Merge branch 'lilypond/translation' of ssh://jomand@git.sv.gnu.org/srv/git/lilypond

[lilypond.git] / Documentation / music-glossary.tely

\input texinfo @c -*- coding: utf-8; mode: texinfo; -*-
@setfilename music-glosssary.info
@settitle Music Glossary
@documentencoding UTF-8
@documentlanguage en
@afourpaper

@include macros.itexi

@c see lilypond.tely for info installation note
@dircategory LilyPond
@direntry
* Glossary: (music-glossary).  Glossary of music terms.
@end direntry

@titlepage
@title Music Glossary
@author Christian Mondrup   @c Original author of LilyPond glossary
@c                             Danish glossary
@author François Pinard            @c Original glossary of GNU music project,
@c                             French glossary
@author Mats Bengtsson      @c Swedish glossary
@author David González      @c Spanish glossary
@author Bjoern Jacke        @c German glossary
@author Neil Jerram         @c English glossary translations
@author Heikki Junes        @c Finnish glossary
@author Kurtis Kroon            @c English glossary maintenance, beg. Oct. 2007
@author Adrian Mariano      @c Italian glossary
@author Han-Wen Nienhuys    @c Dutch glossary
@author Jan Nieuwenhuizen   @c Dutch glossary

@c Fixes by Jean-Pierre Coulon and `Dirk', alphabetized by last name, KK, 10/07
@c Updates to the German translation by Till Rettig, 12/07

Copyright @copyright{} 1999--2009 by the authors

  Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
  under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
  or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation,
  without Invariant Sections.

@end titlepage


@c TODO: multiple omfcreators?
@ignore
@omfcreator Christian Mondrup, Kurt Kroon
@omfdescription Glossary of musical terms with translations
@omftype glossary
@omfcategory Applications|Publishing
@omflanguage English
@end ignore

@ifnottex
@node Top
@top Music glossary
@end ifnottex


@ifnottex

@ifhtml
@ifclear bigpage
This document is also available as a
@uref{source/Documentation/music-glossary.pdf,PDF} and as
@uref{source/Documentation/music-glossary-big-page.html,one big page}.
@end ifclear
@ifset bigpage
This document is also available as a
@uref{source/Documentation/music-glossary.pdf,PDF} and as a
@uref{source/Documentation/music-glossary/index.html,HTML indexed multiple pages}.
@end ifset
@end ifhtml

This glossary was brought you by:

@itemize

@item @b{Christian Mondrup}: Original author of LilyPond glossary, Danish,
@item @b{François Pinard}: Original glossary of GNU music project, French,

@item @b{Han-Wen Nienhuys}: Dutch,
@item @b{Jan Nieuwenhuizen}: Dutch,

@item @b{Neil Jerram}: English,
@item @b{Kurtis Kroon}: English,

@item @b{Heikki Junes}: Finnish,

@item @b{Bjoern Jacke}: German,

@item @b{Adrian Mariano}: Italian,

@item @b{David González}: Spanish,

@item @b{Mats Bengtsson}: Swedish,

@end itemize

with additional contributions: thanks to all who have contributed.

@ignore

The list is rather long ...

@itemize

@item Danish:
@itemize
@item Rune Zedeler, @emph{pace}
@item Eyolf Østrem
@end itemize

@item Dutch:
@itemize
@item Alard de Boer
@end itemize

@item English:
@itemize
@item Trevor Bača
@item Trevor Daniels
@item Andrew Hawryluk
@item Ian Hulin
@item Kieren MacMillan
@item Patrick McCarty
@item Ralph Palmer
@item Carl D. Sorensen
@item Anh Hai Trinh
@end itemize

@item Finnish:
@itemize
@item Risto Vääräniemi
@end itemize

@item German:
@itemize
@item Orm Finnendahl
@item Reinhold Kainhofer
@item Werner Lemberg
@item Till Rettig
@item Thomas Scharkowski
@end itemize

@item Italian
@itemize
@item Andrea Valle
@end itemize

@item Spanish
@itemize
@item Francisco Vila
@end itemize

@item Swedish
@itemize
@item Simon Dahlbacka
@end itemize

@end itemize
@end ignore

@*
Copyright 1999--2009 by the authors

  Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
  under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
  or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation,
  without Invariant Sections.

@*
@end ifnottex

@c @pagesizes 10.3in
@c @everyheading @| @thispage @|
@c @evenheading @thispage @| @|
@c @oddheading @| @| @thispage @|

This is the Music Glossary (MG) for LilyPond version @version{}.
For more information about how this fits with the other
documentation, see 
FIXME FIXME FIXME
@c @rlearning{About the documentation}.


@c arrowref
@macro aref{word}
@iftex
@w{@expansion{}@strong{\word\}}@c
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@expansion{}@ref{\word\, @strong{\word\}}@c
@end ifnottex
@end macro

@menu
* Musical terms A-Z::
* Duration names notes and rests::
* Pitch names::
@end menu


@node Musical terms A-Z
@chapter Musical terms A-Z

Languages in this order.
@itemize
@item UK - British English (where it differs from American English)
@item ES - Spanish
@item I - Italian
@item F - French
@item D - German
@item NL - Dutch
@item DK - Danish
@item S - Swedish
@item FI - Finnish
@end itemize


@menu
* A::
* a due::
* accelerando::
* accent::
* accessory::
* acciaccatura::
* accidental::
* adagio::
* al niente::
* alla breve::
* allegro::
* alteration::
* alto::
* alto clef::
* ambitus::
* anacrusis::
* ancient minor scale::
* andante::
* appoggiatura::
* arpeggio::
* articulation::
* ascending interval::
* augmentation::
* augmented interval::
* autograph::
* B::
* backfall::
* bar::
* bar line::
* baritone::
* baritone clef::
* bass::
* bass clef::
* beam::
* beat::
* beat repeat::
* bind::
* brace::
* bracket::
* brass::
* breath mark::
* breve::
* C::
* C clef::
* cadence::
* cadenza::
* caesura::
* canon::
* cent::
* central C::
* chord::
* chromatic scale::
* chromaticism::
* church mode::
* clef::
* cluster::
* comma::
* common meter::
* common time::
* complement::
* compound interval::
* compound meter::
* compound time::
* concert pitch::
* conjunct movement::
* consonance::
* contralto::
* copying music::
* counterpoint::
* countertenor::
* crescendo::
* cue-notes::
* custos::
* cut time::
* D::
* da capo::
* dal niente::
* dal segno::
* decrescendo::
* descending interval::
* diatonic scale::
* didymic comma::
* diminished interval::
* diminuendo::
* diminution::
* direct::
* disjunct movement::
* dissonance::
* dissonant interval::
* divisio::
* doit::
* dominant::
* dominant ninth chord::
* dominant seventh chord::
* dorian mode::
* dot (augmentation dot)::
* dotted note::
* double appoggiatura::
* double bar line::
* double dotted note::
* double flat::
* double sharp::
* double time signature::
* double trill::
* duple meter::
* duplet::
* duration::
* dynamics::
* E::
* ecclesiastical mode::
* eighth note::
* eighth rest::
* elision::
* embellishment::
* engraving::
* enharmonic::
* equal temperament::
* expression mark::
* extender line::
* F::
* F clef::
* fall::
* feathered beam::
* fermata::
* fifth::
* figured bass::
* fingering::
* flag::
* flageolet::
* flat::
* forefall::
* forte::
* fourth::
* Frenched score::
* Frenched staff::
* Frenched staves::
* fugue::
* functional harmony::
* G::
* G clef::
* glissando::
* grace notes::
* grand staff::
* grave::
* gruppetto::
* H::
* hairpin::
* half note::
* half rest::
* harmonic cadence::
* harmonics::
* harmony::
* hemiola::
* homophony::
* hook::
* hymn meter::
* interval::
* inversion::
* inverted interval::
* just intonation::
* key::
* key signature::
* laissez vibrer::
* largo::
* leading note::
* ledger line::
* legato::
* legato curve::
* leger line::
* ligature::
* lilypond::
* line::
* loco::
* long appoggiatura::
* longa::
* lyric tie::
* lyrics::
* major::
* major interval::
* maxima::
* meantone temperament::
* measure::
* measure repeat::
* mediant::
* melisma::
* melisma line::
* melodic cadence::
* mensural notation::
* mensuration sign::
* meter::
* metronome::
* metronome mark::
* metronomic indication::
* mezzo::
* mezzo-soprano::
* middle C::
* minor::
* minor interval::
* mixolydian mode::
* mode::
* modulation::
* mordent::
* motif::
* motive::
* movement::
* multi-measure rest::
* natural::
* neighbor tones::
* ninth::
* non-legato::
* note::
* note head::
* note names::
* note value::
* octavation::
* octave::
* octave mark::
* octave marking::
* octave sign::
* ornament::
* ossia::
* part::
* pause::
* pennant::
* percent repeat::
* percussion::
* perfect interval::
* phrase::
* phrasing::
* piano::
* pickup::
* pitch::
* pizzicato::
* polymeter::
* polymetric::
* polymetric time signature::
* polyphony::
* portato::
* presto::
* proportion::
* Pythagorean comma::
* quadruplet::
* quality::
* quarter note::
* quarter rest::
* quarter tone::
* quintuplet::
* rallentando::
* relative key::
* repeat::
* rest::
* rhythm::
* ritardando::
* ritenuto::
* scale::
* scale degree::
* scordatura::
* score::
* second::
* semibreve::
* semitone::
* seventh::
* sextolet::
* sextuplet::
* shake::
* sharp::
* simile::
* simple meter::
* sixteenth note::
* sixteenth rest::
* sixth::
* sixty-fourth note::
* sixty-fourth rest::
* slash repeat::
* slur::
* solmization::
* sonata::
* sonata form::
* song texts::
* soprano::
* staccato::
* staff::
* staves::
* stem::
* stringendo::
* strings::
* strong beat::
* subdominant::
* submediant::
* subtonic::
* sul G::
* superdominant::
* supertonic::
* symphony::
* syncopation::
* syntonic comma::
* system::
* temperament::
* tempo indication::
* tenor::
* tenth::
* tenuto::
* third::
* thirty-second note::
* thirty-second rest::
* thorough bass::
* tie::
* time::
* time signature::
* tone::
* tonic::
* transposing instrument::
* transposition::
* treble clef::
* tremolo::
* triad::
* trill::
* triple meter::
* triplet::
* tritone::
* tuning fork::
* tuplet::
* turn::
* unison::
* upbeat::
* voice::
* volta::
* weak beat::
* whole note::
* whole rest::
* whole tone::
* woodwind::
@end menu


@node A
@section A

@itemize
@item ES: la
@item I: la
@item F: la
@item D: A, a
@item NL: a
@item DK: a
@item S: a
@item FI: A, a
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{Pitch names}.


@node a due
@section a due

ES: a dos,
I: a due,
F: à deux,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: kahdelle.

Abbreviated @notation{a2} or @notation{a 2}.  In orchestral scores,
@notation{a due} indicates that:

@enumerate

@item A single part notated on a single staff that normally carries parts
for two players (e.g. first and second oboes) is to be played by both
players.

@item Or conversely, that two pitches or parts notated on a staff that
normally carries a single part (e.g. first violin) are to be played by
different players, or groups of players (@q{desks}).

@end enumerate

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node accelerando
@section accelerando

ES: accelerando,
I: accelerando,
F: accelerando, en accélérant,
D: accelerando, schneller werden,
NL: accelerando,
DK: accelerando,
S: accelerando,
FI: accelerando, kiihdyttäen.

[Italian: @q{speed up, accelerate}]

Increase tempo

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node accent
@section accent

ES: acento,
I: accento,
F: accent,
D: Akzent,
NL: accent,
DK: accent,
S: accent,
FI: aksentti, korostus.

The stress of one tone over others.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node accessory
@section accessory

@seealso
@ref{ornament}.


@node acciaccatura
@section acciaccatura

ES: mordente de una nota,
I: acciaccatura,
F: acciaccatura, appoggiature brève,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: ?.

A grace note which takes its time from the rest or note preceding the
principal note to which it is attached.  The acciaccatura is drawn as a
small eighth note (quaver) with a line drawn through the flag and stem.

@seealso
@ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes}, @ref{ornament}.


@node accidental
@section accidental

ES: alteración accidental,
I: alterazione, accidente,
F: altération accidentelle,
D: Versetzungszeichen, Akzidenz,
NL: toevallig (verplaatsings)teken,
DK: løst fortegn,
S: tillfälligt förtecken,
FI: tilapäinen etumerkki.

An accidental alters a note by:

@itemize

@item Raising its pitch:
@itemize
@item By two semitones—@notation{double sharp}
@item By one semitone—@notation{sharp}
@end itemize

@item Lowering its pitch:
@itemize
@item By one semitone—@notation{flat}
@item By two semitones—@notation{double flat}
@end itemize

@item Or canceling the effects of the key signature or previous accidentals.
@end itemize

@lilypond[quote,notime]
\score {
  \new Staff {
    \relative c'' {
      \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
      gisis1 gis g! ges geses
    }
  }
  \addlyrics {
    \markup {
      \center-column { double sharp }
    }
    sharp
    natural
    flat
    \markup {
      \center-column { double flat }
    }
  }
  \layout {
    \context {
      \Score
      \override SpacingSpanner
        #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 32)
    }
  }
}
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{alteration}, @ref{semitone}, @ref{whole tone}.


@node adagio
@section adagio

ES: adagio, lento,
I: adagio,
F: adagio, lent,
D: Adagio, Langsam,
NL: adagio,
DK: adagio,
S: adagio,
FI: adagio, hitaasti.

[Italian: @q{comfortable, easy}]

@itemize

@item Slow tempo, slower -- especially in even meter -- than
@notation{andante} and faster than @notation{largo}.

@item A movement in slow tempo, especially the second (slow) movement
of sonatas, symphonies, etc.

@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{andante}, @ref{largo}, @ref{sonata}.


@node al niente
@section al niente

ES: al niente,
I: al niente,
F: al niente, en mourant,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: häviten olemattomiin.

[Italian: @q{to nothing}]  Used with @notation{decrescendo} to indicate
that the sound should fade away to nothing.

@notation{Al niente} is indicated by circling the tip of the hairpin:

@lilypond[quote,relative=2]
\override Hairpin #'circled-tip = ##t
c1\<
c2\> c\<
c1\!
@end lilypond

or with the actual phrase @notation{al niente}:

@lilypond[quote,relative=2]
\dimTextDecresc
\override DynamicTextSpanner #'(bound-details right text) =
  \markup { \italic { al niente } }
c1\> ~
c1 ~
c1\!
@end lilypond

Since one does not crescendo @emph{to} nothing, it is not correct to use
@notation{al niente} with @notation{crescendo}.  Instead, one should use
@emph{dal niente} (@notation{@b{from} nothing}).

@seealso
@ref{crescendo}, @ref{dal niente}, @ref{decrescendo}, @ref{hairpin}.


@node alla breve
@section alla breve

ES: alla breve,
I: ?,
F: alla breve, à la brève,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: ?.

[Italian: @q{on the breve}]  Twice as fast as the notation indicates.

Also called @notation{in cut-time}.  The name derives from mensural
notation, where the @notation{tactus} (or beat) is counted on the semibreve
(the modern whole note).  Counting @q{on the breve} shifts the tactus to the
next longest note value, which (in modern usage) effectively halves all note
values.

In mensural notation, breves and semibreves can have a ternary relationship,
in which case @notation{alla breve} means thrice (not twice) as fast.  In
practice, this complication may not have mattered, since Gaffurius's system
of multiplex proportions makes it easy to explicitly state which proportion
is needed.

@seealso
@ref{breve}, @ref{hemiola}, @ref{mensural notation}, @ref{note value},
@ref{proportion}, @ref{whole note}.


@node allegro
@section allegro

ES: allegro, rápido,
I: allegro,
F: allegro, gaiement,
D: Allegro, Schnell, Fröhlich, Lustig,
NL: allegro,
DK: allegro,
S: allegro,
FI: allegro, nopeasti.

[Italian: @q{cheerful}]  Quick tempo.  Also used as a title for pieces in a
quick tempo, especially the first and last movements of a sonata.

@seealso
@ref{sonata}.


@node alteration
@section alteration

ES: alteración,
I: alterazione,
F: altération,
D: Alteration,
NL: verhoging of verlaging,
DK: Forandring,
S: Förändring,
FI: muunnettu.

An alteration is the modification, raising or lowering, of a note's
pitch.  It is established by an accidental.

@c TODO: add second meaning from mensural notation

@seealso
@ref{accidental}.


@node alto
@section alto

ES: alto,
I: contralto,
F: alto,
D: Alt,
NL: alt,
DK: alt,
S: alt,
FI: altto, matala naisääni.

A female voice of low range (@emph{contralto}).  Originally the alto was a
high male voice (hence the name), which by castration or the use of falsetto
reached the height of the natural female voice.  This type of voice is also
known as countertenor.

@seealso
@ref{countertenor}.


@node alto clef
@section alto clef

ES: clave de do en tercera,
I: chiave di contralto,
F: clef d'ut troisième ligne,
D: Altschlüssel, Bratschenschlüssel,
NL: alt sleutel,
DK: altnøgle,
S: altklav,
FI: alttoavain.

C clef setting middle C on the middle line of the staff.

@seealso
@ref{C clef}.


@node ambitus
@section ambitus

ES: ámbito,
I: ambitus,
F: ambitus, tessiture,
D: Ambitus,
NL: ambitus,
DK: ambitus,
S: ambitus,
FI: ambitus, ääniala, soitinala.

[Latin: past participle of @emph{ambire}, @q{to go around}; plural: ambitus]
Denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in a part of music.  It may
also denote the pitch range that a musical instrument is capable of playing.
Sometimes anglicized to @emph{ambit} (pl. @emph{ambits}).

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node anacrusis
@section anacrusis

ES: anacrusa,
I: anacrusi,
F: anacrouse, levée,
D: Auftakt,
NL: opmaat,
DK: optakt,
S: upptakt,
FI: kohotahti.

An anacrusis (also known as pickup or upbeat) is an incomplete measure
of music before a section of music. It also refers to the initial
note(s) of a melody occurring in that incomplete measure.

@lilypond[quote,relative=1]
\key f \major
\time 4/4
\partial 4 f4
bes4. a8 bes4 c
bes4( a) g f
bes4. a8 bes4 c
f,2. \bar "||"
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{measure}, @ref{meter}.


@node ancient minor scale
@section ancient minor scale

ES: escala menor natural,
I: scala minore naturale,
F: forme du mode mineur ancien, troisème mode, mode hellénique,
D: reines Moll, natürliches Moll,
NL: authentieke mineurtoonladder,
DK: ren mol,
S: ren mollskala,
FI: luonnollinen molliasteikko.

Also called @q{natural minor scale}.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
a1 b c d e f g a
@end lilypond


@seealso
@ref{diatonic scale}.


@node andante
@section andante

ES: andante,
I: andante,
F: andante, allant,
D: Andante, Gehend,
NL: andante,
DK: andante,
S: andante,
FI: andante, käyden.

[Italian: present participle of @emph{andare}, @q{to walk}]

Walking tempo/character.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node appoggiatura
@section appoggiatura

ES: apoyatura,
I: appoggiatura,
F: appoggiature, (port de voix),
D: Vorschlag, Vorhalt
NL: voorslag,
DK: forslag,
S: förslag,
FI: appoggiatura, etuhele.

Ornamental note, usually a second, that is melodically connected with
the main note following it.  In music before the 19th century
appoggiature were usually performed on the beat, after that mostly
before the beat.  While the short appoggiatura is performed as a short
note regardless of the duration of the main note the duration of the
long appoggiatura is proportional to that of the main note.

@lilypond[quote,relative=2]
\key d \major
\time 4/4
<d a fis>4_"notation" r
\grace g16
fis8 e16 fis
\grace a16
g8 fis16 g |
a4 \bar "||"

\set Score.measurePosition = #ZERO-MOMENT
<d, a fis>4_"performance" r
g16( fis) e fis
a16 ( g) fis g |
a4 \bar "||"
@end lilypond

An appoggiatura may have more notes preceding the main note.

@lilypond[quote,relative=2]
\key as \major
\time 2/4
\grace bes16 as8-"notation" as16 bes as8 g |
\grace { as16[( bes] } <c as>4)
\grace { as16[( bes] } <c as>4) \bar "||"

\grace bes16 as8-"performance" as16 bes as8 g |
<<
  {
    \voiceOne
    as32 bes c8. as32 bes c8.
  }
  \new Voice {
    \voiceTwo
    as16 ~ as8. as16 ~ as8.
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node arpeggio
@section arpeggio

ES: arpegio,
I: arpeggio,
F: arpège,
D: Arpeggio, Akkordbrechungen, gebro@-chener Akkord,
NL: gebroken akoord,
DK: arpeggio, akkordbrydning,
S: arpeggio,
FI: arpeggio, murtosointu.

[Italian: @q{harp-like, played like a harp}]

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13\cm]
\new PianoStaff <<
  \context Staff = "SA" {
    \relative c'' {
      \clef treble
      \time 4/4
      r8 g16 c e g, c e r8 g,16 c e g, c e
      r8 a,16 d f a, d f r8 a,16 d f a, d f
      \bar "||"
    }
  }
  \context Staff = "SB" {
    \relative c' {
      \clef bass
      <<
        {
          \voiceOne
          r16 e8. ( e4) r16 e8. ( e4)
          r16 d8. ( d4) r16 d8. ( d4)
        }
        \new Voice {
          \voiceTwo
          c2 c
          c2 c
        }
      >>
    }
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node articulation
@section articulation

ES: articulación,
I: articolazione,
F: articulation,
D: Artikulation,
NL: articulatie,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: artikulaatio, ilmaisu.

Articulation refers to notation which indicates how a note or notes
should be played.  Slurs, accents, staccato, and legato are all
examples of articulation.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node ascending interval
@section ascending interval

ES: intervalo ascendente,
I: intervallo ascendente,
F: intervalle ascendant,
D: steigendes Intervall,
NL: stijgend interval,
DK: stigende interval,
S: stigande intervall,
FI: nouseva intervalli.

A distance between a starting lower note and a higher ending note.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node augmented interval
@section augmented interval

ES: intervalo aumentado,
I: intervallo aumentato,
F: intervalle augmenté,
D: übermäßiges Intervall,
NL: overmatig interval,
DK: forstørret interval,
S: överstigande intervall,
FI: ylinouseva intervalli.

@seealso
@ref{interval}.


@node augmentation
@section augmentation

ES: aumentación,
I: aumentazione,
F: augmentation,
D: Augmentation,
NL: Augmentatio,
DK: Forøgelse,
S: Förstoring,
FI: aika-arvojen pidentäminen.

@c TODO: add definition.

This is a placeholder for augmentation (wrt mensural notation).

@seealso
@ref{diminution}, @ref{mensural notation}.


@node autograph
@section autograph

ES: manuscrito,
I: autografo,
F: manuscrit, autographe
D: Autograph, Handschrift,
NL: manuscript,
DK: håndskrift, autograf,
S: handskrift,
FI: käsinkirjoitettu nuotti.

@itemize

@item A manuscript written in the composer's own hand.

@item Music prepared for photoreproduction by freehand drawing, with
the aid of a straightedge ruler and T-square only, which attempts to
emulate engraving. This required more skill than did engraving.

@end itemize

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node B
@section B

@itemize
@item ES: si
@item I: si
@item F: si
@item D: H, h
@item NL: b
@item DK: h
@item S: h
@item FI: H, h
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{H}, @ref{Pitch names}


@node backfall
@section backfall

@seealso
@ref{appoggiatura}.


@node bar
@section bar

@seealso
@ref{measure}.


@node bar line
@section bar line

ES: barra, línea divisoria,
I: stanghetta, barra (di divisione),
F: barre (de mesure),
D: Taktstrich,
NL: maatstreep,
DK: taktstreg,
S: taktstreck,
FI: tahtiviiva.

A vertical line through the staff (or through multiple staves) that
separates measures.  Used very infrequently during the Renaissance (mostly
in secular music, or in sacred music to indicate congruences between parts
in otherwise-unmetered music).

@seealso
@ref{measure}.


@node baritone
@section baritone

ES: barítono,
I: baritono,
F: bariton,
D: Bariton,
NL: bariton,
DK: baryton,
S: baryton,
FI: baritoni, keskikorkuinen miesääni.

The male voice intermediate in pitch between the bass and the tenor.

@c F: clef de troisième ligne dropped

@seealso
@ref{bass}, @ref{tenor}.


@node baritone clef
@section baritone clef

ES: clave de fa en tercera,
I: chiave di baritono,
F: clef d'ut cinquième ligne, clef de fa troisième,
D: Baritonschlüssel,
NL: baritonsleutel,
DK: barytonnøgle,
S: barytonklav,
FI: baritoniavain.

C or F clef setting middle C on the upper staff line.

@seealso
@ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}.


@node bass
@section bass

ES: bajo,
I: basso,
F: basse,
D: Bass,
NL: bas,
DK: bas,
S: bas,
FI: basso, matala miesääni.

@itemize

@item The lowest male voice.

@item Sometimes, especially in jazz music, used as an abbreviation for
double bass.

@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{strings}.


@node bass clef
@section bass clef

ES: clave de fa en cuarta,
I: chiave di basso,
F: clef de fa quatrième ligne,
D: Bassschlüssel,
NL: bassleutel,
DK: basnøgle,
S: basklav,
FI: bassoavain.

A clef setting with middle C on the first top ledger line.

@seealso
@ref{F clef}.


@node beam
@section beam

ES: barra (de corcheas),
I: coda,
F: ligature, barre (de croches),
D: Balken,
NL: waardestreep,
DK: bjælke,
S: balk,
FI: palkki.

Line connecting a series of notes (shorter than a quarter note). The
number of beams determines the note value of the connected notes.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2,line-width=13\cm]
g8-"1/8"[ g g g] s16
g16-"1/16"[ g g g] s
g32-"1/32"[ s g s g s g] s16
g64-"1/64"[ s32 g64 s32 g64 s32 g64] s32
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{feathered beam}.


@node beat
@section beat

ES: tiempo, parte (de compás)
I: tempi,
F: temps,
D: Takt, Taktschlag, Zeit (im Takt),
NL: tel,
DK: (takt)slag,
S: taktslag,
FI: aika-arvo.

Note value used for counting, most often half-, fourth-, and eighth notes.
The base counting value and the number of them in each measure is indicated
at the start of the music by the @notation{time signature}.

@lilypond[quote,relative=2]
\key g \major
\time 4/4
g4 c b a | g1 \bar "||"
\time 3/8
g8 d' c | b c a | g4. \bar "||"
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{time signature}.


@node beat repeat
@section beat repeat

@seealso
@ref{percent repeat}.


@node bind
@section bind

@seealso
@ref{tie}.


@node brace
@section brace

ES: llave, corchete,
I: graffa,
F: accolade,
D: Klammer, Akkolade,
NL: accolade, teksthaak,
DK: klamme,
S: klammer,
FI: yhdistävä sulkumerkki.

Symbol at the start of a system connecting staves.

Curly braces are used for connecting piano staves, and sometimes for connecting
the staves of like instruments in an orchestral score when written on different
staves (e.g. first and second flutes):

@lilypond[quote]
\new GrandStaff <<
  \context Staff = "SA" {
    \relative c'' {
      \clef treble
      g4 e c2
    }
  }
  \context Staff = "SB" {
    \relative c {
      \clef bass
      c1
      \bar "|."
    }
  }
>>
@end lilypond

Angular brackets for connecting parts in an orchestral or choral score:

@lilypond[quote]
\new StaffGroup <<
  \context Staff = "SA" {
    \relative c'' {
      \clef treble
      g4 e c2
    }
  }
  \context Staff = "SB" {
    \relative c {
      \clef bass
      c1
      \bar "|."
    }
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node bracket
@section bracket

ES: corchete,
I: parentesi quadra,
F: crochet,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: sulkumerkki.

@seealso
@ref{brace}


@node brass
@section brass

ES: metales,
I: ottoni,
D: Blechbläser,
NL: koper (blazers),
F: cuivres,
DK: messingblæsere,
S: brassinstrument, mässingsinstrument,
FI: vaskisoitin.

A family of blown musical instruments made of brass, all using a cup
formed mouth piece.  The brass instruments commonly used in a symphony
orchestra are trumpet, trombone, french horn, and tuba.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node breath mark
@section breath mark

ES: respiración,
I: respiro,
F: respiration,
D: Atemzeichen, Trennungszeichen,
NL: repercussieteken,
DK: vejrtrækningstegn,
S: andningstecken,
FI: hengitysmerkki.

Indication of where to breathe in vocal and wind instrument parts.

@seealso
@ref{caesura}.


@node breve
@section breve

@itemize
@item US: breve, double-whole note
@item ES: cuadrada, breve
@item I: breve
@item F: brève
@item D: Brevis
@item NL: brevis
@item DK: brevis
@item S: brevis
@item FI: brevis, kaksoiskokonuotti
@end itemize

Note value: twice the length of a @notation{whole note} (@notation{semibreve}).

Mainly used in music from before 1650.  In mensural notation, it was a note
of fairly short duration—hence the name, which is Latin for @q{short} or
@q{of short duration}.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
g\breve
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{mensural notation}, @ref{note value}, @ref{semibreve}.


@node C
@section C

@itemize
@item ES: do
@item I: do
@item F: ut, do
@item D: C, c
@item NL: c
@item DK: c
@item S: c
@item FI: C, c
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{Pitch names}.


@node C clef
@section C clef

ES: clave de do,
I: chiave di do,
F: clef d'ut,
D: C-Schlüssel,
NL: C-sleutel,
DK: c-nøgle,
S: c-klav,
FI: C-avain.

Clef symbol indicating the position of the middle C.  Used on all note
lines.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1,line-width=13.0\cm]
\new Staff {
  \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
  \clef soprano c1
  \clef mezzosoprano c1
  \clef alto c1
  \clef tenor c1
  \clef baritone c1
}
\addlyrics {
  \override Lyrics . LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #LEFT
  "Soprano     " "Mezzosoprano " "Alto        " "Tenor       " "Baritone    "
}
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node cadence
@section cadence

ES: cadencia,
I: cadenza,
F: cadence,
D: Kadenz,
NL: cadens,
DK: kadence,
S: kadens,
FI: kadenssi, lopuke.

@seealso
@ref{harmonic cadence}, @ref{functional harmony}.


@node cadenza
@section cadenza

ES: cadenza,
I: cadenza,
F: cadence,
D: Kadenz,
NL: cadens,
DK: kadence,
S: kadens,
FI: kadenssi, lopuke.

An extended, improvisatory style section inserted near the end of
movement.  The purpose of a cadenza is to give singers or players a
chance to exhibit their technical skill and -- not last -- their
ability to improvise.  Since the middle of the 19th century, however,
most cadenzas have been written down by the composer.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node caesura
@section caesura

ES: cesura,
I: cesura,
F: césure,
D: Zäsur,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: välimerkki.

[Latin: from the supine of @emph{caedere} @q{to cut down}]

The break between two musical phrases, sometimes (but not always) marked by a
rest or a breath mark.

@seealso
@ref{breath mark}.


@node canon
@section canon

ES: canon,
I: canone,
F: canon,
D: Kanon,
NL: canon,
DK: kanon,
S: kanon,
FI: kaanon, tarkka jäljittely.

@seealso
@ref{counterpoint}.


@node cent
@section cent

ES: cent,
I: cent,
F: cent,
D: Cent,
NL: cent,
DK: cent,
S: cent,
FI: sentti, puolisävelaskeleen sadasosa tasavireisessä
viritysjärjestelmässä.

Logarithmic unit of measuring pitch differences.  1@tie{}cent is 1/1200 of
an octave (1/100 of an equally tempered semitone).

@seealso
@ref{equal temperament}, @ref{semitone}.


@node central C
@section central C

@seealso
@ref{middle C}.


@node chord
@section chord

ES: acorde,
I: accordo,
F: accord,
D: Akkord,
NL: akkoord,
DK: akkord,
S: ackord,
FI: sointu.

Three or more tones sounding simultaneously.  In traditional European music
the base chord is a @emph{triad} consisting of two thirds. @emph{Major}
(major + minor third) as well as @emph{minor} (minor + major third) chords
may be extended with more thirds. Four-tone @emph{seventh chords} and
five-tone @emph{ninth} major chords are most often used as dominants
(functional harmony).  Chords having no third above the lower notes to
define their mood are a special case called @q{open chords}.  The lack of
the middle third means their quality is ambivalent -- neither major nor
minor.

@lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
<<
  \new Staff {
    \relative c'' {
      \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
      <g b d>1
      <g bes d>
      <g bes des>
      <g b dis>
      <g b d f>
      <g b d f a>
    }
  }
  \lyrics {
    "major  "
    "minor  "
    "diminished  "
    "augmented  "
    "seventh-chord  "
    "ninth-chord"
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{interval}, @ref{inversion}, @ref{quality},
@ref{third}.


@node chromatic scale
@section chromatic scale

ES: escala cromática,
I: scala cromatica,
F: gamme chromatique,
D: chro@-ma@-ti@-sche Tonleiter,
NL: chromatische toonladder,
DK: kromatisk skala,
S: kromatisk skala,
FI: kromaattinen asteikko.

A scale consisting of all 12 semitones.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1,line-width=13.0\cm]
c1 cis d dis e f fis g gis a ais b c
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{semitone}.


@node chromaticism
@section chromaticism

ES: cromatismo,
I: cromatismo,
F: chromatisme,
D: Chromatik,
NL: chromatiek,
DK: kromatik,
S: kromatik,
FI: kromatiikka.

Using tones extraneous to a diatonic scale (minor, major).

@seealso
@ref{diatonic scale}.


@node church mode
@section church mode

ES: modo eclesiástico,
I: modo ecclesiastico,
F: mode ecclésiastique, mode d'église,
D: Kirchentonart,
NL: kerktoonladder,
DK: kirketoneart,
S: kyrkotonart,
FI: moodi, kirkkosävellaji.

@seealso
@ref{diatonic scale}.


@node clef
@section clef

ES: clave,
I: chiave,
F: clé, clef,
D: Schlüssel, Notenschlüssel,
NL: sleutel,
DK: nøgle,
S: klav,
FI: avain, nuottiavain.

The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
pitches.  The three clef symbols in common use are:

@lilypond[quote]
\markup {
  \left-column {
    \line { The Treble or G clef: }
    \strut
    \line { The Bass or F clef: }
    \strut
    \line { The Alto or C clef: }
  }
  \hspace #0.5
  \left-column {
    \musicglyph #"clefs.G"
    \strut
    \musicglyph #"clefs.F"
    \strut
    \musicglyph #"clefs.C"
 }
}
@end lilypond

Imagine a large staff of 11 lines centered on middle C, sometimes
called a @q{grand staff}, with the bottom line representing low G and
the top line high F:

@lilypond[quote]
\score {
  <<
    %-- Note names above treble staff --%
    \new NoteNames {
      \set printOctaveNames = ##t
      g,1 b, d f a
      \once \override NoteName #'color = #red
      c'1
      e'1 g' b' d'' f''
    }
    %-- Treble Staff --%
    \new Staff = "G" {
      \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
      \clef "G"
      s1 s s s s s
      e'1 g' b' d'' f''
      s1
    }
    %-- Alto Staff reduced to a single line on middle C --%
    \new Staff = "C" {
      \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #1
      \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
      \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
      \clef "C"
      s1 s s s s
      \override NoteHead #'color = #red
      c'1
      s1 s s s s s
    }
    %-- Bass Staff --%
    \new Staff = "F" {
      \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
      \clef "F"
      g,1 b, d f a
      s1 s s s s s s
    }
  >>
  \layout {
    \context {
      \Score
      \override SpacingSpanner
        #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 1)
      \override  NonMusicalPaperColumn
        #'line-break-system-details = #'((alignment-distances . (3 3)))
      \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
    }
    \context {
      \Staff
      \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
    }
  }
}
@end lilypond

Staves of five lines are usually used, and the clef superimposed on them
indicates which five lines have been selected from this @notation{grand
staff}. For example, the treble or G clef indicates that the top five lines
have been selected:

@lilypond[quote]
\score {
  <<
    %-- Note names above treble staff --%
    \new NoteNames {
      \set printOctaveNames = ##t
      g,1 b, d f a
      \once \override NoteName #'color = #red
      c'1
      s1
      e'1 g' b' d'' f''
    }
    %-- Treble Staff --%
    \new Staff = "G" {
      \once \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
      \clef "G"
      s1 s s s s s s
      \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
      \set Staff.forceClef = ##t
      \clef "G"
      e'1 g' b' d'' f''
    }
    %-- Alto Staff reduced to a single line on middle C --%
    \new Staff = "C" {
      \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #1
      \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
      \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
      \clef "C"
      s1 s s s s
      \override NoteHead #'color = #red
      c'1
    }
    %-- Bass Staff --%
    \new Staff = "F" {
      \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
      \clef "F"
      g,1 b, d f a
    }
  >>
  \layout {
    \context {
      \Score
      \override SpacingSpanner
        #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 2 1)
      \override  NonMusicalPaperColumn
        #'line-break-system-details = #'((alignment-distances . (3 3)))
      \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
    }
    \context {
      \Staff
      \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
    }
  }
}
@end lilypond

The @q{curl} of the G clef is centered on the line that represents the
pitch G.

In the same way, the bass or F clef indicates that the bottom five lines
have been selected from the @notation{grand staff}, and the alto or C clef
indicates the middle five lines have been selected.  This relationship is
shown below, where the notes show an arpeggio on a C major chord.

@lilypond[quote]
\score {
  <<
    %-- Treble Staff --%
    \new Staff = "G" {
      \clef "G"
      s1 s s s
      e'1 g' c'' s
    }
    %-- Alto Staff --%
    \new Staff = "C" {
      \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #1
      \once \override Staff.Clef #'stencil = ##f
      \stopStaff
      \clef "C"
      s1 s s
      \startStaff
      \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'stencil
      \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #red
      c'1
      s1 s s s s
      \stopStaff \startStaff
      \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count
      \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'color
      \stopStaff \startStaff
      \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
      \set Staff.forceClef = ##t
      \clef "C"
      s1 s
      c1 e g c' e' g' c''
    }
    %-- Bass Staff --%
    \new Staff = "F" {
      \clef "F"
      c1 e g
      s1 s s s s
    }
  >>
  \layout {
    \context {
      \Score
      \override SpacingSpanner #'base-shortest-duration =
        #(ly:make-moment 2 1)
      \override  NonMusicalPaperColumn
        #'line-break-system-details = #'((alignment-distances . (3 3)))
      \override BarLine #'stencil = ##f
    }
    \context {
      \Staff
      \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
    }
  }
}
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{C clef}, @ref{F clef}, @ref{G clef}.


@node cluster
@section cluster

ES: racimo,
I: cluster,
F: cluster,
D: Cluster,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: klusteri, cluster.

A @emph{cluster} is a range of simultaneously sounding pitches that
may change over time.  The set of available pitches to apply usually
depends on the acoustic source.  Thus, in piano music, a cluster
typically consists of a continuous range of the semitones as provided
by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic scale.  In choral music, each
singer of the choir typically may sing an arbitrary pitch within the
cluster's range that is not bound to any diatonic, chromatic or other
scale.  In electronic music, a cluster (theoretically) may even cover
a continuous range of pitches, thus resulting in colored noise, such
as pink noise.

Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
notes.  Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by
the shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical
extent of the note symbol.  In contrast, the shape of a cluster
geometrically describes the development of a range of pitches
(vertical extent) over time (horizontal extent).  Still, the
geometrical shape of a cluster covers the area in which any single
pitch contained in the cluster would be notated as an ordinary note.

@lilypond[quote,relative=2]
\makeClusters { <c e>4 <b f'> <b g'> <c g>8 <f e> }
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node comma
@section comma

ES: coma, comma,
I: comma,
F: comma,
D: Komma,
NL: komma,
DK: komma,
S: komma,
FI: komma, korvinkuultava ero äänenkorkeudessa.

Difference in pitch between a note derived from pure tuning and the
same note derived from some other tuning method.

@seealso
@ref{didymic comma}, @ref{Pythagorean comma}, @ref{syntonic comma},
@ref{temperament}.


@node common meter
@section common meter

Another name for @ref{common time}.

@seealso
@ref{common time}, @ref{meter}.


@node common time
@section common time

ES: compasillo,
I: tempo semplice,
F: mesure à 4/4,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: C-merkintä.

4/4 time.  The symbol, which resembles a capital letter C, comes from
mensural notation.

@seealso
@ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}.


@node complement
@section complement

ES: intervalo invertido,
I: rivolto,
F: intervalle complémentaire,
D: Komplementärintervall,
NL: complementair interval,
DK: komplementærinterval,
S: komplementärintervall (?),
FI: täydentävä intervalli.

@seealso
@ref{inverted interval}.


@node compound interval
@section compound interval

ES: intervalo compuesto,
I: intervallo composto,
F: intervalle composé,
D: weites Intervall,
NL: samengesteld interval,
DK: sammensat interval,
S: sammansatt intervall,
FI: oktaavia laajempi intervalli.

Intervals larger than an octave.

@seealso
@ref{interval}.


@node compound meter
@section compound meter

ES: compás compuesto, compás de subdivisión ternaria,
I: tempo composto,
F: mesure composée,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: kolmijakoinen tahtilaji.

A meter that includes a triplet subdivision within the beat, such as
6/8, 9/8, 12/8.

@seealso
@ref{meter}, @ref{simple meter}.


@node compound time
@section compound time

ES: compás compuesto, compás de amalgama (def. 2),
I: ?,
F: temps composé,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: yhdistetty tahtilajiosoitus.

@enumerate

@item
A meter that includes a triplet subdivision within the beat: see
@ref{compound meter}.

@item
A time signature that additively combines two or more unequal meters, e.g.,
@q{3/8 + 2/8} instead of @q{5/8}.  Sometimes called additive time signatures.

@end enumerate

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
#(define ((compound-time one two three num) grob)
  (grob-interpret-markup grob
    (markup
      #:override '(baseline-skip . 0)
      #:number
      #:line (
        #:left-column (one num)
        #:vcenter "+"
        #:left-column (two num)
        #:vcenter "+"
        #:left-column (three num)))))

\relative c' {
  \key f \major
  #(set-time-signature 8 8 '(3 2 3))
  \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil =
    #(compound-time "3" "2" "3" "8")
  c8 d e f4 d8 c bes
  c4 g'8 e c f4.
  \bar "||"
}
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{compound meter}, @ref{meter}, @ref{polymetric time signature}.


@node concert pitch
@section concert pitch

ES: en Do, tono de concierto,
I: intonazione reale,
F: tonalité de concert, en ut,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: konserttikorkeus.

The pitch at which the piano and other nontransposing instruments play: such
instruments are said to be @q{in C}.  The following list includes some (but not
all) instruments that play in concert pitch:

@c Let's see how easy (or hard) it is to put bulleted lists in tables.

@multitable {bassoon} {violoncello}
@headitem Woodwinds @tab Strings

@item
@itemize
@item flute
@item oboe
@item bassoon
@end itemize

@tab

@itemize
@item violin
@item viola
@item violoncello
@end itemize

@end multitable

@ignore This needs to be reworked.
The trombones are a special case: although they are said to be @q{in F} (alto or
bass) or @q{in B-flat} (tenor), this refers to their fundamental note, not to
their parts' transposition.  (In fact, the trombones' parts are written at
concert pitch with an appropriate clef -- alto, tenor or bass.)  This differs
from other instruments @q{in F}, @q{in B-flat}, and so on, which are transposing
instruments.
@end ignore

Instruments that play @q{in C} but in a different octave than what is written
are, technically speaking, @emph{transposing instruments}:

@itemize

@item piccolo (plays an octave higher than written)
@item celesta (plays an octave higher than written)
@item classical guitar (plays an octave lower than written)
@item double bass (plays an octave lower than written)

@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{transposing instrument}.


@node conjunct movement
@section conjunct movement

ES: movimiento conjunto,
I: moto congiunto,
F: mouvement conjoint,
D: schritt@-weise, stufenweise Bewegung,
NL: stapsgewijze, trapsgewijze beweging,
DK: trinvis bevægelse,
S: stegvis rörelse,
FI: asteittainen liike.

Progressing melodically by intervals of a second, as contrasted with
@emph{disjunct movement}.

@lilypond[quote,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
\key g \major
\time 4/4
g4 g g a | b2 a | g4 b a a | g1 \bar "||"
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{disjunct movement}.


@node consonance
@section consonance

ES: consonancia,
I: consonanza,
F: consonance,
D: Konsonanz,
NL: consonant,
DK: konsonans,
S: konsonans,
FI: konsonanssi, sopusointi.

@seealso
@ref{harmony}.


@node contralto
@section contralto

ES: contralto,
I: contralto,
F: contralto,
D: Alt,
NL: contralto,
DK: alt,
S: alt,
FI: kontra-altto.

@seealso
@ref{alto}.


@node copying music
@section copying music

A music copyist did fast freehand scores and parts on preprinted staff
lines for performance.  Some of their conventions (e.g., the placement
of note heads on stems) varied slightly from those of engravers.  Some
of their working methods were superior and could well be adopted by
music typesetters.

@c Copying music required more skill than engraving.  Flagged for NPOV

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node counterpoint
@section counterpoint

ES: contrapunto,
I: contrappunto,
F: contrepoint,
D: Kontrapunkt,
NL: contrapunt,
DK: kontrapunkt,
S: kontrapunkt,
FI: kontrapunkti, ääni ääntä vastaan.

From Latin @emph{punctus contra punctum}, note against note.  The
combination into a single musical fabric of lines or parts which have
distinct melodic significance.  A frequently used polyphonic technique
is imitation, in its strictest form found in the canon needing only
one part to be written down while the other parts are performed with a
given displacement.  Imitation is also the contrapuntal technique
used in the @emph{fugue} which, since the music of the baroque era,
has been one of the most popular polyphonic composition methods.

@lilypond[quote,staffsize=12,line-width=13.0\cm]
\new PianoStaff <<
  \context Staff = SA \relative c' {
    \key bes \major
    \time 4/4
    \clef treble
    << \context Voice = rha {
        \stemUp
        r1 | r2 r8 g'8 bes d, |
        cis4 d r8 e!16 f g8 f16 e |
        f8 g16 a bes8 a16 g a8
      }
      \context Voice = rhb {
        \stemDown
        r1 | r | r | r2 s8
      }
    >>
  }
  \context Staff = SB \relative c' {
    \clef bass
    \key bes \major
    << \context Voice = lha {
        \stemUp
        r8 d es g, fis4 g | r8 a16 bes c8 bes16 a bes4 g |
        r8 a16 g f8 g16 a bes8 g e! cis' |
        d4. e!8 f
      }
      \context Voice = lhb {
        \stemDown
        r1 | r | r | r2 s8
      } >>
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node countertenor
@section countertenor

ES: contratenor,
I: controtenore,
F: contre-tenor,
D: Countertenor, Kontratenor,
NL: contratenor,
DK: kontratenor,
S: kontratenor, counter tenor,
FI: kontratenori.

@seealso
@ref{contralto}.


@node crescendo
@section crescendo

ES: crescendo,
I: crescendo,
F: crescendo,
D: Crescendo, lauter werden,
NL: crescendo,
DK: crescendo,
S: crescendo,
FI: cresendo, voimistuen.

Increasing volume.  Indicated by a rightwards opening horizontal wedge
(hairpin) or the abbreviation @notation{cresc.}.

@lilypond[quote,relative=2]
\key g \major
\time 4/4
g4\< a b c | d1\! \bar "|."
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{decrescendo}, @ref{hairpin}.


@node cue-notes
@section cue-notes

ES: notas guía,
I: notine,
F: petites notes précédant l'entrée d'un instrument, réplique, @q{à défaut},
D: Stichnoten,
NL: stichnoten,
DK: stiknoder,
S: inprickningar,
FI: vihjenuotit.

Notes belonging to one part printed in another to hint when to start
playing.  Usually printed in a smaller type.

@seealso
Compare: @ref{ossia}.


@node custos
@section custos

ES: custos,
I: custos, guida,
F: guidon,
D: Notenzeiger, Custos,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: vihje.

A custos (plural: custodes) is a staff symbol that appears at the end of a
staff line with monophonic musical contents (i.e., with a single voice).  It
anticipates the pitch of the first note of the following line and thus helps
the player or singer to manage line breaks during performance, which
enhances the readability of a score.

Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 16th century. 
There were different appearences for different notation styles.  Nowadays,
they have survived only in special forms of musical notation such as the
@emph{Editio Vaticana}, dating from the beginning of the 20th century

@lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
\score {
  \new Staff {
    \override Staff.Custos #'neutral-direction = #DOWN
    \override Staff.Custos #'style = #'hufnagel
    c'1 \break
    <d' a' f''>1
  }
  \layout {
    \context {
      \Staff
      \consists "Custos_engraver"
    }
  }
}
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node cut time
@section cut time

@seealso
@ref{alla breve}.


@node D
@section D

@itemize
@item ES: re
@item I: re
@item F: ré
@item D: D, d
@item NL: d
@item DK: d
@item S: d
@item FI: D, d
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{Pitch names}


@node da capo
@section da capo

ES: da capo,
I: da capo,
F: da capo, depuis le commencement,
D: da capo, von Anfang,
NL: da capo,
DK: da capo,
S: da capo,
FI: da capo, alusta.

Abbreviated @notation{D.C.}.  Indicates that the piece is to be repeated from
the beginning to the end or to a certain place marked @emph{fine}.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node dal niente
@section dal niente

ES: dal niente, de la nada,
I: dal niente,
F: partant de rien,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: tyhjästä ilmaantuen.

[Italian: @q{from nothing}]  Used with @notation{crescendo} to indicate
that the sound should gradually increase from nothing.

@seealso
@ref{al niente}.


@node dal segno
@section dal segno

ES: dal segno,
I: dal segno,
F: dal segno, depuis le signe,
D: dal segno, ab dem Zeichen,
NL: dal segno,
DK: dal segno,
S: dal segno,
FI: dal segno, lähtien merkistä.

Abbreviated @notation{D.S.}.  Repetition, not from the beginning, but from
another place frequently near the beginning marked by a sign
(@notation{segno}):

@lilypond[quote,relative=2]
\key g \major
\time 4/4
d1
g,4^\segno a b c
b4 a g2-\markup {
  \italic "D.S. "
  \tiny \raise #1
  \musicglyph #"scripts.segno"
}
\bar "|."
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node decrescendo
@section decrescendo

ES: decrescendo,
I: decrescendo,
D: Decrescendo, leiser werden,
NL: decrescendo,
DK: decrescendo,
S: decrescendo,
FI: decresendo, hiljentyen.

Decreasing tone volume.  Indicated by a leftwards opening horizontal
wedge (hairpin) or the abbreviation @notation{decresc.}.

@lilypond[quote,relative=2]
\key g \major
\time 4/4
d4\> c b a | g1 \! \bar "|."
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{crescendo}, @ref{diminuendo}, @ref{hairpin}.


@node descending interval
@section descending interval

ES: intervalo descendente,
I: intervallo discendente,
F: intervalle descendant,
D: fallendes Intervall, absteigendes Intervall,
NL: dalend interval,
DK: faldende interval,
S: fallande intervall,
FI: laskeva intervalli.

A distance between a starting higher note and a lower ending note.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node diatonic scale
@section diatonic scale

ES: escala diatónica,
I: scala diatonica,
F: gamme diatonique,
D: diatonische Tonleiter,
NL: diatonische toonladder,
DK: diatonisk skala,
S: diatonisk skala,
FI: diatoninen asteikko.

A scale consisting of 5@w{ }whole tones and 2@w{ }semitones (S). Scales
played on the white keys of a piano keybord are diatonic.  These scales
are sometimes called, somewhat inaccurately, @q{church modes}).

These @emph{modes} are used in Gregorian chant and in pre-baroque early music
but also to some extent in newer jazz music.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1]
<<
  {
    c1 d
    e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c
  }
  \lyrics {
    Ionian
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1]
<<
  {
    d1
    e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c d
  }
  \lyrics {
    Dorian
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1]
<<
  {
    e1^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c d e
  }
  \lyrics {
    Phrygian
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1]
<<
  {
    f1 g a
    b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f
  }
  \lyrics {
    Lydian
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
<<
  {
    g1 a
    b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g
  }
  \lyrics {
    Mixolydian
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
<<
  {
    a1
    b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a
  }
  \lyrics {
    Aeolian
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
<<
  {
    b1^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a b
  }
  \lyrics {
    Locrian
  }
>>
@end lilypond

From the beginning of the 17th century the scales used in European
compositional music are primarily the major and the minor scales.  In
the harmonic minor scale type an augmented second (A) occurs between
the 6th and 7th tone.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1]
<<
  {
    c1 d
    e^"~~ S" f g a b^"~~ S" c
  }
 \lyrics {
    Major
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
<<
  {
    a1
    b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f g a
  }
 \lyrics {
    "Ancient (or Natural) minor"
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
<<
  {
    a1
    b^"~~ S" c d e^"~~ S" f!^"~~ A" gis^"~~ S" a
  }
  \lyrics {
    "Harmonic minor"
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
<<
  {
    a1
    b^"~~ S" c d e fis gis^"~~ S" a
  }
   \lyrics {
    "Melodic minor ascending"
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=3]
<<
  {
    a1
    g! f!^"~~ S" e d c^"~~ S" b a
  }
   \lyrics {
    "Melodic minor descending"
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{semitone}, @ref{whole tone}.


@node didymic comma
@section didymic comma

@seealso
@ref{syntonic comma}.


@node diminished interval
@section diminished interval

ES: intervalo disminuido,
I: intervallo diminuito,
F: intervalle diminué,
D: vermindertes Intervall,
NL: verminderd interval,
DK: formindsket interval,
S: förminskat intervall,
FI: vähennetty intervalli.

@seealso
@ref{interval}.


@node diminuendo
@section diminuendo

ES: diminuendo,
I: diminuendo,
F: diminuendo, en diminuant,
D: diminuendo,
NL: diminuendo,
DK: diminuendo,
S: diminuendo,
FI: diminuendo, hiljentyen.

@seealso
@ref{decrescendo}.


@node diminution
@section diminution

ES: disminución,
I: diminuzione,
F: diminution,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: aika-arvojen tihennys.

This is a stub for diminution (@emph{wrt} mensural notation).

@seealso
@ref{augmentation}, @ref{mensural notation}.


@node direct
@section direct

ES: directo,
I: ?,
F: ?,
D: Weiser, Zeiger,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: suora.

@seealso
@ref{custos}.


@node disjunct movement
@section disjunct movement

ES: movimiento disjunto,
I: moto disgiunto,
F: mouvement disjoint,
D: sprunghafte Bewegung,
NL: sprongsgewijze beweging,
DK: springende bevægelse,
S: hoppande rörelse,
FI: melodian hyppivä liike.

Progressing melodically by intervals larger than a major second, as contrasted
with conjunct movement.

@lilypond[quote,relative=1]
\key a \major
\time 4/4 {
  \partial 8 e8 |
  a4. gis8 b a e cis |
  fis2 d4.
  \bar "||" }
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{conjunct movement}.


@node dissonance
@section dissonance

Another name for @ref{dissonant interval}.

@seealso
@ref{dissonant interval}, @ref{harmony}.


@node dissonant interval
@section dissonant interval

ES: intervalo disonante, disonancia,
I: intervallo dissonante, dissonanza,
F: intervalle dissonant, dissonance,
D: Dissonanz,
NL: dissonant interval, dissonant,
DK: dissonerende interval, dissonans,
S: dissonans,
FI: dissonanssi, dissonoiva intervalli, riitasointi.

@seealso
@ref{harmony}.


@node divisio
@section divisio

ES: división,
I: ?,
F: ?,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: jäsennysmerkki.

[Latin: @q{division}; pl. @emph{divisiones}] In Gregorian chant, a
vertical stroke through part or all of the staff that serves to
structure a chant into phrases and sections.  There are four types:

@itemize

@item @emph{divisio minima}, a short pause

@item @emph{divisio maior}, a medium pause

@item @emph{divisio maxima}, a long pause

@item @emph{finalis}, to indicate the end of a chant, or the end of a
section in a long antiphonal or responsorial chant.

@end itemize

TODO: musical example here?

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node doit
@section doit

ES: elevación [de tono],
I: ?,
F: saut,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: nousu.

Indicator for a indeterminately rising pitch bend.  Compare with
@emph{glissando}, which has determinate starting and ending pitches.

@seealso
@ref{fall}, @ref{glissando}.


@node dominant
@section dominant

ES: dominante,
I: dominante,
F: dominante,
D: Dominante,
NL: dominant,
DK: dominant,
S: dominant,
FI: dominantti, huippusointu.

The fifth @emph{scale degree} in @emph{functional harmony}.

@seealso
@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}.


@node dominant ninth chord
@section dominant ninth chord

ES: acorde de novena de dominante,
I: accordo di nona di dominante,
F: accord de neuvième de dominante,
D: Domi@-nant@-nonen@-akkord,
NL: dominant noon akkoord,
DK: dominantnoneakkord,
S: dominantnonackord,
FI: dominanttinoonisointu.

@seealso
@ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}.


@node dominant seventh chord
@section dominant seventh chord

ES: acorde de séptima de dominante,
I: accordo di settima di dominante,
F: accord de septième de dominante,
D: Dominantseptakkord,
NL: dominant septiem akkoord,
DK: dominantseptimakkord,
S: dominantseptimackord,
FI: dominanttiseptimisointu.

@seealso
@ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}.


@node dorian mode
@section dorian mode

ES: modo dórico,
I: modo dorico,
F: mode dorien,
D: dorisch, dorischer Kirchenton,
NL: dorische toonladder,
DK: dorisk skala,
S: dorisk tonart,
FI: doorinen moodi.

@seealso
@ref{diatonic scale}.


@node dot (augmentation dot)
@section dot (augmentation dot)

ES: puntillo,
I: punto (di valore),
F: point,
D: Punkt (Verlängerungspunkt),
NL: punt,
DK: punkt,
S: punkt,
FI: piste.

@seealso
@ref{dotted note}, @ref{note value}.


@node dotted note
@section dotted note

ES: nota con puntillo,
I: nota puntata,
F: note pointée,
D: punktierte Note,
NL: gepuncteerde noot,
DK: punkteret node,
S: punkterad not,
FI: pisteellinen nuotti.

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node double appoggiatura
@section double appoggiatura

ES: apoyatura doble,
I: appoggiatura doppia,
F: appoggiature double,
D: doppelter Vorschlag,
NL: dubbele voorslag,
DK: dobbelt forslag,
S: dubbelslag,
FI: kaksoisappogiatura, kaksoisetuhele.

@seealso
@ref{appoggiatura}.


@node double bar line
@section double bar line

ES: doble barra,
I: doppia barra,
F: double barre,
D: Doppelstrich,
NL: dubbele maatstreep,
DK: dobbeltstreg,
S: dubbelstreck,
FI: kaksoistahtiviiva.

Indicates the end of a section within a movement.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node double dotted note
@section double dotted note

ES: nota con doble puntillo,
I: nota doppiamente puntata,
F: note doublement pointée,
D: doppelt punktierte Note,
NL: dubbelgepuncteerde noot,
DK: dob@-belt@-punk@-te@-ret node,
S: dub@-bel@-punk@-te@-rad not,
FI: kaksoispisteellinen nuotti.

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node double flat
@section double flat

ES: doble bemol,
I: doppio bemolle,
F: double bémol,
D: Doppel-B,
NL: dubbelmol,
DK: dob@-belt-b,
S: dubbelbe,
FI: kaksoisalennusmerkki.

@seealso
@ref{accidental}.


@node double sharp
@section double sharp

ES: doble sostenido,
I: doppio diesis,
F: double dièse,
D: Doppelkreuz,
NL: dubbelkruis,
DK: dob@-belt@-kryds,
S: dubbelkors,
FI: kaksoisylennysmerkki.

@seealso
@ref{accidental}.


@node double time signature
@section double time signature

ES: compás polimétrico,
I: ?,
F: ?,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: kaksois-aika-arvomerkintä.

@seealso
@ref{polymetric time signature}.


@node double trill
@section double trill

ES: trino doble,
I: doppio trillo,
F: trille double,
D: Doppeltriller,
NL: dubbele triller,
DK: dobbelttrille,
S: dubbeldrill,
FI: kaksoistrilli.

A simultaneous trill on two notes, usually in the distance of a third.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node duple meter
@section duple meter

ES: tiempo binario,
I: tempo binario,
F: métrique binaire,
D: in zwei, grader Takt,
NL: tweedelige maatsoort,
DK: todelt takt,
S: tvåtakt,
FI: kaksoistempo.

@seealso
@ref{meter}.


@node duplet
@section duplet

ES: dosillo,
I: duina,
F: duolet,
D: Duole,
NL: duool,
DK: duol,
S: duol,
FI: duoli.

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node duration
@section duration

ES: duración,
I: durata,
F: durée,
D: Dauer, Länge,
NL: duur, lengte,
DK: varighed,
S: tonlängd,
FI: kesto, aika-arvo.

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node dynamics
@section dynamics

ES: dinámica, matices,
I: dinamica,
F: nuances,
D: Dynamik, Lautstärke,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: äänen voimakkuusvaihtelu, dynamiikka.

The aspect of music relating to degrees of loudness, or changes from
one degree to another.  The terms, abbreviations, and symbols used to
indicate this information are called dynamic marks.

@seealso
@ref{piano}, @ref{forte}, @ref{crescendo}, @ref{decrescendo},
@ref{diminuendo}.


@node E
@section E

@itemize
@item ES: mi
@item I: mi
@item F: mi
@item D: E, e
@item NL: e
@item DK: e
@item S: e
@item FI: E, e
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{Pitch names}


@node ecclesiastical mode
@section ecclesiastical mode

@seealso
@ref{church mode}, @ref{diatonic scale}.


@node eighth note
@section eighth note

@itemize
@item UK: quaver
@item ES: corchea
@item I: croma
@item F: croche
@item D: Achtel, Achtelnote
@item NL: achtste noot
@item DK: ottendedelsnode
@item S: åttondelsnot
@item FI: kahdeksasosanuotti
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node eighth rest
@section eighth rest

@itemize
@item UK: quaver rest
@item ES: silencio de corchea
@item I: pausa di croma
@item F: demi-soupir
@item D: Achtelpause
@item NL: achtste rust
@item DK: ottendedelspause
@item S: åttonddelspaus
@item FI: kahdeksasosatauko
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node elision
@section elision

@c TODO: add languages

ES: sinalefa,
I: elisione,
F: élision,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: tavujen yhdistäminen yhteen ääneen.

More properly @emph{synalepha} [New Lat. > Gr. @emph{συναλοιφη}, from Greek
@emph{συναλοιφην} @q{to smear together}].

The singing of several syllables on a single note.  Elision may be indicated
by a lyric tie, which looks like (and serves the same function) as a musical
tie.

@seealso
@ref{lyric tie}.


@node embellishment
@section embellishment

@seealso
@ref{ornament}.


@node engraving
@section engraving

ES: grabado,
I: incisione,
F: gravure,
D: Notenstich, Notendruck
NL: steken,
DK: nodestik,
S: nottryck,
FI: painatus.

Engraving means incising or etching a metal plate for printing. 
Photoengraving means drawing music with ink in a manner similar to
drafting or engineering drawing, using similar tools.

The traditional process of music printing is done through cutting in a
plate of metal.  Now also the term for the art of music typesetting.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node enharmonic
@section enharmonic

ES: enarmónico,
I: enarmonico,
F: enharmonique,
D: enharmonisch,
NL: enharmonisch,
DK: enharmonisk,
S: enharmonisk,
FI: enharmoninen.

Two notes, intervals, or scales are enharmonic if they have different
names but equal pitch.

@lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
<<
  \new Staff {
    \relative c'' {
      gis1 as <des g,!> <cis g!>
    }
  }
  \lyrics {
    "g sharp  " "a flat  " "dim fifth  " "augm fourth"
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node equal temperament
@section equal temperament

ES: temperamento igual,
I: temperamento equabile,
F: tempérament égal,
D: gleichschwebende Stimmung,
NL: ge@-lijk@-zwe@-ven@-de temperatuur,
DK: ligesvævende temperatur,
S: liksvävande temperatur,
FI: tasavireinen.

A tuning system that divides the octave into 12 equal semitones (each of
which is precisely equal to 100 cents).

@seealso
@ref{cent}, @ref{semitone}, @ref{temperament}.


@node expression mark
@section expression mark

ES: expresión,
I: segno d'espressione,
F: signe d'expression, indication de nuance,
D: Vortragszeichen,
NL: voordrachtsteken,
DK: foredragsbetegnelse,
S: föredragsbeteckning,
FI: nyanssiosoitus, esitysmerkki.

Performance indications concerning:

@itemize

@item volume, dynamics (for example, @notation{forte},
@notation{crescendo}),

@item tempo (for example, @notation{andante}, @notation{allegro}).

@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{allegro}, @ref{andante}, @ref{crescendo}, @ref{forte}.


@node extender line
@section extender line

ES: línea de extensión [de melisma, de bajo cifrado, etc.],
I: linea di estensione,
F: ligne d'extension [de mélisme, de basse chiffrée, etc.],
D: Fülllinie,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: pidennysviiva.

The generic term (in LilyPond) for a line (or dash) of arbitrary length that
extends text (without indicating the musical @emph{function} of that text).

Used in many contexts, for example:

@itemize

@item In vocal music to indicate the syllable for a melisma.  Called
@q{extension} in the
@uref{http://www.dolmetsch.com/defse1.htm,Dolmetsch Online Music
Dictionary}.

@item
In figured bass to indicate that:

@itemize

@item The extended note should be held through a change in harmony, when applied
to one figure --OR--
@item The chord thus represented should be held above a moving bass line, when
applied to more than one figure.
@item These uses were not completely standardized, and some composers used a
single extender line to indicate the latter case.

@end itemize

@item
In string music to indicate that all notes in the passage thus indicated should
be played on the same string.  On the violin, for example, a series of notes to
be played on the G string would be indicated @notation{sul G}, another series to be
played on the D string would be indicated @notation{sul D}, and so on.

@item
With an octave mark to indicate that a passage is to be played higher or lower
by the given number of octaves.

@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{melisma}, @ref{sul G}, @ref{thorough bass}, @ref{octave mark},
@ref{octave marking}.


@node F
@section F

@itemize
@item ES: fa
@item I: fa
@item F: fa
@item D: F, f
@item NL: f
@item DK: f
@item S: f
@item FI: F, f
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{Pitch names}


@node F clef
@section F clef

ES: clave de fa,
I: chiave di fa,
F: clef de fa,
D: F-Schlüssel,
NL: F-sleutel,
DK: F-nøgle,
S: f-klav,
FI: F-avain.

The position between the dots of the key symbol is the line of the F
below central@w{ }C.  Used on the third, fourth and fifth note line. 
A digit@w{ }8 above the clef symbol indicates that the notes must be
played an octave higher (for example, bass recorder) while 8@w{ }below
the clef symbol indicates playing an octave lower (for example, on the
Double Bass).

@lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
<<
  \relative c {
    \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
    \clef varbaritone
    f1
    \clef bass
    f1
    \clef subbass
    f1
    \clef "F^8"
    f1
    \clef "F_8"
    f1
  }
  \lyrics {
    "varbaritone  "
    "bass  "
    "sub-bass  "
    "octave up  "
    "octave down"
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{baritone clef}, @ref{strings}.


@node fall
@section fall

ES: caída [de tono],
I: ?,
F: chute,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: lasku.

Indicator for a indeterminately falling pitch bend.  Compare with
@emph{glissando}, which has determinate starting and ending pitches.

@seealso
@ref{doit}, @ref{glissando}.


@node feathered beam
@section feathered beam

ES: barra progresiva,
I: ?,
F: ligature en soufflet, lien de croches en soufflet,
D: gespreizter Balken,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: kiilapalkki.

A type of beam used to indicate that a small group of notes should be
played at an increasing or decreasing tempo -- depending on the
direction of @q{feathering} -- but without changing the overall tempo
of the piece.

@seealso
Internals Reference: @ruser{Manual beams}


@node fermata
@section fermata

@c F:  'point d'orgue' on a note, 'point d'arret' on a rest.

ES: calderón,
I: corona,
F: point d'orgue, point d'arrêt,
D: Fermate,
NL: fermate,
DK: fermat,
S: fermat,
FI: fermaatti, pidäke.

Prolonged note or rest of indefinite duration.

@lilypond[quote,relative=2]
\time 4/4
a4 b c2^\fermata
\bar "|."
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node fifth
@section fifth

ES: quinta,
I: quinta,
F: quinte,
D: Quinte,
NL: kwint,
DK: kvint,
S: kvint,
FI: kvintti.

@seealso
@ref{interval}.


@node figured bass
@section figured bass

ES: bajo cifrado,
I: basso continuo, basso numerato,
F: basse chiffrée, basse continue,
D: Generalbass, bezifferter Bass,
NL: basso continuo, becijferde bas
DK: generalbas,
S: generalbas,
FI: kenraalibasso, numeroitu basso.

Also called @q{thorough bass}.

A method of indicating an accompaniment part by the bass notes only,
together with figures designating the chief intervals and chords to be
played above the bass notes.

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
\new GrandStaff <<
  \new Staff = "rh" \with {
    fontSize = #-3
    \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #(magstep -3)
  } \relative c'' {
    \clef treble
    \key es \major
    \time 4/4
    <<
      \context Voice = "rha" {
        \voiceOne
        es4 d c bes
        bes4
      }
      \context Voice = "rhb" {
        \voiceTwo
        <bes g>8 as <as f> g <g es> f <d f> es
        <g es>4
      }
    >>
  }
  \new Staff = "lh" \relative c' {
    \clef bass
    \key es \major
    es8 c d bes c as bes16 as g f
    es4
  }
  \figures {
    s8 <6> s <4 2> s <6> s16 s <6> <4 2>
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{chord}, @ref{interval}.


@node fingering
@section fingering

ES: digitación,
I: diteggiatura,
F: doigté,
D: Fingersatz,
NL: vingerzetting,
DK: fingersætning,
S: fingersättning,
FI: sormitus.

Figures to the side or above the note that methodically indicate which
fingers to use while playing a passage.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node flag
@section flag

ES: corchete,
I: coda (uncinata), bandiera,
F: crochet,
D: Fahne, Fähnchen,
NL: vlaggetje,
DK: fane,
S: flagga,
FI: lippu, viiri.

Ornament at the end of the stem of a note used for notes with values less
than a quarter note.  The number of flags determines the note value.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
g8-"8th" s8
g16-"16th" s8
g32-"32nd" s8
g64-"64th" s8
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node flageolet
@section flageolet

ES: armónico,
I: ?,
F: flageolet,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: flageolet-ääni.

An articulation for string players that means the note or passage is to
be played in harmonics.

Also:

@itemize

@item A duct flute similar to the recorder.

@item An organ stop of flute scale at 1' or 2' pitch.

@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{articulation}, @ref{harmonics}.


@node flat
@section flat

ES: bemol,
I: bemolle,
F: bémol,
D: B,
NL: mol,
DK: b,
S: beförtecken,
FI: alennusmerkki.

@seealso
@ref{accidental}.


@node forefall
@section forefall

@seealso
@ref{appoggiatura}.


@node forte
@section forte

ES: forte, fuerte,
I: forte,
F: forte,
D: forte, laut,
NL: forte,
DK: forte,
S: forte,
FI: forte, voimakkaasti.

[Italian: @q{loud}]

Abbreviated @notation{@b{f}}.  Variants include:

@itemize
@item @emph{mezzo forte}, medium loud (notated @notation{@b{mf}}),
@item @emph{fortissimo}, very loud (notated @notation{@b{ff}}).
@end itemize

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node fourth
@section fourth

ES: cuarta,
I: quarta,
F: quarte,
D: Quarte,
NL: kwart,
DK: kvart,
S: kvart,
FI: kvartti.

@seealso
@ref{interval}.


@node Frenched score
@section Frenched score

ES: partitura a la francesa,
I: ?,
F: ?,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: partituuri francesan tapaan.

A @q{condensed} score, produced by omitting staves for instruments that are not
playing at the moment, and by moving up additional systems from following pages
to take up the space thus liberated, which reduces the total number of pages
used to print the work.

The specific rules for @q{frenching} a score differ from publisher to publisher.
If you are producing scores for eventual publication by a commercial publisher,
you may wish to procure a copy of their style manual.

@seealso
@ref{Frenched staff}.


@node Frenched staff
@section Frenched staff

ES: pentagrama a la francesa,
I: ?,
F: ?,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: karsittu nuotinnus.

[Pl. @emph{Frenched staves}] Analogous to Frenched scores (@emph{q.v}), a
Frenched staff has unneeded measures or sections removed.  This is useful
for producing, for example, an @emph{ossia} staff.

@seealso
@ref{ossia}.


@node Frenched staves
@section Frenched staves

Plural of @ref{Frenched staff}.


@node fugue
@section fugue

ES: fuga,
I: fuga,
F: fugue,
D: Fuge,
NL: fuga,
DK: fuga,
S: fuga,
FI: fuuga.

@seealso
@ref{counterpoint}.


@node functional harmony
@section functional harmony

ES: armonía funcional,
I: armonia funzionale,
F: étude des functions,
D: Funktionslehre,
NL: functionele harmonie,
DK: funktionsanalyse, funktionsharmonik,
S: funktionslära,
FI: harmoniajärjestelmä.

A system of harmonic analysis.

It is based on the idea that, in a given key, there are only three
functionally different chords: tonic (T, the chord on the first note of the
scale), subdominant (S, the chord on the fourth note), and dominant (D, the
chord on the fifth note).  Others are considered to be variants of the base
chords.

TODO: what does the @q{p} mean in Sp, Dp, Tp?

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
<<
  {
    <g e c>1 <a f d> <b g e>
    <c a f> <d b g> <e c a> <f d b>
  }
  \lyrics {
    T Sp Dp S D Tp
    \markup { D \translate #'(-2 . 0) | }
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node G
@section G

@itemize
@item ES: sol
@item I: sol
@item F: sol
@item D: G, g
@item NL: g
@item DK: g
@item S: g
@item FI: G, g
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{Pitch names}


@node G clef
@section G clef

ES: clave de sol,
I: chiave di sol,
F: clef de sol,
D: G-Schlüssel, Violinschlüssel,
NL: G-sleutel,
DK: g-nøgle,
S: g-klav,
FI: G-avain.

A clef symbol that indicates G above middle@w{ }C.  Used on the first and
second note lines.  A digit 8 above the clef symbol indicates that the notes
must be played an octave higher while 8 below the clef symbol indicates
playing or singing an octave lower (used most frequently to notate the tenor
part in modern choral scores).

@lilypond[quote,notime]
\relative c'' {
  \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
    \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
    \clef french
    g1
    \clef treble
    g1
    \clef "G^8"
    g1
    \clef "G_8"
    g1
}
\addlyrics {
    "french violin clef"
    "violin clef"
    "octave up"
    "octave down"
  }
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node glissando
@section glissando

ES: glissando,
I: glissando,
F: glissando,
D: Glissando,
NL: glissando,
DK: glissando,
S: glissando,
FI: glissando, liukuen.

Letting the pitch slide fluently from one note to the other.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node grace notes
@section grace notes

ES: notas de adorno,
I: abbellimenti,
F: ornement, fioriture,
D: Verzierungen, Vorschläge, Vor@-schlags@-noten,
NL: versieringen,
DK: forsiringer,
S: ornament,
FI: korunuotit.

Notes printed in small types to indicate that their time values are not
counted in the rhythm of the bar.

@seealso
@ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes},
@ref{ornament}.


@node grand staff
@section grand staff

ES: sistema de piano,
I: accollatura,
F: système [de portées], accolade,
D: Akkolade, Klaviersystem,
NL: piano systeem,
DK: klaversystem,
S: ackolad, böjd klammer,
FI: kaksoisnuottiviivasto.

A combination of two staves with a brace.  Usually used for piano music.

@seealso
@ref{brace}.


@node grave
@section grave

ES: grave,
I: grave,
F: grave, lent,
D: Grave, Langsam,
NL: grave, ernstig,
DK: grave,
S: grave,
FI: grave, raskaasti.

[Italian] Slow, solemn.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node gruppetto
@section gruppetto

@seealso
@ref{turn}.


@node H
@section H

@itemize
@item ES: si
@item I: si
@item F: si
@item D: H, h
@item NL: b
@item DK: h
@item S: h
@item FI: H, h
@end itemize 

Letter name used for @notation{B natural} in German and Scandinavian
usage.  In the standard usage of these countries, @notation{B} means
@notation{B flat}.

@seealso
@ref{Pitch names}, @ref{B}.


@node hairpin
@section hairpin

Graphical version of the @notation{crescendo} and @notation{decrescendo}
dynamic marks.

@lilypond[quote,relative=2]
c1\<
c2\> c\<
c1\!
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{crescendo}, @ref{decrescendo}.


@node half note
@section half note

@itemize
@item UK: minim,
@item ES: blanca,
@item I: minima,
@item F: blanche,
@item D: Halbe, halbe Note,
@item NL: halve noot,
@item DK: halvnode,
@item S: halvnot,
@item FI: puolinuotti.
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node half rest
@section half rest

@itemize
@item UK: minim rest,
@item ES: silencio de blanca,
@item I: pausa di minima,
@item F: demi-pause,
@item D: halbe Pause,
@item NL: halve, rust,
@item DK: halvnodespause,
@item S: halvpaus,
@item FI: puolitauko.
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node harmonic cadence
@section harmonic cadence

ES: cadencia (armónica),
I: cadenza (armonica),
F: cadence harmonique,
D: Schlusskadenz,
NL: harmonische cadens,
DK: harmonisk kadence,
S: (harmonisk) kadens,
FI: harmoninen kadenssi.

A sequence of chords that terminates a musical phrase or section.

@lilypond[quote]
\new PianoStaff <<
  \context Staff = "SA" \relative c'' {
    \clef treble
    \time 4/4
    \partial 4 <c g e>4 |
    <c a f> <b g d> <c g e>2
  }
  <<
    \context Staff = "SB" \relative c {
      \clef bass
      \partial 4 c4 | f, g c2
      \bar "|."
    }
    \lyrics {
      T4 S D T
    }
  >>
>>
@end lilypond


@seealso
@ref{functional harmony}.


@node harmonics
@section harmonics

ES: armónicos, sonidos aflautados,
I: armonici,
F: flageolet, sons harmoniques,
D: Flageolett-Töne,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: harmoniset äänet, huiluäänet.

The general class of pitches produced by sounding the second or higher
harmonic of a tone producer: string, column of air, and so on.

On stringed instruments, these pitches sound rather flute-like; hence,
their name in languages other than English.  They are produced by
lightly touching the string at a node for the desired mode of vibration
while it is being bowed or plucked.

For instruments of the violin family, there are two types of harmonics:
natural harmonics, which are those played on the open string; and
artificial harmonics, which are produced on stopped strings.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node harmony
@section harmony

ES: armonía,
I: armonia,
F: harmonie,
D: Harmonie, Zusammenklang,
NL: harmonie,
DK: samklang,
S: samklang,
FI: harmonia, yhteissointi.

Tones sounding simultaneously.  Two note harmonies fall into the
categories @emph{consonances} and @emph{dissonances}.

Consonances:

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
  <g g>1_"unison  " s
  <g b>_"third  " s
  <g c>_"fourth  " s
  <g d'>_"fifth  " s
  <g e'>_"sixth  " s
  <g g'>_"octave  " s
  <g b'>_"tenth" s s
@end lilypond

Dissonances:

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
  <g a>1_"second  " s s
  <g f'>_"seventh  " s s
  <g a'>_"ninth" s s
@end lilypond

For harmony that uses three or more notes, see @ref{chord}.

@seealso
@ref{chord}.


@node hemiola
@section hemiola

ES: hemiolia,
I: emiolia, (rarely hemiola or emiola),
F: hémiole,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: 3/2 -suhde.

[Greek: in Latin, @emph{sesquialtera}] The ratio 3:2.

Most frequently, a proportion (@emph{q.v.}) of three notes of equal value in the
time normally occupied by two.  The resulting rhythm can be expressed in modern
terms as a substitution (for example) of a bar in 3/2 for one of 6/4, or of a
bar in 3/4 for one of 6/8.  During the Baroque era, hemiola is most frequently
as a special effect (or @emph{affect}) at cadences.

For example, this phrase in 6/4 time

@lilypond[quote,relative=1,line-width=13.0\cm]
\key c \major
\time 6/4
c2. e | d2 c d | c1. \bar "||"
@end lilypond

may be thought of having alternating time signatures

@lilypond[quote,relative=1,line-width=13.0\cm]
\key c \major
\time 6/4
c2. e
\time 3/2
d2 c d
\time 6/4
c1. \bar "||"
@end lilypond

and is therefore a polymeter (second definition) of considerable antiquity.

@seealso
@ref{mensural notation}, @ref{meter}, @ref{polymeter}, @ref{proportion}.


@node homophony
@section homophony

ES: homofonía,
I: omofonia,
F: homophonie,
D: Homophonie,
NL: homofonie,
DK: homofoni,
S: homofoni,
FI: homofonia, yksiäänisyys.

Music in which one voice leads melodically supported by the other voices in
the same rhythm (more or less).  In contrast to @emph{polyphony}.

@seealso
@ref{polyphony}.


@node hook
@section hook

@seealso
@ref{flag}.


@node hymn meter
@section hymn meter

ES: ?,
I: ?,
F: ?,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: säkeiden tavumäärät.

A group or list of numbers that indicate the number of syllables in a line
of a hymn's verse.  Different hymnals have different ways of noting the hymn
meter: for example, consider a hymn that has four lines in two couplets
alternating regularly between eight and seven syllables.  The @emph{English
Hymnal} notes this as 87.@w{ }87.  Other hymnals may note it as 8787, 87.87,
or 8@w{ }7@w{ }8@w{ }7.

Some frequently-used hymn meters have traditional names:

@itemize
@item 66.86 is called Short Meter (abbreviated SM or S.M.)
@item 86.86 is called Common Meter (CM or C.M.)
@item 88.88 is called Long Meter (LM or L.M.)
@end itemize

Some hymns and their tunes are doubled versions of a simpler meter: for
easier reading, a hymn with a meter of 87.87.87.87 is usually written
87.87D.  The traditional names above also have doubled versions:

@itemize
@item 66.86.66.86 is Double Short Meter (DSM or D.S.M.)
@item 86.86.86.86 is Double Common Meter (DCM or D.C.M.)
@item 88.88.88.88 is Double Long Meter (DLM or D.L.M.)
@end itemize

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node interval
@section interval

ES: intervalo,
I: intervallo,
F: intervalle,
D: Intervall,
NL: interval,
DK: interval,
S: intervall,
FI: intervalli, kahden sävelen korkeusero.

Difference in pitch between two notes.  Intervals may be diminished, minor,
perfect, major, or augmented.  The augmented fourth and the diminished fifth
are identical (or @emph{enharmonic}) on an equal-tempered twelve-tone scale
and are called @emph{tritonus} because they consist of three whole tones.
The addition of such two intervals forms an octave.

@lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
<<
\context Voice \relative c'' {
% Prime or unison
  < g g >1 
  < g gis >^"aug"
% Second
  < gis as >^"dim"
  < g! as >^"min" 
  < g a! >^"maj"
  < g ais >^"aug" 
% Third
  < gis bes >^"dim" 
  < g! bes >^"min" 
  < g b! >^"maj" 
  < g bis >^"aug" 
% Fourth
  < g ces >^"dim" 
  < g c! >^"per" 
  < g cis >^"aug" 
% Fifth
  < g des' >^"dim"
  < g d' >^"per"
  < g dis >^"aug"
% Sixth
  < gis es' >^"dim"
  < g! es' >^"min"
  < g e'! >^"maj"
  < g eis' >^"aug"
% Seventh
  < gis f'! >^"dim" 
  < g! f'! >^"min" 
  < g fis' >^"maj" 
  < g fisis' >^"aug"
% Octave
  < g ges' >^"dim"
  < g g' >^"per"
  < g gis' >^"aug"
}
\context Lyrics \lyrics {
  "unison " "unison "
  "second " "second " "second " "second "
  "third  " "third  " "third  " "third  "
  "fourth " "fourth " "fourth "
  "fifth  " "fifth  " "fifth  "
  "sixth  " "sixth  " "sixth  " "sixth  "
  "seventh" "seventh" "seventh" "seventh"
  "octave " "octave " "octave "
}
>>
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{enharmonic}, @ref{whole tone}.


@node inversion
@section inversion

ES: inversión,
I: rivolto,
F: renversement,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: käännös.

When a chord sounds with a bass note that differs from the root of the
chord, it is said to be @emph{inverted}. The number of inversions that a
chord can have is one fewer than the number of constituent notes.  For
example, triads (which have three constituent notes) can have three
positions, two of which are inversions:

@table @dfn
@item Root position
The root note is in the bass, and above that are the third and the fifth. A
triad built on the first scale degree, for example, is marked @notation{I}.

@item First inversion
The third is in the bass, and above it are the fifth and the root. This
creates an interval of a sixth and a third above the bass note, and so is
marked in figured Roman notation as @notation{6/3}. This is commonly
abbreviated to @notation{I6} (or @notation{Ib}) since the sixth is the
characteristic interval of the inversion, and so always implies
@notation{6/3}.

@item Second inversion
The fifth is in the bass, and above it are the root and the third. This
creates an interval of a sixth and a fourth above the bass note, and so is
marked as @notation{I6/4} or @notation{Ic}. Second inversion is the most
unstable chord position.
@end table

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node inverted interval
@section inverted interval

ES: intervalo invertido,
I: intervallo rivolto,
F: intervalle renversé,
D: umgekehrtes Intervall,
NL: interval inversie,
DK: omvendingsinterval,
S: intervallets omvändning,
FI: käänteisintervalli.

The difference between an interval and an octave.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
<g a>1_"second " s s <g' a,>_"seventh " s s \bar "||"
<g, b>_"third  " s s <g' b,>_"sixth  " s s \bar "||"
<g, c>_"fourth  " s s <g' c,>_"fifth  " s s \bar "||"
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node just intonation
@section just intonation

ES: entonación justa,
I: intonazione giusta,
F: intonation juste,
D: reine Stimmung,
NL: reine stemming,
DK: ren stemning,
S: ren stämning,
FI: puhdas viritys.

Tuning system in which the notes are obtained by adding and subtracting
natural fifths and thirds.

@seealso
@ref{temperament}.


@node key
@section key

ES: tonalidad,
I: tonalità,
F: tonalité,
D: Tonart,
NL: toonsoort,
DK: toneart,
S: tonart,
FI: tonaliteetti.

According to the 12@w{ }tones of the @emph{chromatic scale} there are
12@w{ }keys, one on@w{ }c, one on c-sharp, etc.

@seealso
@ref{chromatic scale}, @ref{key signature}.


@node key signature
@section key signature

ES: armadura (de la clave),
I: armatura di chiave,
F: armure, armature [de la clé],
D: Vorzeichen, Tonart,
NL: toon@-soort (voortekens),
DK: faste fortegn,
S: tonartssignatur,
FI: sävellajiosoitus.

The sharps or flats appearing at the beginning of each staff indicating the
key of the music.

@seealso
@ref{accidental}.


@node laissez vibrer
@section laissez vibrer

ES: dejar vibrar,
I: laissez vibrer,
F: laissez vibrer,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: antaa väristä.

[French: @q{Let vibrate}]  Most frequently associated with harp
parts. Marked @notation{l.v.} in the score.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node largo
@section largo

ES: largo,
I: largo,
F: largo, large, ample,
D: Largo, Langsam, Breit,
NL: largo,
DK: largo,
S: largo,
FI: largo, hitaasti, leveästi.

[Italian: @q{wide}.] Very slow in tempo, usually combined with great
expressiveness. @emph{Larghetto} is less slow than largo.


@node leading note
@section leading note

ES: sensible,
I: sensibile,
F: (note) sensible,
D: Leitton,
NL: leidtoon,
DK: ledetone,
S: ledton,
FI: johtosävel.

The seventh @emph{scale degree}, a @emph{semitone} below the tonic; so
called because of its strong tendency to @q{lead up} (resolve upwards)
to the tonic scale degree.

@seealso
@ref{scale degree}, @ref{semitone}.


@node ledger line
@section ledger line

ES: línea adicional,
I: tagli addizionali,
F: ligne supplémentaire,
D: Hilfslinie,
NL: hulplijntje,
DK: hjælpelinie,
S: hjälplinje,
FI: apuviiva.

A ledger line is an extension of the staff.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
a,1
s1
c''1
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node legato
@section legato

ES: legato,
I: legato,
F: legato, lié,
D: legato, gebunden,
NL: legato,
DK: legato,
S: legato,
FI: legato, sitoen.

To be performed (a) without any perceptible interruption between the
notes, unlike (b) @notation{leggiero} or @notation{non-legato}, (c)
@notation{portato}, or (d) @notation{staccato}.

@lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
<<
  \context Staff \relative c'' {
    c4-( d e-) \bar "||"
    c4-- d-- e-- \bar "||"
    c4-.-( d-. e-.-) \bar "||"
    c4-. d-. e-. \bar "||"
  }
  \lyrics {
    a2.
    b
    c
    d
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{staccato}.


@node legato curve
@section legato curve

@seealso
@ref{slur}, @ref{legato}.


@node leger line
@section leger line

@seealso
@ref{ledger line}.


@node ligature
@section ligature

ES: ligadura,
I: ?,
F: ligature,
DE: Ligatur,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: ligatuura.

A ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that represents at least two
distinct notes.  Ligatures originally appeared in the manuscripts of
Gregorian chant notation around the 9th century to denote ascending or
descending sequences of notes.  In early notation, ligatures were used for
monophonic tunes (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way of
performance in the sense of articulation.  With the invention of the metric
system of the white mensural notation, the need for ligatures to denote such
patterns disappeared.

@seealso
@ref{mensural notation}.


@node lilypond
@section lilypond

UK: lily pond,
ES: estanque de nenúfares,
I: stagno del giglio,
F: étang de nénuphars, étang de nymphéas,
D: Seerosenteich,
NL: le@-lie@-vij@-ver,
DK: liliedam,
S: liljedamm,
FI: liljalampi.

A pond with lilies floating in it.

Also, the name of a music typesetting program.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node line
@section line

ES: línea,
I: linea,
F: ligne,
D: Linie, Notenlinie,
NL: lijn,
DK: nodelinie,
S: notlinje,
FI: viiva, nuottiviiva.

@seealso
@ref{staff}.


@node loco
@section loco

ES: en su lugar,
I: loco,
F: ?,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: kirjoitetussa äänenkorkeudessa.

[Italian: @q{place}]  Instruction to play the following passage at the
written pitch.  Cancels octave mark (q.v.).

@seealso
@ref{octave mark}, @ref{octave marking}.


@node long appoggiatura
@section long appoggiatura

ES: apoyatura larga,
I: appoggiatura lunga,
F: appoggiature longue,
D: Vorhalt,
NL: Lange voorslag,
DK: langt forslag,
S: långt förslag,
FI: pitkä appoggiatura, pitkä etuhele.

@seealso
@ref{appoggiatura}.


@node longa
@section longa

@itemize
@item US: long, longa, 
@item ES: longa,
@item I: longa,
@item F: longa, longue,
@item D: Longa,
@item NL: longa,
@item DK: longa,
@item S: longa,
@item FI: longa.
@end itemize

Note value: twice the length of a @notation{breve}.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
\override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
g\longa g\breve
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{breve}, @ref{note value}.


@node lyric tie
@section lyric tie

ES: ligadura de letra,
I: ?,
F: ligature de mots,
D: Textbindung,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: sidonta sanoituksessa.

@c TODO: add languages

@seealso
@ref{elision}.


@node lyrics
@section lyrics

ES: letra (de la canción),
I: testo,
F: paroles,
D: Liedtext, Gesangtext,
NL: liedtekst,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: sanoitus.

@c Definition?

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node major
@section major

ES: mayor,
I: maggiore,
F: [mode] majeur,
D: Dur,
NL: majeur,
DK: dur,
S: dur,
FI: duuri.

@seealso
@ref{diatonic scale}.


@node major interval
@section major interval

ES: intervalo mayor,
I: intervallo maggiore,
F: intervalle majeur,
D: großes Intervall,
NL: groot interval,
DK: stort interval,
S: stort intervall,
FI: suuri intervalli.

@seealso
@ref{interval}.


@node maxima
@section maxima

ES: máxima,
I: maxima,
F: maxima, maxime,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: ?.

Note value: twice the length of a @notation{longa}.

The maxima is the largest duration in use during the 15th and 16th centuries.
Like the longa, the maxima can be either two or three times as long as the
@notation{longa} (called @notation{binary} and @notation{ternary},
respectively).  By the late 15th century, most composers used the smaller
proportion by default.

@seealso
@ref{Duration names notes and rests}, @ref{longa}, @ref{note value}.


@node meantone temperament
@section meantone temperament

ES: afinación mesotónica,
I: accordatura mesotonica,
F: tempérament mésotonique,
D: mitteltönige Stimmung,
NL: middenstemming, middentoonstemming,
DK: middeltonetemperatur,
S: medeltonstemperatur,
FI: keskisävelviritys.

Temperament yielding acoustically pure thirds by decreasing the natural
fifth by 16@w{ }cents.  Due to the non-circular character of this
temperament only a limited set of keys are playable.  Used for tuning
keyboard instruments for performance of pre-1650 music.

@seealso
@ref{cent}, @ref{temperament}.


@node measure
@section measure

ES: compás,
I: misura, battuta,
F: mesure,
D: Takt,
NL: maat,
DK: takt,
S: takt,
FI: tahti.

A group of beats (units of musical time) the first of which bears an accent.
Such groups in numbers of two or more recur consistently throughout the
composition and are separated from each other by bar lines.

@seealso
@ref{bar line}, @ref{beat}, @ref{meter}.


@node measure repeat
@section measure repeat

@seealso
@ref{percent repeat}.


@node mediant
@section mediant

ES: mediante,
I: mediante, modale,
F: médiante,
NL: mediant,
D: Mediante,
DK: mediant,
S: mediant,
FI: keskisävel.

@itemize

@item The third @b{scale degree}.

@item A @emph{chord} having its base tone a third from that of another
chord.  For example, the tonic chord may be replaced by its lower
mediant (variant tonic).

@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{chord}, @ref{functional harmony}, @ref{relative key}.


@node melisma
@section melisma

ES: melisma,
I: melisma,
F: mélisme, tenue,
D: Melisma,
NL: melisma,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: melisma, laulettavan tavun sävelkuvio.

A melisma (Greek: plural @emph{melismata}) is a group of notes or tones sung
on one syllable, especially as applied to liturgical chant.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node melisma line
@section melisma line

@c TODO: add languages

ES: línea de melisma,
I: linea del melisma,
F: trait de mélisme, trait de tenue,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: melismaviiva.

@seealso
@ref{extender line}.


@node melodic cadence
@section melodic cadence

@seealso
@ref{cadenza}.


@node mensural notation
@section mensural notation

@c TODO: add languages

ES: notación mensural,
I: notazione mensurale,
F: notation mensurale,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: mensuraalinuotinnus.

A system of duration notation whose principles were first established in the
mid-13th century, and that (with various changes) remained in use until about
1600.  As such, it is the basis for the notation of rhythms in Western musical
notation.

Franco of Cologne (ca. 1250) is credited with the first systematic explanation
of the notation's principles, so the notation of this earliest period is called
@q{Franconian}.  Franco's system made use of three note values -- long, breve,
and semibreve -- each of which was normally equivalent to three of the next
lower note value. 

Then, in the first half of the 14th century, Philippe de Vitry and Jehan de Murs
added several note values (the minim, semiminim and fusa) and extended Franco's
principles to govern the relationship between these values.  They also put the
duple division of note values on an equal footing with the earlier (preferred)
triple division.

TODO: continue description of French and Italian black notation, and the
relationship betwixt them.

@b{White or void mensural notation}

In the 15th century, hollow (or void) notes began to substitute for the earlier
solid black ones, which were then free to assume the function of red (or
colored) notes in the earlier notation.  ...

TODO: add to definition (including summary info on proportional notation)

@seealso
@ref{augmentation}, @ref{diminution}, @ref{ligature}, @ref{proportion}.
@c TODO: more cross-references?


@node mensuration sign
@section mensuration sign

@c TODO: add languages

ES: signo de mensuración,
I: ?,
F: signe de mensuration,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: ?.

The ancestor of the time signature, mensuration signs were used to indicate the
relationship between two sets of note durations—specifically, the ratio of
breves to semibreves (called @notation{tempus}), and of semibreves to minims
(called @notation{prolatio}).

Each ratio was represented with a single single sign, and was either
three-to-one (ternary) or two-to-one (binary), as in modern music notation.
Unlike modern music notation, the @emph{ternary} ratio was the preferred
one—applied to the @emph{tempus}, it was called @emph{perfect}, and was
represented by a complete circle; applied to the @emph{prolatio}, it was called
@emph{major} and was represented by a dot in the middle of the sign.  The binary
ratio applied to the @emph{tempus} was called @emph{imperfect}, and was
represented by an incomplete circle; applied to @emph{prolatio}, it was called
@emph{minor} and was represented by the lack of an internal dot.  There are four
possible combinations, which can be represented in modern time signatures with
and without reduction of note values.  (These signs are hard-coded in LilyPond
with reduction.)

@table @dfn
@item perfect @emph{tempus} with major @emph{prolatio}
Indicated by a complete circle with an internal dot.  In modern time signatures,
this equals:
@itemize
@item 9/4, with reduction or
@item 9/2, without reduction
@end itemize

@item perfect @emph{tempus} and minor @emph{prolatio}
Indicated by a complete circle without an internal dot.  In modern time
signatures, this equals:
@itemize
@item 3/2, with reduction or
@item 3/1, without reduction
@end itemize

@item imperfect @emph{tempus} and major @emph{prolatio}
Indicated by an incomplete circle with an internal dot.  In modern time
signatures, this equals:
@itemize
@item 6/4, with reduction or
@item 6/2, without reduction
@end itemize

@item imperfect @emph{tempus} and minor @emph{prolatio}
Indicated by an incomplete circle without an internal dot.  In modern time
signatures, this equals:
@itemize
@item 4/4, with reduction or
@item 2/1, without reduction
@end itemize
@end table

The last mensuration sign @emph{looks} like common-time because it @emph{is},
with note values reduced from the original semibreve to a modern quarter note.
Being doubly imperfect, this sign represented the (theoretically)
least-preferred mensuration, but it was actually used fairly often.

This system extended to the ratio of longer note values to each other:

@itemize

  @item maxima to longa, called:

    @itemize

      @item @notation{modus maximorum},
      @item @notation{modus major}, or
      @item @notation{maximodus})

    @end itemize

  @item longa to breve, called:

    @itemize

      @item @notation{modus longarum},
      @item @notation{modus minor}, or
      @item @notation{modus}

    @end itemize

@end itemize

In the absence of any other indication, these modes were assumed to be
binary.  The mensuration signs only indicated tempus and prolatio, so
composers needed another way to indicate these longer ratios (called modes.
Around the middle of the 15th century started to use groups of rests at the
beginning of the staff, preceding the mensuration sign.


Two mensuration signs have survived to the present day: the C-shaped sign,
which originally designated @notation{tempus imperfectum} and
@notation{prolatio minor} now stands for @notation{common time}; and the
slashed C, which designated the same with @notation{diminution} now stands
for @notation{cut-time} (essentially, it has not lost its original meaning).

@seealso
@ref{diminution}, @ref{proportion}, @ref{time signature}.
@c TODO: more cross-references?


@node meter
@section meter

ES: tiempo, compás,
I: tempo, misura,
F: indication de mesure, mesure,
D: Taktart, Metrum,
NL: maatsoort,
DK: taktart,
S: taktart,
FI: aika-arvo.

The pattern of note values and accents in a composition or a section thereof.
There are a couple ways to classify @q{traditional} meter (i.e. not polymeter):
by grouping beats and by subdividing the primary beat.

@b{By grouping beats}:

@itemize

  @item @b{duple}: groups of two.
  @item @b{triple}: groups of three.
  @item @b{quadruple}: groups of four.  A special case of duple meter.
  @item @b{quintuple}: groups of five beats.
  @item @b{sextuple} meter: groups of six.  A special case of:

    @itemize

      @item duple meter, subdivided in three; or
      @item triple meter, subdivided in two.

    @end itemize

  @item @b{septuple} meter: groups of seven.
  @item and so on.

@end itemize

Other than triple meter and its subdivided variants (see below), meters that
feature odd groupings of beats (e.g. quintuple or septuple meter) are not
frequently used prior to the 20th Century.

@b{By subdividing the primary beat}:

@itemize

  @item simple: subdivided in groups of two.

    @itemize

      @item duple: 2/2, 2/4, 2/8
      @item triple: 3/2, 3/4, 3/8
      @item quadruple: 4/2, 4/4 (also called common time), 4/8

    @end itemize

  @item compound: subdivided in groups of three.

    @itemize

      @item duple: 6/8
      @item triple: 9/8
      @item quadruple: 12/8

    @end itemize        

@end itemize

Time signatures are placed at the beginning of a composition (or section) to
indicate the meter.  For instance, a piece written in simple triple meter with a
beat on each quarter note is conventionally written with a time signature of
3/4.  Here are some combinations of the two classifications above:

Simple duple meter (F.J. Haydn, 1732-1809; or a Croatian folk tune):

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
\relative c'' {
  \time 2/4
  \key g \major
  g8. a16 b8 a | c b a16( fis) g8 | e' d c b | a2 \bar "||"}
@end lilypond

Simple triple meter:

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
\relative c'' {
  \time 3/4
  \key c \minor
  c es d8 c | d4 b g | d' f es8 d | es d c2 \bar "||"}
@end lilypond

Simple quadruple meter (French folk tune, @emph{Au clair de la lune}):

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
\relative c'' {
  \time 4/4
  \key g \major
  g4 g g a | b2 a | g4 b a a | g1 \bar "||"}
@end lilypond

Simple quintuple meter (B. Marcello, 1686-1739):

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
\relative c'' {
  \time 5/4
  \key c \major
  r4 cis8 bis ais4 dis c8 ais |
  aes4 bes8 aes ges4 aes f8 es \bar "||"}
@end lilypond

(Aside: this is an example of @emph{Augenmusik}: the accidentals are thus in
the source, with sharps in the accompaniment where the voice has flats and
@emph{vice versa}.)

Compound duple meter (unknown):

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
\relative c' {
  \time 6/8
  \key f \major
  f8 f g a bes16 a g f |
  g8 g bes a c16 a bes g
  \bar "||"}
@end lilypond

Compound triple meter (J.S. Bach, 1685-1750):

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
\relative c' {
  \time 9/8
  \key g \major
  r8 g'( a) b( d c) c( e d) |
  d( g fis) g( d b) g( a b)
  \bar "||"}
@end lilypond

Compound quadruple meter (P. Yon, 1886-1943):

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
\relative c' {
  \time 12/8
  \key e \major
  b'8.( a16) gis8 a8.( gis16) fis8 gis8.( fis16) e8 fis4 b,8 |
  e4 e8 fis( gis) a b4.~ b4 b8
  \bar "||"}
@end lilypond

@ignore
@b{@q{Monometer} vs Polymeter}

TODO: add information from discussion on lilypond-user related to polymeter.
@end ignore

@seealso
@ref{accent}, @ref{hemiola}, @ref{note value}, @ref{time signature}


@node metronome
@section metronome

ES: metrónomo,
I: metronomo,
F: métronome,
D: Metronom,
NL: metronoom,
DK: me@-tro@-nom,
S: me@-tro@-nom,
FI: metronomi.

Device used to indicate the exact tempo of a piece.

Invented ca. 1812 by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkler of Amsterdam, but takes its name
from Johann Nepomuk Mälzel, who copied the device, added a scale of tempo
divisions, and patented it as a @q{metronome}.  The inevitable lawsuit that
followed acknowledged Winkler as the creator, but by then Mälzel had already
sold many of them, and people had taken to calling it a Mälzel Metronome.

@seealso
@ref{metronome mark}.


@node metronome mark
@section metronome mark

ES: indicación metronómica,
I: indicazione metronomica,
F: indication métronomique,
D: Metronomangabe,
NL: metronoom aanduiding,
DK: metronomtal,
S: metronomangivelse,
FI: metronomiosoitus.

Exact tempo indication (in beats per minute).  Abbreviated @notation{M.M.} or
@notation{MM}, which is short for Mälzels Metronom (or Mälzel's Mark,
@emph{anglice}).

@seealso
@ref{metronome}


@node metronomic indication
@section metronomic indication

@seealso
@ref{metronome mark}


@node mezzo
@section mezzo

ES: mezzo,
I: mezzo,
F: mezzo,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: kohtalaisen, melko.

[Italian: @q{medium}]

Used to qualify other indications, such as:

@itemize

@item Dynamics
  @itemize
  @item @notation{mezzo piano} is @q{medium quiet} (that is, not as quiet as
  @notation{piano})
  @item @notation{mezzo forte} is @q{medium loud} (that is, not as loud as
  @notation{forte})
  @end itemize

@item Voice
  @itemize
  @item Pitchwise, a mezzo-soprano's voice lies between that of contraltos and
  sopranos
  @end itemize

@end itemize

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node mezzo-soprano
@section mezzo-soprano

ES: mezzosoprano,
I: mezzo-soprano,
F: mezzo-soprano,
D: Mezzosopran,
NL: mezzosopraan,
DK: mezzosopran,
S: mezzosopran,
FI: mezzosopraano.

The female voice between soprano and contralto.

@seealso
@ref{soprano}, @ref{contralto}.


@node middle C
@section middle C

ES: do central,
I: do centrale,
F: do central, do 3
D: eingestrichenes@w{ }c,
NL: centrale@w{ }c,
DK: enstreget@w{ }c,
S: ettstruket@w{ }c,
FI: keski-C.

First C below the 440 Hz A.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1]
\override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
  \clef bass c1 s
  \clef alto c s
  \clef treble c s
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node minor
@section minor

ES: menor,
I: minore,
F: (mode) mineur,
D: Moll,
NL: mineur,
DK: mol,
S: moll,
FI: molli.

@seealso
@ref{diatonic scale}.


@node minor interval
@section minor interval

ES: intervalo menor,
I: intervallo minore,
F: intervalle mineur,
D: kleines Intervall,
NL: klein interval,
DK: lille interval,
S: litet intervall,
FI: pieni intervalli.

@seealso
@ref{interval}.


@node mixolydian mode
@section mixolydian mode

@seealso
@ref{diatonic scale}.


@node mode
@section mode

ES: modo,
I: modo,
F: mode,
D: Kirchentonart, Modus,
NL: modus,
DK: skala,
S: modus, skala,
FI: moodi, kirkkosävelasteikko.

@seealso
@ref{church mode}, @ref{diatonic scale}.


@node modulation
@section modulation

ES: modulación,
I: modulazione,
F: modulation,
D: Modulation,
NL: modulatie,
DK: modulation,
S: modulering,
FI: modulaatio, sävellajin vaihdos.

Moving from one @ref{key} to another.  For example, the second subject
of a @ref{sonata form} movement modulates to the dominant key if the
key is major and to the @ref{relative key} if the key is minor.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node mordent
@section mordent

I: mordente,
F: mordant,
D: Mordent,
NL: mordent,
DK: mordent,
S: mordent,
FI: mordent, korukuvio.

@seealso
@ref{ornament}.


@node motif
@section motif

@seealso
@ref{motive}.


@node motive
@section motive

ES: motivo,
I: inciso,
F: motif, incise,
D: Motiv,
NL: motief,
DK: motiv,
S: motiv,
FI: teema, sävelaihe.

The briefest intelligible and self-contained fragment of a musical
theme or subject.

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
\score{
\relative c'' {
  \set Score.implicitTimeSignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
  \override Score.TimeSignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible
  \time 4/4
  \key g \major
  \partial 8 g16\startGroup fis |
  g8\stopGroup d16\startGroup c d8\stopGroup g16 fis g8 b,16 a b8 g'16 fis |
  g8 g,16 a b8 cis d16 s
}
\layout {
        \context {
                \Staff \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
}}
}
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node movement
@section movement

ES: movimiento,
I: movimento,
F: mouvement,
D: Satz,
NL: deel,
DK: sats,
S: sats,
FI: osa.

Greater musical works like @ref{symphony} and @ref{sonata} most often consist of
several -- more or less -- independent pieces called movements.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node multi-measure rest
@section multi-measure rest

ES: compases de espera, silencio multicompás,
I: pausa multipla,
F: pause multiple, mesure à compter,
NL: meermaats rust,
D: mehrtaktige Pause, Kirchenpause,
DK: flertaktspause,
S: flertaktspaus,
FI: usean tahdin mittainen tauko.

Multi-measure rests are conventionally typeset with a combination of
longa, breve and whole rests for shorter and a long horizontal bar for
longer spans of rest, with a number above to indicate the duration (in
measures) of the rest. The former style is called @q{Kirchenpausen} in
German, as a reminiscence of its use in Renaissance vocal polyphony.

@lilypond[quote,relative=2]
a1
\set Score.skipBars = ##t
R1*3
a1
\set Score.skipBars = ##t
R1*122
a1
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{longa}, @ref{breve}.


@node natural
@section natural

ES: becuadro,
I: bequadro,
F: bécarre,
D: Auflösungszeichen,
NL: herstellingsteken,
DK: op@-løsningstegn,
S: återställningstecken,
FI: palautusmerkki.

@seealso
@ref{accidental}.


@node neighbor tones
@section neighbor tones

@c TODO: add definition.
 
ES: tonos vecinos,
I: ?,
F: tons voisins,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: ?.

@seealso
@ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes},
@ref{ornament}.


@node ninth
@section ninth

ES: novena,
I: nona,
F: neuvième,
D: None,
NL: noon,
DK: none,
S: nona,
FI: nooni.

@seealso
@ref{interval}.


@node non-legato
@section non-legato

@seealso
@ref{legato}.


@node note
@section note

ES: nota,
I: nota,
F: note,
D: Note,
NL: noot,
DK: node,
S: not,
FI: nuotti.

Notes are signs by means of which music is fixed in writing.  The term is also
used for the sound indicated by a note, and even for the key of the piano
which produces the sound.  However, a clear distinction between the terms tone
and @ref{note} is strongly recommended.  Briefly, one sees a note,
and hears a tone.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node note head
@section note head

ES: cabeza,
I: testa, testina, capocchia,
F: tête de note,
D: Notenkopf,
NL: nootballetje,
DK: nodehovede,
S: nothuvud,
FI: nuotin pää.

A head-like sign which indicates pitch by its position on a @notation{staff}
provided with a @notation{clef}, and duration by a variety of shapes such as
hollow or black heads with or without @notation{stems}, @notation{flags}, etc. 
For percussion instruments (often having no defined pitch) the note head may
indicate the instrument.

@seealso
@ref{clef}, @ref{flag}, @ref{staff}, @ref{stem}.


@node note names
@section note names

@seealso
@ref{Pitch names}


@node note value
@section note value

ES: valor, duración,
I: valore, durata,
F: durée, valeur (d'une note),
D: Notenwert,
NL: nootwaarde,
DK nodeværdi,
S: notvärde,
FI: nuotin aika-arvo.

Note values (durations) are measured as fractions—in modern usage, one-half—of
the next higher note value.  The longest duration in current use is the
@notation{breve} (equal to two whole notes), but sometimes (especially in music
dating from the Baroque era or earlier) the @notation{longa} (four whole notes)
or @notation{maxima} (eight whole notes) may be found.

As used in mensural notation, this fraction was more flexible: it could also
be one-third the higher note value.  Composers indicated which proportions
to use with various signs—two of which survive to the present day: the
C-shaped sign for @notation{common time}, and the slashed C for
@notation{alla breve} or @notation{cut-time}.

@c TODO -- add maxima to this example, in a way that doesn't break it.

@lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
\relative c'' {
  \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
  a\longa_"longa" a\breve_"breve"
  \revert NoteHead #'style
  a1_"1/1" a2_"1/2" a4_"1/4" s16 a8_"1/8" s16
  a16_"1/16" s16 a32_"1/32" s16 a64_"1/64" s32 }
@end lilypond

@c TODO -- add maxima rest to this example

@lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
\relative c'' {
  r\longa_"longa" r\breve_"breve"
  r1_"1/1" r2_"1/2" r4_"1/4" s16 r8_"1/8" s16
  r16_"1/16" s16 r32_"1/32" s16 r64_"1/64" s32 }
@end lilypond

An augmentation dot after a note increases its duration by half; a second dot
increases it by half of the first addition (that is, by a fourth of the original
duration).  More dots can be used to add further halved fractions of the
original note value (1/8, 1/16, etc.), but they are not frequently encountered.

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
\relative c'' {
  \time 4/4
  g4._"pointed" g8 g2 | g4 ~ g8 g g2 \bar "||"
  g4.._"double pointed" g16 g2 | g4 ~ g8 ~ g16 g g2 \bar "||" }
@end lilypond

Alternatively note values may be subdivided by other ratios.  Most common is
subdivision by@w{ }3 (@emph{triplets}) and@w{ }5 (@emph{quintuplets}).
Subdivisions by@w{ }2 (@emph{duplets}) or@w{ }4 (@emph{quadruplets}) of
dotted notes are also frequently used.

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
\relative c'' {
  \time 4/4
  \times 2/3 {g8_"triplets" g g} g4 g8 g g4 \bar "||"
  \times 2/5 {g8_"quintuplets" g g g g} g4 g8 g g4 \bar "||"
}
@end lilypond

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
\relative c'' {
  \time 3/4
  \times 3/2 {g4_"duplets" g} |
  g4 g g \bar "||"
  \times 6/4 {g8_"quadruplets" g g g} |
  g8 g g g g4 \bar "||"
}
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{common time}.


@node octavation
@section octavation

@seealso
@ref{octave marking}.


@node octave
@section octave

ES: octava,
I: ottava,
F: octave,
D: Oktave,
NL: octaaf,
DK: oktav,
S: oktav,
FI: oktaavi.

The interval of an octave, sometimes abbreviated @notation{8ve}.

For uses like @notation{all'ottava} or @notation{8va} with an extender line or
bracket, or @notation{loco} see octave marking.

@seealso
@ref{interval}, @ref{octave marking}.


@node octave mark
@section octave mark

ES: indicación de octava,
I: segno di ottava,
F: indication d'octave,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: oktaavamerkki.

The phrase, abbreviation, or other mark used (with or without an extender line
or bracket) to indicate that the music is to be played in a different octave:

@itemize

@item @notation{15ma}: play two octaves higher
@item @notation{8va}: play one octave higher
@item @notation{8vb}: play one octave lower
@item @notation{8va} (written below the passage): unusual, same as
@notation{8vb}
@item @notation{15vb}: play two octaves lower
@item @notation{15va} (written below the passage): unusual, same as
@notation{15vb}

@end itemize

For longer passages, it may be more practical to mark the octave change at the
beginning with a phrase (see the list below for examples), but without a bracket
or extender line.  Then, when the music returns to the written pitch, the octave
change is cancelled with the word @notation{loco} (q.v.).

To parallel the list above:

@itemize

@item @notation{15ma}: @notation{alla quindicesima (alta)}
@item @notation{8va}: @notation{all'ottava} or @notation{ottava sopra}
@item @notation{8vb}: @notation{all'ottava bassa}, @notation{ottava sotto}
@item @notation{15vb}: @notation{alla quindicesima (bassa)}

@end itemize

In the phrases above, @notation{quindicesima} is sometimes replaced with
@notation{quindecima}, which is Latin.

The music on an entire staff can be marked to be played in a different octave by
putting a small 8 or 15 above or below the clef at the beginning.  This octave
mark can be applied to any clef, but it is most frequently used with the G and F
clefs.

@seealso
@ref{F clef}, @ref{G clef}, @ref{loco}, @ref{octave marking}.


@node octave marking
@section octave marking

ES: a la octava,
I: all'ottava,
F: octaviation,
D: Oktavierung,
NL: octaveren,
DK: oktavering,
S: oktavering,
FI: oktaavamerkintä.

The practice of marking music -- an entire staff, a passage, etc. -- to indicate
that it is to be played in a different octave.  If applied to the clef at the
beginning of the staff, all music on that staff is to played at the indicated
octave.

For a list of the specific marks used, see @ref{octave mark}.

@seealso
@ref{interval}, @ref{loco}, @ref{octave}, @ref{octave mark}.


@node octave sign
@section octave sign

@seealso
@ref{octave mark}.


@node ornament
@section ornament

ES: adorno,
I: abbellimento, fioriture,
F: agrément, ornement,
D: Verzierung, Ornament,
NL: versiering,
DK: forsiring,
S: ornament,
FI: koru, hele.

Most commonly used is the @emph{trill}, the rapid alternation of a given note
with the diatonic @ref{second} above it.  In the music from the
middle of the 19th century and onwards the trill is performed with the main
note first while in the music from the preceding baroque and classic periods
the upper note is played first.

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
<<
  \context Staff = sa {
    \relative c'' {
      c2._"pre-1850" b4\trill | c1 \bar "||"
      c2._"post-1850" b4\trill | c1 \bar "||"
    }
  }
  \relative c'' {
    c2. c32 b c b c b c b | c1
    c2. b32 c b c \times 4/5 { b c b c b } | c1
  }
>>
@end lilypond

Other frequently used ornaments are the @emph{turn}, the @emph{mordent}, and
the @emph{prall} (inverted mordent).

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
<<
  \context Staff = sa {
    \relative c'' {
      a4_"turn" b\turn c2 \bar "||"
      g4_"mordent" a b\mordent a \bar "||"
      e'4_"prall" d\prall c2 \bar "||"
    }
  }
  \relative c'' {
    a4 c16[ b a b] c2
    g4 a b16-[ a b8] a4
    e'4 e32[ d e d ~ d8] c2
  }
>>
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{acciaccatura}, @ref{appoggiatura}, @ref{grace notes}.


@node ossia
@section ossia

ES: ossia,
I: ossia,
F: ossia, alternative,
D: Ossia,
NL: alternatief,
DK: ossia,
S: ossia,
FI: ossia, vaihtoehtoinen esitystapa.

Ossia (otherwise) marks an alternative.  It is an added staff or piano
score, usually only a few measures long, which presents another version
of the music, for example for small hands.

@seealso
Compare: @ref{cue-notes}.


@node part
@section part

ES: parte, particella,
I: voce, parte,
F: partie,
D: Stimme,
NL: partij,
DK: stemme,
S: stämma,
FI: stemma, instrumenttiosuus.

@itemize

@item In instrumental or choral music, the music for a single
instrument or voice.

@item in contrapuntal music, a single melodic line in the contrapuntal
web.

@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{counterpoint}


@node pause
@section pause

@seealso
@ref{fermata}.


@node pennant
@section pennant

@seealso
@ref{flag}.


@node percent repeat
@section percent repeat

LilyPond-specific term to indicate the repetition of a musical expression on a
single staff, as opposed to the more usual definition of repeat, which affects
all parts.  The musical expression can be anything from a single note or note
pattern to one or more measures.  There are other names for this symbol:

@itemize

@item simile mark
@item slash mark, or slash repeat
@item beat repeat
@item measure (or multi-measure) repeat

@end itemize

@lilypond[quote,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
\time 4/4
  \repeat percent 4 { c4_"Beat (or slash) repeat" }
  \repeat percent 2 { c4 e g b_"Measure repeat" }
  \repeat percent 2 { c,2 es | f4 fis g c_"Multi-measure repeat" | }
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{repeat},
@uref{http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/textr/Repeat.html,University of
Vermont Music Dictionary}.


@node percussion
@section percussion

ES: percusión,
I: percussioni,
F: percussion,
D: Schlagzeug, Schlagwerk,
NL: slagwerk,
DK: slagtøj,
S: slagverk,
FI: lyömäsoittimet.

A family of musical instruments which are played on by striking or
shaking.  Percussion instruments commonly used in a symphony orchestra are
kettledrums (I: @emph{timpani}, D: @emph{Pauken}), snare drum, bass drum,
tambourine, cymbals, chinese gong (tam-tam), triangle, celesta, glockenspiel,
and xylophone.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node perfect interval
@section perfect interval

ES: intervalo justo,
I: intervallo giusto,
F: intervalle juste,
D: reines Intervall,
NL: rein interval,
DK: rent interval,
S: rent intervall,
FI: puhdas intervalli.

@seealso
@ref{interval}.


@node phrase
@section phrase

ES: frase,
I: frase,
F: phrase,
D: Phrase,
NL: frase, zin,
DK: frase,
S: fras,
FI: fraasi, lause.

A natural division of the melodic line, comparable to a sentence of speech.

@seealso
@ref{caesura}.


@node phrasing
@section phrasing

ES: fraseo,
I: fraseggio,
F: phrasé,
D: Phrasierung,
NL: frasering,
DK: frasering,
S: fra@-se@-ring,
FI: fraseeraus, jäsentäminen.

The clear rendering in musical performance of the @notation{phrases} of the
melody.  Phrasing may be indicated by a @notation{slur}.

@seealso
@ref{phrase}, @ref{slur}.


@node piano
@section piano

ES: piano, suave,
I: piano,
F: piano,
D: piano, leise,
NL: piano,
DK: piano,
S: piano,
FI, piano, hiljaa.

@emph{piano} (@b{p}) soft, @emph{pianissimo} (@b{pp}) very soft,
@emph{mezzo piano} (@b{mp}) medium soft.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node pickup
@section pickup

ES: anacrusa,
I: anacrusi,
F: anacrouse, levée,
D: Auftakt,
NL: opmaat,
DK: optakt,
S: upptakt,
FI: kohotahti.

@seealso
@ref{anacrusis}.


@node pitch
@section pitch

ES: altura,
I: altezza,
F: hauteur,
D: Tonhöhe,
NL: toonhoogte,
DK: tonehøjde,
S: tonhöjd,
FI: sävelkorkeus.

@enumerate

@item The perceived quality of a sound that is primarily a function of its
fundamental frequency.

@item [FR. ton; DE. Ton; ES. tono] Any point on the continuum of musical pitch.

@item [FR. diapason; DE. Kammerton, Stimmung; ES. diapasón] The standardized
association of a particular frequency with a particular pitch name, e.g., c' =
256 Hz.

@end enumerate

@seealso
@ref{Pitch names}.


@node pizzicato
@section pizzicato

ES: pizzicato,
I: pizzicato,
F: pizzicato,
D: pizzicato,
NL: pizzicato, getokkeld,
DK: pizzicato,
S: pizzicato,
FI: pizzicato, näppäillen.

A technique for stringed instruments, abbr. @emph{pizz}.  To play by plucking
the strings.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node polymeter
@section polymeter

ES: compás polimétrico,
I: polimetria,
F: polymétrie,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: monia tahtiosoituksia sisältävä.

@itemize

@item The @emph{simultaneous} use of two or more meters, in two or more
parts.

@item The @emph{successive} use of different meters in one or more parts.

@end itemize 

@seealso
@ref{polymetric} (adj.)


@node polymetric
@section polymetric

ES: polimétrico,
I: polimetrico,
F: polymétrique,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: monia tahtiosoituksia yhtäaikaa tai peräkkäin sisältävä.

Characterized by @emph{polymeter}: using two or more metric frameworks
simultaneously or in alternation.

@seealso
@ref{polymeter} (noun)


@node polymetric time signature
@section polymetric time signature

ES: indicación de compás polimétrico,
I: tempo polimetrico,
F: ?,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: vaihtelevan tahtiosoitusmerkintä.

A time signature that indicates regularly alternating polymetric time.

@seealso
@ref{polymetric}.


@node polyphony
@section polyphony

ES: polifonía,
I: polifonia,
F: polyphonie,
D: Polyphonie, Mehrstimmigkeit,
NL: polyfonie,
DK: polyfoni,
S: polyfoni,
FI: polyfonia, moniäänisyys.

Music written in a combination of several simultaneous voices (parts)
of a more or less pronounced individuality.

@seealso
@ref{counterpoint}.


@node portato
@section portato

[Italian: past participle of @emph{portare}, @q{to carry}]

A stroke in which each of several notes is separated slightly within a slur,
without changing the bow's direction. It is used for passages of a
@notation{cantabile} character.

@seealso
@ref{legato}.


@node presto
@section presto

ES: presto, muy rápido,
I: presto,
F: presto, très rapide, enlevé,
D: Presto, Sehr schnell,
NL: presto, Sehr schnell,
DK: presto,
S: presto,
FI: presto, hyvin nopeasti.

[Italian]

Very quick, i.e., quicker than @ref{allegro}; @emph{prestissimo}
denotes the highest possible degree of speed.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node proportion
@section proportion

ES: proporción,
I: proporzione,
F: proportion,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: suhde.

[Latin: @emph{proportio}] Described in great detail by Gaffurius, in
@emph{Practica musicae} (published in Milan in 1496).  In mensural notation,
proportion is:

@enumerate

@item A ratio that expresses the relationship between the note values that
follow with those that precede;

@item A ratio between the note values of a passage and the @q{normal}
relationship of note values to the metrical pulse.  (A special case of the
first definition.)

@end enumerate

The most common proportions are:

@itemize
@item 2:1 (or simply 2), expressed by a vertical line through the
mensuration sign (the origin of the @notation{alla breve} time signature),
or by turning the sign backwards
@item 3:1 (or simply 3)
@item 3:2 (@emph{sesquialtera})
@end itemize

To @q{cancel} any of these, the inverse proportion is applied.  Thus:

@itemize
@item 1:2 cancels 2:1
@item 1:3 cancels 3:1
@item 2:3 cancels 3:2
@item and so on.
@end itemize

Gaffurius enumerates five basic types of major:minor proportions and their
inverses:

@enumerate
@item Multiplex, if the major number is an exact multiple of the minor (2:1,
3:1, 4:2, 6:3); and its inverse, Submultiplex (1:2, 1:3, 2:4, 3:6)

@item Epimoria or Superparticular [orig. @emph{Epimoria seu Superparticularis}],
if the major number is one more than the minor (3:2, 4:3, 5:4); and its
inverse, Subsuperparticular (2:3, 3:4, 4:5)

@item Superpartiens, if the major number is one less than twice the minor
(5:3, 7:4, 9:5, 11:6); and its inverse, subsuperpartiens (3:5, 4:7, 5:9, 6:11)

@item Multiplexsuperparticular, if the major number is one more than twice the
minor (5:2, 7:3, 9:4); and its inverse, Submultiplexsuperparticular (2:5, 3:7,
4:9)

@item Multiplexsuperpartiens, if the major number is one less than some other
multiple (usually three or four) of the minor (8:3, 11:4, 14:5, 11:3); and its
inverse, Submultiplexsuperpartiens (3:8, 4:11, 5:14, 3:11)

@end enumerate

He then continues to subdivide each type in various ways.  For the multiplex
proportions, for example, he indicates how many times greater the major number
is than the minor:

@itemize

@item If two times greater, the proportion is @emph{dupla}.  If inverted, it's
called @emph{subdupla}.  Examples: 2:1, 4:2, and 6:3.

@item If three, @emph{tripla}; and its inversion, @emph{subtripla}.  Example:
3:1, 6:2, and 9:3.

@item If four, @emph{quadrupla}; and its inversion, @emph{subquadrupla}. 
Example: 4:1, 8:2, and 12:3

@end itemize

Other proportions were possible, but whether they were frequently used is
another question:

@itemize

@item 33:9, @emph{triplasuperbipartientetertias}
@item 51:15, @emph{triplasuperbipartientequintas}

@end itemize

@c TODO: add an example or two.  O => 4/3, and its modern equivalent

@seealso
@ref{mensural notation}.


@node Pythagorean comma
@section Pythagorean comma

ES: coma pitagórica,
I: comma pitagorico,
F: comma pythagoricien,
D: Pythagoräisches Komma,
NL: komma van Pythagoras,
DK: pythagoræisk komma,
S: pytagoreiskt komma,
FI: pytagorinen komma.

Originally, the interval by which the sum of six whole tones exceeds the octave
-- (9:8)^6 - 2:1 = 531441:524288, or 23.5 cents.

Modern acoustical theory defines it as the interval by which twelve fifths
exceed seven octaves.  To put it another way: A sequence of fifths that starts
on C eventually circles back to C.  However, this C is 23.5 @ref{cent}s higher
than the C obtained by adding 7 octaves.  The difference between those two
pitches is the Pythagorean comma.

@seealso
@ref{cent}, @ref{temperament}.


@node quadruplet
@section quadruplet

ES: cuatrillo,
I: quartina,
F: quartolet,
D: Quartole,
NL: kwartool,
DK: kvartol,
S: kvartol,
FI: kvartoli.

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node quality
@section quality

ES: variante [de acorde o intervalo],
I: qualità (?),
F: qualité (?),
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: laatu.

The quality of a triad is determined by the precise arrangement of its
intervals.  Tertian triads can be described as a series of three notes.  The
first element is the root note (or simply @q{root}) of the chord, the second
note is the @q{third} of the chord, and the last note is the @q{fifth} of
the chord. These are described below:

@multitable {Chord name} {Component intervals} {Example} {C, CM, Cma, Cmaj, CΔ}
@headitem Chord name
  @tab Component intervals
  @tab Example
  @tab Symbol
@item major triad @tab major third/perfect fifth
  @tab C-E-G
  @tab C, CM, Cma, Cmaj, CΔ
@item minor triad @tab minor third/perfect fifth
  @tab C-E♭-G
  @tab Cm, Cmi, Cmin, C-
@item augmented triad @tab major third/augmented fifth
  @tab C-E-G♯
  @tab C+, C^+, Caug
@item diminished triad @tab minor third/diminished fifth
  @tab C-E♭-G♭
  @tab Cm(♭5), Cº, Cdim
@end multitable

There are various types of seventh chords depending on the quality of the
original chord and the quality of the seventh added.

Five common types of seventh chords have standard symbols. The chord quality
indications are sometimes superscripted and sometimes not (e.g. Dm7, Dm^7,
and D^m7 are all identical). The last three chords are not commonly used
except in jazz.

@seealso
@ref{chord}.


@node quarter note
@section quarter note

@itemize
@item UK: crotchet
@item ES: negra
@item I: semiminima, nera
@item F: noire
@item D: Viertel, Viertelnote
@item NL: kwartnoot
@item DK: fjerdedelsnode
@item S: fjärdedelsnot
@item FI: neljäsosanuotti
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node quarter rest
@section quarter rest

@itemize
@item UK: crotchet rest
@item ES: silencio de negra
@item I: pausa di semiminima
@item F: soupir
@item D: Viertelpause
@item NL: kwartrust
@item DK: fjerdedelspause
@item S: fjärdedelspaus
@item FI: neljäsosatauko
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node quarter tone
@section quarter tone

ES: cuarto de tono,
I: quarto di tono,
F: quart de ton,
D: Viertelton,
NL: kwart toon,
DK: ?,
S: kvartston,
FI: neljännessävelaskel.

An interval equal to half a semitone.

@seealso
@ref{interval}


@node quintuplet
@section quintuplet

ES: cinquillo, quintillo,
I: quintina,
F: quintolet,
D: Quintole,
NL: kwintool,
DK: kvintol,
S: kvintol,
FI: kvintoli.

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node rallentando
@section rallentando

ES: rallentando,
I: rallentando,
F: rallentando, en ralentissant,
D: rallentando, langsamer werden,
NL: rallentando,
DK: rallentando,
S: rallentando,
FI: rallerdando, hidastuen.

[Italian] A performance indication, abbreviated @notation{rall.}.

@seealso
@ref{ritardando}.


@node relative key
@section relative key

ES: tono relativo,
I: tonalità relativa,
F: tonalité relative,
D: Paralleltonart,
NL: paralleltoonsoort,
DK: paralleltoneart,
S: parallelltonart,
FI: rinnakkaissävellaji.

Major and minor keys that have the same key signature.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1,line-width=13.0\cm]
\key es \major
es1_"e flat major" f g as bes c d es
\bar "||"
@end lilypond

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1,line-width=13.0\cm]
\key c \minor
c1_"c minor" d es f g a! b! c
\bar "||"
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{key}, @ref{key signature}, @ref{major}, @ref{minor}.


@node repeat
@section repeat

ES: repetición,
I: ripetizione,
F: barre de reprise,
D: Wiederholung,
NL: herhaling,
DK: gen@-ta@-gel@-se,
S: repris,
FI: toisto.

@lilypond[quote,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
\key g \major
\time 4/4
\repeat volta 2 {
  g4 g d' d
  e4 e d2
  c4 c b b
  a a g2
}
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node rest
@section rest

ES: silencio,
I: pausa,
F: silence,
D: Pause,
NL: rust,
DK: pause,
S: paus,
FI: tauko.

@c F: 'pause' if you mean a whole rest, 'silence' if you do not want to
@c     specify the rest's value.

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node rhythm
@section rhythm

ES: ritmo,
I: ritmo,
F: rythme,
D: Rhythmus,
NL: ritme,
DK: rytme,
S: rytm,
FI: rytmi.

@itemize

@item Metrical rhythm in which every time value is a multiple or
fraction of a fixed unit of time, called @emph{beat}, and in which the
normal @emph{accent} recurs in regular intervals, called @emph{measure}.
The basic scheme of time values is called @emph{meter}.

@item Measured rhythm which lacks regularly recurrent accent.  In
modern notation such music appears as a free alternation of different
measures.

@item Free rhythm, i.e., the use of temporal values having no common
metrical unit (beat).

@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{accent}, @ref{beat}, @ref{measure}, @ref{meter}.


@node ritardando
@section ritardando

ES: ritardando, retardando,
I: ritardando,
F: ritardando, en ralentissant,
D: ritardando, langsamer werden,
NL: ritardando,
DK: ritardando,
S: ritardando,
FI: ritardando, hidastuen,

Gradually slackening in speed.  Mostly abbreviated to @notation{rit.} or
@notation{ritard}.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node ritenuto
@section ritenuto

ES: ritenuto, reteniendo,
I: ritenuto,
F: ritenuto, en retenant,
D: ritenuto,
NL: ritenuto,
DK: ritenuto,
S: ritenuto,
FI: ritenuto, hidastaen.

Immediate reduction of speed.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node scale
@section scale

ES: escala,
I: scala,
F: gamme,
D: Tonleiter,
NL: toonladder,
DK: Skala,
S: skala,
FI: asteikko, sävelasteikko.

@seealso
@ref{diatonic scale}.


@node scale degree
@section scale degree

ES: grado (de la escala),
I: grado della scala,
F: degré [de la gamme],
D: Tonleiterstufe,
NL: trap [van de toonladder],
DK: skalatrin,
S: skalsteg (?),
FI: sävelaste, asteikon sävel.

Names and symbols used in harmonic analysis to denote tones of the
scale as roots of chords.  The most important are degrees I = tonic
(T), IV = sub@-do@-mi@-nant (S) and V = dominant (D).

@lilypond[quote,notime,line-width=13.0\cm]
<<
\new Staff \relative c' {
  c1 d e f g a b c
}
 \lyrics {
  << { I II III IV V VI VII I }
     { T "" ""  S  D } >>
}
>>
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{functional harmony}.


@node scordatura
@section scordatura

ES: encordado,
I: scordatura,
F: à cordes ravallées,
D: Skordatur,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: epätavallinen viritys.

[Italian: @emph{scordare}, @q{to mistune}]  Unconventional
tuning of stringed instruments, particularly lutes or violins.  Used
to:

@itemize

@item facilitate pitch combinations that would otherwise be difficult
or impossible

@item alter the characteristic timbre of the instrument, for example,
to increase brilliance

@item reinforce certain sonorities or tonalities by making them
available on open strings

@item imitate other instruments

@item etc.

@end itemize

Tunings that could be called @var{scordatura} first appeared early in
the 16th Century and became commonplace in the 17th.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node score
@section score

ES: partitura,
I: partitura,
F: partition, conducteur (full score),
D: Partitur (full score), Klavierauszug (vocal score),
NL: partituur,
DK: partitur,
S: partitur,
FI: partituuri.

A copy of orchestral, choral, or chamber music showing what each
instrument is to play, each voice to sing, having each part arranged
one underneath the other on different staves @ref{staff}.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node second
@section second

ES: segunda,
I: seconda,
F: seconde,
D: Sekunde,
NL: secunde,
DK: sekund,
S: sekund,
FI: sekunti.

The interval between two neighboring tones of a scale.  A diatonic scale
consists of alternating semitones and whole tones, hence the size of a
second depends on the scale degrees in question.

@seealso
@ref{diatonic scale}, @ref{interval}, @ref{semitone}, @ref{whole tone}.


@node semibreve
@section semibreve

@itemize
@item US: whole note,
@item ES: redonda,
@item I: semibreve,
@item F: ronde,
@item D: Ganze, ganze Note,
@item NL: hele noot,
@item DK: helnode,
@item S: helnot,
@item FI: kokonuotti.
@end itemize

Note value: called @notation{whole note} in the US.

The semibreve is the basis for the @notation{tactus} in mensural notation
(i.e. music written before ca. 1600).

@seealso
@ref{mensural notation}, @ref{note value}.


@node semitone
@section semitone

ES: semitono,
I: semitono,
F: demi-ton,
D: Halbton,
NL: halve toon,
DK: halvtone,
S: halvton,
FI: puolisävel.

The interval of a minor second.  The (usually) smallest interval in European
composed music.  The interval between two neighboring tones on the piano
keyboard -- including black and white keys -- is a semitone.  An octave may
be divided into 12@w{ }semitones.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2,line-width=13.0\cm]
g1 gis s a bes s b! c
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{interval}, @ref{chromatic scale}.


@node seventh
@section seventh

ES: séptima,
I: settima,
F: septième,
D: Septime,
NL: septiem,
DK: septim,
S: septim,
FI: septimi.

@seealso
@ref{interval}.


@node sextolet
@section sextolet

@seealso
@ref{sextuplet}, @ref{note value}.


@node sextuplet
@section sextuplet

ES: seisillo,
I: sestina,
F: sextolet,
D: Sextole,
NL: sextool,
DK: sekstol,
S: sextol,
FI: sekstoli.

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node shake
@section shake

@seealso
@ref{trill}.


@node sharp
@section sharp

ES: sostenido,
I: diesis,
F: dièse,
D: Kreuz,
NL: kruis,
DK: kryds,
S: kors@-förtecken,
FI: korotusmerkki.

@seealso
@ref{accidental}.


@node simile
@section simile

ES: simile, similar,
I: simile,
F: simile,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: samoin.

[Italian: @q{in the same manner}] Performance direction: the music thus marked
is to be played in the same manner (i.e. with the same articulations, dynamics,
etc.) as the music that precedes it.

@seealso
TODO: Where else could I refer the reader?


@node simple meter
@section simple meter

ES: compás simple, compás de subdivisión binaria,
I: ?,
F: mesure binaire,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: kaksijakoinen tahtiosoitus.

A meter in which the basic beat is subdivided in two: that is, a meter
that does not include triplet subdivision of the beat.

@seealso
@ref{compound meter}, @ref{meter}.


@node sixteenth note
@section sixteenth note

@itemize
@item UK: semiquaver
@item ES: semicorchea
@item I: semicroma
@item F: double croche
@item D: Sechzehntel, Sechzehntelnote
@item NL: zestiende noot
@item DK: sekstendedelsnode
@item S: sextondelsnot
@item FI: kuudestoistaosanuotti
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node sixteenth rest
@section sixteenth rest

@itemize
@item UK: semiquaver rest
@item ES: silencio de semicorchea
@item I: pausa di semicroma
@item F: quart de soupir
@item D: Sechzehntelpause
@item NL: zestiende rust
@item DK: sekstendedelspause
@item S: sextondelspaus
@item FI: kuudestoistaosatauko
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node sixth
@section sixth

ES: sexta,
I: sesta,
F: sixte,
D: Sexte,
NL: sext,
DK: sekst,
S: sext,
FI: seksti.

@seealso
@ref{interval}.


@node sixty-fourth note
@section sixty-fourth note

@itemize
@item UK: hemidemisemiquaver
@item ES: semifusa
@item I: semibiscroma
@item F: quadruple croche
@item D: Vierundsechzigstel, Vierundsechzigstelnote
@item NL: vierenzestigste noot
@item DK: fi@-re@-og@-tred@-sinds@-ty@-ven@-de@-dels@-no@-de
@item S: sextiofjärdedelsnot
@item FI: kuudeskymmenesneljäsosanuotti
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node sixty-fourth rest
@section sixty-fourth rest

@itemize
@item UK: hemidemisemiquaver rest
@item ES: silencio de semifusa
@item I: pausa di semibiscroma
@item F: seizième de soupir
@item D: Vierundsechzigstelpause
@item NL: vierenzestigste rust
@item DK: fi@-re@-og@-tred@-sinds@-ty@-ven@-de@-dels@-pau@-se
@item S: sextiofjärdedelspaus
@item FI: kuudeskymmenesneljäsosatauko
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node slash repeat
@section slash repeat

@seealso
@ref{percent repeat}.


@node slur
@section slur

ES: ligadura de expresión,
I: legatura (di portamento o espressiva),
F: liaison, coulé,
D: Bogen (Legatobogen, Phrasierungsbogen),
NL: fraseringsboog, legatoboog, streekboog,
DK: legatobue, fraseringsbue,
S: båge,
FI: kaari.

A slur above or below a group of notes indicates that they are to be
played @ref{legato}, e.g., with one stroke of the violin bow or with
one breath in singing.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node solmization
@section solmization

ES: solmisación,
I: solmisazione,
F: solmisation,
D: Solmisation,
NL: solmizatie,
DK: solmisation,
S: solmisation,
FI: suhteelliset laulunimet.

General term for systems of designating the degrees of the
@notation{scale}, not by letters, but by syllables (@emph{do} (@emph{ut}),
@emph{re}, @emph{mi}, @emph{fa}, @emph{sol}, @emph{la}, @emph{si}
(@emph{ti})).

@seealso
@ref{scale}, @ref{scale degree}.


@node sonata
@section sonata

ES: sonata,
I: sonata,
F: sonate,
D: Sonate,
NL: sonate,
DK: sonate,
S: sonat,
FI: sonaatti.

In its present-day meaning a sonata denotes an instrumental
composition for piano or for some other instrument with piano
accompaniment, which consists of three or four independant pieces,
called movements.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node sonata form
@section sonata form

ES: forma sonata,
I: forma sonata,
F: [en] forme de sonate,
D: Sonatenform,
NL: hoofdvorm, sonatevorm,
DK: sonateform,
S: sonatform,
FI: sonaattimuoto.

A form used frequently for single movements of the @emph{sonata},
@emph{symphony}, quartet, etc.  A movement written in sonata form falls into
three sections called @notation{exposition}, @notation{development} and
@notation{recapitulation}.  In the exposition the composer introduces some
musical ideas, consisting of a number of themes; in the development section the
composer @emph{develops} this material, and in the recapitulation the composer
repeats the exposition, with certain modifications.  The exposition contains a
number of themes that fall into two groups, often called first and second
subject.  Other melodies occurring in each group are considered as continuations
of these two.  The second theme is in another key, normally in the key of the
@notation{dominant} if the @notation{tonic} is @notation{major}, and in the
@notation{relative key} if the tonic is @notation{minor}.

@seealso
@ref{dominant}, @ref{major}, @ref{minor}, @ref{relative key}, @ref{sonata},
@ref{symphony}, @ref{tonic}.


@node song texts
@section song texts

@seealso
@ref{lyrics}.


@node soprano
@section soprano

ES: soprano,
I: soprano,
F: soprano,
D: Sopran,
NL: sopraan,
DK: sopran,
S: sopran,
FI: sopraano, korkea naisääni.

The highest female voice.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node staccato
@section staccato

ES: picado,
I: staccato,
F: staccato, piqué, détaché,
D: staccato,
NL: staccato,
DK: staccato,
S: staccato,
FI: staccato, lyhyesti, terävästi.

Playing the note(s) short.  Staccato is indicated by a dot above or
below the note head.

@lilypond[quote,relative=2]
\key d \major
\time 4/4
  \partial 8 a8 |
  d4-\staccato cis-\staccato b-\staccato cis-\staccato |
  d2.
  \bar "||"
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node staff
@section staff

UK: stave,
ES: pentagrama, pauta,
I: pentagramma, rigo (musicale),
F: portée,
D: Notensystem, Notenzeile,
NL: (noten)balk, partij,
DK: nodesystem,
S: notsystem,
FI: nuottiviivasto.

A staff (plural: staves) is a series of (normally five) horizontal
lines upon and between which the musical notes are written, thus
indicating (in connection with a @ref{clef}) their pitch.  Staves for
@ref{percussion} instruments may have fewer lines.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node staves
@section staves

@seealso
@ref{staff}.


@node stem
@section stem

ES: plica,
I: gamba,
F: hampe,
D: Hals, Notenhals, Stiel,
NL: stok,
DK: hals,
S: skaft,
FI: nuottipalkki.

Vertical line above or below a @ref{note head} shorter than a
whole note.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
\set Score.autoBeaming = ##f
  g2_"1/2" g' s16
  g,4_"1/4" g' s16
  g,8_"1/8" g' s16
  g,16_"1/16" g' s16
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{beam}.


@node stringendo
@section stringendo

ES: stringendo, acelerando,
I: stringendo,
F: stringendo, en accélérant,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: kiihdyttäen, nopeuttaen.

[Italian: @q{pressing}]  Pressing, urging, or hastening the time, as to a
climax.

@seealso
@ref{accelerando}.


@node strings
@section strings

ES: arcos, cuerdas,
I: archi,
F: cordes,
D: Streicher,
NL: strijkers,
DK: strygere,
S: stråkar,
FI: jouset.

A family of stringed musical instruments played with a bow.  Strings
commonly used in a symphony orchestra are violin, viola, violoncello,
and double bass.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node strong beat
@section strong beat

ES: tiempo fuerte,
I: tempo forte,
F: temps fort,
D: betonter Taktteil oder Taktschlag,
NL: thesis,
D: betonet taktslag,
S: betonat taktslag,
FI: tahdin vahva isku.

@seealso
@ref{beat}, @ref{accent}, @ref{measure}, @ref{rhythm}.


@node subdominant
@section subdominant

ES: subdominante,
I: sottodominante,
F: sous-dominante,
D: Subdominante,
NL: subdominant,
DK: subdominant,
S: subdominant,
FI: subdominantti, alidominantti.

The fourth @notation{scale degree}.

@seealso
@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}.


@node submediant
@section submediant

ES: submediante,
I: sopradominante,
F: sous-médiante,
D: Submediante,
NL: submediant,
DK: Submediant,
S: submediant,
FI: alikeskisävel.

The sixth @notation{scale degree}.

@seealso
@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}, @ref{superdominant}.


@node subtonic
@section subtonic

ES: subtónica,
I: sottotonica,
F: sous-tonique,
D: Subtonika,
NL: subtonica,
DK: Subtonika,
S: subtonika,
FI: subtoonika, alitoonika.

The seventh @ref{scale degree}.

@seealso
@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}.


@node sul G
@section sul G

ES: sobre la cuerda de Sol,
I: sul Sol,
F: sur la G,
D: auf G, auf der G-Saite,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: G-kielellä.

Indicates that the indicated passage (or note) should be played on the
G string.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node superdominant
@section superdominant

ES: superdominante,
I: sopradominante,
F: sus-dominante,
D: Superdominante,
NL: superdominant,
DK: superdominant,
S: superdominant,
FI: ylidominantti.

The sixth @ref{scale degree}.  Equivalent to the submediant, q.v.

@seealso
@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}, @ref{submediant}.


@node supertonic
@section supertonic

ES: supertónica,
I: sopratonica,
F: sus-tonique,
D: Supertonika,
NL: supertonica,
DK: supertonika,
S: supertonika,
FI: ylitoonika.

The second @ref{scale degree}.

@seealso
@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}.


@node symphony
@section symphony

ES: sinfonía,
I: sinfonia,
F: symphonie,
D: Sinfonie, Symphonie,
NL: symfonie,
DK: symfoni,
S: symfoni,
FI: sinfonia.

A symphony may be defined as a @emph{sonata} for orchestra.

@seealso
@ref{sonata}.


@node syncopation
@section syncopation

ES: síncopa,
I: sincope,
F: syncope,
D: Synkope,
NL: syncope,
DK: synkope,
S: synkop,
FI: synkooppi.

Any deliberate upsetting of the normal pulse of @ref{meter},
@ref{accent}, and @ref{rhythm}.  The occidental system of musical
rhythm rests upon the grouping of equal beats into groups of two or
three, with a regularly recurrent accent on the first beat of each
group.  Any deviation from this scheme is felt as a disturbance or
contradiction between the underlaying (normal) pulse and the actual
(abnormal) rhythm.

@lilypond[quote,relative=1]
\time 2/4
\partial 8 d16 dis
e16 c'8 e,16 c'8 e,16 c' ~
c4
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node syntonic comma
@section syntonic comma

ES: coma sintónica, coma de Dídimo,
I: comma sintonico (o didimico),
F: comma syntonique,
D: syntonisches Komma,
NL: syntonische komma,
DK: syntonisk komma,
S: syntoniskt komma,
FI: syntoninen komma, terssien taajuusero luonnollisessa ja
Pytagorisessa viritysjärjestelmässä.

Named after Ptolemy's syntonic diatonic genus.  Originally, the difference
by which the ditone exceeds the pure major third obtained by Pythagorean
tuning -- (9:8)^2 - 5:4 = 81:80, or 21.5@w{ }cents.

Modern acoustical theory defines it as the interval by which four fifths exceed
the sum of two octaves plus a major third.  (3:2)^4 - (2:1)^2 + (5:4)

This comma is also known as the comma of Didymus, or didymic comma.

@seealso
@ref{Pythagorean comma}


@node system
@section system

ES: sistema,
I: sistema,
F: système,
D: Notensystem, Partitur,
NL: systeem,
DK: system,
S: system,
FI: nuottijärjestelmä.

The collection of staves (@notation{staff}), two or more, as used for writing
down of keyboard, chamber, choral, or orchestral music.

@seealso
@ref{staff}.


@node temperament
@section temperament

ES: temperamento,
I: temperamento,
F: tempérament,
D: Stimmung, Tem@-pe@-ra@-tur,
NL: stemming, temperatuur,
DK: temperatur,
S: temperatur,
FI: viritysjärjestelmä.

Systems of tuning in which the intervals deviate from the acoustically
pure intervals.

@seealso
@ref{meantone temperament}, @ref{equal temperament}.


@node tempo indication
@section tempo indication

ES: indicación de tempo,
I: indicazione di tempo,
F: indication de tempo,
D: Zeitmaß, Tempobezeichnung,
NL: tempo aanduiding,
DK: tempobetegelse,
S: tempobeteckning,
FI: tempomerkintä.

The rate of speed of a composition or a section thereof, ranging from the
slowest to the quickest, as is indicated by tempo marks as @notation{largo},
@notation{adagio}, @notation{andante}, @notation{allegro}, and
@notation{presto}.

@seealso
@ref{adagio}, @ref{allegro}, @ref{andante}, @ref{largo}, @ref{presto}.



@node tenor
@section tenor

ES: tenor,
I: tenore,
F: ténor,
D: Tenor,
NL: tenor,
DK: tenor,
S: tenor,
FI: tenori, korkea miesääni.

The highest @q{natural} male voice (apart from @notation{countertenor}).

@seealso
@ref{countertenor}.


@node tenth
@section tenth

ES: décima,
I: decima,
F: dixième,
D: Dezime,
NL: deciem,
DK: decim,
S: decima,
FI: desimi.

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node tenuto
@section tenuto

ES: subrayado (tenuto),
I: tenuto,
F: tenue, tenuto,
D: gehalten, tenuo,
NL: tenuto,
DK: tenuto,
S: tenuto,
FI: viiva, tenuto.

An indication that a particular note should be held for the whole
length, although this can vary depending on the composer and era.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node third
@section third

ES: tercera,
I: terza,
F: tierce,
D: Terz,
NL: terts,
DK: terts,
S: ters,
FI: terssi.

@seealso
@ref{interval}.


@node thirty-second note
@section thirty-second note

@itemize 
@item UK: demisemiquaver
@item ES: fusa
@item I: biscroma
@item F: triple croche
@item D: Zweiunddreissigstel, Zweiunddreissigstelnote
@item NL: twee@-endertig@-ste (32e) noot
@item DK: toogtredivtedelsnode
@item S: trettiotvåondelsnot
@item FI: kolmaskymmeneskahdesosanuotti
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node thirty-second rest
@section thirty-second rest

@itemize
@item UK: demisemiquaver rest
@item ES: silencio de fusa
@item I: pausa di biscroma
@item F: huitième de soupir
@item D: Zweiunddreissigstel@-pause
@item NL: twee@-endertig@-ste (32e) rust
@item DK: toogtredivtedelspause
@item S: trettiotvåondelspaus
@item FI: kolmaskymmeneskahdesosatauko
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node thorough bass
@section thorough bass

@seealso
@ref{figured bass}.


@node tie
@section tie

ES: ligadura de unión (o de prolongación),
I: legatura (di valore),
F: liaison (de tenue),
D: Haltebogen, Bindebogen,
NL: overbinding, bindingsboog,
DK: bindebue,
S: bindebåge, överbindning,
FI: sitominen.

A curved line, identical in appearance with the @ref{slur}, which
connects two succesive notes of the same pitch, and which has the
function of uniting them into a single sound (tone) equal to the
combined durations.

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=2]
g2 ~ g4. r8
@end lilypond


@node time
@section time

@seealso
@ref{meter}.


@node time signature
@section time signature

ES: indicación de compás,
I: segni di tempo,
F: métrique, chiffrage (chiffres indicateurs), indication de mesure,
D: Taktangabe, Angabe der Taktart,
NL: maatsoort,
DK: taktangivelse,
S: taktartssignatur,
FI: tahtiosoitus.

The sign placed at the beginning of a composition to indicate its
meter.  It most often takes the form of a fraction, but a few signs
derived from mensural notation and proportions are also employed.

@seealso
@ref{mensural notation}, @ref{mensuration sign}, @ref{meter}.


@node tone
@section tone

ES: tono,
I: suono,
F: ton, son,
D: Ton,
NL: toon,
DK: tone,
S: ton,
FI: ääni.

A sound of definite pitch and duration, as distinct from @emph{noise}.
Tone is a primary building material of music.

@c Music from the 20th century may be based on atonal sounds. Meh, not so much

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node tonic
@section tonic

ES: tónica,
I: tonica,
F: tonique,
D: Tonika,
NL: tonica,
DK: tonika,
S: tonika,
FI: toonika.

The first @notation{scale degree}.

@seealso
@ref{functional harmony}, @ref{scale degree}.


@node transposing instrument
@section transposing instrument

ES: instrumento transpositor,
I: strumento traspositore,
F: instrument transpositeur,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: transponoitava soitin.

Instruments whose notated pitch is different from their sounded pitch.  Except
for those whose notated and sounding pitches differ by one or more octaves (to
reduce the number of ledger lines needed), most such instruments are identified
by the letter name of the pitch class of their fundamental.  The pitch class is
the note that @emph{sounds} (disregarding the octave in which it sounds) when
the instrument plays a notated C.

For example: when played on the B-flat clarinet, the note middle C @emph{sounds}
the B-flat one tone lower.  If played on the A clarinet, the same written
note sounds the A (one and half tones -- a minor third -- lower).

Not all transposing instruments include the pitch class in their name:

@itemize
@item Alto flute (in G)
@item English horn (in F)
@item Saxophones (in B-flat or E-flat)
@end itemize

@ignore Can we do better?

To make matters more complex, some instruments are transposing instruments,
but their players play from parts written at concert pitch.  This is the
case for orchestral trombone and tuba players—whereas trombone players in
brass bands treat their parts as if written for a true transposing
instrument in B-flat.

@end ignore

@seealso
@ref{concert pitch}.


@node transposition
@section transposition

ES: transporte, transposición,
I: trasposizione,
F: transposition,
D: Transposition,
NL: transpositie,
DK: transposition,
S: transponering,
FI: transponointi.

Shifting a melody up or down in pitch, while keeping the same
relative pitches.

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
\context Staff {
  \time 3/4
  \relative c'' {
    \key g \major
    d4 g,8 a b c | d4 g, g | e' c8 d e fis | g4 g, g \bar "|."
  }
}
@end lilypond

@lilypond[quote,line-width=13.0\cm]
\context Staff {
  \time 3/4
  \transpose c bes \relative c'' {
    \key g \major
    d4 g,8 a b c | d4 g, g | e' c8 d e fis | g4 g, g \bar "|."
  }
}
@end lilypond

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node treble clef
@section treble clef

ES: clave de sol en segunda,
I: chiave di violino,
F: clef de sol,
D: Violinschlüssel, Sopranschlüssel,
NL: viool sleutel,
DK: diskantnøgle,
S: diskantklav,
FI: diskanttiavain.

@seealso
@ref{G clef}.


@node tremolo
@section tremolo

ES: trémolo,
I: tremolo,
F: trémolo,
D: Tremolo,
NL: tremolo,
DK: tremolo,
S: tremolo,
FI: tremolo.

On stringed instruments:

@enumerate

@item The quick reiteration of the same tone, produced by a rapid
up-and-down movement of the bow.

@item Or, the rapid alternation between two notes of a @ref{chord}, usually
in the distance of a third (@ref{interval}).

@end enumerate

@lilypond[quote,notime,relative=1]
  e2:32_"a"
  f:32 [ e8:16 f:16 g:16 a:16 ] s4
  \repeat tremolo 8 { e32_"b" g }
@end lilypond

@seealso
@ref{strings}


@node triad
@section triad

ES: tríada,
I: triade,
F: triade, accord parfait, accord de trois sons,
D: Drei@-klang,
NL: drieklank,
DK: treklang,
S: treklang,
FI: kolmisointu.

@seealso
@ref{chord}.


@node trill
@section trill

ES: trino,
I: trillo,
F: trille, tremblement, battement (cadence),
D: Triller,
NL: triller,
DK: trille,
S: drill,
FI: trilli.

@seealso
@ref{ornament}.


@node triple meter
@section triple meter

ES: compás ternario,
I: tempo ternario,
F: mesure ternaire,
D: in drei, ungerader Takt,
NL: driedelige maatsoort,
DK: tredelt takt,
S: tretakt,
FI: kolmijakoinen.

@seealso
@ref{meter}.


@node triplet
@section triplet

ES: tresillo,
I: terzina,
F: triolet,
D: Triole,
NL: triool,
DK: triol,
S: triol,
FI: trioli.

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node tritone
@section tritone

ES: tritono,
I: tritono,
F: triton,
D: Tritonus,
NL: tritoon,
DK: tritonus,
S: tritonus,
FI: tritonus.

@seealso
@ref{interval}.


@node tuning fork
@section tuning fork

ES: diapasón [de horquilla],
I: diapason, corista,
F: diapason,
D: Stimmgabel,
NL: stemvork,
DK: stemmegaffel,
S: stämgaffel,
FI: viritysavain.

A two-pronged piece of steel used to indicate an absolute pitch, usually for
@emph{A} above middle C (440 cps/Hz), which is the international tuning
standard.  Tuning forks for other pitches are available.

@seealso
@ref{middle C}.


@node tuplet
@section tuplet

ES: grupo de valoración especial,
I: gruppi irregolari,
F: ?,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: ?.

A non-standard subdivision of a beat or part of a beat, usually
indicated with a bracket and a number indicating the number of
subdivisions.

@seealso
@ref{triplet}, @ref{note value}.


@node turn
@section turn

ES: grupeto (circular),
I: gruppetto,
F: grupetto,
D: Doppelschlag,
NL: dubbelslag,
DK: dobbeltslag,
S: dubbelslag,
FI: korukuvio.

@seealso
@ref{ornament}.


@node unison
@section unison

ES: unísono,
I: unisono,
F: unisson,
D: unisono,
NL: unisono,
DK: unison,
S: unison,
FI: unisono, yksiäänisesti.

Playing of the same notes or the same melody by various instruments
(voices) or by the whole orchestra (choir), either at exactly the same
pitch or in a different octave.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node upbeat
@section upbeat

ES: anacrusa,
I: anacrusi,
F: anacrouse, levée,
D: Auftakt,
NL: opmaat,
DK: optakt,
S: upptakt,
FI: kohotahti.

@seealso
@ref{anacrusis}


@node voice
@section voice

ES: voz,
I: voce,
F: voix,
D: Stimme,
NL: stem,
DK: stemme,
S: stämma,
FI: ääni, lauluääni.

@itemize

  @item Human voices:

    @itemize
      @item @ref{soprano}
      @item @ref{mezzo-soprano}
      @item @ref{contralto}
      @item @ref{tenor}
      @item @ref{baritone}
      @item @ref{bass}
    @end itemize

  @item A melodic layer or part of a polyphonic composition.

@end itemize

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node volta
@section volta

ES: vez, primera y segunda vez,
I: volta,
F: volta, fois,
D: ?,
NL: ?,
DK: ?,
S: ?,
FI: yksi kertauksen maaleista.

[Italian: @q{time} (instance, not duration)]  An ending, such as a first
or second ending.  LilyPond extends this idea to any number, and allows any text
(not just a number) -- to serve as the @notation{volta} text.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node weak beat
@section weak beat

ES: tiempo débil,
I: tempo debole, arsi,
F: temps faible,
D: unbetonter Taktteil oder Taktschlag,
NL: arsis,
DK: ubetonet taktslag,
S: obetonat taktslag,
FI: tahdin heikko isku.

@seealso
@ref{beat}, @ref{measure}, @ref{rhythm}.


@node whole note
@section whole note

@itemize
@item UK: semibreve
@item ES: redonda
@item I: semibreve
@item F: ronde
@item D: Ganze, ganze Note
@item NL: hele noot
@item DK: helnode
@item S: helnot
@item FI: kokonuotti
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node whole rest
@section whole rest

@itemize
@item UK: semibreve rest
@item ES: silencio de redonda
@item I: pausa di semibreve
@item F: pause
@item D: ganze Pause, ganztaktige Pause
@item NL: hele rust
@item DK: helnodespause
@item S: helpaus
@item FI: kokotauko
@end itemize

@seealso
@ref{note value}.


@node whole tone
@section whole tone

ES: tono (entero),
I: tono intero,
F: ton entier,
D: Ganzton,
NL: hele toon,
DK: heltone,
S: helton,
FI: kokoaskel.

The interval of a major second.  The interval between two tones
on the piano keyboard with exactly one key between them -- including
black and white keys -- is a whole tone.

@seealso
@ref{interval}.


@node woodwind
@section woodwind

ES: maderas,
I: legni,
F: les bois,
D: Holzbläser,
NL: houtblazers,
DK træblæsere,
S: träblåsare,
FI: puupuhaltimet.

A family of blown wooden musical instruments.  Today some of these
instruments are actually made from metal.  The woodwind instruments
commonly used in a symphony orchestra are flute, oboe, clarinet,
saxophone, and bassoon.

@seealso
No cross-references.


@node Duration names notes and rests
@chapter Duration names notes and rests

@multitable @columnfractions .12 .22 .22 .22 .22

@headitem Lang. @tab note name
  @tab rest name
  @tab note name
  @tab rest name
@item @strong{US} @tab long
  @tab long rest
  @tab breve
  @tab breve rest
@item @strong{UK} @tab longa
  @tab longa rest
  @tab breve
  @tab breve rest
@item @strong{ES} @tab longa
  @tab silencio de longa
  @tab cuadrada
  @tab silencio de cuadrada
@item @strong{IT} @tab longa
  @tab pausa di longa
  @tab breve
  @tab pausa di breve
@item @strong{FR} @tab longa
  @tab quadruple-pause
  @tab brève
  @tab double-pause
@item @strong{DE} @tab Longa
  @tab longa Pause
  @tab Brevis
  @tab brevis Pause
@item @strong{NL} @tab longa
  @tab longa rust
  @tab brevis
  @tab brevis rust
@item @strong{DK} @tab longa
  @tab longanodespause
  @tab brevis
  @tab brevis(nodes)pause
@item @strong{SE} @tab longa
  @tab longapaus
  @tab brevis
  @tab brevispaus
@item @strong{FI} @tab longa-nuotti
  @tab longa-tauko
  @tab brevis-nuotti, kaksoiskoko@-nuotti
  @tab brevis-tauko, kaksoiskoko@-tauko

@end multitable

@multitable @columnfractions .12 .22 .22 .22 .22

@headitem Lang. @tab note name
  @tab rest name
  @tab note name
  @tab rest name
@item @strong{US} @tab whole note
  @tab whole rest
  @tab half note
  @tab half rest
@item @strong{UK} @tab semibreve
  @tab semibreve rest
  @tab minim
  @tab minim rest
@item @strong{ES} @tab redonda
  @tab silencio de redonda
  @tab blanca
  @tab silencio de blanca
@item @strong{IT} @tab semibreve
  @tab pause di semibreve
  @tab minima
  @tab pausa di minima
@item @strong{FR} @tab ronde
  @tab pause
  @tab blanche
  @tab demi-pause
@item @strong{DE} @tab ganze Note
  @tab ganze Pause
  @tab halbe Note
  @tab halbe Pause
@item @strong{NL} @tab hele noot
  @tab hele rust
  @tab halve noot
  @tab halve rust
@item @strong{DK} @tab helnode
  @tab helnodespause
  @tab halvnode
  @tab halvnodespause
@item @strong{SE} @tab helnot
  @tab helpaus
  @tab halvnot
  @tab halvpaus
@item @strong{FI} @tab kokonuotti
  @tab kokotauko
  @tab puolinuotti
  @tab puolitauko

@end multitable

@multitable @columnfractions .12 .22 .22 .22 .22

@headitem Lang. @tab note name
  @tab rest name
  @tab note name
  @tab rest name
@item @strong{US} @tab quarter note
  @tab quarter rest
  @tab eighth note
  @tab eighth rest
@item @strong{UK} @tab crotchet
  @tab crotchet rest
  @tab quaver
  @tab quaver rest
@item @strong{ES} @tab negra
  @tab silencio de negra
  @tab corchea
  @tab silencio de corchea
@item @strong{IT} @tab semiminima, nera
  @tab pausa di semiminima, pausa di nera
  @tab croma
  @tab pausa di croma
@item @strong{FR} @tab noire
  @tab soupir*
  @tab croche*
  @tab demi-soupir
@item @strong{DE} @tab Viertelnote
  @tab Viertelpause
  @tab Achtelnote
  @tab Achtelpause
@item @strong{NL} @tab kwartnoot
  @tab kwartrust
  @tab achtste noot
  @tab achtste rust
@item @strong{DK} @tab fjerdedelsnode
  @tab fjerdedelspause
  @tab ottendedelsnode
  @tab ottendedelspause
@item @strong{SE} @tab fjärdedelsnot
  @tab fjärdedelspaus
  @tab åttondelsnot
  @tab åttondelspaus
@item @strong{FI} @tab neljäsosa@-nuotti
  @tab neljäsosa@-tauko
  @tab kahdeksasosa@-nuotti
  @tab kahdeksasosa@-tauko

@end multitable

* About the French naming system: @notation{croche} refers to the note's
@q{hook}.  Therefore, from the eighth note on, the note names mean @q{hook},
@q{doubled hook}, @q{trebled hook}, and so on.

The rest names are based on the @notation{soupir}, or quarter rest. 
Subsequent rests are expressed as fractions thereof: half a
@notation{soupir}, a quarter of a @notation{soupir}, and so on.

Each of the following tables contains one type of note and its matching rest,
with abbreviations that apply to both notes and rests.  Just switch the part
that means @q{note} with the part that means @q{rest}, for example:

@itemize

@item English: 16th @strong{note}, 16th @strong{rest}
@item German: 32tel-@strong{Note}, 32tel-@strong{Pause}
@item Finnish: 64-osa@strong{nuotti}, 64-osa@strong{tauko}

@end itemize

Editor's note: I put a dash @q{-} when I could not find a language-specific
abbreviation for a duration name.  If you know of one that I missed, please
send it to me, care of the lilypond-user discussion list.

@multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20

@headitem Lang. @tab Note name
  @tab Rest name
  @tab Abbr.
@item @strong{US} @tab sixteenth note
  @tab sixteenth rest
  @tab 16th note
@item @strong{UK} @tab semiquaver
  @tab semiquaver rest
  @tab -
@item @strong{ES} @tab semicorchea
  @tab silencio de semicorchea
  @tab -
@item @strong{IT} @tab semicroma
  @tab pausa di semicroma
  @tab -
@item @strong{FR} @tab double croche
  @tab quart de soupir
  @tab -
@item @strong{DE} @tab Sechzehntelnote
  @tab Sechzehntelpause
  @tab 16tel-Note
@item @strong{NL} @tab zes@-ti@-ende noot
  @tab zes@-ti@-ende rust
  @tab 16e noot
@item @strong{DK} @tab sekstendedelsnode
  @tab sekstendedelspause
  @tab -
@item @strong{SE} @tab sextondelsnot
  @tab sextondelspaus
  @tab -
@item @strong{FI} @tab kuudes@-toistaosa@-nuotti
  @tab kuudes@-toistaosa@-tauko
  @tab 16-osanuotti

@end multitable

@multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20

@headitem Lang. @tab Note name
  @tab Rest name
  @tab Abbr.
@item @strong{US} @tab thirty-second note
  @tab thirty-second rest
  @tab 32nd note
@item @strong{UK} @tab demisemiquaver
  @tab demisemiquaver rest
  @tab -
@item @strong{ES} @tab fusa
  @tab silencio de fusa
  @tab -
@item @strong{IT} @tab biscroma
  @tab pausa di biscroma
  @tab -
@item @strong{FR} @tab triple croche
  @tab huitième de soupir
  @tab -
@item @strong{DE} @tab Zweiunddreißig@-stelnote
  @tab Zweiunddreißig@-stelpause
  @tab 32tel-Note
@item @strong{NL} @tab twee@-endertigste noot
  @tab twee@-endertigste rust
  @tab 32e noot
@item @strong{DK} @tab toogtredivtedelsnode
  @tab toogtredivtedelspause
  @tab -
@item @strong{SE} @tab trettio@-tvåondelsnot
  @tab trettio@-tvåondelspaus
  @tab -
@item @strong{FI} @tab kolmas@-kymmenes@-kahdesosa@-nuotti
  @tab kolmas@-kymmenes@-kahdesosa@-tauko
  @tab 32-osanuotti

@end multitable

@multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20

@headitem Lang. @tab Note name
  @tab Rest name
  @tab Abbr.
@item @strong{US} @tab sixty-fourth note
  @tab sixty-fourth rest
  @tab 64th note
@item @strong{UK} @tab hemidemisemiquaver
  @tab hemidemisemiquaver rest
  @tab -
@item @strong{ES} @tab semifusa
  @tab silencio de semifusa
  @tab -
@item @strong{IT} @tab semibiscroma
  @tab pausa di semibiscroma
  @tab -
@item @strong{FR} @tab quadruple croche
  @tab seizième de soupir
  @tab -
@item @strong{DE} @tab Vierundsechzigstelnote
  @tab Vierundsechzigstelpause
  @tab 64tel-Note
@item @strong{NL} @tab vierenzestigste noot
  @tab vierenzestigste rust
  @tab 64e noot
@item @strong{DK} @tab fireog@-tredsindstyven@-dedelsnode
  @tab fireog@-tredsindstyven@-dedelspause
  @tab -
@item @strong{SE} @tab sextiofjärdedelsnot
  @tab sextiofjärdedelspaus
  @tab -
@item @strong{FI} @tab kuudes@-kymmenes@-neljäsosa@-nuotti
  @tab kuudes@-kymmenes@-neljäsosa@-tauko
  @tab 64-osanuotti

@end multitable

@multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20

@headitem Lang. @tab Note name
  @tab Rest name
  @tab Abbr.
@item @strong{US} @tab one-hundred-twenty-eighth note
  @tab one-hundred-twenty-eighth rest
  @tab 128th note
@item @strong{UK} @tab semihemidemisemiquaver
  @tab semihemidemisemiquaver rest
  @tab -
@item @strong{ES} @tab garrapatea
  @tab silencio de garrapatea
  @tab -
@item @strong{IT} @tab fusa
  @tab pausa di fusa
  @tab -
@item @strong{FR} @tab quintuple croche
  @tab trente-deuxième de soupir  @tab -
@item @strong{DE} @tab Hundert@-achtundzwanzigstel@-note
  @tab Hundert@-achtundzwanzigstel@-pause  @tab 128tel-Note
@item @strong{NL} @tab honderd@-acht@-en@-twintigste noot
  @tab honderd@-acht@-en@-twintigste rust
  @tab 128e noot
@item @strong{DK} @tab hundrede@-otte@-og@-tyvendedels@-node
  @tab hundrede@-otte@-og@-tyvendedels@-pause
  @tab -
@item @strong{SE} @tab hundratjugoåttondelsnot
  @tab hundratjugoåttondelspaus
  @tab -
@item @strong{FI} @tab sadas@-kahdes@-kymmenes@-kahdeksasosa@-nuotti
  @tab sadas@-kahdes@-kymmenes@-kahdeksasosa@-tauko
  @tab 128-osanuotti

@end multitable

@multitable @columnfractions .10 .35 .35 .20

@headitem Lang. @tab Note name
  @tab Rest name
  @tab Abbr.
@item @strong{US} @tab two-hundred-fifty-sixth note
  @tab two-hundred-fifty-sixth rest
  @tab 256th note
@item @strong{UK} @tab demisemihemidemisemiquaver
  @tab demisemihemidemisemiquaver rest
  @tab -
@item @strong{ES} @tab semigarrapatea
  @tab silencio de semigarrapatea  @tab -
@item @strong{IT} @tab semifusa
  @tab pausa di semifusa
  @tab -
@item @strong{FR} @tab sextuple croche
  @tab soixante-quatrième de soupir  @tab -
@item @strong{DE} @tab Zweihundert@-sechsundfünfzigstel@-note
  @tab Zweihundert@-sechsundfünfzigstelpause  @tab 256tel-Note
@item @strong{NL} @tab tweehonderd@-zesenvijftigste noot
  @tab tweehonderd@-zesenvijftigste rust
  @tab 256e noot
@item @strong{DK} @tab tohundrede@-seks@-og@-halvtredsendedels@-node
  @tab tohundrede@-seks@-og@-halvtredsendedels@-pause
  @tab -
@item @strong{SE} @tab tvåhundra@-femtiosjättedelsnot
  @tab tvåhundra@-femtiosjättedelspaus
  @tab -
@item @strong{FI} @tab kahdes@-sadas@-viides@-kymmenes@-kuudesosa@-nuotti
  @tab kahdes@-sadas@-viides@-kymmenes@-kuudesosa@-tauko
  @tab 256-osanuotti

@end multitable

@seealso
@ref{mensural notation}


@node Pitch names
@chapter Pitch names

@ignore
        -is/-es endings for Danish per Rune Zedeler, pace,
        and for Finnish per Risto Vääräniemi;
        -iss/-ess endings for Swedish per Mats Bengtsson
        originally spaced with @columnfractions .105 .145 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125 .125

        NOTE: Please leave the first line as-is -- that is, do not wrap it to
        multiple lines -- as texinfo needs it to allow enough space for the
        table entries.  (For the curious, it's a list of the widest items in
        each column of the table.  Romance pitch names are two characters,
        except for g (sol) ... so there you go.)
@end ignore

@multitable {g-sharp} {sol sostenido} {sol diesis} {sol dièse} {Gis} {gis} {gis} {giss} {gis}
@headitem EN @tab ES @tab I @tab F @tab D @tab NL @tab DK @tab S @tab FI
@item @strong{c} @tab do @tab do @tab ut @tab C @tab c @tab c @tab c @tab c
@item @strong{c-sharp} @tab do sostenido @tab do diesis @tab ut dièse
  @tab Cis @tab cis @tab cis @tab ciss @tab cis
@item @strong{d-flat} @tab re bemol @tab re bemolle @tab ré bémol @tab Des
  @tab des @tab des @tab dess @tab des
@item @strong{d} @tab re @tab re @tab ré @tab D @tab d @tab d @tab d @tab d
@item @strong{d-sharp} @tab re sostenido @tab re diesis @tab re dièse @tab Dis
  @tab dis @tab dis @tab diss @tab dis
@item @strong{e-flat} @tab mi bemol @tab mi bemolle @tab mi bémol @tab Es
  @tab es @tab es @tab ess @tab es
@item @strong{e} @tab mi @tab mi @tab mi @tab E @tab e @tab e @tab e @tab e
@item @strong{f-flat} = e @tab fa bemol @tab fa bemolle @tab fa bémol
  @tab Fes @tab fes @tab fes @tab fess @tab fes
@item @strong{f} @tab fa @tab fa @tab fa @tab F @tab f @tab f @tab f @tab f
@item @strong{e-sharp} = f @tab mi sostenido @tab mi diesis @tab mi dièse
  @tab Eis @tab eis @tab eis @tab eiss @tab eis
@item @strong{f-sharp} @tab fa sostenido @tab fa diesis @tab fa dièse @tab Fis
  @tab fis @tab fis @tab fiss @tab fis
@item @strong{g-flat} @tab sol bemol @tab sol bemolle @tab sol bémol @tab Ges
  @tab ges @tab ges @tab gess @tab ges
@item @strong{g} @tab sol @tab sol @tab sol @tab G @tab g @tab g @tab g @tab g
@item @strong{g-sharp} @tab sol sostenido @tab sol diesis @tab sol dièse
  @tab Gis @tab gis @tab gis @tab giss @tab gis
@item @strong{a-flat} @tab la bemol @tab la bemolle @tab la bémol @tab As
  @tab as @tab as @tab ass @tab as
@item @strong{a} @tab la @tab la @tab la @tab A @tab a @tab a @tab a @tab a
@item @strong{a-sharp} @tab la sostenido @tab la diesis @tab la dièse @tab Ais
  @tab ais @tab ais @tab aiss @tab ais
@item @strong{b-flat} @tab si bemol @tab si bemolle @tab si bémol @tab B
  @tab bes @tab b @tab b @tab b
@item @strong{b} @tab si @tab si @tab si @tab H @tab b @tab h @tab h @tab h
@item @strong{c-flat} = b @tab do bemol @tab do bemolle @tab ut bémol @tab Ces
  @tab ces @tab ces @tab cess @tab ces
@item @strong{b-sharp} = c @tab si sostenido @tab si diesis @tab si dièse
  @tab His @tab bis @tab his @tab hiss @tab his
@end multitable


@menu
* Literature used::
@end menu

@node Literature used
@unnumberedsec Literature used

@itemize
@item Apel, Willi, ed. @cite{The Harvard Dictionary of Music}.
Cambridge: Belknap Press (Harvard University Press), 1944.

@item Krohn, Felix. @cite{Lyhyt musiikkioppi}. Porvoo, Helsinki, Finland:
WSOY, 1976.

@item Leuchtmann, Horst, ed. @cite{Polyglottes Wörterbuch der musikalischen
Terminologie}. Kassel, 1980.

@item Hornby, Albert Sydney. @cite{Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of
Current English}, 3rd ed. London: Oxford University Press, 1974.

@item Porter, Noah. @cite{Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary}.
Springfield, Massachusetts: G. & C. Merriam Company, 1913.

@item Randall, Don, ed. @cite{The New Harvard Dictionary of Music}.
Cambridge: Belknap Press (Harvard University Press), 1986.

@item Riemann, Hugo. @cite{Musik-lexicon}. Berlin, 1929.

@end itemize

@bye