraver} plugin which allows
1868 must add the plugin explicitly in the context definition as
1869 detailed in @ref{Changing context properties on the fly}.
1871 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment]
1872 \new DrumStaff \with {
1873 \consists "Parenthesis_engraver"
1875 \context DrumVoice = "1" { s1 *2 }
1876 \context DrumVoice = "2" { s1 *2 }
1880 hh8[ hh] <hh sn> hh16
1881 < \parenthesize sn > hh < \parenthesize
1892 Also note that you must add chords (@code{< >} brackets)
1893 around each @code{\parenthesize} statement.
1900 @cindex guitar tablature
1903 * String number indications::
1904 * Tablatures basic::
1905 * Non-guitar tablatures::
1906 * Banjo tablatures::
1908 * Other guitar issues::
1911 @node String number indications
1912 @subsection String number indications
1914 @cindex String numbers
1916 String numbers can be added to chords, by indicating the string number
1917 with @code{\}@var{number},
1919 @lilypond[relative,relative=1,ragged-right,fragment]
1923 See also @inputfileref{input/regression,string-number.ly}.
1928 Program reference: @internalsref{StringNumber}.
1931 @node Tablatures basic
1932 @subsection Tablatures basic
1933 @cindex Tablatures basic
1935 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
1936 instruments. Pitches are not denoted with note heads, but by
1937 numbers indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
1938 offers limited support for tablature.
1940 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
1941 followed by a number, e.g., @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
1942 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
1943 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
1944 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
1945 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts
1947 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
1954 @funindex minimumFret
1957 When no string is specified, the first string that does not give a
1958 fret number less than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default
1959 value for @code{minimumFret} is 0
1964 \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
1967 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1971 \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
1975 \new Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
1976 \new TabStaff { \frag }
1983 To print tablatures with stems down and horizontal beams,
1984 initialize the @code{TabStaff} with this code:
1988 \override Beam #'damping = #100000
1993 Program reference: @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}.
1997 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
1998 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
2002 @node Non-guitar tablatures
2003 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
2004 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
2006 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
2007 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
2008 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to middle C) of an
2009 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
2010 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
2011 by default middle C, in string order. LilyPond automatically calculates
2012 the number of strings by looking at @code{stringTuning}.
2014 In the next example,
2015 @code{stringTunings} is set for the pitches e, a, d, and g
2017 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
2019 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
2021 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
2026 LilyPond comes with predefined string tunings for banjo, mandolin, guitar
2030 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #bass-tuning
2033 The default string tuning is @code{guitar-tuning} (the standard EADGBE
2035 Some other predefined tunings are @code{guitar-open-g-tuning},
2036 @code{mandolin-tuning} and @code{banjo-open-g-tuning}.
2040 The file @file{scm/@/output@/-lib@/.scm} contains the predefined string
2042 Program reference: @internalsref{Tab_note_heads_engraver}.
2046 No guitar special effects have been implemented.
2050 @node Banjo tablatures
2051 @subsection Banjo tablatures
2052 @cindex Banjo tablatures
2054 LilyPond has basic support for five stringed banjo. When making tablatures
2055 for five stringed banjo, use the banjo tablature format function to get
2057 fret numbers for the fifth string:
2059 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
2061 \set TabStaff.tablatureFormat = #fret-number-tablature-format-banjo
2062 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #banjo-open-g-tuning
2065 g8 d' g'\5 a b g e d' |
2066 g4 d''8\5 b' a'\2 g'\5 e'\2 d' |
2072 A number of common tunings for banjo are predefined in LilyPond:
2073 @code{banjo-c-tuning} (gCGBD), @code{banjo-modal-tuning} (gDGCD),
2074 @code{banjo-open-d-tuning} (aDF#AD) and @code{banjo-open-dm-tuning}
2077 These tunings may be converted to four string banjo tunings using the
2078 @code{four-string-banjo} function:
2081 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #(four-string-banjo banjo-c-tuning)
2086 The file @file{scm/@/output@/-lib@/.scm} contains predefined banjo tunings.
2090 @subsection Fret diagrams
2091 @cindex fret diagrams
2092 @cindex chord diagrams
2094 Fret diagrams can be added to music as a markup to the desired note. The
2095 markup contains information about the desired fret diagram, as shown in the
2098 @lilypond[verbatim, ragged-right, quote]
2100 d'^\markup \fret-diagram #"6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2;2-3;1-2;"
2102 fis'^\markup \override #'(size . 0.75) {
2103 \override #'(finger-code . below-string) {
2104 \fret-diagram-verbose #'((place-fret 6 2 1) (barre 6 1 2)
2105 (place-fret 5 4 3) (place-fret 4 4 4)
2106 (place-fret 3 3 2) (place-fret 2 2 1)
2111 c'^\markup \override #'(dot-radius . 0.35) {
2112 \override #'(finger-code . in-dot) {
2113 \override #'(dot-color . white) {
2114 \fret-diagram-terse #"x;3-1-(;5-2;5-3;5-4;3-1-);"
2123 There are three different fret-diagram markup interfaces: standard, terse,
2124 and verbose. The three interfaces produce equivalent markups, but have
2125 varying amounts of information in the markup string. Details about the
2126 markup interfaces are found at @ref{Overview of text markup commands}.
2128 You can set a number of graphical properties according to your preference.
2129 Details about the property interface to fret diagrams are found at
2130 @internalsref{fret-diagram-interface}.
2135 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/test,fret@/-diagram@/.ly}
2138 @node Other guitar issues
2139 @subsection Other guitar issues
2141 This example demonstrates how to include guitar position and
2142 barring indications.
2144 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=0]
2148 \override TextSpanner #'edge-text = #'("XII " . "")
2150 b16 e16 g16 e16 b16 g16\stopTextSpan
2155 Stopped (X) note heads are used in guitar music to signal a place where the
2156 guitarist must play a certain note or chord, with its fingers just
2157 touching the strings instead of fully pressing them. This gives the sound a
2158 percussive noise-like sound that still maintains part of the original
2159 pitch. It is notated with cross noteheads; this is
2160 demonstrated in @ref{Special noteheads}.
2169 * Bagpipe definitions::
2174 @node Bagpipe definitions
2175 @subsection Bagpipe definitions
2177 LilyPond contains special definitions for music for the Scottish
2178 highland bagpipe; to use them, add
2181 \include "bagpipe.ly"
2185 at the top of your input file. This lets you add the special gracenotes
2186 common to bagpipe music with short commands. For example, you could
2187 write @code{\taor} instead of
2190 \grace @{ \small G32[ d G e] @}
2193 @code{bagpipe.ly} also contains pitch definitions for the bagpipe
2194 notes in the appropiate octaves, so you do not need to worry about
2195 @code{\relative} or @code{\transpose}.
2197 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote,notime]
2198 \include "bagpipe.ly"
2199 { \grg G4 \grg a \grg b \grg c \grg d \grg e \grg f \grA g A }
2202 Bagpipe music nominally uses the key of D Major (even though that
2203 isn't really true). However, since that is the only key that can be used,
2204 the key signature is normally not written out. To set this up correctly,
2205 always start your music with @code{\hideKeySignature}. If you for some
2206 reason want to show the key signature, you can use @code{\showKeySignature}
2209 Some modern music use cross fingering on c and f to flatten those notes.
2210 This can be indicated by @code{cflat} or @code{fflat}. Similarly, the
2211 piobaireachd high g can be written @code{gflat} when it occurs in light
2215 @node Bagpipe example
2216 @subsection Bagpipe example
2218 This is what the well known tune Amazing Grace looks like in bagpipe
2221 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
2222 \include "bagpipe.ly"
2225 \context { \Score \remove "Bar_number_engraver" }
2229 title = "Amazing Grace"
2231 arranger = "Trad. arr."
2237 \grg \partial 4 a8. d16
2238 \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
2241 \grG a2 \grg a8. d16
2242 \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
2243 \grg f2 \grg e8. f16
2246 \grg A2 \hdblf f8[ e32 d16.]
2249 \grG a2 \grg a8. d16
2250 \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
2259 @node Ancient notation
2260 @section Ancient notation
2262 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
2263 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
2268 Support for ancient notation includes features for mensural notation
2269 and Gregorian Chant notation. There is also limited support for
2270 figured bass notation.
2272 Many graphical objects provide a @code{style} property, see
2275 @ref{Ancient note heads},
2277 @ref{Ancient accidentals},
2279 @ref{Ancient rests},
2281 @ref{Ancient clefs},
2283 @ref{Ancient flags},
2285 @ref{Ancient time signatures}.
2288 By manipulating such a grob property, the typographical appearance of
2289 the affected graphical objects can be accommodated for a specific
2290 notation flavor without the need for introducing any new notational
2293 In addition to the standard articulation signs described in section
2294 @ref{Articulations}, specific articulation signs for ancient notation
2299 @ref{Ancient articulations}
2302 Other aspects of ancient notation can not that easily be expressed
2303 in terms of just changing a style property of a graphical object or
2304 adding articulation signs. Some notational concepts are introduced
2305 specifically for ancient notation,
2316 If this all is too much of documentation for you, and you just want to
2317 dive into typesetting without worrying too much about the details on
2318 how to customize a context, you may have a look at the predefined
2319 contexts. Use them to set up predefined style-specific voice and
2320 staff contexts, and directly go ahead with the note entry,
2324 @ref{Gregorian Chant contexts},
2326 @ref{Mensural contexts}.
2329 There is limited support for figured bass notation which came
2330 up during the baroque period.
2337 Here are all suptopics at a glance:
2340 * Ancient note heads::
2341 * Ancient accidentals::
2345 * Ancient time signatures::
2346 * Ancient articulations::
2350 * Gregorian Chant contexts::
2351 * Mensural contexts::
2352 * Musica ficta accidentals::
2358 @node Ancient note heads
2359 @subsection Ancient note heads
2361 @cindex note heads, ancient
2363 For ancient notation, a note head style other than the @code{default}
2364 style may be chosen. This is accomplished by setting the @code{style}
2365 property of the @internalsref{NoteHead} object to @code{baroque},
2366 @code{neomensural}, @code{mensural} or @code{petrucci}. The
2367 @code{baroque} style differs from the @code{default} style only in
2368 using a square shape for @code{\breve} note heads. The
2369 @code{neomensural} style differs from the @code{baroque} style in that
2370 it uses rhomboidal heads for whole notes and all smaller durations.
2371 Stems are centered on the note heads. This style is particularly
2372 useful when transcribing mensural music, e.g., for the incipit. The
2373 @code{mensural} style produces note heads that mimic the look of note
2374 heads in historic printings of the 16th century. Finally, the
2375 @code{petrucci} style also mimicks historic printings, but uses bigger
2378 The following example demonstrates the @code{neomensural} style
2380 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
2381 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
2382 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
2383 a'\longa a'\breve a'1 a'2 a'4 a'8 a'16
2386 When typesetting a piece in Gregorian Chant notation, the
2387 @internalsref{Gregorian_ligature_engraver} will automatically select
2388 the proper note heads, so there is no need to explicitly set the
2389 note head style. Still, the note head style can be set, e.g., to
2390 @code{vaticana_punctum} to produce punctum neumes. Similarly, a
2391 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} is used to automatically
2392 assemble mensural ligatures. See @ref{Ligatures} for how ligature
2397 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,note@/-head@/-style@/.ly} gives an
2398 overview over all available note head styles.
2401 @node Ancient accidentals
2402 @subsection Ancient accidentals
2407 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{Accidental} to
2408 select ancient accidentals. Supported styles are
2409 @code{mensural}, @code{vaticana}, @code{hufnagel}, and @code{medicaea}.
2411 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,staffsize=26]
2418 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.vaticana-1"
2419 " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.vaticana0" }
2423 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.medicaea-1" }
2427 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.hufnagel-1" }
2431 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.mensural-1"
2432 " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.mensural1" }
2438 \context { \Score \remove "Bar_number_engraver" }
2440 \remove "Clef_engraver"
2441 \remove "Key_engraver"
2442 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
2443 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
2444 \override VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = ##f
2450 As shown, not all accidentals are supported by each style. When
2451 trying to access an unsupported accidental, LilyPond will switch to a
2452 different style, as demonstrated in
2453 @inputfileref{input/@/test,ancient@/-accidentals@/.ly}.
2455 Similarly to local accidentals, the style of the key signature can be
2456 controlled by the @code{style} property of the
2457 @internalsref{KeySignature} grob.
2461 In this manual: @ref{Pitches}, @ref{Cautionary accidentals} and
2462 @ref{Automatic accidentals} give a general introduction of the use of
2463 accidentals. @ref{Key signature} gives a general introduction of
2464 the use of key signatures.
2466 Program reference: @internalsref{KeySignature}.
2468 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/test,ancient@/-accidentals@/.ly}.
2471 @subsection Ancient rests
2473 @cindex rests, ancient
2476 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{Rest} to select
2477 ancient rests. Supported styles are @code{classical},
2478 @code{neomensural}, and @code{mensural}. @code{classical} differs
2479 from the @code{default} style only in that the quarter rest looks like
2480 a horizontally mirrored 8th rest. The @code{neomensural} style suits
2481 well for, e.g., the incipit of a transcribed mensural piece of music.
2482 The @code{mensural} style finally mimics the appearance of rests as
2483 in historic prints of the 16th century.
2485 The following example demonstrates the @code{neomensural} style
2487 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
2488 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
2489 \override Rest #'style = #'neomensural
2490 r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16
2493 There are no 32th and 64th rests specifically for the mensural or
2494 neo-mensural style. Instead, the rests from the default style will be
2495 taken. See @inputfileref{input/@/test,rests@/.ly} for a chart of all
2498 There are no rests in Gregorian Chant notation; instead, it uses
2503 In this manual: @ref{Rests} gives a general introduction into the use of
2508 @subsection Ancient clefs
2513 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
2515 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
2516 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but
2517 differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such
2518 cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs.
2519 Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an
2520 arbitrary line, as described in @ref{Clef}. The note printed to the
2521 right side of each clef in the example column denotes the @code{c'}
2522 with respect to that clef.
2524 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .4 .2
2533 modern style mensural C clef
2535 @code{neomensural-c1}, @code{neomensural-c2},@*
2536 @code{neomensural-c3}, @code{neomensural-c4}
2538 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2539 \clef "neomensural-c2" c
2543 petrucci style mensural C clefs, for use on different staff lines
2544 (the examples show the 2nd staff line C clef)
2546 @code{petrucci-c1}, @code{petrucci-c2},@*
2547 @code{petrucci-c3}, @code{petrucci-c4},@*
2550 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2552 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2557 petrucci style mensural F clef
2561 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2563 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2568 petrucci style mensural G clef
2572 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2574 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2579 historic style mensural C clef
2581 @code{mensural-c1}, @code{mensural-c2},@*
2582 @code{mensural-c3}, @code{mensural-c4}
2584 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2586 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2591 historic style mensural F clef
2595 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2597 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2602 historic style mensural G clef
2606 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2608 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2613 Editio Vaticana style do clef
2615 @code{vaticana-do1}, @code{vaticana-do2},@*
2618 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2619 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2620 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2621 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2622 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2623 \override NoteHead #'style = #'vaticana.punctum
2624 \clef "vaticana-do2"
2629 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
2631 @code{vaticana-fa1}, @code{vaticana-fa2}
2633 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2634 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2635 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2636 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2637 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2638 \override NoteHead #'style = #'vaticana.punctum
2639 \clef "vaticana-fa2"
2644 Editio Medicaea style do clef
2646 @code{medicaea-do1}, @code{medicaea-do2},@*
2649 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2650 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2651 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2652 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2653 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2654 \override NoteHead #'style = #'medicaea.punctum
2655 \clef "medicaea-do2"
2660 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
2662 @code{medicaea-fa1}, @code{medicaea-fa2}
2664 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2665 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2666 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2667 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2668 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2669 \override NoteHead #'style = #'medicaea.punctum
2670 \clef "medicaea-fa2"
2675 historic style hufnagel do clef
2677 @code{hufnagel-do1}, @code{hufnagel-do2},@*
2680 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2681 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2682 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2683 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2684 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2685 \override NoteHead #'style = #'hufnagel.punctum
2686 \clef "hufnagel-do2"
2691 historic style hufnagel fa clef
2693 @code{hufnagel-fa1}, @code{hufnagel-fa2}
2695 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2696 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2697 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2698 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2699 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2700 \override NoteHead #'style = #'hufnagel.punctum
2701 \clef "hufnagel-fa2"
2706 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
2708 @code{hufnagel-do-fa}
2710 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2711 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2712 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2713 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2714 \override NoteHead #'style = #'hufnagel.punctum
2715 \clef "hufnagel-do-fa"
2722 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
2723 transcribed mensural music''.
2725 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
2726 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
2728 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
2729 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
2731 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
2733 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
2734 beams, depending on which staff line it is printed.
2738 In this manual: see @ref{Clef}.
2742 The mensural g clef is mapped to the Petrucci g clef.
2747 @subsection Ancient flags
2752 Use the @code{flag-style} property of grob @internalsref{Stem} to
2753 select ancient flags. Besides the @code{default} flag style,
2754 only the @code{mensural} style is supported
2756 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
2757 \override Stem #'flag-style = #'mensural
2758 \override Stem #'thickness = #1.0
2759 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2761 c'8 d'8 e'8 f'8 c'16 d'16 e'16 f'16 c'32 d'32 e'32 f'32 s8
2762 c''8 d''8 e''8 f''8 c''16 d''16 e''16 f''16 c''32 d''32 e''32 f''32
2765 Note that the innermost flare of each mensural flag always is
2766 vertically aligned with a staff line.
2768 There is no particular flag style for neo-mensural notation. Hence,
2769 when typesetting the incipit of a transcribed piece of mensural
2770 music, the default flag style should be used. There are no flags in
2771 Gregorian Chant notation.
2775 The attachment of ancient flags to stems is slightly off due to a
2776 change in early 2.3.x.
2778 Vertically aligning each flag with a staff line assumes that stems
2779 always end either exactly on or exactly in the middle between two
2780 staff lines. This may not always be true when using advanced layout
2781 features of classical notation (which however are typically out of
2782 scope for mensural notation).
2784 @node Ancient time signatures
2785 @subsection Ancient time signatures
2787 @cindex time signatures
2790 There is limited support for mensural time signatures. The
2791 glyphs are hard-wired to particular time fractions. In other words,
2792 to get a particular mensural signature glyph with the @code{\time n/m}
2793 command, @code{n} and @code{m} have to be chosen according to the
2796 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2801 \remove Staff_symbol_engraver
2802 \remove Clef_engraver
2803 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2807 \set Score.timing = ##f
2808 \set Score.barAlways = ##t
2809 s_\markup { "\\time 4/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph
2810 #"timesig.neomensural44" }
2812 s_\markup { "\\time 2/2" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph
2813 #"timesig.neomensural22" }
2815 s_\markup { "\\time 6/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph
2816 #"timesig.neomensural64" }
2818 s_\markup { "\\time 6/8" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph
2819 #"timesig.neomensural68" }
2821 s_\markup { "\\time 3/2" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph
2822 #"timesig.neomensural32" }
2824 s_\markup { "\\time 3/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph
2825 #"timesig.neomensural34" }
2827 s_\markup { "\\time 9/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph
2828 #"timesig.neomensural94" }
2830 s_\markup { "\\time 9/8" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph
2831 #"timesig.neomensural98" }
2833 s_\markup { "\\time 4/8" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph
2834 #"timesig.neomensural48" }
2836 s_\markup { "\\time 2/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph
2837 #"timesig.neomensural24" }
2841 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{TimeSignature} to
2842 select ancient time signatures. Supported styles are
2843 @code{neomensural} and @code{mensural}. The above table uses the
2844 @code{neomensural} style. This style is appropriate for the
2845 incipit of transcriptions of mensural pieces. The @code{mensural}
2846 style mimics the look of historical printings of the 16th century.
2848 The following examples show the differences in style,
2850 @lilypond[ragged-right,fragment,relative=1,quote]
2855 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter default }
2857 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'numbered
2859 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter numbered }
2861 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'mensural
2863 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter mensural }
2865 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
2867 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter neomensural }
2868 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'single-digit
2870 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter single-digit }
2876 This manual: @ref{Time signature} gives a general introduction to
2877 the use of time signatures.
2881 Ratios of note durations do not change with the time signature. For
2882 example, the ratio of 1 brevis = 3 semibrevis (tempus perfectum) must
2883 be made by hand, by setting
2886 breveTP = #(ly:make-duration -1 0 3 2)
2892 This sets @code{breveTP} to 3/2 times 2 = 3 times a whole note.
2894 The @code{old6/8alt} symbol (an alternate symbol for 6/8) is not
2895 addressable with @code{\time}. Use a @code{\markup} instead
2897 @node Ancient articulations
2898 @subsection Ancient articulations
2900 @cindex articulations
2902 In addition to the standard articulation signs described in section
2903 @ref{Articulations}, articulation signs for ancient notation are
2904 provided. These are specifically designed for use with notation in
2905 Editio Vaticana style.
2907 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
2908 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
2910 \new VaticanaVoice {
2911 \override TextScript #'font-family = #'typewriter
2912 \override TextScript #'font-shape = #'upright
2913 \override Script #'padding = #-0.1
2915 a4\circulus_"circulus" s1
2916 a4\semicirculus_"semicirculus" s1 s
2917 a4\accentus_"accentus" s1
2918 \[ a4_"episem" \episemInitium \pes b \flexa a \episemFinis \]
2925 Some articulations are vertically placed too closely to the
2926 correpsonding note heads.
2929 @subsection Custodes
2934 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; Latin word for `guard') is a
2935 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
2936 of the first note(s) of the following line thus helping the performer
2937 to manage line breaks during performance.
2939 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th
2940 century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms
2941 of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant
2942 like the @emph{editio vaticana}. There are different custos glyphs
2943 used in different flavors of notational style.
2945 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
2946 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\layout} block,
2947 as shown in the following example
2953 \consists Custos_engraver
2954 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2959 The result looks like this
2961 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2965 \override Staff.Custos #'style = #'mensural
2970 \context { \Staff \consists Custos_engraver }
2975 The custos glyph is selected by the @code{style} property. The styles
2976 supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel}, and
2977 @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the following fragment
2979 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
2980 \new Lyrics \lyricmode {
2982 \typewriter "vaticana"
2983 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.vaticana.u0" }
2986 \typewriter "medicaea"
2987 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.medicaea.u0" }
2990 \typewriter "hufnagel"
2991 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.hufnagel.u0" }
2994 \typewriter "mensural"
2995 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.mensural.u0" }
3002 Program reference: @internalsref{Custos}.
3004 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,custos@/.ly}.
3008 @subsection Divisiones
3014 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; Latin word for
3015 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
3016 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
3017 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior}, and @emph{divisio maxima}
3018 can be characterized as short, medium, and long pause, somewhat like
3019 the breathmarks from @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not
3020 only marks the end of a chant, but is also frequently used within a
3021 single antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
3024 To use divisiones, include the file @file{gregorian@/-init@/.ly}. It
3025 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
3026 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
3027 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
3028 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
3029 Therefore, @file{gregorian@/-init@/.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
3032 @lilypondfile[quote,ragged-right]{divisiones.ly}
3040 @funindex \divisioMinima
3041 @code{\divisioMinima},
3042 @funindex \divisioMaior
3043 @code{\divisioMaior},
3044 @funindex \divisioMaxima
3045 @code{\divisioMaxima},
3051 In this manual: @ref{Breath marks}.
3053 Program reference: @internalsref{BreathingSign}.
3055 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/test,divisiones@/.ly}.
3058 @subsection Ligatures
3062 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
3063 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
3065 A ligature is a graphical symbol that represents at least two distinct
3066 notes. Ligatures originally appeared in the manuscripts of Gregorian
3067 chant notation to denote ascending or descending sequences of notes.
3069 Ligatures are entered by enclosing them in @code{\[} and @code{\]}.
3070 Some ligature styles may need additional input syntax specific for
3071 this particular type of ligature. By default, the
3072 @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a square bracket
3075 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
3083 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver
3084 has to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in
3085 the following subsections. Only white mensural ligatures
3086 are supported with certain limitations.
3092 Ligatures need special spacing that has not yet been implemented. As
3093 a result, there is too much space between ligatures most of the time,
3094 and line breaking often is unsatisfactory. Also, lyrics do not
3095 correctly align with ligatures.
3097 Accidentals must not be printed within a ligature, but instead need to
3098 be collected and printed in front of it.
3100 Augmentum dots within ligatures are not handled correctly.
3102 The syntax still uses the deprecated infix style @code{\[ music expr
3103 \]}. For consistency reasons, it will eventually be changed to
3104 postfix style @code{note\[ ... note\]}. Alternatively, the file
3105 @file{gregorian@/-init@/.ly} can be included; it provides a scheme
3108 \ligature @var{music expr}
3110 with the same effect and is believed to be stable.
3113 * White mensural ligatures::
3114 * Gregorian square neumes ligatures::
3117 @node White mensural ligatures
3118 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
3120 @cindex Mensural ligatures
3121 @cindex White mensural ligatures
3123 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures.
3125 To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the layout block put the
3126 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} into the
3127 @internalsref{Voice} context, and remove the
3128 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}, like this
3134 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
3135 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
3140 There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a
3141 white mensural ligature. The shape is rather determined solely from
3142 the pitch and duration of the enclosed notes. While this approach may
3143 take a new user a while to get accustomed to, it has the great advantage
3144 that the full musical information of the ligature is known internally.
3145 This is not only required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for
3146 automatic transcription of the ligatures.
3151 \set Score.timing = ##f
3152 \set Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
3153 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
3154 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
3158 \[ d\longa c\breve f e d \]
3160 \[ c'\maxima d'\longa \]
3164 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3167 \set Score.timing = ##f
3168 \set Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
3169 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
3170 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
3174 \[ d\longa c\breve f e d \]
3176 \[ c'\maxima d'\longa \]
3183 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
3184 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
3190 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
3191 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
3194 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3196 \set Score.timing = ##f
3197 \set Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
3198 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
3199 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
3203 \[ d\longa c\breve f e d \]
3205 \[ c'\maxima d'\longa \]
3213 The invisible rests (@code{s4}) in the example are used to compensate
3214 for the poor horizontal spacing.
3216 @node Gregorian square neumes ligatures
3217 @subsubsection Gregorian square neumes ligatures
3219 @cindex Square neumes ligatures
3220 @cindex Gregorian square neumes ligatures
3222 There is limited support for Gregorian square neumes notation
3223 (following the style of the Editio Vaticana). Core ligatures can
3224 already be typeset, but essential issues for serious typesetting are
3225 still lacking, such as (among others) horizontal alignment of multiple
3226 ligatures, lyrics alignment and proper handling of accidentals.
3229 The following table contains the extended neumes table of the 2nd
3230 volume of the Antiphonale Romanum (@emph{Liber Hymnarius}), published
3231 1983 by the monks of Solesmes.
3233 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .2 .2 .2
3250 @c TODO: \layout block is identical in all of the below examples.
3251 @c Therefore, it should somehow be included rather than duplicated all
3254 @c why not make identifiers in ly/engraver-init.ly? --hwn
3256 @c Because it's just used to typeset plain notes without
3257 @c a staff for demonstration purposes rather than something
3258 @c special of Gregorian chant notation. --jr
3263 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.5\cm]
3264 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3269 \noBreak s^\markup {"a"} \noBreak
3271 % Punctum Inclinatum
3273 \noBreak s^\markup {"b"}
3275 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3278 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=2.5\cm]
3279 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3282 % Punctum Auctum Ascendens
3283 \[ \auctum \ascendens b \]
3284 \noBreak s^\markup {"c"} \noBreak
3286 % Punctum Auctum Descendens
3287 \[ \auctum \descendens b \]
3288 \noBreak s^\markup {"d"} \noBreak
3290 % Punctum Inclinatum Auctum
3291 \[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]
3292 \noBreak s^\markup {"e"}
3294 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3297 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3298 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3301 % Punctum Inclinatum Parvum
3302 \[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]
3303 \noBreak s^\markup {"f"}
3305 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3311 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3312 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3317 \noBreak s^\markup {"g"}
3319 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3325 @code{3. Apostropha vel Stropha}
3327 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3328 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3333 \noBreak s^\markup {"h"}
3335 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3338 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3339 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3343 \[ \stropha \auctum b \]
3344 \noBreak s^\markup {"i"}
3346 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3353 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3354 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3359 \noBreak s^\markup {"j"}
3361 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3367 @code{5. Clivis vel Flexa}
3369 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3370 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3377 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3380 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=2.0\cm]
3381 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3384 % Clivis Aucta Descendens
3385 \[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
3386 \noBreak s^\markup {"l"} \noBreak
3388 % Clivis Aucta Ascendens
3389 \[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]
3390 \noBreak s^\markup {"m"}
3392 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3395 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3396 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3400 \[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]
3403 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3407 @code{6. Podatus vel Pes}
3409 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3410 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3417 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3420 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=2.0\cm]
3421 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3424 % Pes Auctus Descendens
3425 \[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3426 \noBreak s^\markup {"p"} \noBreak
3428 % Pes Auctus Ascendens
3429 \[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]
3430 \noBreak s^\markup {"q"}
3432 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3435 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3436 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3440 \[ g \pes \deminutum b \]
3443 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3447 @code{7. Pes Quassus}
3449 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3450 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3454 \[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]
3457 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3460 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3461 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3464 % Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens
3465 \[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3468 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3473 @code{8. Quilisma Pes}
3475 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3476 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3480 \[ \quilisma g \pes b \]
3483 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3486 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3487 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3490 % Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens
3491 \[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3494 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3499 @code{9. Podatus Initio Debilis}
3501 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3502 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3505 % Pes Initio Debilis
3506 \[ \deminutum g \pes b \]
3509 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3512 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3513 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3516 % Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
3517 \[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3520 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3527 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3528 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3532 \[ a \pes b \flexa g \]
3535 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3538 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3539 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3542 % Torculus Auctus Descendens
3543 \[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
3546 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3549 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3550 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3553 % Torculus Deminutus
3554 \[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
3557 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3561 @code{11. Torculus Initio Debilis}
3563 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3564 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3567 % Torculus Initio Debilis
3568 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]
3571 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3574 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3575 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3578 % Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
3579 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
3582 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3585 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3586 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3589 % Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis
3590 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
3593 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3597 @code{12. Porrectus}
3599 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3600 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3604 \[ a \flexa g \pes b \]
3607 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3610 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3611 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3614 % Porrectus Auctus Descendens
3615 \[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3618 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3621 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3622 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3625 % Porrectus Deminutus
3626 \[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]
3629 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3635 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3636 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3640 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]
3643 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }
3647 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3648 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3652 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]
3655 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3658 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3659 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3662 % Climacus Deminutus
3663 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]
3666 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3670 @code{14. Scandicus}
3672 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3673 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3677 \[ g \pes a \virga b \]
3680 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3683 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3684 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3687 % Scandicus Auctus Descendens
3688 \[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3691 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3694 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3695 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3698 % Scandicus Deminutus
3699 \[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]
3702 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3708 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3709 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3713 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]
3716 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3719 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3720 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3723 % Salicus Auctus Descendens
3724 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3727 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3734 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3735 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3739 \[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]
3742 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }
3751 Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the input language for
3752 neumes does not reflect the typographical appearance, but is designed
3753 to focus on musical meaning. For example, @code{\[ a \pes b
3754 \flexa g \]} produces a Torculus consisting of three Punctum heads,
3755 while @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]} produces a Porrectus with a
3756 curved flexa shape and only a single Punctum head. There is no
3757 command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa shape; the decision of
3758 when to typeset a curved flexa shape is based on the musical
3759 input. The idea of this approach is to separate the musical aspects
3760 of the input from the notation style of the output. This way, the
3761 same input can be reused to typeset the same music in a different
3762 style of Gregorian chant notation.
3764 The following table shows the code fragments that produce the
3765 ligatures in the above neumes table. The letter in the first column
3766 in each line of the below table indicates to which ligature in the
3767 above table it refers. The second column gives the name of the
3768 ligature. The third column shows the code fragment that produces this
3769 ligature, using @code{g}, @code{a}, and @code{b} as example pitches.
3771 @multitable @columnfractions .02 .31 .67
3791 @code{\[ \inclinatum b \]}
3799 @code{\[ \auctum \ascendens b \]}
3807 @code{\[ \auctum \descendens b \]}
3812 Punctum Inclinatum@*
3815 @code{\[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]}
3820 Punctum Inclinatum@*
3822 @code{\[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]}
3829 @code{\[ \virga b \]}
3836 @code{\[ \stropha b \]}
3843 @code{\[ \stropha \auctum b \]}
3850 @code{\[ \oriscus b \]}
3857 @code{\[ b \flexa g \]}
3865 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
3873 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]}
3880 @code{\[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
3887 @code{\[ g \pes b \]}
3895 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3903 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]}
3910 @code{\[ g \pes \deminutum b \]}
3917 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]}
3923 Auctus Descendens @tab
3924 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3931 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes b \]}
3939 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3946 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes b \]}
3951 Pes Auctus Descendens@*
3954 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3961 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]}
3969 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
3976 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
3981 Torculus Initio Debilis
3983 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]}
3989 Descendens Initio Debilis
3991 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
3996 Torculus Deminutus@*
3999 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
4006 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]}
4014 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
4021 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]}
4028 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]}
4035 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]}
4042 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]}
4049 @code{\[ g \pes a \virga b \]}
4057 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
4064 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]}
4071 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]}
4076 Salicus Auctus Descendens
4078 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
4085 @code{\[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]}
4088 The ligatures listed above mainly serve as a limited, but still
4089 representative pool of Gregorian ligature examples. Virtually, within
4090 the ligature delimiters @code{\[} and @code{\]}, any number of heads
4091 may be accumulated to form a single ligature, and head prefixes like
4092 @code{\pes}, @code{\flexa}, @code{\virga}, @code{\inclinatum},
4093 etc. may be mixed in as desired. The use of the set of rules that
4094 underlies the construction of the ligatures in the above table is
4095 accordingly extrapolated. This way, infinitely many different
4096 ligatures can be created.
4098 @c TODO: create a regression or tips & tricks example document with
4099 @c even more Gregorian ligatures, and add a link to this document
4104 The following head prefixes are supported
4110 @funindex \inclinatum
4114 @funindex \descendens
4116 @funindex \ascendens
4122 @funindex \deminutum
4129 Head prefixes can be accumulated, though restrictions apply. For
4130 example, either @code{\descendens} or @code{\ascendens} can be applied
4131 to a head, but not both to the same head.
4135 Two adjacent heads can be tied together with the @code{\pes} and
4136 @code{\flexa} infix commands for a rising and falling line of melody,
4141 @node Gregorian Chant contexts
4142 @subsection Gregorian Chant contexts
4144 @cindex VaticanaVoiceContext
4145 @cindex VaticanaStaffContext
4147 The predefined @code{VaticanaVoiceContext} and
4148 @code{VaticanaStaffContext} can be used to engrave a piece of
4149 Gregorian Chant in the style of the Editio Vaticana. These contexts
4150 initialize all relevant context properties and grob properties to
4151 proper values, so you can immediately go ahead entering the chant, as
4152 the following excerpt demonstrates
4154 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,packed,verbatim]
4155 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
4158 \new VaticanaVoice = "cantus" {
4159 \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \]
4160 \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \]
4162 \[ f\melisma \pes a c' c' \pes d'\melismaEnd \]
4163 c' \divisioMinima \break
4164 \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \]
4165 \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \] f \divisioMinima
4167 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "cantus" {
4168 San- ctus, San- ctus, San- ctus
4175 @node Mensural contexts
4176 @subsection Mensural contexts
4178 @cindex MensuralVoiceContext
4179 @cindex MensuralStaffContext
4181 The predefined @code{MensuralVoiceContext} and
4182 @code{MensuralStaffContext} can be used to engrave a piece in mensural
4183 style. These contexts initialize all relevant context properties and
4184 grob properties to proper values, so you can immediately go ahead
4185 entering the chant, as the following excerpt demonstrates
4187 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
4190 \new MensuralVoice = "discantus" \transpose c c' {
4191 \override Score.BarNumber #'transparent = ##t {
4192 c'1\melisma bes a g\melismaEnd
4194 \[ f1\melisma a c'\breve d'\melismaEnd \]
4196 c'\breve\melisma a1 g1\melismaEnd
4197 fis\longa^\signumcongruentiae
4200 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "discantus" {
4201 San -- ctus, San -- ctus, San -- ctus
4207 @node Musica ficta accidentals
4208 @subsection Musica ficta accidentals
4210 In European music from before about 1600, singers were often expected
4211 to chromatically alter notes at their own initiative. This is called
4212 ``Musica Ficta''. In modern transcriptions, these accidentals are
4213 usually printed over the note.
4215 @cindex Accidental, musica ficta
4216 @cindex Musica ficta
4218 Support for such suggested accidentals is included, and can be
4219 switched on by setting @code{suggestAccidentals} to true.
4221 @funindex suggestAccidentals
4223 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
4225 \set suggestAccidentals = ##t
4231 Program reference: @internalsref{Accidental_engraver} engraver and the
4232 @internalsref{AccidentalSuggestion} object.
4235 @subsection Figured bass
4237 @cindex Basso continuo
4239 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
4242 LilyPond has support for figured bass
4244 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment]
4246 \new Voice { \clef bass dis4 c d ais g fis}
4247 \new FiguredBass \figuremode {
4248 < 6 >4 < 7\+ >8 < 6+ [_!] >
4255 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
4256 mode, introduced by @code{\figuremode}, where you can enter bass figures
4257 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass} that
4258 takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
4260 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
4261 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>}
4265 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
4267 \figuremode { <4 6> }
4270 Accidentals are added when you append @code{-}, @code{!}, and @code{+}
4271 to the numbers. A plus sign is added when you append @code{\+}, and
4272 diminished fifths and sevenths can be obtained with @code{5/} and @code{7/}.
4275 <4- 6+ 7!> <5++> <3--> <7/> r <6\+ 5/>
4277 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
4278 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> <5++> <3--> <7/> r <6\+ 5/> }
4281 Spaces may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
4282 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}. You can also include text
4283 strings and text markups, see @ref{Overview of text markup commands}.
4286 < [4 6] 8 [_! 12] > < 5 \markup @{ \number 6 \super (1) @} >
4288 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
4290 \figuremode { < [4 6] 8 [_! 12] > < 5 \markup{ \tiny \number 6 \super (1)} > }
4294 It is also possible to use continuation lines for repeated figures,
4296 @lilypond[verbatim,relative=1]
4303 \set useBassFigureExtenders = ##t
4310 In this case, the extender lines always replace existing figures.
4312 The @code{FiguredBass} context doesn't pay attention to the actual
4313 bass line. As a consequence, you may have to insert extra figures to
4314 get extender lines below all notes, and you may have to add @code{\!}
4315 to avoid getting an extender line, e.g.
4317 @lilypond[relative=1]
4321 \set useBassFigureExtenders = ##t
4322 <6 4->4. <6 4->16. <6 4->32 <5>8. r16 <6>8 <6\! 5->
4326 f16. g32 f16. g32 f16. g32 f16. g32 f8. es16 d8 es
4331 When using continuation lines, common figures are always put in the
4332 same vertical position. When this is unwanted, you can insert a rest
4333 with @code{r}. The rest will clear any previous alignment. For
4334 example, you can write
4346 Accidentals and plus signs can appear before or after the numbers,
4347 depending on the @code{figuredBassAlterationDirection} and
4348 @code{figuredBassPlusDirection}
4354 \set figuredBassAlterationDirection = #1
4356 \set figuredBassPlusDirection = #1
4358 \set figuredBassAlterationDirection = #-1
4364 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
4365 support, it is much simpler. The @code{\figuremode} mode simply
4366 stores the numbers and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints them
4367 as entered. There is no conversion to pitches and no realizations of
4368 the bass are played in the MIDI file.
4370 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
4371 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
4372 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
4376 Program reference: @internalsref{NewBassFigure},
4377 @internalsref{BassFigureAlignment}, @internalsref{BassFigureLine},
4378 @internalsref{BassFigureBracket}, and
4379 @internalsref{BassFigureContinuation} objects and
4380 @internalsref{FiguredBass} context.
4384 @node Other instrument specific notation
4385 @section Other instrument specific notation
4387 This section includes extra information for writing for instruments.
4390 * Artificial harmonics (strings)::
4393 @node Artificial harmonics (strings)
4394 @subsection Artificial harmonics (strings)
4396 @cindex artificial harmonics
4398 Artificial harmonics are notated with a different notehead style. They
4399 are entered by marking the harmonic pitch with @code{\harmonic}.
4401 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote,fragment,relative=1]