1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @c This file is part of lilypond.tely
4 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
5 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
6 @c to automatically fill in these menus before saving changes
8 @node Instrument-specific notation
9 @chapter Instrument-specific notation
11 This chapter explains how to use notation for specific instruments.
21 * Other instrument specific notation::
29 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
30 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
31 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
32 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
33 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
34 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
37 * Automatic staff changes::
38 * Manual staff switches::
40 * Staff switch lines::
46 Dynamics are not centered, but workarounds do exist. See the
47 ``piano centered dynamics'' template in @ref{Piano templates}.
49 @cindex cross staff stem
50 @cindex stem, cross staff
51 @cindex distance between staves in piano music
53 The distance between the two staves is the same for all systems in the
54 score. It is possible to override this per system, but it does require
55 an arcane command incantation. See
56 @inputfileref{input/@/test,piano@/-staff@/-distance@/.ly}.
59 @node Automatic staff changes
60 @subsection Automatic staff changes
61 @cindex Automatic staff changes
63 Voices can be made to switch automatically between the top and the bottom
64 staff. The syntax for this is
68 \autochange @dots{}@var{music}@dots{}
73 This will create two staves inside the current PianoStaff, called
74 @code{up} and @code{down}. The lower staff will be in bass clef by
77 A @code{\relative} section that is outside of @code{\autochange} has
78 no effect on the pitches of @var{music}, so, if necessary, put
79 @code{\relative} inside @code{\autochange} like
83 \autochange \relative @dots{} @dots{}
88 The autochanger switches on basis of the pitch (middle C is the turning
89 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch in
90 advance. Here is a practical example
92 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
94 \autochange \relative c'
103 In this manual: @ref{Manual staff switches}.
105 Program reference: @internalsref{AutoChangeMusic}.
111 The staff switches may not end up in optimal places. For high
112 quality output, staff switches should be specified manually.
115 @code{\autochange} cannot be inside @code{\times}.
118 @node Manual staff switches
119 @subsection Manual staff switches
121 @cindex manual staff switches
122 @cindex staff switch, manual
124 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the command
126 \change Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
130 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
131 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
132 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
133 @code{"down"}. The @context{Staff} referred to must already exist, so
134 usually the setup for a score will start with a setup of the staves,
139 \skip 1 * 10 % @emph{keep staff alive}
141 \new Staff = "down" @{
142 \skip 1 * 10 % @emph{idem}
148 and the @context{Voice} is inserted afterwards
152 \new Voice @{ @dots{} \change Staff = up @dots{} @}
160 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound is produced. Generally, a
161 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
164 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
165 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
166 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
169 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
170 c'4\sustainDown c'4\sustainUp
173 What is printed can be modified by setting @code{pedal@var{X}Strings},
174 where @var{X} is one of the pedal types: @code{Sustain},
175 @code{Sostenuto} or @code{UnaCorda}. Refer to
176 @internalsref{SustainPedal} in the program reference for more
179 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
180 @code{pedalSustainStyle} property to bracket objects
182 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
183 \set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'bracket
185 b\sustainUp\sustainDown
186 b g \sustainUp a \sustainDown \bar "|."
189 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
190 obtained by setting the @code{pedalSustainStyle} property to
193 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
194 \set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'mixed
196 b\sustainUp\sustainDown
197 b g \sustainUp a \sustainDown \bar "|."
200 The default `*Ped.' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
201 style @code{#'text}. The sostenuto pedal uses @code{mixed} style by
204 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
205 c\sostenutoDown d e c, f g a\sostenutoUp
208 For fine-tuning the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
209 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
210 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (see
211 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket} in the Program reference) can be
212 modified. For example, the bracket may be extended to the right edge
215 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
216 \override Staff.PianoPedalBracket #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
217 c\sostenutoDown d e c, f g a\sostenutoUp
222 In this manual: @ref{Laissez vibrer ties}
224 @node Staff switch lines
225 @subsection Staff switch lines
229 @cindex staff switching
232 @cindex @code{followVoice}
234 Whenever a voice switches to another staff, a line connecting the notes
235 can be printed automatically. This is switched on by setting
236 @code{followVoice} to true
238 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
241 \set followVoice = ##t
246 \new Staff="two" { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
252 Program reference: @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
256 @cindex @code{\showStaffSwitch}
257 @code{\showStaffSwitch},
258 @cindex @code{\hideStaffSwitch}
259 @code{\hideStaffSwitch}.
262 @node Cross staff stems
263 @subsection Cross staff stems
265 Chords that cross staves may be produced by increasing the length
266 of the stem in the lower staff, so it reaches the stem in the upper
267 staff, or vice versa.
269 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote]
270 stemExtend = \once \override Stem #'length = #22
271 noFlag = \once \override Stem #'flag-style = #'no-flag
274 \stemDown \stemExtend
292 * Introducing chord names::
294 * Printing chord names::
298 @c awkward name; awkward section name.
299 @c still, the Basic "chords" seems like a good name... :(
300 @node Introducing chord names
301 @subsection Introducing chord names
304 LilyPond has support for printing chord names. Chords may be entered
305 in musical chord notation, i.e., @code{< .. >}, but they can also be
306 entered by name. Internally, the chords are represented as a set of
307 pitches, so they can be transposed
310 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,ragged-right]
311 twoWays = \transpose c c' {
320 << \new ChordNames \twoWays
321 \new Voice \twoWays >>
324 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
325 be intelligent. The last chord (@code{f bes d}) is not interpreted as
328 Note that the duration of chords must be specified outside the
337 @subsection Chords mode
340 In chord mode sets of pitches (chords) are entered with normal note
341 names. A chord is entered by the root, which is entered like a
344 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
345 \chordmode { es4. d8 c2 }
349 The mode is introduced by the keyword @code{\chordmode}.
354 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon and introducing a
355 modifier (which may include a number if desired)
356 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim]
357 \chordmode { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
359 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
360 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
362 @lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim]
363 \chordmode { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
366 @cindex root of chord
367 @cindex additions, in chords
368 @cindex removals, in chords
370 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
371 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
372 the colon and are separated by dots
373 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
374 \chordmode { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
376 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
378 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
379 \chordmode { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
381 Removals are specified similarly and are introduced by a caret. They
382 must come after the additions
383 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
384 \chordmode { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
387 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
392 The minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
395 The diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
399 The augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
402 The major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
405 The suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
406 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
410 Modifiers can be mixed with additions
411 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
412 \chordmode { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
415 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
422 Since an unaltered 11 does not sound good when combined with an
423 unaltered 3, the 11 is removed in this case (unless it is added
425 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
426 \chordmode { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
431 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
432 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
433 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord
434 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
435 \chordmode { c1 c/g c/f }
439 A bass note can be added instead transposed out of the chord,
440 by using @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
442 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
443 \chordmode { c1 c/+g c/+f }
446 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyricmode}, etc. Most
447 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
448 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and property
449 commands may be used to change various settings.
455 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
456 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
459 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment]
460 \chordmode { c:5.5-.5+ }
464 @node Printing chord names
465 @subsection Printing chord names
467 @cindex printing chord names
471 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
472 The chords may be entered either using the notation
473 described above, or directly using @code{<} and @code{>}
475 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
477 \chordmode {a1 b c} <d' f' a'> <e' g' b'>
480 \new ChordNames \harmonies
481 \new Staff \harmonies
485 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
486 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
487 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
488 the start of a new line
490 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
491 harmonies = \chordmode {
492 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
496 \set chordChanges = ##t
498 \new Staff \transpose c c' \harmonies
502 The previous examples all show chords over a staff. This is not
503 necessary. Chords may also be printed separately. It may be necessary
504 to add @internalsref{Volta_engraver} and @internalsref{Bar_engraver}
507 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim]
508 \new ChordNames \with {
509 \override BarLine #'bar-size = #4
510 voltaOnThisStaff = ##t
511 \consists Bar_engraver
512 \consists "Volta_engraver"
514 \chordmode { \repeat volta 2 {
524 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
525 Klaus Ignatzek (see @ref{Literature list}). It can be tuned through the
529 @cindex @code{chordNameExceptions}
530 @item chordNameExceptions
531 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
533 The exceptions list should be encoded as
535 @{ <c f g bes>1 \markup @{ \super "7" "wahh" @} @}
538 To get this information into @code{chordNameExceptions} takes a little
539 manoeuvring. The following code transforms @code{chExceptionMusic}
540 (which is a sequential music) into a list of exceptions.
542 (sequential-music-to-chord-exceptions chExceptionMusic #t)
547 (sequential-music-to-chord-exceptions chExceptionMusic #t)
550 adds the new exceptions to the default ones, which are defined in
551 @file{ly/@/chord@/-modifier@/-init@/.ly}.
553 For an example of tuning this property, see also
554 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-exceptions@/.ly}.
555 @cindex exceptions, chord names.
558 @cindex @code{majorSevenSymbol}
559 @item majorSevenSymbol
560 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
561 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup} and
562 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
563 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-major7@/.ly} for an example.
565 @cindex @code{chordNameSeparator}
566 @item chordNameSeparator
567 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
568 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
570 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
571 \new ChordNames \chordmode {
573 \set chordNameSeparator
574 = \markup { \typewriter "|" }
579 @cindex @code{chordRootNamer}
581 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
582 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
583 function. Special note names (for example, the German ``H'' for a
584 B-chord) can be produced by storing a new function in this property.
586 @cindex @code{chordNoteNamer}
588 The default is to print single pitch, e.g., the bass note, using the
589 @code{chordRootNamer}. The @code{chordNoteNamer} property can be set
590 to a specialized function to change this behavior. For example, the
591 base can be printed in lower case.
593 @cindex @code{chordPrefixSpacer}
594 @item chordPrefixSpacer
595 The ``m'' for minor chords is usually printed right after the root of
596 the chord. By setting @code{chordPrefixSpacer}, you can fix a spacer
597 between the root and ``m''. The spacer is not used when the root
602 The predefined variables @code{\germanChords},
603 @code{\semiGermanChords}, @code{\italianChords} and @code{\frenchChords}
604 set these variables. The effect is
607 @lilypondfile[ragged-right]{chord-names-languages.ly}
609 There are also two other chord name schemes implemented: an alternate
610 Jazz chord notation, and a systematic scheme called Banter chords. The
611 alternate Jazz notation is also shown on the chart in @ref{Chord name
612 chart}. Turning on these styles is described in the input file
613 @inputfileref{input/@/test,chord@/-names@/-jazz@/.ly}.
622 @cindex @code{\germanChords}
623 @code{\germanChords},
624 @cindex @code{\semiGermanChords}
625 @code{\semiGermanChords}.
626 @cindex @code{\italianChords}
627 @code{\italianChords}.
628 @cindex @code{\frenchChords}
629 @code{\frenchChords}.
636 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-major7@/.ly},
637 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-name@/-exceptions@/.ly},
638 @inputfileref{input/@/test,chord@/-names@/-jazz@/.ly}.
641 Init files: @file{scm/@/chords@/-ignatzek@/.scm}, and
642 @file{scm/@/chord@/-entry@/.scm}.
647 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
648 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
649 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
650 @code{< .. >} syntax.
657 Since LilyPond input files are text, there are two issues to
658 consider when working with vocal music:
662 Song texts must be entered as text, not notes. For example, the
663 input@tie{}@code{d} should be interpreted as a one letter syllable, not the
667 Song texts must be aligned with the notes of their melody.
670 There are a few different ways to define lyrics; the simplest
671 way is to use the @code{\addlyrics} function.
674 * Setting simple songs::
676 * Hyphens and extenders::
677 * The Lyrics context::
679 * Another way of entering lyrics::
680 * Flexibility in placement::
682 * More about stanzas::
684 * Other vocal issues::
690 Checking to make sure that text scripts and lyrics are within the margins is a relatively large computational task. To speed up processing, lilypond does not perform such calculations by default; to enable it, use
693 \override Score.PaperColumn #'keep-inside-line = ##t
696 To make lyrics avoid barlines as well, use
701 \consists "Bar_engraver"
702 \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver"
703 \override BarLine #'transparent = ##t
709 @node Setting simple songs
710 @subsection Setting simple songs
712 The easiest way to add lyrics to a melody is to append
715 \addlyrics @{ @var{the lyrics} @}
719 to a melody. Here is an example,
721 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,quote]
723 \relative { c2 e4 g2. }
724 \addlyrics { play the game }
727 More stanzas can be added by adding more
728 @code{\addlyrics} sections
730 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,quote]
732 \relative { c2 e4 g2. }
733 \addlyrics { play the game }
734 \addlyrics { speel het spel }
735 \addlyrics { joue le jeu }
738 The command @code{\addlyrics} cannot handle polyphony settings. For these cases you should use @code{\lyricsto} and @code{\lyricmode}.
742 @node Entering lyrics
743 @subsection Entering lyrics
746 @cindex @code{\lyricmode}
749 Lyrics are entered in a special input mode. This mode is introduced
750 by the keyword @code{\lyricmode}, or by using @code{\addlyrics} or
751 @code{\lyricsto}. In this mode you can enter lyrics,
752 with punctuation and accents, and the input @code{d} is not parsed as
753 a pitch, but rather as a one letter syllable. Syllables are entered
754 like notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example,
756 \lyricmode @{ Twin-4 kle4 twin- kle litt- le star2 @}
759 There are two main methods to specify the horizontal placement
760 of the syllables, either by specifying the duration of each syllable
761 explicitly, like in the example above, or by automatically aligning
762 the lyrics to a melody or other voice of music, using @code{\addlyrics}
763 or @code{\lyricsto}. For more details see @ref{The Lyrics context}.
765 A word or syllable of lyrics begins with an alphabetic character, and ends with
766 any space or digit. The following characters can be any character
767 that is not a digit or white space. One important consequence of this
768 is that a word can end with @code{@}}. The following example is
769 usually a mistake in the input file. The syllable includes a @code{@}}, so the
770 opening brace is not balanced
772 \lyricmode @{ twinkle@}
775 @cindex @code{\property}, in @code{\lyricmode}
777 Similarly, a period which follows an alphabetic sequence is included in
778 the resulting string. As a consequence, spaces must be inserted around
781 \override Score . LyricText #'font-shape = #'italic
785 @cindex spaces, in lyrics
786 @cindex quotes, in lyrics
788 In order to assign more than one syllable to a single note, you must
789 surround them with quotes or use a @code{_} character between the syllables.
791 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
793 \relative { c2 e4 g2 e4 }
794 \addlyrics { gran- de_a- mi- go }
795 \addlyrics { pu- "ro y ho-" nes- to }
798 To enter lyrics with characters from non-English languages, or with
799 non-ascii characters (such as the heart symbol or slanted quotes),
800 simply insert the characters directly into the input file and save
801 it with utf-8 encoding. See @ref{Text encoding} for more info.
804 \lyricmode @{ He said: “Let my peo ple go”. @}
807 To use normal quotes in lyrics, add a backslash before the
810 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
811 \relative c' { \time 3/4 e4 e4. e8 d4 e d c2. }
812 \addlyrics { "\"I" am so lone- "ly\"" said she }
815 The full definition of a word start in Lyrics mode is somewhat more
818 A word in Lyrics mode begins with: an alphabetic character, @code{_},
819 @code{?}, @code{!}, @code{:}, @code{'}, the control characters @code{^A}
820 through @code{^F}, @code{^Q} through @code{^W}, @code{^Y}, @code{^^},
821 any 8-bit character with ASCII code over 127, or a two-character
822 combination of a backslash followed by one of @code{`}, @code{'},
823 @code{"}, or @code{^}.
828 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricText}, @internalsref{LyricSpace}.
832 @node Hyphens and extenders
833 @subsection Hyphens and extenders
837 Centered hyphens are entered as `@code{--}' between syllables.
838 The hyphen will have variable length depending on the space between
839 the syllables and it will be centered between the syllables.
844 When a lyric is sung over many notes (this is called a melisma), this is
845 indicated with a horizontal line centered between a syllable and the
846 next one. Such a line is called an extender line, and it is entered as
849 In tighly engraved music, hyphens can be removed. Whether this
850 happens can be controlled with the @code{minimum-distance} (minimum
851 distance between two syllables) and the @code{minimum-length}
852 (threshold below which hyphens are removed).
856 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricHyphen}, @internalsref{LyricExtender}.
860 @node The Lyrics context
861 @subsection The Lyrics context
863 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the context caleld @internalsref{Lyrics}.
866 \new Lyrics \lyricmode @dots{}
869 @cindex automatic syllable durations
870 @cindex @code{\lyricsto}
871 @cindex lyrics and melodies
873 This will place the lyrics according to the durations that were
874 entered. The lyrics can also be aligned under a given melody
875 automatically. In this case, it is no longer necessary to enter the
876 correct duration for each syllable. This is achieved by combining the
877 melody and the lyrics with the @code{\lyricsto} expression
880 \new Lyrics \lyricsto @var{name} @dots{}
883 This aligns the lyrics to the
884 notes of the @internalsref{Voice} context called @var{name}, which has
885 to exist. Therefore, normally the @code{Voice} is specified first, and
886 then the lyrics are specified with @code{\lyricsto}. The command
887 @code{\lyricsto} switches to @code{\lyricmode} mode automatically, so the
888 @code{\lyricmode} keyword may be omitted.
890 The following example uses different commands for entering lyrics.
892 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
894 \new Voice = "one" \relative c'' {
897 c4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2
899 \new Lyrics \lyricmode { Joy4 to8. the16 world!4. the8 Lord4 is come.2 }
900 \new Lyrics \lyricmode { Joy to the earth! the Sav -- our reigns. }
901 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" { No more let sins and sor -- rows grow. }
905 The second stanza is not properly aligned because the durations
906 were not specified. A solution for that would be to use @code{\lyricsto}.
908 To define indentifiers containing lyrics, the function @code{lyricmode}
912 verseOne = \lyricmode @{ Joy to the world the Lord is come @}
915 \new Voice = "one" \relative c'' @{
918 c4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2
920 \addlyrics @{ \verseOne @}
925 The @code{\addlyrics} command is actually just a convenient way
926 to write a more complicated LilyPond structure that sets up the
931 \addlyrics @{ LYRICS @}
938 \new Voice = "blah" @{ music @}
939 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "blah" @{ LYRICS @}
942 For different or more complex orderings, the best way is to setup the
943 hierarchy of staves and lyrics first, e.g.,
946 \new Voice = "soprano" @{ @emph{music} @}
947 \new Lyrics = "sopranoLyrics" @{ s1 @}
948 \new Lyrics = "tenorLyrics" @{ s1 @}
949 \new Voice = "tenor" @{ @emph{music} @}
953 and then combine the appropriate melodies and lyric lines
956 \context Lyrics = sopranoLyrics \lyricsto "soprano"
961 The final input would resemble
964 <<\new ChoirStaff << @emph{setup the music} >>
965 \lyricsto "soprano" @emph{etc}
966 \lyricsto "alto" @emph{etc}
973 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricCombineMusic},
974 @internalsref{Lyrics}.
978 @subsection Melismata
980 The @code{\lyricsto} command detects melismata: it only puts one
981 syllable under a tied or slurred group of notes. If you want to force
982 an unslurred group of notes to be a melisma, insert @code{\melisma}
983 after the first note of the group, and @code{\melismaEnd} after the
986 @lilypond[quote,relative=2,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
988 \new Voice = "lala" {
996 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lala" {
1002 In addition, notes are considered a melisma if they are manually
1003 beamed, and automatic beaming (see @ref{Setting automatic beam
1004 behavior}) is switched off.
1007 @cindex choral score
1009 A complete example of a SATB score setup is in section
1010 @ref{Vocal ensembles}.
1015 @code{\melisma}, @code{\melismaEnd}
1016 @cindex @code{\melismaEnd}
1017 @cindex @code{\melisma}
1021 Program reference: @internalsref{Melisma_translator}.
1024 @inputfileref{input/@/regression,lyric@/-combine@/-new@/.ly}.
1028 Melismata are not detected automatically, and extender lines must be
1032 @node Another way of entering lyrics
1033 @subsection Another way of entering lyrics
1035 Lyrics can also be entered without @code{\lyricsto}. In this case the
1036 duration of each syllable must be entered explicitly, for example,
1043 The alignment to a melody can be specified with the
1044 @code{associatedVoice} property,
1047 \set associatedVoice = #"lala"
1051 The value of the property (here: @code{"lala"}) should be the name of
1052 a @internalsref{Voice} context. Without this setting, extender lines
1053 will not be formatted properly.
1055 Here is an example demonstrating manual lyric durations,
1057 @lilypond[relative=1,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment,quote]
1058 << \new Voice = "melody" {
1062 \new Lyrics \lyricmode {
1063 \set associatedVoice = #"melody"
1069 @c TODO: document \new Staff << Voice \lyricsto >> bug
1071 @node Flexibility in placement
1072 @subsection Flexibility in placement
1074 Often, different stanzas of one song are put to one melody in slightly
1075 differing ways. Such variations can still be captured with
1079 * Lyrics to multiple notes of a melisma::
1081 * Switching the melody associated with a lyrics line::
1082 * Specifying melismata within the lyrics::
1085 @node Lyrics to multiple notes of a melisma
1086 @subsubsection Lyrics to multiple notes of a melisma
1089 One possibility is that the text has a melisma in one stanza, but
1090 multiple syllables in another one. One solution is to make the faster
1091 voice ignore the melisma. This is done by setting
1092 @code{ignoreMelismata} in the Lyrics context.
1094 There is one tricky aspect: the setting for @code{ignoreMelismata}
1095 must be set one syllable @emph{before} the non-melismatic syllable
1096 in the text, as shown here,
1098 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1100 \relative \new Voice = "lahlah" {
1101 \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
1107 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1110 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1111 \set ignoreMelismata = ##t % applies to "fas"
1113 \unset ignoreMelismata
1120 The @code{ignoreMelismata} applies to the syllable ``fas'', so it
1121 should be entered before ``go''.
1123 The reverse is also possible: making a lyric line slower than the
1124 standard. This can be achieved by insert @code{\skip}s into the
1125 lyrics. For every @code{\skip}, the text will be delayed another note.
1128 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1129 \relative { c c g' }
1138 @subsubsection Divisi lyrics
1140 You can display alternate (or divisi) lyrics by naming voice
1141 contexts and attaching lyrics to those specific contexts.
1143 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1145 \new Voice = "melody" {
1150 \new Voice = "splitpart" { \voiceTwo c4 }
1155 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" { we shall not o- ver- come }
1156 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "splitpart" { will }
1161 You can use this trick to display different lyrics for a repeated
1164 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1166 \new Voice = "melody" \relative c' {
1168 \new Voice = "verse" \repeat volta 2 {c4 d e f | g1 | }
1170 \new Lyrics = "mainlyrics" \lyricsto melody \lyricmode {
1173 \context Lyrics = "mainlyrics" \lyricsto verse \lyricmode {
1175 \new Lyrics = "repeatlyrics" \lyricsto verse \lyricmode {
1176 dodo rere mimi fafa solsol }
1183 @node Switching the melody associated with a lyrics line
1184 @subsubsection Switching the melody associated with a lyrics line
1186 More complex variations in text underlay are possible. It is possible
1187 to switch the melody for a line of lyrics during the text. This is
1188 done by setting the @code{associatedVoice} property. In the example
1190 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
1192 \relative \new Voice = "lahlah" {
1193 \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
1196 \new Voice = "alternative" {
1199 % show associations clearly.
1200 \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #-3
1211 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1212 Ju -- ras -- sic Park
1214 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
1215 % Tricky: need to set associatedVoice
1216 % one syllable too soon!
1217 \set associatedVoice = alternative % applies to "ran"
1221 \set associatedVoice = lahlah % applies to "rus"
1227 the text for the first stanza is set to a melody called ``lahlah'',
1230 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" @{
1231 Ju -- ras -- sic Park
1236 The second stanza initially is set to the @code{lahlah} context, but
1237 for the syllable ``ran'', it switches to a different melody.
1238 This is achieved with
1240 \set associatedVoice = alternative
1244 Here, @code{alternative} is the name of the @code{Voice} context
1245 containing the triplet.
1247 Again, the command must be one syllable too early, before ``Ty'' in
1251 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" @{
1252 \set associatedVoice = alternative % applies to "ran"
1256 \set associatedVoice = lahlah % applies to "rus"
1262 The underlay is switched back to the starting situation by assigning
1263 @code{lahlah} to @code{associatedVoice}.
1266 @node Specifying melismata within the lyrics
1267 @subsubsection Specifying melismata within the lyrics
1269 It is also possible to define melismata entirely in the lyrics. This
1270 can be done by entering @code{_} for every note that is part of the
1273 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,fragment]
1274 { \set melismaBusyProperties = #'()
1275 c d( e) f f( e) e e }
1277 { Ky -- _ _ ri __ _ _ _ e }
1280 In this case, you can also have ties and slurs in the melody, if you
1281 set @code{melismaBusyProperties}, as is done in the example above.
1283 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,fragment]
1285 \set melismaBusyProperties = #'()
1289 { Ky -- _ _ ri __ _ _ _ e }
1293 @node Spacing lyrics
1294 @subsection Spacing lyrics
1296 @cindex Spacing lyrics
1297 @cindex Lyrics, increasing space between
1299 To increase the spacing between lyrics, set the minimum-distance property of
1302 @lilypond[relative,verbatim,fragment,quote,ragged-right]
1305 \override Lyrics.LyricSpace #'minimum-distance = #1.0
1309 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1310 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1314 To make this change for all lyrics in the score, set the property in the layout.
1316 @lilypond[relative,verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
1323 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1324 longtext longtext longtext longtext
1329 \override LyricSpace #'minimum-distance = #1.0
1336 @node More about stanzas
1337 @subsection More about stanzas
1339 @cindex phrasing, in lyrics
1342 @cindex stanza number
1343 @cindex singer's names
1344 @cindex name of singer
1346 Stanza numbers can be added by setting @code{stanza}, e.g.,
1348 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1350 \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2.
1353 Hi, my name is Bert.
1356 Oh, che -- ri, je t'aime
1360 These numbers are put just before the start of first syllable.
1362 Sometimes it is appropriate to have one stanza set
1363 to the music, and the rest added in verse form at
1364 the end of the piece. This can be accomplished by adding
1365 the extra verses into a @code{\markup} section outside
1366 of the main score block. Notice that there are two
1367 different ways to force linebreaks when using
1370 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote]
1371 melody = \relative c' {
1377 \set stanza = "1." Ma- ry had a lit- tle lamb,
1378 its fleece was white as snow.
1383 \new Voice = "one" { \melody }
1384 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text
1390 \line{ All the children laughed and played }
1391 \line{ To see a lamb at school. }
1398 Mary took it home again,
1400 It was against the rule."
1406 Names of singers can also be added. They are printed at the start of
1407 the line, just like instrument names. They are created by setting
1408 @code{vocalName}. A short version may be entered as @code{vocNam}.
1411 @lilypond[fragment,ragged-right,quote,verbatim,relative=2]
1413 \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2.
1415 \set vocalName = "Bert "
1416 Hi, my name is Bert.
1418 \set vocalName = "Ernie "
1419 Oh, che -- ri, je t'aime
1426 Program reference: @internalsref{LyricText}, @internalsref{StanzaNumber}, @internalsref{VocalName}.
1434 The term @emph{ambitus} denotes a range of pitches for a given voice
1435 in a part of music. It may also denote the pitch range that a musical
1436 instrument is capable of playing. Ambits are printed on vocal parts,
1437 so performers can easily determine it meets their capabilities.
1439 Ambits are denoted at the beginning of a piece near the initial clef.
1440 The range is graphically specified by two note heads that represent the
1441 minimum and maximum pitch. To print such ambits, add the
1442 @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the @internalsref{Voice} context,
1449 \consists Ambitus_engraver
1454 This results in the following output
1456 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1460 \consists Ambitus_engraver
1464 \relative \new Staff {
1469 If you have multiple voices in a single staff and you want a single
1470 ambitus per staff rather than per each voice, add the
1471 @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the @internalsref{Staff} context
1472 rather than to the @internalsref{Voice} context. Here is an example,
1474 @lilypond[verbatim,ragged-right,quote]
1476 \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
1480 \remove "Ambitus_engraver"
1482 \override Ambitus #'X-offset = #-1.0
1487 \remove "Ambitus_engraver"
1496 This example uses one advanced feature,
1499 \override Ambitus #'X-offset = #-1.0
1503 This code moves the ambitus to the left. The same effect could have
1504 been achieved with @code{extra-offset}, but then the formatting system
1505 would not reserve space for the moved object.
1509 Program reference: @internalsref{Ambitus},
1510 @internalsref{AmbitusLine}, @internalsref{AmbitusNoteHead},
1511 @internalsref{AmbitusAccidental}.
1513 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,ambitus@/.ly}.
1517 There is no collision handling in the case of multiple per-voice
1521 @node Other vocal issues
1522 @subsection Other vocal issues
1525 yeah, I'm giving up somewhat by stuffing a bunch of things in
1526 here. But at least they're in the manual now; it's easier to
1527 move them around in the manual once they're already here.
1529 Besides, if users complain about everything stuffed in here, I
1530 can ask them for specific instructions about where to move these
1531 examples, and that might get them more involved in the docs. -gp
1534 ``Parlato'' is spoken without pitch but still with rhythm; it is
1535 notated by cross noteheads. This is demonstrated in
1536 @ref{Special noteheads}.
1542 @node Rhythmic music
1543 @section Rhythmic music
1545 Rhythmic music is primarily used for percussion and drum notation, but it can
1546 also be used to show the rhythms of melodies.
1549 * Showing melody rhythms::
1550 * Entering percussion::
1551 * Percussion staves::
1555 @node Showing melody rhythms
1556 @subsection Showing melody rhythms
1558 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This
1559 can be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a
1560 staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single line
1562 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
1563 \new RhythmicStaff {
1565 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
1571 Program reference: @internalsref{RhythmicStaff}.
1573 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,rhythmic@/-staff@/.ly}.
1576 @node Entering percussion
1577 @subsection Entering percussion
1583 Percussion notes may be entered in @code{\drummode} mode, which is
1584 similar to the standard mode for entering notes. Each piece of
1585 percussion has a full name and an abbreviated name, and both can be used
1588 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1590 hihat hh bassdrum bd
1594 The complete list of drum names is in the init file
1595 @file{ly/@/drumpitch@/-init@/.ly}.
1596 @c TODO: properly document this.
1600 Program reference: @internalsref{note-event}.
1602 @node Percussion staves
1603 @subsection Percussion staves
1607 A percussion part for more than one instrument typically uses a
1608 multiline staff where each position in the staff refers to one piece
1612 To typeset the music, the notes must be interpreted in a
1613 @internalsref{DrumStaff} and @internalsref{DrumVoice} contexts
1615 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1616 up = \drummode { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
1617 down = \drummode { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
1619 \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
1620 \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
1624 The above example shows verbose polyphonic notation. The short
1625 polyphonic notation, described in @ref{Polyphony}, can also be used if
1626 the @internalsref{DrumVoice}s are instantiated by hand first. For example,
1628 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
1630 \new DrumVoice = "1" { s1 *2 }
1631 \new DrumVoice = "2" { s1 *2 }
1635 { \repeat unfold 16 hh16 }
1644 There are also other layout possibilities. To use these, set the
1645 property @code{drumStyleTable} in context @internalsref{DrumVoice}.
1646 The following variables have been predefined
1650 This is the default. It typesets a typical drum kit on a five-line staff
1652 @lilypond[quote,line-width=10.0\cm]
1654 cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp
1655 cb hc bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
1657 cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp \break
1658 cb hc bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
1660 << \new DrumStaff \with {
1661 \remove Bar_engraver
1662 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1663 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1664 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1665 \override VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
1672 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1673 \override BarNumber #'transparent =##T
1679 The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there are fewer toms,
1680 simply select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e., to get toms
1681 on the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml}, and
1684 @item timbales-style
1685 This typesets timbales on a two line staff
1687 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1688 nam = \lyricmode { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
1689 mus = \drummode { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
1692 \new DrumStaff \with {
1693 \remove Bar_engraver
1694 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1695 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1696 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1697 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #2
1698 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #2
1699 \override VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
1700 drumStyleTable = #timbales-style
1703 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1710 This typesets congas on a two line staff
1712 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1713 nam = \lyricmode { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
1714 mus = \drummode { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
1717 \new DrumStaff \with {
1718 \remove Bar_engraver
1719 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1720 drumStyleTable = #congas-style
1721 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #2
1723 %% this sucks; it will lengthen stems.
1724 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #2
1725 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1726 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1729 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1736 This typesets bongos on a two line staff
1738 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1739 nam = \lyricmode { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
1740 mus = \drummode { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
1743 \new DrumStaff \with {
1744 \remove Bar_engraver
1745 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1746 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #2
1747 drumStyleTable = #bongos-style
1749 %% this sucks; it will lengthen stems.
1750 \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #2
1751 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1752 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1755 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1761 @item percussion-style
1762 To typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves.
1764 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1765 nam = \lyricmode { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
1766 mus = \drummode { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
1769 \new DrumStaff \with{
1770 \remove Bar_engraver
1771 drumStyleTable = #percussion-style
1772 \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #1
1773 \remove Time_signature_engraver
1774 \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
1775 \override Stem #'Y-extent-callback = ##f
1778 \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter
1785 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
1786 list at the top of your file
1788 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1790 (bassdrum default #f -1)
1791 (snare default #f 0)
1793 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" 2)
1794 (lowtom diamond #f 3)))
1795 up = \drummode { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
1796 down = \drummode { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
1799 \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums)
1800 \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
1801 \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
1808 Init files: @file{ly/@/drumpitch@/-init@/.ly}.
1810 Program reference: @internalsref{DrumStaff}, @internalsref{DrumVoice}.
1814 Because general MIDI does not contain rim shots, the sidestick is used
1815 for this purpose instead.
1823 @cindex guitar tablature
1826 * String number indications::
1827 * Tablatures basic::
1828 * Non-guitar tablatures::
1829 * Banjo tablatures::
1831 * Other guitar issues::
1834 @node String number indications
1835 @subsection String number indications
1837 @cindex String numbers
1839 String numbers can be added to chords, by indicating the string number
1840 with @code{\}@var{number},
1842 @lilypond[relative,relative=1,ragged-right,fragment]
1846 See also @inputfileref{input/regression,string-number.ly}.
1851 Program reference: @internalsref{StringNumber}.
1854 @node Tablatures basic
1855 @subsection Tablatures basic
1856 @cindex Tablatures basic
1858 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
1859 instruments. Pitches are not denoted with note heads, but by
1860 numbers indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
1861 offers limited support for tablature.
1863 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
1864 followed by a number, e.g., @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
1865 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
1866 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
1867 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
1868 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts
1870 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
1877 @cindex @code{minimumFret}
1880 When no string is specified, the first string that does not give a
1881 fret number less than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default
1882 value for @code{minimumFret} is 0
1887 \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
1890 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
1894 \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
1898 \new Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
1899 \new TabStaff { \frag }
1906 To print tablatures with stems down and horizontal beams,
1907 initialize the @code{TabStaff} with this code:
1911 \override Beam #'damping = #100000
1916 Program reference: @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}.
1920 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
1921 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
1925 @node Non-guitar tablatures
1926 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
1927 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
1929 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
1930 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
1931 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to middle C) of an
1932 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
1933 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
1934 by default middle C, in string order. LilyPond automatically calculates
1935 the number of strings by looking at @code{stringTuning}.
1937 In the next example,
1938 @code{stringTunings} is set for the pitches e, a, d, and g
1940 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
1942 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
1944 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
1949 LilyPond comes with predefined string tunings for banjo, mandolin, guitar
1953 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #bass-tuning
1956 The default string tuning is @code{guitar-tuning} (the standard EADGBE tuning).
1957 Some other predefined tunings are @code{guitar-open-g-tuning},
1958 @code{mandolin-tuning} and @code{banjo-open-g-tuning}.
1962 The file @file{scm/@/output@/-lib@/.scm} contains the predefined string tunings.
1963 Program reference: @internalsref{Tab_note_heads_engraver}.
1967 No guitar special effects have been implemented.
1971 @node Banjo tablatures
1972 @subsection Banjo tablatures
1973 @cindex Banjo tablatures
1975 LilyPond has basic support for five stringed banjo. When making tablatures
1976 for five stringed banjo, use the banjo tablature format function to get correct
1977 fret numbers for the fifth string:
1979 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim]
1981 \set TabStaff.tablatureFormat = #fret-number-tablature-format-banjo
1982 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #banjo-open-g-tuning
1985 g8 d' g'\5 a b g e d' |
1986 g4 d''8\5 b' a'\2 g'\5 e'\2 d' |
1992 A number of common tunings for banjo are predefined in LilyPond:
1993 @code{banjo-c-tuning} (gCGBD), @code{banjo-modal-tuning} (gDGCD),
1994 @code{banjo-open-d-tuning} (aDF#AD) and @code{banjo-open-dm-tuning}
1997 These tunings may be converted to four string banjo tunings using the
1998 @code{four-string-banjo} function:
2001 \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #(four-string-banjo banjo-c-tuning)
2006 The file @file{scm/@/output@/-lib@/.scm} contains predefined banjo tunings.
2010 @subsection Fret diagrams
2011 @cindex fret diagrams
2012 @cindex chord diagrams
2014 Fret diagrams can be added to music as a markup to the desired note. The
2015 markup contains information about the desired fret diagram, as shown in the
2018 @lilypond[verbatim, ragged-right, quote]
2020 d'^\markup \fret-diagram #"6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2;2-3;1-2;"
2022 fis'^\markup \override #'(size . 0.75) {
2023 \override #'(finger-code . below-string) {
2024 \fret-diagram-verbose #'((place-fret 6 2 1) (barre 6 1 2)
2025 (place-fret 5 4 3) (place-fret 4 4 4)
2026 (place-fret 3 3 2) (place-fret 2 2 1)
2031 c'^\markup \override #'(dot-radius . 0.35) {
2032 \override #'(finger-code . in-dot) {
2033 \override #'(dot-color . white) {
2034 \fret-diagram-terse #"x;3-1-(;5-2;5-3;5-4;3-1-);"
2043 There are three different fret-diagram markup interfaces: standard, terse,
2044 and verbose. The three interfaces produce equivalent markups, but have
2045 varying amounts of information in the markup string. Details about the
2046 markup interfaces are found at @ref{Overview of text markup commands}.
2048 You can set a number of graphical properties according to your preference.
2049 Details about the property interface to fret diagrams are found at
2050 @internalsref{fret-diagram-interface}.
2055 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/test,fret@/-diagram@/.ly}
2058 @node Other guitar issues
2059 @subsection Other guitar issues
2061 This example demonstrates how to include guitar position and
2062 barring indications.
2064 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment,verbatim,relative=0]
2068 \override TextSpanner #'edge-text = #'("XII " . "")
2070 b16 e16 g16 e16 b16 g16\stopTextSpan
2075 Stopped (X) note heads are used in guitar music to signal a place where the
2076 guitarist must play a certain note or chord, with its fingers just
2077 touching the strings instead of fully pressing them. This gives the sound a
2078 percussive noise-like sound that still maintains part of the original
2079 pitch. It is notated with cross noteheads; this is
2080 demonstrated in @ref{Special noteheads}.
2089 * Bagpipe definitions::
2094 @node Bagpipe definitions
2095 @subsection Bagpipe definitions
2097 LilyPond contains special definitions for music for the Scottish
2098 highland bagpipe; to use them, add
2101 \include "bagpipe.ly"
2105 at the top of your input file. This lets you add the special gracenotes
2106 common to bagpipe music with short commands. For example, you could
2107 write @code{\taor} instead of
2110 \grace @{ \small G32[ d G e] @}
2113 @code{bagpipe.ly} also contains pitch definitions for the bagpipe
2114 notes in the appropiate octaves, so you do not need to worry about
2115 @code{\relative} or @code{\transpose}.
2117 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote,notime]
2118 \include "bagpipe.ly"
2119 { \grg G4 \grg a \grg b \grg c \grg d \grg e \grg f \grA g A }
2122 Bagpipe music nominally uses the key of D Major (even though that
2123 isn't really true). However, since that is the only key that can be used,
2124 the key signature is normally not written out. To set this up correctly,
2125 always start your music with @code{\hideKeySignature}. If you for some
2126 reason want to show the key signature, you can use @code{\showKeySignature}
2129 Some modern music use cross fingering on c and f to flatten those notes.
2130 This can be indicated by @code{cflat} or @code{fflat}. Similarly, the
2131 piobaireachd high g can be written @code{gflat} when it occurs in light
2135 @node Bagpipe example
2136 @subsection Bagpipe example
2138 This is what the well known tune Amazing Grace looks like in bagpipe
2141 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
2142 \include "bagpipe.ly"
2145 \context { \Score \remove "Bar_number_engraver" }
2149 title = "Amazing Grace"
2151 arranger = "Trad. arr."
2157 \grg \partial 4 a8. d16
2158 \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
2161 \grG a2 \grg a8. d16
2162 \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
2163 \grg f2 \grg e8. f16
2166 \grg A2 \hdblf f8[ e32 d16.]
2169 \grG a2 \grg a8. d16
2170 \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
2179 @node Ancient notation
2180 @section Ancient notation
2182 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
2183 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
2188 Support for ancient notation includes features for mensural notation
2189 and Gregorian Chant notation. There is also limited support for
2190 figured bass notation.
2192 Many graphical objects provide a @code{style} property, see
2195 @ref{Ancient note heads},
2197 @ref{Ancient accidentals},
2199 @ref{Ancient rests},
2201 @ref{Ancient clefs},
2203 @ref{Ancient flags},
2205 @ref{Ancient time signatures}.
2208 By manipulating such a grob property, the typographical appearance of
2209 the affected graphical objects can be accommodated for a specific
2210 notation flavor without the need for introducing any new notational
2213 In addition to the standard articulation signs described in section
2214 @ref{Articulations}, specific articulation signs for ancient notation
2219 @ref{Ancient articulations}
2222 Other aspects of ancient notation can not that easily be expressed
2223 in terms of just changing a style property of a graphical object or
2224 adding articulation signs. Some notational concepts are introduced
2225 specifically for ancient notation,
2236 If this all is too much of documentation for you, and you just want to
2237 dive into typesetting without worrying too much about the details on
2238 how to customize a context, you may have a look at the predefined
2239 contexts. Use them to set up predefined style-specific voice and
2240 staff contexts, and directly go ahead with the note entry,
2244 @ref{Gregorian Chant contexts},
2246 @ref{Mensural contexts}.
2249 There is limited support for figured bass notation which came
2250 up during the baroque period.
2257 Here are all suptopics at a glance:
2260 * Ancient note heads::
2261 * Ancient accidentals::
2265 * Ancient time signatures::
2266 * Ancient articulations::
2270 * Gregorian Chant contexts::
2271 * Mensural contexts::
2272 * Musica ficta accidentals::
2278 @node Ancient note heads
2279 @subsection Ancient note heads
2284 For ancient notation, a note head style other than the @code{default}
2285 style may be chosen. This is accomplished by setting the @code{style}
2286 property of the @internalsref{NoteHead} object to @code{baroque},
2287 @code{neomensural}, @code{mensural} or @code{petrucci}. The
2288 @code{baroque} style differs from the @code{default} style only in
2289 using a square shape for @code{\breve} note heads. The
2290 @code{neomensural} style differs from the @code{baroque} style in that
2291 it uses rhomboidal heads for whole notes and all smaller durations.
2292 Stems are centered on the note heads. This style is particularly
2293 useful when transcribing mensural music, e.g., for the incipit. The
2294 @code{mensural} style produces note heads that mimic the look of note
2295 heads in historic printings of the 16th century. Finally, the
2296 @code{petrucci} style also mimicks historic printings, but uses bigger
2299 The following example demonstrates the @code{neomensural} style
2301 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
2302 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
2303 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
2304 a'\longa a'\breve a'1 a'2 a'4 a'8 a'16
2307 When typesetting a piece in Gregorian Chant notation, the
2308 @internalsref{Gregorian_ligature_engraver} will automatically select
2309 the proper note heads, so there is no need to explicitly set the
2310 note head style. Still, the note head style can be set, e.g., to
2311 @code{vaticana_punctum} to produce punctum neumes. Similarly, a
2312 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} is used to automatically
2313 assemble mensural ligatures. See @ref{Ligatures} for how ligature
2318 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,note@/-head@/-style@/.ly} gives an
2319 overview over all available note head styles.
2322 @node Ancient accidentals
2323 @subsection Ancient accidentals
2328 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{Accidental} to
2329 select ancient accidentals. Supported styles are
2330 @code{mensural}, @code{vaticana}, @code{hufnagel}, and @code{medicaea}.
2332 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,staffsize=26]
2339 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.vaticana-1"
2340 " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.vaticana0" }
2344 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.medicaea-1" }
2348 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.hufnagel-1" }
2352 \line { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.mensural-1"
2353 " " \musicglyph #"accidentals.mensural1" }
2359 \context { \Score \remove "Bar_number_engraver" }
2361 \remove "Clef_engraver"
2362 \remove "Key_engraver"
2363 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
2364 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
2365 \override VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = ##f
2371 As shown, not all accidentals are supported by each style. When
2372 trying to access an unsupported accidental, LilyPond will switch to a
2373 different style, as demonstrated in
2374 @inputfileref{input/@/test,ancient@/-accidentals@/.ly}.
2376 Similarly to local accidentals, the style of the key signature can be
2377 controlled by the @code{style} property of the
2378 @internalsref{KeySignature} grob.
2382 In this manual: @ref{Pitches}, @ref{Cautionary accidentals} and
2383 @ref{Automatic accidentals} give a general introduction of the use of
2384 accidentals. @ref{Key signature} gives a general introduction of
2385 the use of key signatures.
2387 Program reference: @internalsref{KeySignature}.
2389 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/test,ancient@/-accidentals@/.ly}.
2392 @subsection Ancient rests
2394 @cindex rests, ancient
2397 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{Rest} to select
2398 ancient rests. Supported styles are @code{classical},
2399 @code{neomensural}, and @code{mensural}. @code{classical} differs
2400 from the @code{default} style only in that the quarter rest looks like
2401 a horizontally mirrored 8th rest. The @code{neomensural} style suits
2402 well for, e.g., the incipit of a transcribed mensural piece of music.
2403 The @code{mensural} style finally mimics the appearance of rests as
2404 in historic prints of the 16th century.
2406 The following example demonstrates the @code{neomensural} style
2408 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
2409 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
2410 \override Rest #'style = #'neomensural
2411 r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16
2414 There are no 32th and 64th rests specifically for the mensural or
2415 neo-mensural style. Instead, the rests from the default style will be
2416 taken. See @inputfileref{input/@/test,rests@/.ly} for a chart of all
2419 There are no rests in Gregorian Chant notation; instead, it uses
2424 In this manual: @ref{Rests} gives a general introduction into the use of rests.
2428 @subsection Ancient clefs
2433 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
2435 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
2436 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but
2437 differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such
2438 cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs.
2439 Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an
2440 arbitrary line, as described in @ref{Clef}. The note printed to the
2441 right side of each clef in the example column denotes the @code{c'}
2442 with respect to that clef.
2444 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .4 .2
2453 modern style mensural C clef
2455 @code{neomensural-c1}, @code{neomensural-c2},@*
2456 @code{neomensural-c3}, @code{neomensural-c4}
2458 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2459 \clef "neomensural-c2" c
2463 petrucci style mensural C clefs, for use on different staff lines
2464 (the examples show the 2nd staff line C clef)
2466 @code{petrucci-c1}, @code{petrucci-c2},@*
2467 @code{petrucci-c3}, @code{petrucci-c4},@*
2470 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2472 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2477 petrucci style mensural F clef
2481 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2483 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2488 petrucci style mensural G clef
2492 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2494 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2499 historic style mensural C clef
2501 @code{mensural-c1}, @code{mensural-c2},@*
2502 @code{mensural-c3}, @code{mensural-c4}
2504 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2506 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2511 historic style mensural F clef
2515 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2517 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2522 historic style mensural G clef
2526 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2528 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2533 Editio Vaticana style do clef
2535 @code{vaticana-do1}, @code{vaticana-do2},@*
2538 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2539 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2540 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2541 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2542 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2543 \override NoteHead #'style = #'vaticana.punctum
2544 \clef "vaticana-do2"
2549 Editio Vaticana style fa clef
2551 @code{vaticana-fa1}, @code{vaticana-fa2}
2553 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2554 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2555 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2556 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2557 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2558 \override NoteHead #'style = #'vaticana.punctum
2559 \clef "vaticana-fa2"
2564 Editio Medicaea style do clef
2566 @code{medicaea-do1}, @code{medicaea-do2},@*
2569 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2570 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2571 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2572 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2573 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2574 \override NoteHead #'style = #'medicaea.punctum
2575 \clef "medicaea-do2"
2580 Editio Medicaea style fa clef
2582 @code{medicaea-fa1}, @code{medicaea-fa2}
2584 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2585 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2586 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2587 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2588 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2589 \override NoteHead #'style = #'medicaea.punctum
2590 \clef "medicaea-fa2"
2595 historic style hufnagel do clef
2597 @code{hufnagel-do1}, @code{hufnagel-do2},@*
2600 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2601 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2602 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2603 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2604 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2605 \override NoteHead #'style = #'hufnagel.punctum
2606 \clef "hufnagel-do2"
2611 historic style hufnagel fa clef
2613 @code{hufnagel-fa1}, @code{hufnagel-fa2}
2615 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2616 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #4
2617 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2618 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2619 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2620 \override NoteHead #'style = #'hufnagel.punctum
2621 \clef "hufnagel-fa2"
2626 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef
2628 @code{hufnagel-do-fa}
2630 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,notime]
2631 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2632 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2633 \override Voice.Stem #'transparent = ##t
2634 \override NoteHead #'style = #'hufnagel.punctum
2635 \clef "hufnagel-do-fa"
2642 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
2643 transcribed mensural music''.
2645 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
2646 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
2648 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
2649 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
2651 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
2653 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
2654 beams, depending on which staff line it is printed.
2658 In this manual: see @ref{Clef}.
2662 The mensural g clef is mapped to the Petrucci g clef.
2667 @subsection Ancient flags
2672 Use the @code{flag-style} property of grob @internalsref{Stem} to
2673 select ancient flags. Besides the @code{default} flag style,
2674 only the @code{mensural} style is supported
2676 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
2677 \override Stem #'flag-style = #'mensural
2678 \override Stem #'thickness = #1.0
2679 \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
2681 c'8 d'8 e'8 f'8 c'16 d'16 e'16 f'16 c'32 d'32 e'32 f'32 s8
2682 c''8 d''8 e''8 f''8 c''16 d''16 e''16 f''16 c''32 d''32 e''32 f''32
2685 Note that the innermost flare of each mensural flag always is
2686 vertically aligned with a staff line.
2688 There is no particular flag style for neo-mensural notation. Hence,
2689 when typesetting the incipit of a transcribed piece of mensural
2690 music, the default flag style should be used. There are no flags in
2691 Gregorian Chant notation.
2695 The attachment of ancient flags to stems is slightly off due to a
2696 change in early 2.3.x.
2698 Vertically aligning each flag with a staff line assumes that stems
2699 always end either exactly on or exactly in the middle between two
2700 staff lines. This may not always be true when using advanced layout
2701 features of classical notation (which however are typically out of
2702 scope for mensural notation).
2704 @node Ancient time signatures
2705 @subsection Ancient time signatures
2707 @cindex time signatures
2710 There is limited support for mensural time signatures. The
2711 glyphs are hard-wired to particular time fractions. In other words,
2712 to get a particular mensural signature glyph with the @code{\time n/m}
2713 command, @code{n} and @code{m} have to be chosen according to the
2716 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2721 \remove Staff_symbol_engraver
2722 \remove Clef_engraver
2723 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2727 \set Score.timing = ##f
2728 \set Score.barAlways = ##t
2729 s_\markup { "\\time 4/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural44" }
2731 s_\markup { "\\time 2/2" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural22" }
2733 s_\markup { "\\time 6/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural64" }
2735 s_\markup { "\\time 6/8" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural68" }
2737 s_\markup { "\\time 3/2" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural32" }
2739 s_\markup { "\\time 3/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural34" }
2741 s_\markup { "\\time 9/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural94" }
2743 s_\markup { "\\time 9/8" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural98" }
2745 s_\markup { "\\time 4/8" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural48" }
2747 s_\markup { "\\time 2/4" }^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural24" }
2751 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{TimeSignature} to
2752 select ancient time signatures. Supported styles are
2753 @code{neomensural} and @code{mensural}. The above table uses the
2754 @code{neomensural} style. This style is appropriate for the
2755 incipit of transcriptions of mensural pieces. The @code{mensural}
2756 style mimics the look of historical printings of the 16th century.
2758 The following examples show the differences in style,
2760 @lilypond[ragged-right,fragment,relative=1,quote]
2765 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter default }
2767 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'numbered
2769 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter numbered }
2771 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'mensural
2773 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter mensural }
2775 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
2777 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter neomensural }
2778 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'single-digit
2780 c1^\markup { \hspace #-2.0 \typewriter single-digit }
2786 This manual: @ref{Time signature} gives a general introduction to
2787 the use of time signatures.
2791 Ratios of note durations do not change with the time signature. For
2792 example, the ratio of 1 brevis = 3 semibrevis (tempus perfectum) must
2793 be made by hand, by setting
2796 breveTP = #(ly:make-duration -1 0 3 2)
2802 This sets @code{breveTP} to 3/2 times 2 = 3 times a whole note.
2804 The @code{old6/8alt} symbol (an alternate symbol for 6/8) is not
2805 addressable with @code{\time}. Use a @code{\markup} instead
2807 @node Ancient articulations
2808 @subsection Ancient articulations
2810 @cindex articulations
2812 In addition to the standard articulation signs described in section
2813 @ref{Articulations}, articulation signs for ancient notation are
2814 provided. These are specifically designed for use with notation in
2815 Editio Vaticana style.
2817 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
2818 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
2820 \new VaticanaVoice {
2821 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
2822 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
2823 \override TextScript #'font-family = #'typewriter
2824 \override TextScript #'font-shape = #'upright
2825 \override Script #'padding = #-0.1
2827 a4\circulus_"circulus" s1
2828 a4\semicirculus_"semicirculus" s1 s
2829 a4\accentus_"accentus" s1
2830 \[ a4_"episem" \episemInitium \pes b \flexa a \episemFinis \]
2837 Some articulations are vertically placed too closely to the
2838 correpsonding note heads.
2841 @subsection Custodes
2846 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; Latin word for `guard') is a
2847 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
2848 of the first note(s) of the following line thus helping the performer
2849 to manage line breaks during performance.
2851 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th
2852 century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms
2853 of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant
2854 like the @emph{editio vaticana}. There are different custos glyphs
2855 used in different flavors of notational style.
2857 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
2858 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\layout} block,
2859 as shown in the following example
2865 \consists Custos_engraver
2866 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
2871 The result looks like this
2873 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2877 \override Staff.Custos #'style = #'mensural
2882 \context { \Staff \consists Custos_engraver }
2887 The custos glyph is selected by the @code{style} property. The styles
2888 supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel}, and
2889 @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the following fragment
2891 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
2892 \new Lyrics \lyricmode {
2894 \typewriter "vaticana"
2895 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.vaticana.u0" }
2898 \typewriter "medicaea"
2899 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.medicaea.u0" }
2902 \typewriter "hufnagel"
2903 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.hufnagel.u0" }
2906 \typewriter "mensural"
2907 \line { " " \musicglyph #"custodes.mensural.u0" }
2914 Program reference: @internalsref{Custos}.
2916 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,custos@/.ly}.
2920 @subsection Divisiones
2926 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; Latin word for
2927 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
2928 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
2929 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior}, and @emph{divisio maxima}
2930 can be characterized as short, medium, and long pause, somewhat like
2931 the breathmarks from @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not
2932 only marks the end of a chant, but is also frequently used within a
2933 single antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
2936 To use divisiones, include the file @file{gregorian@/-init@/.ly}. It
2937 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
2938 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
2939 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
2940 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
2941 Therefore, @file{gregorian@/-init@/.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
2944 @lilypondfile[quote,ragged-right]{divisiones.ly}
2948 @cindex @code{\virgula}
2950 @cindex @code{\caesura}
2952 @cindex @code{\divisioMinima}
2953 @code{\divisioMinima},
2954 @cindex @code{\divisioMaior}
2955 @code{\divisioMaior},
2956 @cindex @code{\divisioMaxima}
2957 @code{\divisioMaxima},
2958 @cindex @code{\finalis}
2963 In this manual: @ref{Breath marks}.
2965 Program reference: @internalsref{BreathingSign}.
2967 Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/test,divisiones@/.ly}.
2970 @subsection Ligatures
2974 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
2975 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
2977 A ligature is a graphical symbol that represents at least two distinct
2978 notes. Ligatures originally appeared in the manuscripts of Gregorian
2979 chant notation to denote ascending or descending sequences of notes.
2981 Ligatures are entered by enclosing them in @code{\[} and @code{\]}.
2982 Some ligature styles may need additional input syntax specific for
2983 this particular type of ligature. By default, the
2984 @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a square bracket
2987 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
2995 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver
2996 has to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in
2997 the following subsections. Only white mensural ligatures
2998 are supported with certain limitations.
3004 Ligatures need special spacing that has not yet been implemented. As
3005 a result, there is too much space between ligatures most of the time,
3006 and line breaking often is unsatisfactory. Also, lyrics do not
3007 correctly align with ligatures.
3009 Accidentals must not be printed within a ligature, but instead need to
3010 be collected and printed in front of it.
3012 Augmentum dots within ligatures are not handled correctly.
3014 The syntax still uses the deprecated infix style @code{\[ music expr
3015 \]}. For consistency reasons, it will eventually be changed to
3016 postfix style @code{note\[ ... note\]}. Alternatively, the file
3017 @file{gregorian@/-init@/.ly} can be included; it provides a scheme
3020 \ligature @var{music expr}
3022 with the same effect and is believed to be stable.
3025 * White mensural ligatures::
3026 * Gregorian square neumes ligatures::
3029 @node White mensural ligatures
3030 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
3032 @cindex Mensural ligatures
3033 @cindex White mensural ligatures
3035 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures.
3037 To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the layout block put the
3038 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} into the
3039 @internalsref{Voice} context, and remove the
3040 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}, like this
3046 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
3047 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
3052 There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a
3053 white mensural ligature. The shape is rather determined solely from
3054 the pitch and duration of the enclosed notes. While this approach may
3055 take a new user a while to get accustomed to, it has the great advantage
3056 that the full musical information of the ligature is known internally.
3057 This is not only required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for
3058 automatic transcription of the ligatures.
3063 \set Score.timing = ##f
3064 \set Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
3065 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
3066 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
3070 \[ d\longa c\breve f e d \]
3072 \[ c'\maxima d'\longa \]
3076 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3079 \set Score.timing = ##f
3080 \set Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
3081 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
3082 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
3086 \[ d\longa c\breve f e d \]
3088 \[ c'\maxima d'\longa \]
3095 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
3096 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
3102 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
3103 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
3106 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3108 \set Score.timing = ##f
3109 \set Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
3110 \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
3111 \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
3115 \[ d\longa c\breve f e d \]
3117 \[ c'\maxima d'\longa \]
3125 The invisible rests (@code{s4}) in the example are used to compensate
3126 for the poor horizontal spacing.
3128 @node Gregorian square neumes ligatures
3129 @subsubsection Gregorian square neumes ligatures
3131 @cindex Square neumes ligatures
3132 @cindex Gregorian square neumes ligatures
3134 There is limited support for Gregorian square neumes notation
3135 (following the style of the Editio Vaticana). Core ligatures can
3136 already be typeset, but essential issues for serious typesetting are
3137 still lacking, such as (among others) horizontal alignment of multiple
3138 ligatures, lyrics alignment and proper handling of accidentals.
3141 The following table contains the extended neumes table of the 2nd
3142 volume of the Antiphonale Romanum (@emph{Liber Hymnarius}), published
3143 1983 by the monks of Solesmes.
3145 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .2 .2 .2
3162 @c TODO: \layout block is identical in all of the below examples.
3163 @c Therefore, it should somehow be included rather than duplicated all
3166 @c why not make identifiers in ly/engraver-init.ly? --hwn
3168 @c Because it's just used to typeset plain notes without
3169 @c a staff for demonstration purposes rather than something
3170 @c special of Gregorian chant notation. --jr
3175 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.5\cm]
3176 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3181 \noBreak s^\markup {"a"} \noBreak
3183 % Punctum Inclinatum
3185 \noBreak s^\markup {"b"}
3187 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3190 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=2.5\cm]
3191 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3194 % Punctum Auctum Ascendens
3195 \[ \auctum \ascendens b \]
3196 \noBreak s^\markup {"c"} \noBreak
3198 % Punctum Auctum Descendens
3199 \[ \auctum \descendens b \]
3200 \noBreak s^\markup {"d"} \noBreak
3202 % Punctum Inclinatum Auctum
3203 \[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]
3204 \noBreak s^\markup {"e"}
3206 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3209 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3210 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3213 % Punctum Inclinatum Parvum
3214 \[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]
3215 \noBreak s^\markup {"f"}
3217 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3223 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3224 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3229 \noBreak s^\markup {"g"}
3231 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3237 @code{3. Apostropha vel Stropha}
3239 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3240 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3245 \noBreak s^\markup {"h"}
3247 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3250 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3251 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3255 \[ \stropha \auctum b \]
3256 \noBreak s^\markup {"i"}
3258 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3265 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3266 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3271 \noBreak s^\markup {"j"}
3273 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3279 @code{5. Clivis vel Flexa}
3281 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3282 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3289 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3292 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=2.0\cm]
3293 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3296 % Clivis Aucta Descendens
3297 \[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
3298 \noBreak s^\markup {"l"} \noBreak
3300 % Clivis Aucta Ascendens
3301 \[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]
3302 \noBreak s^\markup {"m"}
3304 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3307 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3308 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3312 \[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]
3315 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3319 @code{6. Podatus vel Pes}
3321 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3322 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3329 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3332 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=2.0\cm]
3333 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3336 % Pes Auctus Descendens
3337 \[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3338 \noBreak s^\markup {"p"} \noBreak
3340 % Pes Auctus Ascendens
3341 \[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]
3342 \noBreak s^\markup {"q"}
3344 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3347 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3348 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3352 \[ g \pes \deminutum b \]
3355 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3359 @code{7. Pes Quassus}
3361 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3362 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3366 \[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]
3369 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3372 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3373 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3376 % Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens
3377 \[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3380 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3385 @code{8. Quilisma Pes}
3387 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3388 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3392 \[ \quilisma g \pes b \]
3395 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3398 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3399 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3402 % Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens
3403 \[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3406 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3411 @code{9. Podatus Initio Debilis}
3413 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3414 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3417 % Pes Initio Debilis
3418 \[ \deminutum g \pes b \]
3421 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3424 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3425 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3428 % Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
3429 \[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3432 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3439 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3440 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3444 \[ a \pes b \flexa g \]
3447 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3450 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3451 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3454 % Torculus Auctus Descendens
3455 \[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
3458 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3461 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3462 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3465 % Torculus Deminutus
3466 \[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
3469 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3473 @code{11. Torculus Initio Debilis}
3475 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3476 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3479 % Torculus Initio Debilis
3480 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]
3483 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3486 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3487 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3490 % Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
3491 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
3494 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3497 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3498 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3501 % Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis
3502 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
3505 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3509 @code{12. Porrectus}
3511 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3512 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3516 \[ a \flexa g \pes b \]
3519 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3522 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3523 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3526 % Porrectus Auctus Descendens
3527 \[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3530 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3533 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3534 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3537 % Porrectus Deminutus
3538 \[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]
3541 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3547 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3548 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3552 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]
3555 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }
3559 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3560 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3564 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]
3567 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3570 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3571 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3574 % Climacus Deminutus
3575 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]
3578 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3582 @code{14. Scandicus}
3584 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3585 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3589 \[ g \pes a \virga b \]
3592 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3595 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3596 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3599 % Scandicus Auctus Descendens
3600 \[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3603 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3606 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3607 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3610 % Scandicus Deminutus
3611 \[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]
3614 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3620 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3621 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3625 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]
3628 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3631 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3632 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3635 % Salicus Auctus Descendens
3636 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
3639 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }}
3646 @lilypond[staffsize=26,line-width=1.0\cm]
3647 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
3651 \[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]
3654 \layout { \neumeDemoLayout }
3663 Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the input language for
3664 neumes does not reflect the typographical appearance, but is designed
3665 to focus on musical meaning. For example, @code{\[ a \pes b
3666 \flexa g \]} produces a Torculus consisting of three Punctum heads,
3667 while @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]} produces a Porrectus with a
3668 curved flexa shape and only a single Punctum head. There is no
3669 command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa shape; the decision of
3670 when to typeset a curved flexa shape is based on the musical
3671 input. The idea of this approach is to separate the musical aspects
3672 of the input from the notation style of the output. This way, the
3673 same input can be reused to typeset the same music in a different
3674 style of Gregorian chant notation.
3676 The following table shows the code fragments that produce the
3677 ligatures in the above neumes table. The letter in the first column
3678 in each line of the below table indicates to which ligature in the
3679 above table it refers. The second column gives the name of the
3680 ligature. The third column shows the code fragment that produces this
3681 ligature, using @code{g}, @code{a}, and @code{b} as example pitches.
3683 @multitable @columnfractions .02 .31 .67
3703 @code{\[ \inclinatum b \]}
3711 @code{\[ \auctum \ascendens b \]}
3719 @code{\[ \auctum \descendens b \]}
3724 Punctum Inclinatum@*
3727 @code{\[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]}
3732 Punctum Inclinatum@*
3734 @code{\[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]}
3741 @code{\[ \virga b \]}
3748 @code{\[ \stropha b \]}
3755 @code{\[ \stropha \auctum b \]}
3762 @code{\[ \oriscus b \]}
3769 @code{\[ b \flexa g \]}
3777 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
3785 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]}
3792 @code{\[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
3799 @code{\[ g \pes b \]}
3807 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3815 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]}
3822 @code{\[ g \pes \deminutum b \]}
3829 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]}
3835 Auctus Descendens @tab
3836 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3843 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes b \]}
3851 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3858 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes b \]}
3863 Pes Auctus Descendens@*
3866 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3873 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]}
3881 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
3888 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
3893 Torculus Initio Debilis
3895 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]}
3901 Descendens Initio Debilis
3903 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
3908 Torculus Deminutus@*
3911 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
3918 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]}
3926 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3933 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]}
3940 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]}
3947 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]}
3954 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]}
3961 @code{\[ g \pes a \virga b \]}
3969 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3976 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]}
3983 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]}
3988 Salicus Auctus Descendens
3990 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
3997 @code{\[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]}
4000 The ligatures listed above mainly serve as a limited, but still
4001 representative pool of Gregorian ligature examples. Virtually, within
4002 the ligature delimiters @code{\[} and @code{\]}, any number of heads
4003 may be accumulated to form a single ligature, and head prefixes like
4004 @code{\pes}, @code{\flexa}, @code{\virga}, @code{\inclinatum},
4005 etc. may be mixed in as desired. The use of the set of rules that
4006 underlies the construction of the ligatures in the above table is
4007 accordingly extrapolated. This way, infinitely many different
4008 ligatures can be created.
4010 @c TODO: create a regression or tips & tricks example document with
4011 @c even more Gregorian ligatures, and add a link to this document
4016 The following head prefixes are supported
4018 @cindex @code{\virga}
4020 @cindex @code{\stropha}
4022 @cindex @code{\inclinatum}
4024 @cindex @code{\auctum}
4026 @cindex @code{\descendens}
4028 @cindex @code{\ascendens}
4030 @cindex @code{\oriscus}
4032 @cindex @code{\quilisma}
4034 @cindex @code{\deminutum}
4036 @cindex @code{\cavum}
4038 @cindex @code{\linea}
4041 Head prefixes can be accumulated, though restrictions apply. For
4042 example, either @code{\descendens} or @code{\ascendens} can be applied
4043 to a head, but not both to the same head.
4046 @cindex @code{\flexa}
4047 Two adjacent heads can be tied together with the @code{\pes} and
4048 @code{\flexa} infix commands for a rising and falling line of melody,
4053 @node Gregorian Chant contexts
4054 @subsection Gregorian Chant contexts
4056 @cindex VaticanaVoiceContext
4057 @cindex VaticanaStaffContext
4059 The predefined @code{VaticanaVoiceContext} and
4060 @code{VaticanaStaffContext} can be used to engrave a piece of
4061 Gregorian Chant in the style of the Editio Vaticana. These contexts
4062 initialize all relevant context properties and grob properties to
4063 proper values, so you can immediately go ahead entering the chant, as
4064 the following excerpt demonstrates
4066 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,packed,verbatim]
4067 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
4070 \new VaticanaVoice = "cantus" {
4071 \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
4072 \override Staff.LedgerLineSpanner #'color = #red
4073 \override Score.BarNumber #'transparent = ##t {
4074 \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \]
4075 \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \]
4077 \[ f\melisma \pes a c' c' \pes d'\melismaEnd \]
4078 c' \divisioMinima \break
4079 \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \]
4080 \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \] f \divisioMinima
4083 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "cantus" {
4084 San- ctus, San- ctus, San- ctus
4091 @node Mensural contexts
4092 @subsection Mensural contexts
4094 @cindex MensuralVoiceContext
4095 @cindex MensuralStaffContext
4097 The predefined @code{MensuralVoiceContext} and
4098 @code{MensuralStaffContext} can be used to engrave a piece in mensural
4099 style. These contexts initialize all relevant context properties and
4100 grob properties to proper values, so you can immediately go ahead
4101 entering the chant, as the following excerpt demonstrates
4103 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
4106 \new MensuralVoice = "discantus" \transpose c c' {
4107 \override Score.BarNumber #'transparent = ##t {
4108 c'1\melisma bes a g\melismaEnd
4110 \[ f1\melisma a c'\breve d'\melismaEnd \]
4112 c'\breve\melisma a1 g1\melismaEnd
4113 fis\longa^\signumcongruentiae
4116 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "discantus" {
4117 San -- ctus, San -- ctus, San -- ctus
4123 @node Musica ficta accidentals
4124 @subsection Musica ficta accidentals
4126 In European music from before about 1600, singers were often expected
4127 to chromatically alter notes at their own initiative. This is called
4128 ``Musica Ficta''. In modern transcriptions, these accidentals are
4129 usually printed over the note.
4131 @cindex Musica ficta
4133 Support for such suggested accidentals is included, and can be
4134 switched on by setting @code{suggestAccidentals} to true.
4136 @cindex @code{suggestAccidentals}
4138 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
4140 \set suggestAccidentals = ##t
4146 Program reference: @internalsref{Accidental_engraver} engraver and the
4147 @internalsref{AccidentalSuggestion} object.
4150 @subsection Figured bass
4152 @cindex Basso continuo
4154 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
4157 LilyPond has support for figured bass
4159 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim,fragment]
4161 \new Voice { \clef bass dis4 c d ais g fis}
4162 \new FiguredBass \figuremode {
4163 < 6 >4 < 7\+ >8 < 6+ [_!] >
4170 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
4171 mode, introduced by @code{\figuremode}, where you can enter bass figures
4172 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass} that
4173 takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
4175 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
4176 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>}
4180 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
4182 \figuremode { <4 6> }
4185 Accidentals are added when you append @code{-}, @code{!}, and @code{+}
4186 to the numbers. A plus sign is added when you append @code{\+}, and
4187 diminished fifths and sevenths can be obtained with @code{5/} and @code{7/}.
4190 <4- 6+ 7!> <5++> <3--> <7/> r <6\+ 5/>
4192 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
4193 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> <5++> <3--> <7/> r <6\+ 5/> }
4196 Spaces may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
4197 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}. You can also include text
4198 strings and text markups, see @ref{Overview of text markup commands}.
4201 < [4 6] 8 [_! 12] > < 5 \markup @{ \number 6 \super (1) @} >
4203 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,fragment]
4205 \figuremode { < [4 6] 8 [_! 12] > < 5 \markup{ \tiny \number 6 \super (1)} > }
4209 It is also possible to use continuation lines for repeated figures,
4211 @lilypond[verbatim,relative=1]
4218 \set useBassFigureExtenders = ##t
4225 In this case, the extender lines always replace existing figures.
4227 The @code{FiguredBass} context doesn't pay attention to the actual
4228 bass line. As a consequence, you may have to insert extra figures to
4229 get extender lines below all notes, and you may have to add @code{\!}
4230 to avoid getting an extender line, e.g.
4232 @lilypond[relative=1]
4236 \set useBassFigureExtenders = ##t
4237 <6 4->4. <6 4->16. <6 4->32 <5>8. r16 <6>8 <6\! 5->
4241 f16. g32 f16. g32 f16. g32 f16. g32 f8. es16 d8 es
4246 When using continuation lines, common figures are always put in the
4247 same vertical position. When this is unwanted, you can insert a rest
4248 with @code{r}. The rest will clear any previous alignment. For
4249 example, you can write
4261 Accidentals and plus signs can appear before or after the numbers,
4262 depending on the @code{figuredBassAlterationDirection} and @code{figuredBassPlusDirection}
4268 \set figuredBassAlterationDirection = #1
4270 \set figuredBassPlusDirection = #1
4272 \set figuredBassAlterationDirection = #-1
4278 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
4279 support, it is much simpler. The @code{\figuremode} mode simply
4280 stores the numbers and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints them
4281 as entered. There is no conversion to pitches and no realizations of
4282 the bass are played in the MIDI file.
4284 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
4285 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
4286 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
4290 Program reference: @internalsref{NewBassFigure},
4291 @internalsref{BassFigureAlignment}, @internalsref{BassFigureLine},
4292 @internalsref{BassFigureBracket}, and
4293 @internalsref{BassFigureContinuation} objects and
4294 @internalsref{FiguredBass} context.
4298 @node Other instrument specific notation
4299 @section Other instrument specific notation
4301 This section includes extra information for writing for instruments.
4304 * Artificial harmonics (strings)::
4307 @node Artificial harmonics (strings)
4308 @subsection Artificial harmonics (strings)
4310 @cindex artificial harmonics
4312 Artificial harmonics are notated with a different notehead style. They
4313 are entered by marking the harmonic pitch with @code{\harmonic}.
4315 @lilypond[ragged-right,verbatim,quote,fragment,relative=1]