1 @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
2 @c This file is part of lilypond.tely
4 Translation of GIT committish: FILL-IN-HEAD-COMMITTISH
6 When revising a translation, copy the HEAD committish of the
7 version that you are working on. See TRANSLATION for details.
12 @node General input and output
13 @chapter General input and output
15 This section deals with general LilyPond input and output issues,
16 rather than specific notation.
20 * Titles and headers::
21 * Working with input files::
22 * Controlling output::
28 @section Input structure
30 The main format of input for LilyPond are text files. By convention,
31 these files end with @code{.ly}.
34 * Structure of a score::
35 * Multiple scores in a book::
40 @node Structure of a score
41 @subsection Structure of a score
45 A @code{\score} block must contain a single music expression
46 delimited by curly brackets:
54 @warning{There must be @strong{only one} outer music expression in
55 a @code{\score} block, and it @strong{must} be surrounded by
58 This single music expression may be of any size, and may contain
59 other music expressions to any complexity. All of these examples
60 are music expressions:
66 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
73 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
75 \new Staff { c'4 c' c' c' }
76 \new Staff { d'4 d' d' d' }
84 \new Staff @{ \flute @}
85 \new Staff @{ \oboe @}
88 \new Staff @{ \violinI @}
89 \new Staff @{ \violinII @}
95 Comments are one exception to this general rule. (For others see
96 @ref{File structure}.) Both single-line comments and comments
97 delimited by @code{%@{ .. %@}} may be placed anywhere within an
98 input file. They may be placed inside or outside a @code{\score}
99 block, and inside or outside the single music expression within a
105 @rlearning{Working on input files},
106 @rlearning{Music expressions explained},
107 @rlearning{Score is a (single) compound musical expression}.
110 @node Multiple scores in a book
111 @subsection Multiple scores in a book
114 @cindex movements, multiple
116 A document may contain multiple pieces of music and text. Examples
117 of these are an etude book, or an orchestral part with multiple
118 movements. Each movement is entered with a @code{\score} block,
126 and texts are entered with a @code{\markup} block,
136 All the movements and texts which appear in the same @code{.ly} file
137 will normally be typeset in the form of a single output file.
151 However, if you want multiple output files from the same @code{.ly}
152 file, then you can add multiple @code{\book} blocks, where each such
153 @code{\book} block will result in a separate output. If you do not
154 specify any @code{\book} block in the file, LilyPond will implicitly
155 treat the full file as a single @code{\book} block, see @ref{File
156 structure}. One important exception is within lilypond-book documents,
157 where you explicitly have to add a @code{\book} block, otherwise only
158 the first @code{\score} or @code{\markup} will appear in the output.
160 The header for each piece of music can be put inside the @code{\score}
161 block. The @code{piece} name from the header will be printed before
162 each movement. The title for the entire book can be put inside the
163 @code{\book}, but if it is not present, the @code{\header} which is at
164 the top of the file is inserted.
168 title = "Eight miniatures"
169 composer = "Igor Stravinsky"
173 \header @{ piece = "Romanze" @}
176 ..text of second verse..
179 ..text of third verse..
183 \header @{ piece = "Menuetto" @}
189 Pieces of music may be grouped into book parts using @code{\bookpart}
190 blocks. Book parts are separated by a page break, and can start with a
191 title, like the book itself, by specifying a @code{\header} block.
197 subtitle = "First part"
204 subtitle = "Second part"
212 @subsection File structure
222 A @code{.ly} file may contain any number of toplevel expressions, where a
223 toplevel expression is one of the following:
227 An output definition, such as @code{\paper}, @code{\midi}, and
228 @code{\layout}. Such a definition at the toplevel changes the default
229 book-wide settings. If more than one such definition of
230 the same type is entered at the top level any definitions in the later
231 expressions have precedence.
234 A direct scheme expression, such as
235 @code{#(set-default-paper-size "a7" 'landscape)} or
236 @code{#(ly:set-option 'point-and-click #f)}.
239 A @code{\header} block. This sets the global header block. This
240 is the block containing the definitions for book-wide settings, like
241 composer, title, etc.
244 A @code{\score} block. This score will be collected with other
245 toplevel scores, and combined as a single @code{\book}.
246 This behavior can be changed by setting the variable
247 @code{toplevel-score-handler} at toplevel. The default handler is
248 defined in the init file @file{../scm/@/lily@/.scm}.
251 A @code{\book} block logically combines multiple movements
252 (i.e., multiple @code{\score} blocks) in one document. If there
253 are a number of @code{\score}s, one output file will be created
254 for each @code{\book} block, in which all corresponding movements
255 are concatenated. The only reason to explicitly specify
256 @code{\book} blocks in a @code{.ly} file is if you wish to create
257 multiple output files from a single input file. One exception is
258 within lilypond-book documents, where you explicitly have to add
259 a @code{\book} block if you want more than a single @code{\score}
260 or @code{\markup} in the same example. This behavior can be
261 changed by setting the variable @code{toplevel-book-handler} at
262 toplevel. The default handler is defined in the init file
263 @file{../scm/@/lily@/.scm}.
266 A @code{\bookpart} block. A book may be divided into several parts,
267 using @code{\bookpart} blocks, in order to ease the page breaking,
268 or to use different @code{\paper} settings in different parts.
271 A compound music expression, such as
276 This will add the piece in a @code{\score} and format it in a
277 single book together with all other toplevel @code{\score}s and music
278 expressions. In other words, a file containing only the above
279 music expression will be translated into
295 This behavior can be changed by setting the variable
296 @code{toplevel-music-handler} at toplevel. The default handler is
297 defined in the init file @file{../scm/@/lily@/.scm}.
300 A markup text, a verse for example
303 2. The first line verse two.
307 Markup texts are rendered above, between or below the scores or music
308 expressions, wherever they appear.
318 This can be used later on in the file by entering @code{\foo}. The
319 name of a variable should have alphabetic characters only; no
320 numbers, underscores or dashes.
324 The following example shows three things that may be entered at
329 % Don't justify the output
341 At any point in a file, any of the following lexical instructions can
345 @item @code{\version}
346 @item @code{\include}
347 @item @code{\sourcefilename}
348 @item @code{\sourcefileline}
350 A single-line comment, introduced by a leading @code{%} sign.
353 A multi-line comment delimited by @code{%@{ .. %@}}.
359 Whitespace between items in the input stream is generally ignored,
360 and may be freely omitted or extended to enhance readability.
361 However, whitespace should always be used in the following
362 circumstances to avoid errors:
365 @item Around every opening and closing curly bracket.
366 @item After every command or variable, i.e. every item that
367 begins with a @code{\} sign.
368 @item After every item that is to be interpreted as a Scheme
369 expression, i.e. every item that begins with a @code{#} sign.
370 @item To separate all elements of a Scheme expression.
371 @item In @code{lyricmode} to separate all the terms in both
372 @code{\override} and @code{\set} commands. In particular, spaces
373 must be used around the dot and the equals sign in commands like
374 @code{\override Score . LyricText #'font-size = #5} and before and
375 after the entire command.
381 @rlearning{How LilyPond input files work}.
384 @node Titles and headers
385 @section Titles and headers
387 Almost all printed music includes a title and the composer's name;
388 some pieces include a lot more information.
393 * Reference to page numbers::
394 * Table of contents::
398 @node Creating titles
399 @subsection Creating titles
401 Titles are created for each @code{\score} block, as well as for the full
402 input file (or @code{\book} block) and book parts (created by
403 @code{\bookpart} blocks).
405 The contents of the titles are taken from the @code{\header} blocks.
406 The header block for a book supports the following
412 The dedicatee of the music, centered at the top of the first page.
416 The title of the music, centered just below the dedication.
420 Subtitle, centered below the title.
422 @funindex subsubtitle
424 Subsubtitle, centered below the subtitle.
428 Name of the poet, flush-left below the subsubtitle.
432 Name of the instrument, centered below the subsubtitle. Also
433 centered at the top of pages (other than the first page).
437 Name of the composer, flush-right below the subsubtitle.
441 Meter string, flush-left below the poet.
445 Name of the arranger, flush-right below the composer.
449 Name of the piece, flush-left below the meter.
453 Name of the opus, flush-right below the arranger.
455 @cindex page breaks, forcing
456 @funindex breakbefore
458 This forces the title to start on a new page (set to ##t or ##f).
462 Copyright notice, centered at the bottom of the first page. To
463 insert the copyright symbol, see @ref{Text encoding}.
467 Centered at the bottom of the last page.
471 Here is a demonstration of the fields available. Note that you
472 may use any @ref{Formatting text}, commands in the header.
474 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,line-width=11.0\cm]
477 paper-height = 10.0\cm
482 dedication = "dedicated to me"
483 title = \markup \center-column { "Title first line" "Title second line,
485 subtitle = "the subtitle,"
486 subsubtitle = #(string-append "subsubtitle LilyPond version "
489 composer = \markup \center-column { "composer" \small "(1847-1973)" }
490 texttranslator = "Text Translator"
491 meter = \markup { \teeny "m" \tiny "e" \normalsize "t" \large "e" \huge
493 arranger = \markup { \fontsize #8.5 "a" \fontsize #2.5 "r" \fontsize
494 #-2.5 "r" \fontsize #-5.3 "a" \fontsize #7.5 "nger" }
495 instrument = \markup \bold \italic "instrument"
519 As demonstrated before, you can use multiple @code{\header} blocks.
520 When same fields appear in different blocks, the latter is used.
521 Here is a short example.
525 composer = "Composer"
533 piece = "New piece" % overwrite previous one
538 If you define the @code{\header} inside the @code{\score} block, then
539 normally only the @code{piece} and @code{opus} headers will be printed.
540 Note that the music expression must come before the @code{\header}.
542 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,line-width=11.0\cm]
546 title = "title" % not printed
553 @funindex print-all-headers
555 You may change this behavior (and print all the headers when defining
556 @code{\header} inside @code{\score}) by using
560 print-all-headers = ##t
567 The default footer is empty, except for the first page, where the
568 @code{copyright} field from @code{\header} is inserted, and the last
569 page, where @code{tagline} from @code{\header} is added. The default
570 tagline is @qq{Music engraving by LilyPond (@var{version})}.@footnote{Nicely
571 printed parts are good PR for us, so please leave the tagline if you
574 Headers may be completely removed by setting them to false.
585 @subsection Custom titles
587 A more advanced option is to change the definitions of the following
588 variables in the @code{\paper} block. The init file
589 @file{../ly/titling-init.ly} lists the default layout.
592 @funindex bookTitleMarkup
593 @item bookTitleMarkup
594 This is the title added at the top of the entire output document.
595 Typically, it has the composer and the title of the piece
597 @funindex scoreTitleMarkup
598 @item scoreTitleMarkup
599 This is the title put over a @code{\score} block. Typically, it has
600 the name of the movement (@code{piece} field).
602 @funindex oddHeaderMarkup
603 @item oddHeaderMarkup
604 This is the page header for odd-numbered pages.
606 @funindex evenHeaderMarkup
607 @item evenHeaderMarkup
608 This is the page header for even-numbered pages. If unspecified,
609 the odd header is used instead.
611 By default, headers are defined such that the page number is on the
612 outside edge, and the instrument is centered.
614 @funindex oddFooterMarkup
615 @item oddFooterMarkup
616 This is the page footer for odd-numbered pages.
618 @funindex evenFooterMarkup
619 @item evenFooterMarkup
620 This is the page footer for even-numbered pages. If unspecified,
621 the odd header is used instead.
623 By default, the footer has the copyright notice on the first, and
624 the tagline on the last page.
634 The following definition will put the title flush left, and the
635 composer flush right on a single line.
639 bookTitleMarkup = \markup {
641 \fromproperty #'header:title
642 \fromproperty #'header:composer
648 @node Reference to page numbers
649 @subsection Reference to page numbers
651 A particular place of a score can be marked using the @code{\label}
652 command, either at top-level or inside music. This label can then be
653 referred to in a markup, to get the number of the page where the marked
654 point is placed, using the @code{\page-ref} markup command.
656 @lilypond[verbatim,line-width=11.0\cm]
657 \header { tagline = ##f }
663 \pageBreak \mark A \label #'markA
668 \markup { The first score begins on page \page-ref #'firstScore "0" "?" }
669 \markup { Mark A is on page \page-ref #'markA "0" "?" }
673 The @code{\page-ref} markup command takes three arguments:
675 @item the label, a scheme symbol, eg. @code{#'firstScore};
676 @item a markup that will be used as a gauge to estimate the dimensions
678 @item a markup that will be used in place of the page number if the label
682 The reason why a gauge is needed is that, at the time markups are
683 interpreted, the page breaking has not yet occurred, so the page numbers
684 are not yet known. To work around this issue, the actual markup
685 interpretation is delayed to a later time; however, the dimensions of
686 the markup have to be known before, so a gauge is used to decide these
687 dimensions. If the book has between 10 and 99 pages, it may be "00",
688 ie. a two digit number.
699 @node Table of contents
700 @subsection Table of contents
701 A table of contents is included using the @code{\markuplines \table-of-contents}
702 command. The elements which should appear in the table of contents are
703 entered with the @code{\tocItem} command, which may be used either at
704 top-level, or inside a music expression.
707 \markuplines \table-of-contents
710 \tocItem \markup "First score"
714 \tocItem \markup "Some particular point in the first score"
719 \tocItem \markup "Second score"
727 The markups which are used to format the table of contents are defined
728 in the @code{\paper} block. The default ones are @code{tocTitleMarkup},
729 for formatting the title of the table, and @code{tocItemMarkup}, for
730 formatting the toc elements, composed of the element title and page
731 number. These variables may be changed by the user:
735 %% Translate the toc title into French:
736 tocTitleMarkup = \markup \huge \column {
737 \fill-line { \null "Table des matières" \null }
740 %% use larger font size
741 tocItemMarkup = \markup \large \fill-line {
742 \fromproperty #'toc:text \fromproperty #'toc:page
747 Note how the toc element text and page number are referred to in
748 the @code{tocItemMarkup} definition.
750 New commands and markups may also be defined to build more elaborated
753 @item first, define a new markup variable in the @code{\paper} block
754 @item then, define a music function which aims at adding a toc element
755 using this markup paper variable.
758 In the following example, a new style is defined for entering act names
759 in the table of contents of an opera:
763 tocActMarkup = \markup \large \column {
765 \fill-line { \null \italic \fromproperty #'toc:text \null }
771 #(define-music-function (parser location text) (markup?)
772 (add-toc-item! 'tocActMarkup text))
775 @lilypond[line-width=11.0\cm]
776 \header { tagline = ##f }
778 tocActMarkup = \markup \large \column {
780 \fill-line { \null \italic \fromproperty #'toc:text \null }
786 #(define-music-function (parser location text) (markup?)
787 (add-toc-item! 'tocActMarkup text))
790 \markuplines \table-of-contents
791 \tocAct \markup { Atto Primo }
792 \tocItem \markup { Coro. Viva il nostro Alcide }
793 \tocItem \markup { Cesare. Presti omai l'Egizzia terra }
794 \tocAct \markup { Atto Secondo }
795 \tocItem \markup { Sinfonia }
796 \tocItem \markup { Cleopatra. V'adoro, pupille, saette d'Amore }
803 Init files: @file{../ly/@/toc@/-init@/.ly}.
807 @funindex \table-of-contents
808 @code{\table-of-contents},
814 @node Working with input files
815 @section Working with input files
818 * Including LilyPond files::
819 * Different editions from one source::
821 * Displaying LilyPond notation::
825 @node Including LilyPond files
826 @subsection Including LilyPond files
829 @cindex including files
831 A large project may be split up into separate files. To refer to
835 \include "otherfile.ly"
838 The line @code{\include "otherfile.ly"} is equivalent to pasting the
839 contents of @file{otherfile.ly} into the current file at the place
840 where the @code{\include} appears. For example, in a large
841 project you might write separate files for each instrument part
842 and create a @qq{full score} file which brings together the
843 individual instrument files. Normally the included file will
844 define a number of variables which then become available
845 for use in the full score file. Tagged sections can be
846 marked in included files to assist in making them usable in
847 different places in a score, see @ref{Different editions from
850 Files in the current working directory may be referenced by
851 specifying just the file name after the @code{\include} command.
852 Files in other locations may be included by giving either a full
853 path reference or a relative path reference (but use the UNIX
854 forward slash, /, rather than the DOS/Windows back slash, \, as the
855 directory separator.) For example, if @file{stuff.ly} is located
856 one directory higher than the current working directory, use
859 \include "../stuff.ly"
863 or if the included orchestral parts files are all located in a
864 subdirectory called @file{parts} within the current directory, use
867 \include "parts/VI.ly"
868 \include "parts/VII.ly"
872 Files which are to be included can also contain @code{\include}
873 statements of their own. By default, these second-level
874 @code{\include} statements are not interpreted until they have
875 been brought into the main file, so the file names they specify
876 must all be relative to the directory containing the main file,
877 not the directory containing the included file. However,
878 this behavior can be changed by passing the option
879 @code{-drelative-includes} option at the command line
880 (or by adding @code{#(ly:set-option 'relative-includes #t)}
881 at the top of the main input file). With @code{relative-includes}
882 set, the path for each @code{\include} command will be taken
883 relative to the file containing that command. This behavior is
884 recommended and it will become the default behavior in a future
887 Files can also be included from a directory in a search path
888 specified as an option when invoking LilyPond from the command
889 line. The included files are then specified using just their
890 file name. For example, to compile @file{main.ly} which includes
891 files located in a subdirectory called @file{parts} by this method,
892 cd to the directory containing @file{main.ly} and enter
895 lilypond --include=parts main.ly
906 Files which are to be included in many scores may be placed in
907 the LilyPond directory @file{../ly}. (The location of this
908 directory is installation-dependent - see
909 @rlearning{Other sources of information}). These files can then
910 be included simply by naming them on an @code{\include} statement.
911 This is how the language-dependent files like @file{english.ly} are
914 LilyPond includes a number of files by default when you start
915 the program. These includes are not apparent to the user, but the
916 files may be identified by running @code{lilypond --verbose} from
917 the command line. This will display a list of paths and files that
918 LilyPond uses, along with much other information. Alternatively,
919 the more important of these files are discussed in
920 @rlearning{Other sources of information}. These files may be
921 edited, but changes to them will be lost on installing a new
924 Some simple examples of using @code{\include} are shown in
925 @rlearning{Scores and parts}.
930 @rlearning{Other sources of information},
931 @rlearning{Scores and parts}.
936 If an included file is given a name which is the same as one in
937 LilyPond's installation files, LilyPond's file from the
938 installation files takes precedence.
942 @node Different editions from one source
943 @subsection Different editions from one source
945 Several mechanisms are available to facilitate the generation
946 of different versions of a score from the same music source.
947 Variables are perhaps most useful for combining lengthy sections
948 of music and/or annotation in various ways, while tags are more
949 useful for selecting one from several alternative shorter sections
950 of music. Whichever method is used, separating the notation from
951 the structure of the score will make it easier to change the
952 structure while leaving the notation untouched.
959 @node Using variables
960 @unnumberedsubsubsec Using variables
962 @cindex variables, use of
964 If sections of the music are defined in variables they can be
965 reused in different parts of the score, see @rlearning{Organizing
966 pieces with variables}. For example, an @notation{a cappella}
967 vocal score frequently includes a piano reduction of the parts
968 for rehearsal purposes which is identical to the vocal music, so
969 the music need be entered only once. Music from two variables
970 may be combined on one staff, see @ref{Automatic part combining}.
973 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
974 sopranoMusic = \relative c'' { a4 b c b8( a)}
975 altoMusic = \relative g' { e4 e e f }
976 tenorMusic = \relative c' { c4 b e d8( c) }
977 bassMusic = \relative c' { a4 gis a d, }
978 allLyrics = \lyricmode {King of glo -- ry }
980 \new Staff = "Soprano" \sopranoMusic
981 \new Lyrics \allLyrics
982 \new Staff = "Alto" \altoMusic
983 \new Lyrics \allLyrics
984 \new Staff = "Tenor" {
988 \new Lyrics \allLyrics
989 \new Staff = "Bass" {
993 \new Lyrics \allLyrics
996 \set Staff.printPartCombineTexts = ##f
1002 \set Staff.printPartCombineTexts = ##f
1012 Separate scores showing just the vocal parts or just the piano
1013 part can be produced by changing just the structural statements,
1014 leaving the musical notation unchanged.
1016 For lengthy scores, the variable definitions may be placed in
1017 separate files which are then included, see @ref{Including
1021 @unnumberedsubsubsec Using tags
1024 @funindex \keepWithTag
1025 @funindex \removeWithTag
1027 @cindex keep tagged music
1028 @cindex remove tagged music
1030 The @code{\tag #'@var{partA}} command marks a music expression
1031 with the name @var{partA}.
1032 Expressions tagged in this way can be selected or filtered out by
1033 name later, using either @code{\keepWithTag #'@var{name}} or
1034 @code{\removeWithTag #'@var{name}}. The result of applying these filters
1035 to tagged music is as follows:
1036 @multitable @columnfractions .5 .5
1040 Tagged music preceded by @code{\keepWithTag #'@var{name}}
1041 @tab Untagged music and music tagged with @var{name} is included;
1042 music tagged with any other tag name is excluded.
1044 Tagged music preceded by @code{\removeWithTag #'@var{name}}
1045 @tab Untagged music and music tagged with any tag name other than
1046 @var{name} is included; music tagged with @var{name} is
1049 Tagged music not preceded by either @code{\keepWithTag} or
1050 @code{\removeWithTag}
1051 @tab All tagged and untagged music is included.
1054 The arguments of the @code{\tag}, @code{\keepWithTag} and
1055 @code{\removeWithTag} commands should be a symbol
1056 (such as @code{#'score} or @code{#'part}), followed
1057 by a music expression.
1059 In the following example, we see two versions of a piece of music,
1060 one showing trills with the usual notation, and one with trills
1061 explicitly expanded:
1063 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1064 music = \relative g' {
1066 \tag #'trills {d8.\trill }
1067 \tag #'expand {\repeat unfold 3 {e32 d} }
1072 \keepWithTag #'trills \music
1075 \keepWithTag #'expand \music
1080 Alternatively, it is sometimes easier to exclude sections of music:
1082 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1083 music = \relative g' {
1085 \tag #'trills {d8.\trill }
1086 \tag #'expand {\repeat unfold 3 {e32 d} }
1091 \removeWithTag #'expand
1095 \removeWithTag #'trills
1100 Tagged filtering can be applied to articulations, texts, etc. by
1104 -\tag #'@var{your-tag}
1107 to an articulation. For example, this would define a note with a
1108 conditional fingering indication and a note with a conditional
1113 c1-\tag #'warn ^"Watch!"
1116 Multiple tags may be placed on expressions with multiple
1117 @code{\tag} entries:
1119 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1120 music = \relative c'' {
1121 \tag #'a \tag #'both { a a a a }
1122 \tag #'b \tag #'both { b b b b }
1125 \keepWithTag #'a \music
1126 \keepWithTag #'b \music
1127 \keepWithTag #'both \music
1131 Multiple @code{\removeWithTag} filters may be applied to a single
1132 music expression to remove several differently named tagged sections:
1134 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1135 music = \relative c'' {
1136 \tag #'A { a a a a }
1137 \tag #'B { b b b b }
1138 \tag #'C { c c c c }
1139 \tag #'D { d d d d }
1148 Two or more @code{\keepWithTag} filters applied to a single music
1149 expression will cause @emph{all} tagged sections to be removed, as
1150 the first filter will remove all tagged sections except the one
1151 named, and the second filter will remove even that tagged section.
1156 @rlearning{Organizing pieces with variables}.
1159 @ref{Automatic part combining},
1160 @ref{Including LilyPond files}.
1164 @c This warning is more general than this placement implies.
1165 @c Rests are not merged whether or not they come from tagged sections.
1166 @c Should be deleted? -td
1170 Multiple rests are not merged if you create a score with more
1171 than one tagged section at the same place.
1176 @subsection Text encoding
1178 LilyPond uses the character repertoire defined by the Unicode
1179 consortium and ISO/IEC 10646. This defines a unique name and
1180 code point for the character sets used in virtually all modern
1181 languages and many others too. Unicode can be implemented using
1182 several different encodings. LilyPond uses the UTF-8 encoding
1183 (UTF stands for Unicode Transformation Format) which represents
1184 all common Latin characters in one byte, and represents other
1185 characters using a variable length format of up to four bytes.
1187 The actual appearance of the characters is determined by the
1188 glyphs defined in the particular fonts available - a font defines
1189 the mapping of a subset of the Unicode code points to glyphs.
1190 LilyPond uses the Pango library to layout and render multi-lingual
1193 LilyPond does not perform any input-encoding conversions. This
1194 means that any text, be it title, lyric text, or musical
1195 instruction containing non-ASCII characters, must be encoded in
1196 UTF-8. The easiest way to enter such text is by using a
1197 Unicode-aware editor and saving the file with UTF-8 encoding. Most
1198 popular modern editors have UTF-8 support, for example, vim, Emacs,
1199 jEdit, and GEdit do. All MS Windows systems later than NT use
1200 Unicode as their native character encoding, so even Notepad can
1201 edit and save a file in UTF-8 format. A more functional
1202 alternative for Windows is BabelPad.
1204 If a LilyPond input file containing a non-ASCII character is not
1205 saved in UTF-8 format the error message
1208 FT_Get_Glyph_Name () error: invalid argument
1213 Here is an example showing Cyrillic, Hebrew and Portuguese
1217 %c No verbatim here as the code does not display correctly in PDF
1219 bulgarian = \lyricmode {
1220 Жълтата дюля беше щастлива, че пухът, който цъфна, замръзна като гьон.
1224 hebrew = \lyricmode {
1225 זה כיף סתם לשמוע איך תנצח קרפד עץ טוב בגן.
1229 portuguese = \lyricmode {
1230 à vo -- cê uma can -- ção legal
1236 \addlyrics { \bulgarian }
1237 \addlyrics { \hebrew }
1238 \addlyrics { \portuguese }
1241 To enter a single character for which the Unicode code point is
1242 known but which is not available in the editor being used, use
1243 either @code{\char ##xhhhh} or @code{\char #dddd} within a
1244 @code{\markup} block, where @code{hhhh} is the hexadecimal code for
1245 the character required and @code{dddd} is the corresponding decimal
1246 value. Leading zeroes may be omitted, but it is usual to specify
1247 all four characters in the hexadecimal representation. (Note that
1248 the UTF-8 encoding of the code point should @emph{not} be used
1249 after @code{\char}, as UTF-8 encodings contain extra bits indicating
1250 the number of octets.)
1252 For example, @code{\char ##x03BE} and @code{\char #958} would both
1253 enter the Unicode U+03BE character, which has the Unicode name
1254 @qq{Greek Small Letter Xi}.
1256 Any Unicode code point may be entered in this way and if all special
1257 characters are entered in this format it is not necessary to save
1258 the input file in UTF-8 format. Of course, a font containing all
1259 such encoded characters must be installed and available to LilyPond.
1261 The following example shows Unicode hexadecimal values being entered
1262 in four places -- in a rehearsal mark, as articulation text, in
1263 lyrics and as stand-alone text below the score:
1265 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1268 c1 \mark \markup { \char ##x03EE }
1269 c1_\markup { \tiny { \char ##x03B1 " to " \char ##x03C9 } }
1271 \addlyrics { O \markup { \concat{ Ph \char ##x0153 be! } } }
1273 \markup { "Copyright 2008--2009" \char ##x00A9 }
1276 To enter the copyright sign in the copyright notice use:
1280 copyright = \markup @{ \char ##x00A9 "2008" @}
1284 @node Displaying LilyPond notation
1285 @subsection Displaying LilyPond notation
1287 @funindex \displayLilyMusic
1288 Displaying a music expression in LilyPond notation can be
1289 done using the music function @code{\displayLilyMusic}. For example,
1293 \displayLilyMusic \transpose c a, @{ c e g a bes @}
1300 @{ a, cis e fis g @}
1303 By default, LilyPond will print these messages to the console along
1304 with all the other messages. To split up these messages and save
1305 the results of @code{\display@{STUFF@}}, redirect the output to
1308 @c TODO What happens under Windows?
1311 lilypond file.ly >display.txt
1316 @node Controlling output
1317 @section Controlling output
1320 * Extracting fragments of music::
1321 * Skipping corrected music::
1324 @node Extracting fragments of music
1325 @subsection Extracting fragments of music
1327 It is possible to quote small fragments of a large score directly from
1328 the output. This can be compared to clipping a piece of a paper score
1331 This is done by defining the measures that need to be cut out
1332 separately. For example, including the following definition
1340 (make-rhythmic-location 5 1 2)
1341 (make-rhythmic-location 7 3 4)))
1346 will extract a fragment starting halfway the fifth measure, ending in
1347 the seventh measure. The meaning of @code{5 1 2} is: after a 1/2 note
1348 in measure 5, and @code{7 3 4} after 3 quarter notes in measure 7.
1350 More clip regions can be defined by adding more pairs of
1351 rhythmic-locations to the list.
1353 In order to use this feature, LilyPond must be invoked with
1354 @code{-dclip-systems}. The clips are output as EPS files, and are
1355 converted to PDF and PNG if these formats are switched on as well.
1357 For more information on output formats, see @rprogram{Invoking lilypond}.
1359 @node Skipping corrected music
1360 @subsection Skipping corrected music
1363 @funindex skipTypesetting
1364 @funindex showFirstLength
1365 @funindex showLastLength
1367 When entering or copying music, usually only the music near the end (where
1369 are adding notes) is interesting to view and correct. To speed up
1370 this correction process, it is possible to skip typesetting of all but
1371 the last few measures. This is achieved by putting
1374 showLastLength = R1*5
1379 in your source file. This will render only the last 5 measures
1380 (assuming 4/4 time signature) of every @code{\score} in the input
1381 file. For longer pieces, rendering only a small part is often an order
1382 of magnitude quicker than rendering it completely. When working on the
1383 beginning of a score you have already typeset (e.g. to add a new part),
1384 the @code{showFirstLength} property may be useful as well.
1386 Skipping parts of a score can be controlled in a more fine-grained
1387 fashion with the property @code{Score.skipTypesetting}. When it is
1388 set, no typesetting is performed at all.
1390 This property is also used to control output to the MIDI file. Note that
1391 it skips all events, including tempo and instrument changes. You have
1394 @lilypond[quote,fragment,ragged-right,verbatim]
1397 \set Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
1399 \set Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
1403 In polyphonic music, @code{Score.skipTypesetting} will affect all
1404 voices and staves, saving even more time.
1409 @section MIDI output
1414 MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a standard for
1415 connecting and controlling digital instruments. A MIDI file is a
1416 series of notes in a number of tracks. It is not an actual
1417 sound file; you need special software to translate between the
1418 series of notes and actual sounds.
1420 Pieces of music can be converted to MIDI files, so you can listen to
1421 what was entered. This is convenient for checking the music; octaves
1422 that are off or accidentals that were mistyped stand out very much
1423 when listening to the MIDI output.
1426 The midi output allocates a channel for each staff, and one for global
1427 settings. Therefore the midi file should not have more than 15 staves
1428 (or 14 if you do not use drums). Other staves will remain silent.
1431 * Creating MIDI files::
1433 * What goes into the MIDI output?::
1435 * Controlling MIDI dynamics::
1436 * Percussion in MIDI::
1439 @node Creating MIDI files
1440 @subsection Creating MIDI files
1442 To create a MIDI output file from a LilyPond input file, add a
1443 @code{\midi} block to a score, for example,
1452 If there is a @code{\midi} block in a @code{\score} with no
1453 @code{\layout} block, only MIDI output will be produced. When
1454 notation is needed too, a @code{\layout} block must be also be
1465 Pitches, rhythms, ties, dynamics, and tempo changes are interpreted
1466 and translated correctly to the MIDI output. Dynamic marks,
1467 crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume levels.
1468 Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI
1469 volume range. Crescendi and decrescendi make the volume vary
1470 linearly between their two extremes. The effect of dynamic markings
1471 on the MIDI output can be removed completely, see @ref{MIDI block}.
1473 The initial tempo and later tempo changes can be specified
1474 with the @code{\tempo} command within the music notation. These
1475 are reflected in tempo changes in the MIDI output. This command
1476 will normally result in the metronome mark being printed, but this
1477 can be suppressed, see @ref{Metronome marks}. An alternative way
1478 of specifying the inital or overall MIDI tempo is described below,
1479 see @ref{MIDI block}.
1481 Due to some limitations on Windows, the default extension for
1482 MIDI files on Windows is @code{.mid}. Other operating systems still
1483 use the extension @code{.midi}. If a different extension is preferred,
1484 insert the following line at the top-level of the input file,
1485 before the start of any @code{\book}, @code{\bookpart} or @code{\score} blocks:
1488 #(ly:set-option 'midi-extension "midi")
1491 The line above will set the default extension for MIDI files to
1494 Alternatively, this option can also be supplied on the command line:
1497 lilypond … -dmidi-extension=midi lilyFile.ly
1501 @unnumberedsubsubsec Instrument names
1503 @cindex instrument names
1504 @funindex Staff.midiInstrument
1506 The MIDI instrument to be used is specified by setting the
1507 @code{Staff.midiInstrument} property to the instrument name.
1508 The name should be chosen from the list in @ref{MIDI instruments}.
1512 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"glockenspiel"
1518 \new Staff \with @{midiInstrument = #"cello"@} @{
1523 If the selected instrument does not exactly match an instrument from
1524 the list of MIDI instruments, the Grand Piano (@code{"acoustic grand"})
1530 @lilypondfile[verbatim,lilyquote,ragged-right,texidoc,doctitle]
1531 {changing-midi-output-to-one-channel-per-voice.ly}
1535 @c In 2.11 the following no longer seems to be a problem -td
1537 Unterminated (de)crescendos will not render properly in the midi file,
1538 resulting in silent passages of music. The workaround is to explicitly
1539 terminate the (de)crescendo. For example,
1546 will not work properly but
1556 Changes in the MIDI volume take place only on starting a note, so
1557 crescendi and decrescendi cannot affect the volume of a
1560 Not all midi players correctly handle tempo changes in the midi
1561 output. Players that are known to work include MS Windows Media
1562 Player and @uref{http://@/timidity@/.sourceforge@/.net/,timidity}.
1565 @subsection MIDI block
1568 A @code{\midi} block must appear within a score block if MIDI output
1569 is required. It is analogous to the layout block, but somewhat
1570 simpler. Often, the @code{\midi} block is left empty, but it
1571 can contain context rearrangements, new context definitions or code
1572 to set the values of properties. For example, the following will
1573 set the initial tempo exported to a MIDI file without causing a tempo
1574 indication to be printed:
1582 tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 72 4)
1588 In this example the tempo is set to 72 quarter note
1589 beats per minute. This kind of tempo specification cannot take
1590 a dotted note length as an argument. If one is required, break
1591 the dotted note into smaller units. For example, a tempo of 90
1592 dotted quarter notes per minute can be specified as 270 eighth
1596 tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 270 8)
1599 @cindex MIDI context definitions
1601 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as those
1602 within a @code{\layout} block. Translation modules for sound are
1603 called performers. The contexts for MIDI output are defined in
1604 @file{../ly/@/performer@/-init@/.ly},
1605 see @rlearning{Other sources of information}.
1606 For example, to remove the effect of dynamics
1607 from the MIDI output, insert the following lines in the
1608 @code{\midi@{ @}} block.
1615 \remove "Dynamic_performer"
1620 MIDI output is created only when a @code{\midi} block is included
1621 within a score block defined with a @code{\score} command. If it
1622 is placed within an explicitly instantiated score context (i.e.
1623 within a @code{\new Score} block) the file will fail. To solve
1624 this, enclose the @code{\new Score} and the @code{\midi} commands
1625 in a @code{\score} block.
1629 \new Score @{ @dots{}notes@dots{} @}
1634 @node What goes into the MIDI output?
1635 @subsection What goes into the MIDI output?
1637 @c TODO Check grace notes - timing is suspect?
1639 @unnumberedsubsubsec Supported in MIDI
1641 @cindex Pitches in MIDI
1642 @cindex MIDI, Pitches
1643 @cindex Quarter tones in MIDI
1644 @cindex MIDI, quarter tones
1645 @cindex Microtones in MIDI
1646 @cindex MIDI, microtones
1647 @cindex Chord names in MIDI
1648 @cindex MIDI, chord names
1649 @cindex Rhythms in MIDI
1650 @cindex MIDI, Rhythms
1653 The following items of notation are reflected in the MIDI output:
1657 @item Microtones (See @ref{Accidentals}. Rendering needs a
1658 player that supports pitch bend.)
1659 @item Chords entered as chord names
1660 @item Rhythms entered as note durations, including tuplets
1661 @item Tremolos entered without @q{@code{:}[@var{number}]}
1664 @item Crescendi, decrescendi over multiple notes
1665 @item Tempo changes entered with a tempo marking
1669 @unnumberedsubsubsec Unsupported in MIDI
1671 @c TODO index as above
1673 The following items of notation have no effect on the MIDI output:
1676 @item Rhythms entered as annotations, e.g. swing
1677 @item Tempo changes entered as annotations with no tempo marking
1678 @item Staccato and other articulations and ornamentations
1679 @item Slurs and Phrasing slurs
1680 @item Crescendi, decrescendi over a single note
1681 @item Tremolos entered with @q{@code{:}[@var{number}]}
1683 @item Microtonal chords
1687 @node Repeats in MIDI
1688 @subsection Repeats in MIDI
1690 @cindex repeats in MIDI
1691 @funindex \unfoldRepeats
1693 With a few minor additions, all types of repeats can be represented
1694 in the MIDI output. This is achieved by applying the
1695 @code{\unfoldRepeats} music function. This function changes all
1696 repeats to unfold repeats.
1698 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1700 \repeat tremolo 8 {c'32 e' }
1701 \repeat percent 2 { c''8 d'' }
1702 \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
1711 When creating a score file using @code{\unfoldRepeats} for MIDI,
1712 it is necessary to make two @code{\score} blocks: one for MIDI
1713 (with unfolded repeats) and one for notation (with volta, tremolo,
1714 and percent repeats). For example,
1722 \unfoldRepeats @var{..music..}
1727 @node Controlling MIDI dynamics
1728 @subsection Controlling MIDI dynamics
1730 MIDI dynamics are implemented by the Dynamic_performer which lives
1731 by default in the Voice context. It is possible to control the
1732 overall MIDI volume, the relative volume of dynamic markings and
1733 the relative volume of different instruments.
1735 @unnumberedsubsubsec Dynamic marks
1737 Dynamic marks are translated to a fixed fraction of the available
1738 MIDI volume range. The default fractions range from 0.25 for
1739 @notation{ppppp} to 0.95 for @notation{fffff}. The set of dynamic
1740 marks and the associated fractions can be seen in
1741 @file{../scm/midi.scm}, see @rlearning{Other sources of information}.
1742 This set of fractions may be changed or extended by providing a
1743 function which takes a dynamic mark as its argument and returns the
1744 required fraction, and setting
1745 @code{Score.dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction} to this function.
1747 For example, if a @notation{rinforzando} dynamic marking,
1748 @code{\rfz}, is required, this will not by default
1749 have any effect on the MIDI volume, as this dynamic marking is not
1750 included in the default set. Similarly, if a new dynamic marking
1751 has been defined with @code{make-dynamic-script} that too will not
1752 be included in the default set. The following example shows how the
1753 MIDI volume for such dynamic markings might be added. The Scheme
1754 function sets the fraction to 0.9 if a dynamic mark of rfz is
1755 found, or calls the default function otherwise.
1757 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1758 #(define (myDynamics dynamic)
1759 (if (equal? dynamic "rfz")
1761 (default-dynamic-absolute-volume dynamic)))
1765 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"cello"
1766 \set Score.dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction = #myDynamics
1778 Alternatively, if the whole table of fractions needs to be
1779 redefined, it would be better to use the
1780 @notation{default-dynamic-absolute-volume} procedure in
1781 @file{../scm/midi.scm} and the associated table as a model.
1782 The final example in this section shows how this might be done.
1784 @unnumberedsubsubsec Overall MIDI volume
1786 The minimum and maximum overall volume of MIDI dynamic markings is
1787 controlled by setting the properties @code{midiMinimumVolume} and
1788 @code{midiMaximumVolume} at the @code{Score} level. These
1789 properties have an effect only on dynamic marks, so if they
1790 are to apply from the start of the score a dynamic mark must be
1791 placed there. The fraction corresponding to each dynamic mark is
1792 modified with this formula
1795 midiMinimumVolume + (midiMaximumVolume - midiMinimumVolume) * fraction
1798 In the following example the dynamic range of the overall MIDI
1799 volume is limited to the range 0.2 - 0.5.
1801 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1807 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute"
1808 \new Voice \relative c''' {
1816 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"clarinet"
1817 \new Voice \relative c'' {
1828 tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 72 2)
1829 midiMinimumVolume = #0.2
1830 midiMaximumVolume = #0.5
1836 @unnumberedsubsubsec Equalizing different instruments (i)
1838 If the minimum and maximum MIDI volume properties are set in
1839 the @code{Staff} context the relative volumes of the MIDI
1840 instruments can be controlled. This gives a basic instrument
1841 equalizer, which can enhance the quality of the MIDI output
1844 In this example the volume of the clarinet is reduced relative
1845 to the volume of the flute. There must be a dynamic
1846 mark on the first note of each instrument for this to work
1849 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1855 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute"
1856 \set Staff.midiMinimumVolume = #0.7
1857 \set Staff.midiMaximumVolume = #0.9
1858 \new Voice \relative c''' {
1866 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"clarinet"
1867 \set Staff.midiMinimumVolume = #0.3
1868 \set Staff.midiMaximumVolume = #0.6
1869 \new Voice \relative c'' {
1880 tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 72 2)
1886 @unnumberedsubsubsec Equalizing different instruments (ii)
1888 If the MIDI minimum and maximum volume properties are not set
1889 LilyPond will, by default, apply a small degree of equalization
1890 to a few instruments. The instruments and the equalization
1891 applied are shown in the table @notation{instrument-equalizer-alist}
1892 in @file{../scm/midi.scm}.
1894 This basic default equalizer can be replaced by setting
1895 @code{instrumentEqualizer} in the @code{Score} context to a new
1896 Scheme procedure which accepts a MIDI instrument name as its only
1897 argument and returns a pair of fractions giving the minimum and
1898 maximum volumes to be applied to that instrument. This replacement
1899 is done in the same way as shown for resetting the
1900 @code{dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction} at the start of this section.
1901 The default equalizer, @notation{default-instrument-equalizer}, in
1902 @file{../scm/midi.scm} shows how such a procedure might be written.
1904 The following example sets the relative flute and clarinet volumes
1905 to the same values as the previous example.
1907 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1908 #(define my-instrument-equalizer-alist '())
1910 #(set! my-instrument-equalizer-alist
1913 ("flute" . (0.7 . 0.9))
1914 ("clarinet" . (0.3 . 0.6)))
1915 my-instrument-equalizer-alist))
1917 #(define (my-instrument-equalizer s)
1918 (let ((entry (assoc s my-instrument-equalizer-alist)))
1927 \set Score.instrumentEqualizer = #my-instrument-equalizer
1928 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute"
1929 \new Voice \relative c''' {
1937 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"clarinet"
1938 \new Voice \relative c'' {
1949 tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 72 2)
1956 @c Delete when satisfied this is adequately covered elsewhere -td
1958 @n ode Microtones in MIDI
1959 @s ubsection Microtones in MIDI
1961 @cindex microtones in MIDI
1963 Microtones consisting of half sharps and half flats are exported
1964 to the MIDI file and render correctly in MIDI players which support
1965 pitch bending. See @ref{Note names in other languages}. Here is
1966 an example showing all the half sharps and half flats. It can be
1967 copied out and compiled to test microtones in your MIDI player.
1969 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1986 @node Percussion in MIDI
1987 @subsection Percussion in MIDI
1989 Percussion instruments are generally notated in a @code{DrumStaff}
1990 context and when notated in this way they are outputted correctly
1991 to MIDI channel@tie{}10, but some pitched percussion instruments,
1992 like the xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, timpani, etc., are
1993 treated like @qq{normal} instruments and music for these instruments
1994 should be entered in a normal @code{Staff} context, not a
1995 @code{DrumStaff} context, to obtain the correct MIDI output.
1997 Some non-pitched percussion sounds included in the general MIDI
1998 standard, like melodic tom, taiko drum, synth drum, etc., cannot
1999 be reached via MIDI channel@tie{}10, so the notation for such
2000 instruments should also be entered in a normal @code{Staff}
2001 context, using suitable normal pitches.
2003 Many percussion instruments are not included in the general MIDI
2004 standard, e.g. castanets. The easiest, although unsatisfactory,
2005 method of producing some MIDI output when writing for such
2006 instruments is to substitute the nearest sound from the standard
2009 @c TODO Expand with examples, and any other issues
2013 Because the general MIDI standard does not contain rim shots, the
2014 sidestick is used for this purpose instead.