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[lilypond.git] / Documentation / user / basic-notation.itely

@c -*- coding: latin-1; mode: texinfo; -*-
@c This file is part of lilypond.tely

@c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
@c     M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
@c to automatically fill in these menus before saving changes

@node Basic notation
@chapter Basic notation

This chapter explains how to use all basic notation features.

@menu
* Note entry::                  
* Easier music entry::          
* Staff notation::              
* Polyphony::                   
* Beaming::                     
* Repeats::                     
* Expressive marks::            
@end menu



@node Note entry
@section Note entry
@cindex Note entry

This section is about basic notation elements like notes, rests, and
related constructs, such as stems, tuplets and ties.

@menu
* Notes::                       
* Pitches::                     
* Chromatic alterations::       
* Micro tones::                 
* Chords::                      
* Rests::                       
* Skips::                       
* Durations::                   
* Augmentation dots::           
* Scaling durations::           
* Stems::                       
* Ties::                        
* Tuplets::                     
* Transpose::                   
@end menu


@node Notes
@subsection Notes


A note is printed by specifying its pitch and then its duration,

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright]
{ cis'4 d'8 e'16 c'16 }
@end lilypond


@node Pitches
@subsection Pitches

@cindex Pitch names
@cindex Note specification
@cindex pitches
@cindex entering notes

The most common syntax for pitch entry is used for standard notes and
@code{\chordmode} modes.  In these modes, pitches may be designated by
names.  The notes are specified by the letters @code{a} through
@code{g}.  The octave is formed with notes ranging from @code{c}
to @code{b}.  The pitch @code{c} is an octave below middle C and the
letters span the octave above that C

@lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim]
\clef bass
a,4 b, c d e f g a b c' d' e' \clef treble f' g' a' b' c''
@end lilypond

@cindex note names, Dutch

A sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch name and
a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}.  Double sharps and double flats
are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}.  These
names are the Dutch note names.  In Dutch, @code{aes} is contracted to
@code{as}, but both forms are accepted.  Similarly, both
@code{es} and @code{ees} are accepted

@lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright,verbatim,relative=2]
ceses4
ces
c
cis
cisis
@end lilypond

In accordance with standard typsetting rules, a natural sign is printed
before a sharp or flat if a previous accidental needs to be
cancelled.  To change this behaviour, use
@code{\set Staff.extraNatural = ##f}

@lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright,verbatim,relative=2]
ceses4 ces cis c
\set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
ceses4 ces cis c
@end lilypond

There are predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
To use them, include the language specific init file.  For
example: @code{\include "english.ly"}.  The available language files
and the note names they define are

@anchor{note name}
@anchor{note names}
@example
                        Note Names               sharp       flat
nederlands.ly  c   d   e   f   g   a   bes b   -is         -es
english.ly     c   d   e   f   g   a   bf  b   -s/-sharp   -f/-flat
                                               -x (double)
deutsch.ly     c   d   e   f   g   a   b   h   -is         -es
norsk.ly       c   d   e   f   g   a   b   h   -iss/-is    -ess/-es
svenska.ly     c   d   e   f   g   a   b   h   -iss        -ess
italiano.ly    do  re  mi  fa  sol la  sib si  -d          -b
catalan.ly     do  re  mi  fa  sol la  sib si  -d/-s       -b
espanol.ly     do  re  mi  fa  sol la  sib si  -s          -b
@end example

@cindex @code{'}
@cindex @code{,}



The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
(`@code{,}') characters.  Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
@end lilypond


@ignore
@c FIXME: we need this info (hide/unhide) somewhere in the manual, but this ain't the place.  -gp
@c  wait; this is already in advanced notation.
@refcommands
Notes can be hidden and unhidden with the following commands

@cindex @code{\hideNotes}
@code{\hideNotes},
@cindex @code{\unHideNotes}
@code{\unHideNotes}.
@end ignore

@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{NoteEvent}, and @internalsref{NoteHead}.



@node Chromatic alterations
@subsection Chromatic alterations

Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also
print them manually.  A reminder accidental
@cindex reminder accidental
@cindex @code{?}
can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!}
after the pitch.  A cautionary accidental
@cindex cautionary accidental
@cindex parenthesized accidental
(i.e., an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the
question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch.

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
cis' cis' cis'! cis'?
@end lilypond


@seealso

The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many
ways.  For more information, refer to @ref{Automatic accidentals}.



@node Micro tones
@subsection Micro tones

Half-flats and half-sharps are formed by adding @code{-eh} and
@code{-ih}; the following is a series of Cs with increasing pitches

@cindex quarter tones
@cindex semi-flats, semi-sharps

@lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,quote,relative=2,fragment]
{ ceseh ceh cih cisih }
@end lilypond

Micro tones are also exported to the MIDI file


@refbugs

There are no generally accepted standards for denoting three quarter
flats, so LilyPond's symbol does not conform to any standard.

@node Chords
@subsection Chords

A chord is formed by a enclosing a set of pitches in @code{<} and
@code{>}.  A chord may be followed by a duration, and a set of
articulations, just like simple notes

@lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,fragment,quote,relative=1]
<c e g>4 <c>8
@end lilypond

@node Rests
@subsection Rests
@cindex Rests


@cindex @code{\rest}
@cindex @code{r}

Rests are entered like notes, with the note name @code{r}

@lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright,verbatim]
r1 r2 r4 r8
@end lilypond

Whole bar rests, centered in middle of the bar,
must be done with multi-measure rests.  They are discussed in
@ref{Multi measure rests}.


A rest's vertical position may be explicitly specified by entering a
note with the @code{\rest} keyword appended, the rest will be placed at
the note's place.  This makes manual formatting in polyphonic music
easier.  Automatic rest collision formatting will leave these rests
alone

@lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright,verbatim]
a'4\rest d'4\rest
@end lilypond

@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{RestEvent}, and @internalsref{Rest}.


@c FIXME: naming.
@node Skips
@subsection Skips
@cindex Skip
@cindex Invisible rest
@cindex Space note

@cindex @code{\skip}
@cindex @code{s}
An invisible rest (also called a `skip') can be entered like a note
with note name `@code{s}' or with @code{\skip @var{duration}}

@lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright,verbatim,relative=2]
a4 a4 s4 a4 \skip 1 a4
@end lilypond

The @code{s} syntax is only available in note mode and chord mode.  In
other situations, for example, when entering lyrics, you should use
the @code{\skip} command

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim]
<<
  \relative { a'2 a1 }
  \new Lyrics \lyricmode { \skip 2 bla1 }
>>
@end lilypond

The skip command is merely an empty musical placeholder.  It does not
produce any output, not even transparent output.

The @code{s} skip command does create @internalsref{Staff} and
@internalsref{Voice} when necessary, similar to note and rest
commands.  For example, the following results in an empty staff.

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim]
{ s4 }
@end lilypond

The fragment @code{@{ \skip 4 @} } would produce an empty page.

@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{SkipEvent}, @internalsref{SkipMusic}.



@node Durations
@subsection Durations


@cindex duration
@cindex @code{\longa}
@cindex @code{\breve}
@cindex @code{\maxima}


In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations are designated by numbers and
dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values.  For example, a
quarter note is entered using a @code{4} (since it is a 1/4 note), while
a half note is entered using a @code{2} (since it is a 1/2 note).  For
notes longer than a whole you must use the variables @code{\longa} and
@code{\breve}

@example
c'\breve
c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
r\longa r\breve
r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
@end example

@lilypond[quote]
\score {
 \relative c'' {
    a\breve*1/2 \autoBeamOff
    a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
   \bar "empty"
   \break
    r\longa*1/4 r\breve *1/2
    r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
  }
  \layout {
    raggedright = ##t
    \context {
      \Staff
        \remove "Clef_engraver"
        \override StaffSymbol #'transparent = ##t
        \override TimeSignature #'transparent = ##t
        \override BarLine #'transparent = ##t
        \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
    }
  }
}
@end lilypond

If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previously entered
duration.  The default for the first note is a quarter note.

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim,fragment]
{ a a a2 a a4 a a1 a }
@end lilypond



@node Augmentation dots
@subsection Augmentation dots

@cindex @code{.}
To obtain dotted note lenghts, simply add a dot (`@code{.}') to
the number.  Double-dotted notes are produced in a similar way.

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
a'4 b' c''4. b'8 a'4. b'4.. c''8.
@end lilypond

@refcommands

Dots are normally moved up to avoid staff lines, except in polyphonic
situations.  The following commands may be used to force a particular
direction manually

@cindex @code{\dotsUp}
@code{\dotsUp},
@cindex @code{\dotsDown}
@code{\dotsDown},
@cindex @code{\dotsNeutral}
@code{\dotsNeutral}.

@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{Dots}, and @internalsref{DotColumn}.

@node Scaling durations
@subsection Scaling durations

You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M}
appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}).  This
will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.

In the following example, the first three notes take up exactly two
beats, but no triplet bracket is printed.
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
\time 2/4
a4*2/3 gis4*2/3 a4*2/3
a4 a4 a4*2
b16*4 c4
@end lilypond


@seealso

This manual: @ref{Tuplets}


@c TODO: I'm not certain that Stems belong here in the manual.  -gp
@node Stems
@subsection Stems

Whenever a note is found, a @internalsref{Stem} object is created
automatically.  For whole notes and rests, they are also created but
made invisible.

@refcommands

@cindex @code{\stemUp}
@code{\stemUp},
@cindex @code{\stemDown}
@code{\stemDown},
@cindex @code{\stemNeutral}
@code{\stemNeutral}.


@node Ties
@subsection Ties

@cindex Tie
@cindex ties
@cindex @code{~}

A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch.  The tie in
effect extends the length of a note.  Ties should not be confused with
slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate
musical phrasing.  A tie is entered using the tilde symbol `@code{~}'

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
@end lilypond

When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads whose pitches match
are connected.  When no note heads match, no ties will be created.

A tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar to the
augmentation dot.  The following example shows two ways of notating
exactly the same concept
@c
@lilypond[quote,fragment,raggedright]
\time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
@end lilypond

@noindent
Ties are used either when the note crosses a bar line, or when dots
cannot be used to denote the rhythm.  When using ties, larger note
values should be aligned to subdivisions of the measure, eg.

@lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright]
\relative {
  r8 c8 ~ c2 r4 | r8^"not" c2 ~ c8 r4
}
@end lilypond

If you need to tie a lot of notes over bars, it may be easier to use
automatic note splitting (see @ref{Automatic note splitting}).  This
mechanism automatically splits long notes, and ties them across bar
lines.

Ties are sometimes used to write out arpeggios.  In this case, two tied
notes need not be consecutive.  This can be achieved by setting the
@code{tieWaitForNote} property to true.  For example,

@lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1,raggedright]
\set tieWaitForNote = ##t
\grace { c16[~ e~ g]~ } <c, e g>4   
@end lilypond


@refcommands


@cindex @code{\tieUp}
@code{\tieUp},
@cindex @code{\tieDown}
@code{\tieDown},
@cindex @code{\tieNeutral}
@code{\tieNeutral},
@cindex @code{\tieDotted}
@code{\tieDotted},
@cindex @code{\tieSolid}
@code{\tieSolid}.

@seealso

In this manual: @ref{Automatic note splitting}.

Program reference: @internalsref{TieEvent}, @internalsref{Tie}.

@refbugs


Switching staves when a tie is active will not produce a slanted tie.

Formatting of ties is a difficult subject.  The results are often not
optimal.

@node Tuplets
@subsection Tuplets

@cindex tuplets
@cindex triplets
@cindex @code{\times}

Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all durations
with a fraction

@cindex @code{\times}
@example
\times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
@end example

@noindent
The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
The fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes, optionally
with a bracket.  The most common tuplet is the triplet in which 3
notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of their written
length

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
@end lilypond

The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each
bracket should last.  With this, you can make lots of tuplets while
typing @code{\times} only once, thus saving lots of typing.  In the next
example, there are two triplets shown, while @code{\times} was only
used once

@lilypond[quote,fragment,relative=1,raggedright,verbatim]
\set tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
\times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
@end lilypond

The format of the number is determined by the property
@code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}.  The default prints only the
denominator, but if it is set to the Scheme function
@code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, @var{num}:@var{den} will be printed
instead.


@cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
@cindex tuplet formatting


@refcommands

@cindex @code{\tupletUp}
@code{\tupletUp},
@cindex @code{\tupletDown}
@code{\tupletDown},
@cindex @code{\tupletNeutral}
@code{\tupletNeutral}.

@seealso

User manual: @ref{Changing context properties on the fly} for the
@code{\set} command.


Program reference: @internalsref{TupletBracket}, and @internalsref{TimeScaledMusic}.

Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,tuplet@/-nest@/.ly}.

@refbugs

Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically.  In this case, outer
tuplet brackets should be moved manually, which is demonstrated in
@inputfileref{input/@/regression,tuplet@/-nest@/.ly}.


@node Transpose
@subsection Transpose
@cindex Transpose
@cindex transposition of pitches
@cindex @code{\transpose}

A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}.  The
syntax is
@example
\transpose @var{from} @var{to} @var{musicexpr}
@end example

This means that @var{musicexpr} is transposed by the interval between
the pitches @var{from} and @var{to}: any note with pitch @code{from}
is changed to @code{to}.


For example, consider a piece written in the key of D-major.  If
this piece is a little too low for its performer, it can be
transposed up to E-major with
@example
\transpose d e @dots{}
@end example

Consider a part written for violin (a C instrument).  If
this part is to be played on the A clarinet, the following
transposition will produce the appropriate part

@example
\transpose a c @dots{}
@end example

@code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
@code{\transpose c cis} or @code{\transpose c des} will transpose up
half a tone.  The first version will print sharps and the second
version will print flats

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim]
mus = { \key d \major cis d fis g }
\context Staff {
  \clef "F" \mus
  \clef "G"
  \transpose c g' \mus
  \transpose c f' \mus
}
@end lilypond

@code{\transpose} may also be used to input written notes for a
transposing instrument.  Pitches are normally entered into LilyPond
in C (or ``concert pitch''), but they may be entered in another
key.  For example, when entering music for a B-flat trumpet which
begins on concert D, one would write

@example
\transpose c bes @{ e4 @dots{} @}
@end example

To print this music in B-flat again (ie producing a trumpet part,
instead of a concert pitch conductor's score) you would wrap the
existing music with another @code{transpose}

@example
\transpose bes c @{ \transpose c bes @{ e4 @dots{} @} @}
@end example


@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{TransposedMusic}, and
@internalsref{UntransposableMusic}.

@refbugs

If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative},
you must put @code{\transpose} outside of @code{\relative}, since
@code{\relative} will have no effect music that appears inside a
@code{\transpose}.


@node Easier music entry
@section Easier music entry
@cindex Music entry

This section deals with tricks and features of the input language that
were added solely to help entering music and finding and correcting
mistakes.  There are also external tools that make debugging easier.
See @ref{Point and click} for more information.

It is also possible to enter and edit music using other programs, such as
GUI interfaces or MIDI sequencers.  Refer to the LilyPond
website for more information.


@menu
* Relative octaves::            
* Octave check::                
* Bar check::                   
* Skipping corrected music::    
* Automatic note splitting::    
@end menu




@node Relative octaves
@subsection Relative octaves
@cindex Relative
@cindex relative octave specification

Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch
in the wrong octave and hard to find such an error.  The relative
octave mode prevents these errors by making the mistakes much
larger: a single error puts the rest of the piece off by one octave

@cindex @code{\relative}
@example
\relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
@end example

@noindent
or

@example
\relative @var{musicexpr}
@end example

The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
follows: if no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or
less.  This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a
@code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
@code{ceses}.  In other words, a doubly-augmented fourth is considered
a smaller interval than a diminshed fifth, even though the fourth is
seven semitones while the fifth is only six semitones.

The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise
or lower the pitch by an extra octave.  Upon entering relative mode,
an absolute starting pitch can be specified that will act as the
predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.  If no starting pitch
is specified, then middle C is used as a start.

Here is the relative mode shown in action
@lilypond[quote,fragment,raggedright,verbatim]
\relative c'' {
  b c d c b c bes a
}
@end lilypond

Octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
\relative c'' {
  c g c f, c' a, e''
}
@end lilypond

If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
to determine the first note of the next chord

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
\relative c' {
  c <c e g>
  <c' e g>
  <c, e' g>
}
@end lilypond

The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name.


The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
@code{\chordmode} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument.  To use
relative within transposed music, an additional @code{\relative} must
be placed inside @code{\transpose}.

@node Octave check
@subsection Octave check


Octave checks make octave errors easier to correct: a note may be
followed by @code{=}@var{quotes} which indicates what its absolute
octave should be.  In the following example,
@example
\relative c'' @{ c='' b=' d,='' @}
@end example

@noindent
@c take care with @code, adds confusing quotes.
the @code{d} will generate a warning, because a @code{d''} is expected
(because @code{b'} to @code{d''} is only a third), but a @code{d}' is
found.  In the output, the octave is corrected to be a @code{d''} and
the next note is calculated relative to @code{d''} instead of @code{d'}.



There is also a syntax that is separate from the notes.  The syntax

@example
\octave @var{pitch}
@end example

This checks that @var{pitch} (without quotes) yields @var{pitch} (with
quotes) in \relative mode.  If not, a warning is printed, and the
octave is corrected.

In the example below, the first check passes without incident, since
the @code{e} (in relative mode) is within a fifth of @code{a'}.  However,
the second check produces a warning, since the @code{e} is not within
a fifth of @code{b'}.  The warning message is printed, and the octave
is adjusted so that the following notes are in the correct octave
once again.

@example
\relative c' @{
  e
  \octave a'
  \octave b'
@}
@end example


The octave of a note following an octave check is determined with
respect to the note preceding it.  In the next fragment, the last note
is a @code{a'}, above middle C.  That means that the @code{\octave}
check passes successfully, so the check could be deleted without changing
the output of the piece.

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim,fragment]
\relative c' {
  e
  \octave b
  a
}
@end lilypond

@node Bar check
@subsection Bar check
@cindex Bar check

@cindex bar check
@cindex @code{barCheckSynchronize}
@cindex @code{|}

Bar checks help detect errors in the durations.  A bar check is
entered using the bar symbol, `@code{|}'.  Whenever it is encountered
during interpretation, it should fall on a measure boundary.  If it
does not, a warning is printed.  In the next example, the second bar
check will signal an error
@example
\time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2 |
@end example

Bar checks can also be used in lyrics, for example

@example
\lyricmode @{
  \time 2/4
  Twin -- kle | Twin -- kle
@}
@end example


@cindex @code{skipTypesetting}

Failed bar checks are caused by entering incorrect
durations.  Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
especially if the score is polyphonic, so a good place to start correcting
input is by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations.  To
speed up this process, the @code{skipTypesetting} feature may be
used.  It is described in the next section.

@cindex @code{|}
@cindex @code{pipeSymbol}

It is also possible to redefine the meaning of @code{|}.  This is done
by assigning a music expression to @code{pipeSymbol},

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim]
pipeSymbol = \bar "||"

{ c'2 c' | c'2 c }
@end lilypond


@node Skipping corrected music
@subsection Skipping corrected music

The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase.  When
typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more
quickly.  This can be used to skip over the parts of a score that
have already been checked for errors

@lilypond[quote,fragment,raggedright,verbatim]
\relative c'' {
  c8 d
  \set Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
  e e e e e e e e
  \set Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
  c d b bes a g c2 }
@end lilypond

In polyphonic music, @code{Score.skipTypesetting} will affect all
voices and staves, saving even more time.

@node Automatic note splitting
@subsection Automatic note splitting

Long notes can be converted automatically to tied notes.  This is done
by replacing the @internalsref{Note_heads_engraver} by the
@internalsref{Completion_heads_engraver}.
In the following examples, notes crossing the bar line are split and tied.


@lilypond[quote,fragment,verbatim,relative=1,linewidth=12\cm]
\new Voice \with {
  \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
  \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
} {
  c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
}
@end lilypond

This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts
ties.  One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are
not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how much each measure
is off.

@refbugs

Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be
represented exactly with normal notes and dots, but the engraver will
not insert tuplets.

@seealso

Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,completion@/-heads@/.ly}.

@noindent

Program reference: @internalsref{Completion_heads_engraver}.


@node Staff notation
@section Staff notation

This section describes music notation that occurs on staff level,
such as key signatures, clefs and time signatures.

@cindex Staff notation

@menu
* Staff symbol::                
* Key signature::               
* Clef::                        
* Ottava brackets::             
* Time signature::              
* Partial measures::            
* Unmetered music::             
* Bar lines::                   
* Time administration::         
* Controlling formatting of prefatory matter::  
* System start delimiters::     
* Aligning to cadenzas::        
@end menu

@node Staff symbol
@subsection Staff symbol

@cindex adjusting staff symbol

Notes, dynamic signs, etc., are grouped
with a set of horizontal lines, into a staff (plural `staves').  In our
system, these lines are drawn using a separate layout object called
staff symbol.


@cindex staff lines, setting number of
@cindex staff lines, setting thickness of
@cindex thickness of staff lines, setting
@cindex number of staff lines, setting

@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{StaffSymbol}.

Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/test,staff@/-lines@/.ly},
@inputfileref{input/@/test,staff@/-size@/.ly}.

@refbugs

If a staff is ended halfway a piece, the staff symbol may not end
exactly on the bar line.


@node Key signature
@subsection Key signature
@cindex Key signature

@cindex @code{\key}

The key signature indicates the tonality in which a piece is played.  It
is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of the
staff.


Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
command
@example
@code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
@end example

@cindex @code{\minor}
@cindex @code{\major}
@cindex @code{\minor}
@cindex @code{\ionian}
@cindex @code{\locrian}
@cindex @code{\aeolian}
@cindex @code{\mixolydian}
@cindex @code{\lydian}
@cindex @code{\phrygian}
@cindex @code{\dorian}

Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
@var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
@code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
@code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.

This command sets the context property
@internalsref{Staff}.@code{keySignature}.  Non-standard key signatures
can be specified by setting this property directly.

A natural sign is printed to cancel any previous accidentals.  This
can be suppressed by setting the @code{Staff.printKeyCancellation}
property.

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
{
  \key d \major
  a b cis d
  \key g \minor
  a bes c d
  \set Staff.printKeyCancellation = ##f
  \key d \major
  a b cis d
  \key g \minor
  a bes c d
}
@end lilypond

Accidentals and key signatures often confuse new users, because
unaltered notes get natural signs depending on the key signature.  For
more information, see @ref{More about pitches}.

@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{KeyChangeEvent},
@internalsref{KeyCancellation} and @internalsref{KeySignature}.

@cindex @code{keySignature}


@node Clef
@subsection Clef
@cindex @code{\clef}

The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
pitches.


The clef can be set with the @code{\clef} command
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
{ c''2 \clef alto g'2 }
@end lilypond

Supported clef-names include
@c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
@table @code
@cindex treble clef
@cindex violin clef
@item treble, violin, G, G2
G clef on 2nd line
@item alto, C
@cindex alto clef
 C clef on 3rd line
@item tenor
@cindex tenor clef
 C clef on 4th line.
@item bass, F
@cindex bass clef
 F clef on 4th line
@item french
@cindex french clef
 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
@item soprano
@cindex soprano clef
 C clef on 1st line
@item mezzosoprano
@cindex mezzosoprano clef
 C clef on 2nd line
@item baritone
@cindex baritone clef
 C clef on 5th line
@item varbaritone
@cindex varbaritone clef
 F clef on 3rd line
@item subbass
@cindex subbass clef
 F clef on 5th line
@item percussion
 percussion clef
@item tab
 tablature clef
@end table

By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
transposed one octave down or up, respectively, and @code{_15} and
@code{^15} transposes by two octaves.  The argument @var{clefname}
must be enclosed in quotes when it contains underscores or digits.  For
example,


@cindex choral tenor clef
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
\clef "G_8" c4
@end lilypond

This command is equivalent to setting @code{clefGlyph},
@code{clefPosition} (which controls the Y position of the clef),
@code{middleCPosition} and @code{clefOctavation}.  A clef is printed
when any of these properties are changed.  The following example shows
possibilities when setting properties manually.

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim]
{
  \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs.F"
  \set Staff.clefPosition = #2
  c'4
  \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs.G"
  c'4
  \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs.C"
  c'4
  \set Staff.clefOctavation = #7
  c'4
  \set Staff.clefOctavation = #0
  \set Staff.clefPosition = #0
  c'4
  \clef "bass"
  c'4
  \set Staff.middleCPosition = #4
  c'4
}
@end lilypond

@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{Clef}.



@node Ottava brackets
@subsection Ottava brackets

`Ottava' brackets introduce an extra transposition of an octave for
the staff.  They are created by invoking the function
@code{set-octavation}

@cindex ottava
@cindex 15ma
@cindex octavation

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim,fragment]
\relative c''' {
  a2 b
  #(set-octavation 1)
  a b
  #(set-octavation 0)
  a b
}
@end lilypond

The @code{set-octavation} function also takes -1 (for 8va bassa) and 2
(for 15ma) as arguments.  Internally the function sets the properties
@code{ottavation} (e.g., to @code{"8va"}) and
@code{centralCPosition}.  For overriding the text of the bracket, set
@code{ottavation} after invoking @code{set-octavation}, i.e.,

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim]
{
  #(set-octavation 1)
  \set Staff.ottavation = #"8"
  c'''
}
@end lilypond

@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{OttavaBracket}.

Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,ottava@/.ly},
@inputfileref{input/@/regression,ottava@/-broken@/.ly}.

@refbugs

@code{set-octavation} will get confused when clef changes happen
during an octavation bracket.




@node Time signature
@subsection Time signature
@cindex Time signature
@cindex meter
@cindex @code{\time}

Time signature indicates the metrum of a piece: a regular pattern of
strong and weak beats.  It is denoted by a fraction at the start of the
staff.


The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
command
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
\time 2/4 c'2 \time 3/4 c'2.
@end lilypond

The symbol that is printed can be customized with the @code{style}
property.  Setting it to @code{#'()} uses fraction style for 4/4 and
2/2 time,

@lilypond[fragment,quote,raggedright,verbatim]
\time 4/4 c'1
\time 2/2 c'1
\override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'()
\time 4/4 c'1
\time 2/2 c'1
@end lilypond



There are many more options for its layout.  See @ref{Ancient time
signatures} for more examples.


This command sets the property @code{timeSignatureFraction},
@code{beatLength} and @code{measureLength} in the @code{Timing}
context, which is normally aliased to @internalsref{Score}.  The
property @code{measureLength} determines where bar lines should be
inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated.  Changing the
value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes the symbol to be
printed.

More options are available through the Scheme function
@code{set-time-signature}.  In combination with the
@internalsref{Measure_grouping_engraver}, it will create
@internalsref{MeasureGrouping} signs.  Such signs ease reading
rhythmically complex modern music.  In the following example, the 9/8
measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3.  This is passed to
@code{set-time-signature} as the third argument @code{(2 2 2 3)}

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim]
\score {
  \relative c'' {
    #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3))
    g8[ g] d[ d] g[ g] a8[( bes g]) |
    #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2))
    a4. g4
  }
  \layout {
    \context {
      \Staff
      \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
    }
  }
}
@end lilypond

@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{TimeSignature}, and @internalsref{Timing_engraver}.


@refbugs

Automatic beaming does not use the measure grouping specified with
@code{set-time-signature}.

@node Partial measures
@subsection Partial measures
@cindex Partial
@cindex anacrusis
@cindex partial measure
@cindex measure, partial
@cindex shorten measures
@cindex @code{\partial}

Partial measures, for example in upsteps, are entered using the
@code{\partial} command
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
\partial 16*5 c16 cis d dis e | a2. c,4 | b2
@end lilypond

The syntax for this command is
@example
\partial @var{duration}
@end example
This is internally translated into
@example
\set Timing.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
@end example
@cindex @code{|}
The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.

@refbugs

This command does not take into account grace notes at the start of
the music.  When a piece starts with graces notes in the pickup, then
the @code{\partial} should follow the grace notes

@lilypond[verbatim,quote,raggedright,relative,fragment]
{
  \grace f16
  \partial 4
  g4
  a2 g2
}
@end lilypond


@node Unmetered music
@subsection Unmetered music

@cindex @code{\bar}

Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically.  For unmetered
music (cadenzas, for example), this is not desirable.  By setting
@code{Score.timing} to false, this automatic timing can be switched
off.  Empty bar lines,

@example
\bar ""
@end example

@noindent
indicate where line breaks can occur.

@refcommands

@cindex @code{\cadenzaOn}
@code{\cadenzaOn},
@cindex @code{\cadenzaOff}
@code{\cadenzaOff}.




@node Bar lines
@subsection Bar lines
@cindex Bar lines

@cindex @code{\bar}
@cindex measure lines
@cindex repeat bars


Bar lines delimit measures, but are also used to indicate repeats.
Normally, they are inserted automatically.  Line breaks may only
happen on bar lines.

Special types of bar lines can be forced with the @code{\bar} command
@c
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,relative=2,fragment,verbatim]
c4 \bar "|:" c4
@end lilypond

The following bar types are available
@lilypondfile[raggedright,quote]{bar-lines.ly}

For allowing line breaks, there is a special command,
@example
\bar ""
@end example
This will insert an invisible bar line, and allow line breaks at this
point.

In scores with many staves, a @code{\bar} command in one staff is
automatically applied to all staves.  The resulting bar lines are
connected between different staves of a @internalsref{StaffGroup}
@c
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
<<
  \context StaffGroup <<
    \new Staff {
      e'4 d'
      \bar "||"
      f' e'
    }
    \new Staff { \clef bass c4 g e g }
  >>
  \new Staff { \clef bass c2 c2 }
>>
@end lilypond


The command @code{\bar }@var{bartype} is a short cut for doing
@code{\set Timing.whichBar = }@var{bartype}.  Whenever @code{whichBar}
is set to a string, a bar line of that type is created.

A bar line is created whenever the @code{whichBar} property is set.
At the start of a measure it is set to the contents of
@code{Timing.defaultBarType}.  The contents of @code{repeatCommands} are used
to override default measure bars.

@cindex @code{whichBar}
@cindex @code{repeatCommands}
@cindex @code{defaultBarType}

You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions.  See
@ref{Repeats}.



@seealso

In this manual: @ref{Repeats}, @ref{System start delimiters}.


Program reference: @internalsref{BarLine} (created at
@internalsref{Staff} level), @internalsref{SpanBar} (across staves).

@cindex bar lines at start of system
@cindex start of system



Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/test,bar@/-lines@/.ly},


@node Time administration
@subsection Time administration

Time is administered by the @internalsref{Time_signature_engraver},
which usually lives in the @internalsref{Score} context.
The bookkeeping deals with the following variables

@table @code
@item currentBarNumber
The measure number.

@item measureLength
The length of the measures in the current time signature.  For a 4/4
time this is@tie{}1, and for 6/8 it is 3/4.

@item measurePosition
The point within the measure where we currently are.  This quantity
is reset to@tie{}0 whenever it exceeds @code{measureLength}.  When that
happens, @code{currentBarNumber} is incremented.

@item timing
If set to true, the above variables are updated for every time
step.  When set to false, the engraver stays in the current measure
indefinitely.
@end table

Timing can be changed by setting any of these variables explicitly.
In the next example, the 4/4 time signature is printed, but
@code{measureLength} is set to 5/4.  After a while, the measure is
shortened by 1/8, by setting @code{measurePosition} to 7/8 at 2/4
in the measure, so the next bar line will fall at 2/4 + 3/8.  The
3/8 arises because 5/4 normally has 10/8, but we have manually
set the measure position to be 7/8 and 10/8 - 7/8 = 3/8.

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim,relative,fragment]
\set Score.measureLength = #(ly:make-moment 5 4)
c1 c4
c1 c4
c4 c4
\set Score.measurePosition = #(ly:make-moment 7 8)
b8 b b
c4 c1
@end lilypond


@node Controlling formatting of prefatory matter
@subsection Controlling formatting of prefatory matter

@c  This section will be moved to somewhere else soon. -gp
This example demonstrates how to place prefatory matter
(such as the clef and key signature) at the end of a line.

@lilypond[quote,verbatim]
\transpose c c' {
  \override Staff.Clef
    #'break-visibility = #end-of-line-visible
  \override Staff.KeySignature
    #'break-visibility = #end-of-line-visible
  \set Staff.explicitClefVisibility = #end-of-line-visible
  \set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #end-of-line-visible

  % We want the time sig to take space, otherwise there is not
  % enough white at the start of the line.

  \override Staff.TimeSignature #'transparent = ##t
  \set Score.defaultBarType = #"empty"

  c1 d e f g a b c
  \key d \major
  \break

  % see above.
  \time 4/4

  d e fis g a b cis d
  \key g \major
  \break
  \time 4/4
}
@end lilypond


@node System start delimiters
@subsection System start delimiters

Polyphonic scores consist of many staves.  These staves can be
constructed in three different ways
@itemize @bullet
@item The group is started with a brace at the left, and bar lines are
connected.  This is done with the @internalsref{GrandStaff} context.

@lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,quote]
\new GrandStaff
\relative <<
  \new Staff { c1 c }
  \new Staff { c c }
>>
@end lilypond


@item The group is started with a bracket, and bar lines are connected.
This is done with the
@internalsref{StaffGroup} context

@lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,quote]
\new StaffGroup
\relative <<
  \new Staff { c1 c }
  \new Staff { c c }
>>
@end lilypond


@item The group is started with a vertical line.  Bar lines are not
connected.  This is the default for the score.

@lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,quote]
\relative <<
  \new Staff { c1 c }
  \new Staff { c c }
>>
@end lilypond

@end itemize

@cindex Staff, multiple
@cindex bracket, vertical
@cindex brace, vertical
@cindex grand staff
@cindex staff group


@seealso

The bar lines at the start of each system are
@internalsref{SystemStartBar}, @internalsref{SystemStartBrace}, and
@internalsref{SystemStartBracket}.  Only one of these types is created
in every context, and that type is determined by the property
@code{systemStartDelimiter}.

@node Aligning to cadenzas
@subsection Aligning to cadenzas


In an orchestral context, cadenzas present a special problem:
when constructing a score that includes a cadenza, all other
instruments should skip just as many notes as the length of the
cadenza, otherwise they will start too soon or too late.

A solution to this problem are the functions @code{mmrest-of-length}
and @code{skip-of-length}.  These Scheme functions take a piece of music
as argument, and generate a @code{\skip} or multi-rest, exactly as
long as the piece.  The use of @code{mmrest-of-length} is demonstrated
in the following example.

@lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,quote]
cadenza = \relative c' {
  c4 d8 << { e f g } \\ { d4. } >>
  g4 f2 g4 g
}

\new GrandStaff <<
  \new Staff { \cadenza c'4 }
  \new Staff {
    #(ly:export (mmrest-of-length cadenza))
    c'4
  }
>>
@end lilypond




@node Polyphony
@section Polyphony

Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occuring in
a piece of music.  Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more than
one voice on the same staff.

@menu
* Basic polyphony::             
* Explicitly instantiating voices::  
* Collision Resolution::        
@end menu

@node Basic polyphony
@subsection Basic polyphony
@cindex polyphony

The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff
is to enter each voice as a sequence (with @code{@{...@}}), and combine 
them simultaneously, separating the voices with @code{\\}

@cindex @code{\\}

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
\new Staff \relative c' {
        c16 d e f
        << { g4 f e | d2 e2 } \\
        { r8 e4 d c8 ~ | c b16 a b8 g ~ g2 } \\
        { s2. | s4 b4 c2 }
        >>
}
@end lilypond

The separator causes @internalsref{Voice} contexts@footnote{Polyphonic
voices are sometimes called ``layers'' in other notation packages}
@cindex layers
to be instantiated.  They bear the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.  In
each of these contexts, vertical direction of slurs, stems, etc., is set
appropriately.  

These voices are all seperate from the voice that contains the notes just 
outside the @code{<< \\ >>} construct.  This should be noted when making 
changes at the voice level.  This also means that slurs and ties cannot go 
into or out of a @code{<< \\ >>} construct.  
Conversely, parallel voices from separate @code{<< \\ >>} constructs on the 
same staff are the the same voice.  
Here is the same example, with different noteheads for each voice.  
Note that the change to the note-head style in the main voice does not affect
the inside of the @code{<< \\ >>} constructs.  Also, the change to the second
voice in the first @code{<< \\ >>} construct is effective in the second
@code{<< \\ >>}, and the voice is tied accross the two constructs.

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
\new Staff \relative c' {
        \override NoteHead #'style = #'cross
        c16 d e f
        <<      
                { g4 f e } \\
                { \override NoteHead #'style = #'triangle
                        r8 e4 d c8 ~ 
                }
        >> |
        <<
                { d2 e2 } \\ 
                { c8 b16 a b8 g ~ g2 } \\
                { \override NoteHead #'style = #'slash s4 b4 c2 }
        >>
}
@end lilypond

@node Explicitly instantiating voices
@subsection Explicitly instantiating voices

@internalsref{Voice} contexts can also also be instantiated manually
inside a @code{<< >>} block to create polyphonic music, using 
@code{\voiceOne}, up to @code{\voiceFour} to assign stem directions 
and a horizontal shift for each part.

Specifically,
@example
<< \upper \\ \lower >>
@end example

@noindent
is equivalent to

@example
<<
  \context Voice = "1" @{ \voiceOne \upper @}
  \context Voice = "2" @{ \voiceTwo \lower @}
>>
@end example

@cindex @code{\voiceOne}
@cindex @code{\voiceFour}

The @code{\voiceXXX} commands set the direction of stems, slurs, ties,
articulations, text annotations, augmentation dots of dotted
notes, and fingerings.  @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceThree} make
these objects point upwards, while @code{\voiceTwo} and @code{\voiceFour}
make them point downwards.  
The command @code{\oneVoice} will revert back to the normal setting.
@cindex @code{\oneVoice}

An expression that appears directly inside a @code{<< >>} belongs to 
the main voice.  This is useful when extra voices appear while the main
voice is playing.  Here is a more correct rendition of the example from
the previous section.  The crossed noteheads demonstrate that the main
melody is now in a single voice context.

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim]
\new Staff \relative c' {
        \override NoteHead #'style = #'cross
        c16 d e f 
        \voiceOne
        <<      
                { g4 f e | d2 e2}
                \context Voice="1" { \voiceTwo
                        r8 e4 d c8 ~ | c8 b16 a b8 g ~ g2 
                        \oneVoice
                }
                \new Voice { \voiceThree 
                        s2. | s4 b4 c2 
                        \oneVoice
                }
        >>
        \oneVoice
}
@end lilypond

The correct definition of the voices allows the melody to be slurred.
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim]
\new Staff \relative c' {
        c16^( d e f 
        \voiceOne
        <<      
                { g4 f e | d2 e2) }  
                \context Voice="1" { \voiceTwo
                        r8 e4 d c8 ~ | c8 b16 a b8 g ~ g2 
                        \oneVoice
                }
                \new Voice { \voiceThree 
                        s2. s4 b4 c2 
                        \oneVoice
                }
        >>
        \oneVoice
}
@end lilypond

Avoiding the @code{\\} seperator also allows nesting polyphony 
constructs, which in some case might be a more natural way to typeset
the music.

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim]
\new Staff \relative c' {
        c16^( d e f 
        \voiceOne
        <<      
                { g4 f e | d2 e2) }  
                \context Voice="1" { \voiceTwo
                        r8 e4 d c8 ~ | 
                        <<
                                {c8 b16 a b8 g ~ g2} 
                                \new Voice { \voiceThree 
                                        s4 b4 c2 
                                        \oneVoice
                                }
                        >>
                        \oneVoice
                }
        >>
        \oneVoice
}
@end lilypond

@node Collision Resolution
@subsection Collision Resolution

Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
when the object property @code{merge-differently-dotted} is set in
the @internalsref{NoteCollision} object, they are merged
@lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,raggedright,relative=2]
\context Voice << {
  g8 g8
  \override Staff.NoteCollision
    #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
  g8 g8
} \\ { g8.[ f16] g8.[ f16] } >>
@end lilypond

Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting
@code{merge-differently-headed}
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
\context Voice << {
  c8 c4.
  \override Staff.NoteCollision
    #'merge-differently-headed = ##t
c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >>
@end lilypond

LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem,
for example

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim]
\context Voice << c''4 \\ r4 >>
@end lilypond


@refcommands



@cindex @code{\oneVoice}
@code{\oneVoice},
@cindex @code{\voiceOne}
@code{\voiceOne},
@cindex @code{\voiceTwo}
@code{\voiceTwo},
@cindex @code{\voiceThree}
@code{\voiceThree},
@cindex @code{\voiceFour}
@code{\voiceFour}.



@cindex @code{\shiftOn}
@code{\shiftOn},
@cindex @code{\shiftOnn}
@code{\shiftOnn},
@cindex @code{\shiftOnnn}
@code{\shiftOnnn},
@cindex @code{\shiftOff}
@code{\shiftOff}: these commands specify in what chords of the current
voice should be shifted.  The outer voices (normally: voice one and
two) have @code{\shiftOff}, while the inner voices (three and four)
have @code{\shiftOn}.  @code{\shiftOnn} and @code{\shiftOnnn} define
further shift levels.


When LilyPond cannot cope, the @code{force-hshift}
property of the @internalsref{NoteColumn} object and pitched rests can
be used to override typesetting decisions.

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright]
\relative <<
{
  <d g>
  <d g>
} \\ {
  <b f'>
  \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #1.7
  <b f'>
} >>
@end lilypond



@seealso

Program reference: the objects responsible for resolving collisions are
@internalsref{NoteCollision} and @internalsref{RestCollision}.

Examples:
@inputfileref{input/@/regression,collision@/-dots@/.ly},
@inputfileref{input/@/regression,collision@/-head-chords@/.ly},
@inputfileref{input/@/regression,collision@/-heads@/.ly},
@inputfileref{input/@/regression,collision@/-mesh@/.ly}, and
@inputfileref{input/@/regression,collisions@/.ly}.


@refbugs


When using @code{merge-differently-headed} with an upstem eighth or a
shorter note, and a downstem half note, the eighth note gets the wrong
offset.

There is no support for clusters where the same note occurs with
different accidentals in the same chord.  In this case, it is
recommended to use enharmonic transcription, or to use special cluster
notation (see @ref{Clusters}).

@node Beaming
@section Beaming

@c todo: split this up; noBeaming and manual beams stay in basic;
@c  seting automatic beam behavior and beam formatting goes into
@c  advanced.  -gp

Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
the metrum.  LilyPond normally inserts beams automatically, but if you
wish you may control them manually or change how beams are automatically
grouped.

@cindex Automatic beams
@menu
* Automatic beams::             
* Manual beams::                
* Setting automatic beam behavior::  
* Beam formatting::             
@end menu

@node Automatic beams
@subsection Automatic beams

LilyPond inserts beams automatically

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
\time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
@end lilypond

When these automatic decisions are not good enough, beaming can be
entered explicitly.  It is also possible to define beaming patterns
that differ from the defaults.

Individual notes may be marked with @code{\noBeam}, to prevent them
from being beamed

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
\time 2/4 c8 c\noBeam c c
@end lilypond


@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{Beam}.


@node Manual beams
@subsection Manual beams
@cindex beams, manual
@cindex @code{]}
@cindex @code{[}

In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming
algorithm.  For example, the autobeamer will not put beams over rests
or bar lines.  Such beams are specified manually by marking the begin
and end point with @code{[} and @code{]}

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
{
  r4 r8[ g' a r8] r8 g[ | a] r8
}
@end lilypond

@cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}

Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
If necessary, the properties @code{stemLeftBeamCount} and
@code{stemRightBeamCount} can be used to override the defaults.  If
either property is set, its value will be used only once, and then it
is erased

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
{
   f8[ r16
      f g a]
   f8[ r16
   \set stemLeftBeamCount = #1
      f g a]
}
@end lilypond
@cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}


The property @code{subdivideBeams} can be set in order to subdivide
all 16th or shorter beams at beat positions, as defined by the
@code{beatLength} property.


@lilypond[fragment,quote,relative=2,verbatim]
c16[ c c c c c c c]
\set subdivideBeams = ##t
c16[ c c c c c c c]
\set Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
c16[ c c c c c c c]
@end lilypond
@cindex @code{subdivideBeams}

Normally, line breaks are forbidden when beams cross bar lines.  This
behavior can be changed by setting @code{allowBeamBreak}.

@cindex @code{allowBeamBreak}
@cindex beams and line breaks

@cindex beams, kneed
@cindex kneed beams
@cindex auto-knee-gap


@seealso

User manual: @ref{Changing context properties on the fly} for the
@code{\set} command


@refbugs

@cindex Frenched staves
Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap is detected
between the note heads.  This behavior can be tuned through the object.


Automatically kneed cross-staff beams cannot be used together with
hidden staves.  See @ref{Hiding staves}.

Beams do not avoid collisions with symbols around the notes, such as
texts and accidentals.

@c FIXME.


@node Setting automatic beam behavior
@subsection Setting automatic beam behavior

@cindex @code{autoBeamSettings}
@cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
@cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
@cindex automatic beams, tuning
@cindex tuning automatic beaming

@c [TODO: use \applycontext]

In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
or at durations specified by the properties in
@code{autoBeamSettings}.  The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
are defined in @file{scm/@/auto@/-beam@/.scm}.

The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed with three functions,
@example
#(override-auto-beam-setting
   '(@var{be} @var{p} @var{q} @var{n} @var{m}) @var{a} @var{b}
   [@var{context}])
#(score-override-auto-beam-setting
   '(@var{be} @var{p} @var{q} @var{n} @var{m}) @var{a} @var{b})
#(revert-auto-beam-setting '(@var{be} @var{p} @var{q} @var{n} @var{m})
   [@var{context}])
@end example
Here, @var{be} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}, and
@var{context} is an optional context (default: @code{'Voice}).  It
determines whether the rule applies to begin or end-points.  The
quantity @var{p}/@var{q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and
`@code{* *}' designates notes of any length), @var{n}/@var{M} refers
to a time signature (wildcards `@code{* *}' may be entered to
designate all time signatures), @var{a}/@var{b} is a duration.  By
default, this command changes settings for the current voice.  It is
also possible to adjust settings at higher contexts, by adding a
@var{context} argument.  @code{score-override-auto-beam-setting} is
equal to @code{override-auto-beam-setting} with the argument
@var{context} set to @code{'Score}.

For example, if automatic beams should end on every quarter note, use
the following
@example
#(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * * *) 1 4 'Staff)
@end example
Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
entered as @code{(ly:make-moment 1 4)}.

The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points.  In this
example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note
@example
#(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * * *) 3 8)
@end example
In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
3/8, has passed within the measure).

Rules can also be restricted to specific time signatures.  A rule that
should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}.  For example, a
rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
@example
#(override-auto-beam-setting '(begin * * 6 8) @dots{})
@end example

If a rule should be to applied only to certain types of beams, use the
first pair of asterisks.  Beams are classified according to the
shortest note they contain.  For a beam ending rule that only applies
to beams with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), use @code{(end 1 32 *
*)}.

@cindex automatic beam generation
@cindex autobeam
@cindex @code{autoBeaming}
@cindex lyrics

If beams are used to indicate melismata in songs, then automatic
beaming should be switched off.  This is done by setting
@code{autoBeaming} to @code{#f}.

@refcommands

@cindex @code{\autoBeamOff}
@code{\autoBeamOff},
@cindex @code{\autoBeamOn}
@code{\autoBeamOn}.


@refbugs

If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is
still accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.  The
same holds polyphonic voices, entered with @code{<< @dots{} \\ @dots{}
>>}.  If a polyphonic voice ends while an automatic beam is still
accepting notes, it is not typeset.

The rules for ending a beam depend on the shortest note in a beam.
So, while it is possible to have different ending rules for eight
beams and sixteenth beams, a beam that contains both eight and
sixteenth notes will use the rules for the sixteenth beam.

In the example below, the autobeamer makes eighth beams and sixteenth
end at three eighths.  The third beam can only be corrected by
specifying manual beaming.

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,relative=1]
#(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * * *) 3 8)
% rather show case where it goes wrong
%\time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c[ c c c] c8[ c] c4
\time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c c c c c8 c c4
@end lilypond
It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
different parts of a measure.  This means that it is not possible to use
automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.

@node Beam formatting
@subsection Beam formatting


When a beam falls in the middle of the staff, the beams point normally
down.  However, this behaviour can be altered with the
@code{neutral-direction} property.


@lilypond[quote,raggedright,relative=2,fragment,verbatim]
{
  b8[ b]
  \override Beam #'neutral-direction = #-1
  b[ b]
  \override Beam #'neutral-direction = #1
  b[ b]
}
@end lilypond


@node Repeats
@section Repeats

Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist
for repetitions.

@menu
* Repeat types::                
* Repeat syntax::               
* Repeats and MIDI::            
* Manual repeat commands::      
* Tremolo repeats::             
* Tremolo subdivisions::        
* Measure repeats::             
@end menu

@node Repeat types
@subsection Repeat types

@cindex repeats
@cindex @code{\repeat}

The following types of repetition are supported

@table @code
@item unfold
Repeated music is fully written (played) out.  This is useful when
entering repetitious music.  This is the only kind of repeat that
is included in MIDI output.

@item volta
Repeats are not written out, but alternative endings (volte) are
printed, left to right with brackets.  This is the standard notation
for repeats with alternatives.  These are not played in MIDI output by default.

@ignore
@item fold
Alternative endings are written stacked.  This has limited use but may be
used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
@inputfileref{input,star-spangled-banner@/.ly}.
@end ignore

@c tremolo, beamed
@item tremolo
Make tremolo beams.  These are not played in MIDI output by default.

@item percent
Make beat or measure repeats.  These look like percent signs.  These
are not played in MIDI output by default.  Percent repeats must be
declared within a Voice context.

@end table

@node Repeat syntax
@subsection Repeat syntax


LilyPond has one syntactic construct for specifying different types of
repeats.  The syntax is

@example
\repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
@end example

If you have alternative endings, you may add
@cindex @code{\alternative}
@example
\alternative @{ @var{alternative1}
               @var{alternative2}
               @var{alternative3} @dots{} @}
@end example
where each @var{alternative} is a music expression.  If you do not
give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, the first alternative
is assumed to be played more than once.

Standard repeats are used like this
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
c1
\repeat volta 2 { c4 d e f }
\repeat volta 2 { f e d c }
@end lilypond

With alternative endings
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
c1
\repeat volta 2 {c4 d e f}
\alternative { {d2 d} {f f,} }
@end lilypond


@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
\context Staff {
  \partial 4
  \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
  \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
}
@end lilypond

It is possible to shorten volta brackets
by setting @code{voltaSpannerDuration}.  In the next example, the
bracket only lasts one measure, which is a duration of 3/4.



@lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,quote]
\relative c''{
  \time 3/4
  c c c
  \set Staff.voltaSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 3 4)
  \repeat "volta" 5 { d d d }
  \alternative { { e e e f f f }
  { g g g } }
}
@end lilypond


@seealso

Examples:

Brackets for the repeat are normally only printed over the topmost
staff.  This can be adjusted by setting the @code{voltaOnThisStaff}
property; see @inputfileref{input/@/regression,volta@/-multi@/-staff@/.ly}.

@c not necessary
@c @inputfileref{input/@/regression,volta@/-chord@/-names@/.ly}.


@refbugs

A nested repeat like

@example
\repeat @dots{}
\repeat @dots{}
\alternative
@end example

@noindent
is ambiguous, since it is is not clear to which @code{\repeat} the
@code{\alternative} belongs.  This ambiguity is resolved by always
having the @code{\alternative} belong to the inner @code{\repeat}.
For clarity, it is advisable to use braces in such situations.
@cindex ambiguity



Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative,
so after a repeat timing information must be reset by hand, for
example by setting @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering
@code{\partial}.  Similarly, slurs or ties are also not repeated.




@node Repeats and MIDI
@subsection Repeats and MIDI

@cindex expanding repeats

With a little bit of tweaking, all types of repeats can be present
in the MIDI output.  This is achieved by applying the
@code{\unfoldrepeats} music function.  This functions changes all
repeats to unfold repeats.

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,linewidth=8.0\cm]
\unfoldrepeats {
  \repeat tremolo 8 {c'32 e' }
  \repeat percent 2 { c''8 d'' }
  \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
  \alternative {
    { g' a' a' g' }
    {f' e' d' c' }
  }
}
\bar "|."
@end lilypond

When creating a score file using @code{\unfoldrepeats} for midi, then
it is necessary to make two @code{\score} blocks.  One for MIDI (with
unfolded repeats) and one for notation (with volta, tremolo, and
percent repeats).  For example,

@example
\score @{
  @var{..music..}
  \layout @{ .. @}
@}
\score @{
  \unfoldrepeats @var{..music..}
  \midi @{ .. @}
@}
@end example

@node Manual repeat commands
@subsection Manual repeat commands

@cindex @code{repeatCommands}

The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
repeats.  Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands.

@table @asis
@item @code{start-repeat}
Print a @code{|:} bar line.

@item @code{end-repeat}
Print a @code{:|} bar line.

@item @code{(volta @var{text})}
Print a volta bracket saying @var{text}: The text can be specified as
a text string or as a markup text, see @ref{Text markup}.  Do not
forget to change the font, as the default number font does not contain
alphabetic characters;

@item @code{(volta #f)}
Stop a running volta bracket.
@end table

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim,fragment,relative=2]
c4
  \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
c4 c4
  \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
c4 c4
@end lilypond



@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{VoltaBracket}, @internalsref{RepeatedMusic},
@internalsref{VoltaRepeatedMusic},
@internalsref{UnfoldedRepeatedMusic}, and
@internalsref{FoldedRepeatedMusic}.

@node Tremolo repeats
@subsection Tremolo repeats
@cindex tremolo beams

To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
style
@lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright]
\new Voice \relative c' {
  \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
  \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
  \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
}
@end lilypond

Tremolo marks can also be put on a single note.  In this case, the
note should not be surrounded by braces.
@lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright]
\repeat "tremolo" 4 c'16
@end lilypond

Similar output is obtained using the tremolo subdivision, described in
@ref{Tremolo subdivisions}.

@seealso

In this manual: @ref{Tremolo subdivisions}, @ref{Repeats}.

Program reference: tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} objects.  Single stem
tremolos are @internalsref{StemTremolo} objects.  The music expression is
@internalsref{TremoloEvent}.

Example files: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,chord@/-tremolo@/.ly},
@inputfileref{input/@/regression,stem@/-tremolo@/.ly}.

@node Tremolo subdivisions
@subsection Tremolo subdivisions
@cindex tremolo marks
@cindex @code{tremoloFlags}

Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
`@code{:}[@var{number}]' after the note.  The number indicates the
duration of the subdivision, and it must be at least 8.  A
@var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem.  If the
length is omitted, the last value (stored in @code{tremoloFlags}) is
used

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,verbatim,fragment]
c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
@end lilypond

@c [TODO: stok is te kort bij 32en]
@c   somebody want to translate that into English?
@c   `Stem is too short for 32nds' (wl)

@refbugs

Tremolos entered in this way do not carry over into the MIDI output.

@seealso

In this manual: @ref{Tremolo repeats}.

Elsewhere: @internalsref{StemTremolo}, @internalsref{TremoloEvent}.

@node Measure repeats
@subsection Measure repeats

@cindex percent repeats
@cindex measure repeats

In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated.  It is
printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
Patterns of one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes.
Percent repeats must be declared within a @code{Voice} context.

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright]
\new Voice \relative c' {
  \repeat "percent" 4 { c4 }
  \repeat "percent" 2 { c2 es2 f4 fis4 g4 c4 }
}
@end lilypond

@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{RepeatSlash}, @internalsref{PercentRepeat},
@internalsref{PercentRepeatedMusic}, and
@internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.


@node Expressive marks
@section Expressive marks


@c todo: should change ordering
@c where to put text spanners, metronome marks,
@c fingering?

Expressive marks help musicians to bring more to the music than simple
notes and rhythms.

@menu
* Slurs::                       
* Phrasing slurs::              
* Breath marks::                
* Running trills::              
* Fingering instructions::      
* Grace notes::                 
* Glissando::                   
* Dynamics::                    
@end menu


@node Slurs
@subsection Slurs
@cindex Slurs

A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.

They are entered using parentheses
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,relative=2,fragment,verbatim]
f( g a) a8 b( a4 g2 f4)
<c e>2( <b d>2)
@end lilypond

The direction of a slur can be set with the
generic commands

@example
\override Slur #'direction = #UP
\slurUp            % shortcut for the previous line
@end example

@noindent
However, there is a convenient shorthand for forcing slur
directions.  By adding @code{_} or @code{^} before the opening
parentheses, the direction is also set.  For example,

@lilypond[relative=2,raggedright,quote,verbatim,fragment]
c4_( c) c^( c)
@end lilypond

Some composers write two slurs when they want legato chords.  This can
be achieved in LilyPond by setting @code{doubleSlurs},

@lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,relative,fragment,quote]
\set doubleSlurs = ##t
<c e>4 ( <d f> <c e> <d f> )
@end lilypond


@refcommands


@cindex @code{\slurUp}
@code{\slurUp},
@cindex @code{\slurDown}
@code{\slurDown},
@cindex @code{\slurNeutral}
@code{\slurNeutral},
@cindex @code{\slurDashed}
@code{\slurDashed},
@cindex @code{\slurDotted}
@code{\slurDotted},
@cindex @code{\slurSolid}
@code{\slurSolid}.

@seealso

Program reference: @seeinternals{Slur}, and @internalsref{SlurEvent}.


@node Phrasing slurs
@subsection Phrasing slurs

@cindex phrasing slurs
@cindex phrasing marks

A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
indicate a musical sentence.  It is written using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
respectively

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
\time 6/4 c'\( d( e) f( e) d\)
@end lilypond

Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a
normal slur.  However, they are treated as different objects.  A
@code{\slurUp} will have no effect on a phrasing slur; instead, use
@code{\phrasingSlurUp}, @code{\phrasingSlurDown}, and
@code{\phrasingSlurNeutral}.

The commands @code{\slurUp}, @code{\slurDown}, and @code{\slurNeutral}
will only affect normal slurs and not phrasing slurs.

@refcommands

@cindex @code{\phrasingSlurUp}
@code{\phrasingSlurUp},
@cindex @code{\phrasingSlurDown}
@code{\phrasingSlurDown},
@cindex @code{\phrasingSlurNeutral}
@code{\phrasingSlurNeutral}.

@seealso

Program reference: see also @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, and
@internalsref{PhrasingSlurEvent}.

@refbugs

Putting phrasing slurs over rests leads to spurious warnings.

@node Breath marks
@subsection Breath marks

Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}


@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
c'4 \breathe d4
@end lilypond

The glyph of the breath mark can be tuned by overriding the
@code{text} property of the @code{BreathingSign} layout object with
any markup text.  For example,
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
c'4
\override BreathingSign #'text
  = #(make-musicglyph-markup "scripts.rvarcomma")
\breathe
d4
@end lilypond

@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{BreathingSign},
@internalsref{BreathingSignEvent}.

Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,breathing@/-sign@/.ly}.


@node Running trills
@subsection Running trills

Long running trills are made with @code{\startTrillSpan} and
@code{\stopTrillSpan},


@lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,relative=2,quote,fragment]
\new Voice {
  << { c1 \startTrillSpan }
     { s2. \grace { d16[\stopTrillSpan e] } } >>
  c4 }
@end lilypond

@refcommands

@code{\startTrillSpan},
@cindex @code{\startTrillSpan}
@code{\stopTrillSpan}.
@cindex @code{\stopTrillSpan}

@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{TrillSpanner},
@internalsref{TrillSpanEvent}.

@node Fingering instructions
@subsection Fingering instructions

@cindex fingering

Fingering instructions can be entered using
@example
@var{note}-@var{digit}
@end example
For finger changes, use markup texts

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright,fragment,relative=1]
c4-1 c-2 c-3 c-4
c^\markup { \finger "2-3" }
@end lilypond

@cindex finger change
@cindex scripts
@cindex superscript
@cindex subscript

You can use the thumb-script to indicate that a note should be
played with the thumb (e.g., in cello music)
@lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright,fragment,relative=2]
<a_\thumb a'-3>8 <b_\thumb b'-3>
@end lilypond

Fingerings for chords can also be added to individual notes
of the chord by adding them after the pitches
@lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright,fragment,relative=2]
< c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >4
@end lilypond

@noindent
In this case, setting @code{fingeringOrientations} will put fingerings next
to note heads

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright,fragment,relative=1]
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(left down)
<c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 > 4
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(up right down)
<c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 > 4
@end lilypond

Using this feature, it is also possible to put fingering instructions
very close to note heads in monophonic music,

@lilypond[verbatim,raggedright,quote,fragment]
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(right)
<es'-2>4
@end lilypond


@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{FingerEvent}, and @internalsref{Fingering}.

Examples: @inputfileref{input/@/regression,finger@/-chords@/.ly}.




@node Grace notes
@subsection Grace notes


@c should have blurb about accaciatura / appogiatura

@cindex @code{\grace}
@cindex ornaments
@cindex grace notes

Grace notes are ornaments that are written out.  The most common ones
are acciaccatura, which should be played as very short.  It is denoted
by a slurred small note with a slashed stem.  The appoggiatura is a
grace note that takes a fixed fraction of the main note, and is
denoted as a slurred note in small print without a slash.  They
are entered with the commands @code{\acciaccatura} and
@code{\appoggiatura}, as demonstrated in the following example


@cindex appoggiatura
@cindex acciaccatura

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
b4 \acciaccatura d8 c4 \appoggiatura e8 d4
\acciaccatura { g16[ f] } e4
@end lilypond

Both are special forms of the @code{\grace} command.  By prefixing this
keyword to a music expression, a new one is formed, which will be
printed in a smaller font and takes up no logical time in a measure.

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
c4 \grace c16 c4
\grace { c16[ d16] } c2 c4
@end lilypond

@noindent
Unlike @code{\acciaccatura} and @code{\appoggiatura}, the
@code{\grace} command does not start a slur.

Internally, timing for grace notes is done using a second, `grace'
timing.  Every point in time consists of two rational numbers: one
denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing.  The above
example is shown here with timing tuples

@lilypond[quote,raggedright]
<<
  \relative c''{
    c4 \grace c16 c4 \grace {
    c16[ d16] } c2 c4
  }
  \new Lyrics \lyricmode {
    \override LyricText #'font-family = #'typewriter

    \markup { (0,0) } 4
    \grace { \markup {
      ( \fraction 1 4 , \fraction -1 16 ) } 16 }
    \markup { (\fraction 1 4 , 0 ) } 4
    \grace {
      \markup { (\fraction 2 4 , \fraction "-1" 8 ) } 16
      \markup { (\fraction 2 4 , \fraction "-1" 16 ) } 16
    }
    \markup { ( \fraction 2 4 , 0 ) }
  }
>>
@end lilypond


The placement of grace notes is synchronized between different staves.
In the following example, there are two sixteenth grace notes for
every eighth grace note

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
<< \new Staff { e4 \grace { c16[ d e f] } e4 }
   \new Staff { c4 \grace { g8[ b] } c4 } >>
@end lilypond



If you want to end a note with a grace, use the @code{\afterGrace}
command.  It takes two arguments: the main note, and the grace notes
following the main note. 

@lilypond[raggedright, verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
c1 \afterGrace d1 { c16[ d] } c4   
@end lilypond

This will put the grace notes after a ``space'' lasting 3/4 of the
length of the main note.  The fraction 3/4 can be changed by setting
@code{afterGraceFraction}, ie.

@example
afterGraceFraction = #(cons 7 8) 
@end example

@noindent
will put the grace note at 7/8 of the main note. 


The same effect can be achieved manually by doing


@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
\context Voice {
  << { d1^\trill_( }
     { s2 \grace { c16[ d] } } >>
  c4)
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
By adjusting the duration of the skip note (here it is a half-note),
the space between the main-note and the grace is adjusted.




A @code{\grace} section will introduce special typesetting settings,
for example, to produce smaller type, and set directions.  Hence, when
introducing layout tweaks, they should be inside the grace section,
for example,
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
\new Voice {
  \acciaccatura {
    \stemDown
    f16->
    \stemNeutral
  }
  g4
}
@end lilypond

@noindent
The overrides should also be reverted inside the grace section.

The layout of grace sections can be changed throughout the music using
the function @code{add-grace-property}.  The following example
undefines the Stem direction for this grace, so stems do not always
point up.

@example
\new Staff @{
  #(add-grace-property 'Voice 'Stem 'direction '())
  @dots{}
@}
@end example

@noindent
Another option is to change the variables @code{startGraceMusic},
@code{stopGraceMusic}, @code{startAcciaccaturaMusic},
@code{stopAcciaccaturaMusic}, @code{startAppoggiaturaMusic},
@code{stopAppoggiaturaMusic}.  More information is in the file
@file{ly/@/grace@/-init@/.ly}.


@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{GraceMusic}.

@refbugs

A score that starts with a @code{\grace} section needs an explicit
@code{\context Voice} declaration, otherwise the main note and the grace
note end up on different staves.

Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises.  Staff notation,
such as key signatures, bar lines, etc., are also synchronized.  Take
care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without, for example,

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
<< \new Staff { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
   \new Staff { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >>
@end lilypond

@noindent
This can be remedied by inserting grace skips, for the above example

@example
\new Staff @{ c4 \bar "|:" \grace s16 d4 @}
@end example

Grace sections should only be used within sequential music
expressions.  Nesting or juxtaposing grace sections is not supported,
and might produce crashes or other errors.


@node Glissando
@subsection Glissando
@cindex Glissando

@cindex @code{\glissando}

A glissando is a smooth change in pitch.  It is denoted by a line or a
wavy line between two notes.  It is requested by attaching
@code{\glissando} to a note

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
c\glissando c'
@end lilypond

@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{Glissando}, and @internalsref{GlissandoEvent}.

Example files: @file{input/@/regression/@/glissando@/.ly}.



@refbugs

Printing text over the line (such as @emph{gliss.}) is not supported.


@node Dynamics
@subsection Dynamics
@cindex Dynamics



@cindex @code{\ppp}
@cindex @code{\pp}
@cindex @code{\p}
@cindex @code{\mp}
@cindex @code{\mf}
@cindex @code{\f}
@cindex @code{\ff}
@cindex @code{\fff}
@cindex @code{\ffff}
@cindex @code{\fp}
@cindex @code{\sf}
@cindex @code{\sff}
@cindex @code{\sp}
@cindex @code{\spp}
@cindex @code{\sfz}
@cindex @code{\rfz}


Absolute dynamic marks are specified using a command after a note
@code{c4\ff}.  The available dynamic marks are @code{\ppp},
@code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
@code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
@code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}

@lilypond[quote,verbatim,raggedright,fragment,relative=2]
c\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
c2\fp c\sf c\sff c\sp c\spp c\sfz c\rfz
@end lilypond

@cindex @code{\<}
@cindex @code{\>}
@cindex @code{\"!}



A crescendo mark is started with @code{\<} and terminated with
@code{\!}.  A decrescendo is started with @code{\>} and also terminated
with @code{\!}.  Because these marks are bound to notes, you must
use spacer notes if multiple marks are needed during one note

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,verbatim,relative=2]
c\< c\! d\> e\!
<< f1 { s4 s4\< s4\! \> s4\! } >>
@end lilypond
This may give rise to very short hairpins.  Use @code{minimum-length}
in @internalsref{Voice}.@internalsref{Hairpin} to lengthen them, for
example

@example
\override Staff.Hairpin #'minimum-length = #5
@end example

You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins.  Here
is an example how to do it

@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
\setTextCresc
c\< d e f\!
\setHairpinCresc
e\> d c b\!
\setTextDecresc
c\> d e f\!
\setTextDim
e\> d c b\!
@end lilypond

@cindex crescendo
@cindex decrescendo

You can also supply your own texts
@lilypond[quote,raggedright,fragment,relative=1,verbatim]
\set crescendoText = \markup { \italic "cresc. poco" }
\set crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
a'2\< a a a\!\mf
@end lilypond

@cindex diminuendo

To create new dynamic marks or text that should be aligned
with dynamics, see @ref{New dynamic marks}.


@refcommands

@cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
@code{\dynamicUp},
@cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
@code{\dynamicDown},
@cindex @code{\dynamicNeutral}
@code{\dynamicNeutral}.

@cindex direction, of dynamics

@seealso

Program reference: @internalsref{CrescendoEvent},
@internalsref{DecrescendoEvent}, and
@internalsref{AbsoluteDynamicEvent}.

Dynamics are @internalsref{DynamicText} and @internalsref{Hairpin}
objects.  Vertical positioning of these symbols is handled by the
@internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.