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13 @node Fundamental concepts
14 @chapter Fundamental concepts
16 You've seen in the Tutorial how to produce beautifully printed
17 music from a simple text file. This section introduces the
18 concepts and techniques required to produce equally beautiful
19 but more complex scores.
22 * How LilyPond input files work::
23 * Voices contain music::
24 * Contexts and engravers::
25 * Extending the templates::
29 @node How LilyPond input files work
30 @section How LilyPond input files work
32 The LilyPond input format is quite free-form, giving experienced
33 users a lot of flexibility to structure their files however they
34 wish. But this flexibility can make things confusing for new
35 users. This section will explain some of this structure, but may
36 gloss over some details in favor of simplicity. For a complete
37 description of the input format, see @ruser{File structure}.
40 * Introduction to the LilyPond file structure::
41 * Score is a (single) compound musical expression::
42 * Nesting music expressions::
43 * On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties::
46 @node Introduction to the LilyPond file structure
47 @subsection Introduction to the LilyPond file structure
50 @cindex file structure
52 A basic example of a LilyPond input file is
55 \version @w{"@version{}"}
58 @var{...compound music expression...} % all the music goes here!
65 There are many variations of this basic pattern, but this
66 example serves as a useful starting place.
75 Up to this point none of the examples you have seen have used a
76 @code{\score@{@}} command. This is because LilyPond automatically
77 adds the extra commands which are needed when you give it simple
78 input. LilyPond treats input like this:
87 as shorthand for this:
104 In other words, if the input contains a single music expression,
105 LilyPond will interpret the file as though the music expression
106 was wrapped up inside the commands shown above.
108 @cindex implicit contexts
109 @cindex contexts, implicit
111 @strong{A word of warning!} Many of the examples in the LilyPond
112 documentation will omit the @code{\new Staff} and @code{\new Voice}
113 commands, leaving them to be created implicitly. For simple
114 examples this works well, but for more complex examples, especially
115 when additional commands are used, the implicit creation of contexts
116 can give surprising results, maybe creating extra unwanted staves.
117 The way to create contexts explicitly is explained in
118 @ref{Contexts and engravers}.
120 @warning{When entering more than a few lines of music it is
121 advisable to always create staves and voices explicitly.}
123 For now, though, let us return to the first example and examine the
124 @code{\score} command, leaving the others to default.
126 A @code{\score} block must always contain just one music expression,
127 and this must appear immediately after the @code{\score} command.
128 Remember that a music expression could be anything from a single
129 note to a huge compound expression like
134 @var{...insert the whole score of a Wagner opera in here...}
140 Since everything is inside @code{@{ ... @}}, it counts
141 as one music expression.
143 As we saw previously, the @code{\score} block can contain other
166 Note that these three commands -- @code{\header}, @code{\layout} and
167 @code{\midi} -- are special: unlike many other commands which begin
168 with a backward slash (@code{\}) they are @emph{not} music expressions
169 and are not part of any music expression. So they may be placed
170 inside a @code{\score} block or outside it. In fact, these commands
171 are commonly placed outside the @code{\score} block -- for example,
172 @code{\header} is often placed above the @code{\score} command, as the
173 example at the beginning of this section shows.
175 Two more commands you have not previously seen are
176 @code{\layout @{ @}} and @code{\midi @{@}}. If these appear as
177 shown they will cause LilyPond to produce a printed output and a
178 MIDI output respectively. They are described fully in the
179 Notation Reference -- @ruser{Score layout}, and
180 @ruser{Creating MIDI files}.
182 @cindex scores, multiple
183 @cindex book block, implicit
184 @cindex implicit book block
188 You may code multiple @code{\score} blocks. Each will be
189 treated as a separate score, but they will be all combined into
190 a single output file. A @code{\book} command is not necessary
191 -- one will be implicitly created. However, if you would like
192 separate output files from one @code{.ly} file then the
193 @code{\book} command should be used to separate the different
194 sections: each @code{\book} block will produce a
195 separate output file.
199 Every @code{\book} block creates a separate output file (e.g., a
200 PDF file). If you haven't explicitly added one, LilyPond wraps
201 your entire input code in a @code{\book} block implicitly.
203 Every @code{\score} block is a separate chunk of music within a
206 @cindex layout block, effect of location
208 Every @code{\layout} block affects the @code{\score} or
209 @code{\book} block in which it appears -- i.e., a @code{\layout}
210 block inside a @code{\score} block affects only that @code{\score}
211 block, but a @code{\layout} block outside of a @code{\score} block
212 (and thus in a @code{\book} block, either explicitly or
213 implicitly) will affect every @code{\score} in that @code{\book}.
215 For details see @ruser{Multiple scores in a book}.
219 Another great shorthand is the ability to define variables (see
220 @ref{Organizing pieces with variables}. All the templates use this
223 melody = \relative c' @{
232 When LilyPond looks at this file, it takes the value of
233 @code{melody} (everything after the equals sign) and inserts it
234 whenever it sees @code{\melody}. There's nothing special about
235 the names -- it could be @code{melody}, @code{global},
237 @code{pianorighthand}, or @code{foofoobarbaz}. For more details,
238 see @ref{Saving typing with variables and functions}.
239 Remember that you can use almost any name you like as long
240 as it contains just alphabetic characters and is distinct from
241 LilyPond command names. The exact
242 limitations on variable names are detailed in
243 @ruser{File structure}.
247 For a complete definition of the input format, see
248 @ruser{File structure}.
251 @node Score is a (single) compound musical expression
252 @subsection Score is a (single) compound musical expression
257 @cindex contents of a score block
258 @cindex score block, contents of
259 @cindex compound music expression
260 @cindex music expression, compound
262 We saw the general organization of LilyPond input files in the
263 previous section, @ref{Introduction to the LilyPond file structure}.
264 But we seemed to skip over the most important part: how do we figure
265 out what to write after @code{\score}?
267 We didn't skip over it at all. The big mystery is simply that
268 there @emph{is} no mystery. This line explains it all:
271 @emph{A @code{\score} block must begin with a compound music expression.}
275 To understand what is meant by a music expression and a compound
276 music expression, you may find it useful to review the tutorial,
277 @ref{Music expressions explained}. In that section, we saw how to
278 build big music expressions from small pieces -- we started from
279 notes, then chords, etc. Now we're going to start from a big
280 music expression and work our way down. For simplicity, we'll use
281 just a singer and piano in our example. We don't need a
282 @code{StaffGroup} for this ensemble, which simply groups a number
283 of staves together with a bracket at the left, but we do need
284 staves for a singer and a piano, though.
289 \new Staff = "singer" <<
291 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
298 Here we have given names to the staves -- @qq{singer} and
299 @qq{piano}. This is not essential here, but it is a useful habit
300 to cultivate so that you can see at a glance what each stave is
303 Remember that we use @code{<< ... >>} instead of @code{@{ ... @}} to
304 show simultaneous music. This causes the vocal part and piano part
305 to appear one above the other in the score. The @code{<< ... >>}
306 construct would not be necessary for the Singer staff in the example
307 above if it were going to contain only one sequential music
308 expression, but @code{<< ... >>} rather than braces is necessary if
309 the music in the Staff is to contain two or more simultaneous
310 expressions, e.g. two simultaneous Voices, or a Voice with lyrics.
311 We're going to have a voice with lyrics, so angle brackets are
312 required. We'll add some real music later; for now let's just put
313 in some dummy notes and lyrics. If you've forgotten how to add lyrics
314 you may wish to review @code{\addlyrics} in @ref{Setting simple songs}.
316 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
319 \new Staff = "singer" <<
320 \new Voice = "vocal" { c'1 }
323 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
324 \new Staff = "upper" { c'1 }
325 \new Staff = "lower" { c'1 }
332 Now we have a lot more details. We have the singer's staff: it
333 contains a @code{Voice} (in LilyPond, this term refers to a set of
334 notes, not necessarily vocal notes -- for example, a violin
335 generally plays one voice) and some lyrics. We also have a piano
336 staff: it contains an upper staff (right hand) and a lower staff
337 (left hand), although the lower staff has yet to be given a bass
340 At this stage, we could start filling in notes. Inside the curly
341 braces next to @code{\new Voice = "vocal"}, we could start writing
349 But if we did that, the @code{\score} section would get pretty
350 long, and it would be harder to understand what was happening. So
351 let's use variables instead. These were introduced at the end
352 of the previous section, remember? To ensure the contents of the
353 @code{text} variable are interpreted as lyrics we preface them with
354 @code{\lyricmode}. Like @code{\addlyrics}, this switches the input
355 mode to lyrics. Without that, LilyPond would try to interpret the
356 contents as notes, which would generate errors. (Several other
357 input modes are available, see @ruser{Input modes}.)
359 So, adding a few notes and a bass clef for the left hand, we now
360 have a piece of real music:
362 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
363 melody = \relative c'' { r4 d8\noBeam g, c4 r }
364 text = \lyricmode { And God said, }
365 upper = \relative c'' { <g d g,>2~ <g d g,> }
366 lower = \relative c { b2 e2 }
370 \new Staff = "singer" <<
371 \new Voice = "vocal" { \melody }
374 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
375 \new Staff = "upper" { \upper }
376 \new Staff = "lower" {
386 When writing (or reading) a @code{\score} section, just take it
387 slowly and carefully. Start with the outer level, then work on
388 each smaller level. It also really helps to be strict with
389 indentation -- make sure that each item on the same level starts
390 on the same horizontal position in your text editor.
394 Notation Reference: @ruser{Structure of a score}.
397 @node Nesting music expressions
398 @subsection Nesting music expressions
400 @cindex staves, temporary
401 @cindex temporary staves
404 It is not essential to declare all staves at the beginning; they may
405 be introduced temporarily at any point. This is particularly useful
406 for creating ossia sections -- see @rglos{ossia}. Here is a simple
407 example showing how to introduce a new staff temporarily for the
408 duration of three notes:
410 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
427 Note that the size of the clef is the same as a clef printed
428 following a clef change -- slightly smaller than the clef
429 at the beginning of the line. This is usual for clefs printed
430 in the middle of a line.
432 @cindex staff, positioning
434 The ossia section may be placed above the staff
437 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
438 \new Staff = "main" {
445 alignAboveContext = #"main" }
453 This example uses @code{\with}, which will be explained more
454 fully later. It is a means of modifying the default behavior
455 of a single Staff. Here it says that the new staff should be
456 placed above the staff called @qq{main} instead of the default
457 position which is below.
461 Ossia are often written without clef and without
462 time signature and are usually in a smaller font.
463 These require further commands which
464 have not yet been introduced. See @ref{Size of objects},
465 and @ruser{Ossia staves}.
468 @node On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties
469 @subsection On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties
471 @cindex brackets, nesting
472 @cindex bracket types
473 @cindex brackets, enclosing vs. marking
475 You have already met a number of different types of bracket and
476 bracket-like constructs in writing the input file to LilyPond.
477 These obey different rules which can be confusing at first.
478 Let's first review the different types of brackets and bracket-like
481 @c attempt to force this onto a new page
483 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .7
484 @headitem Bracket Type
486 @item @code{@{ .. @}}
487 @tab Encloses a sequential segment of music
489 @tab Encloses the notes of a chord
490 @item @code{<< .. >>}
491 @tab Encloses simultaneous music expressions
493 @tab Marks the start and end of a slur
494 @item @code{\( .. \)}
495 @tab Marks the start and end of a phrasing slur
497 @tab Marks the start and end of a manual beam
500 To these we should add other constructs which generate lines
501 between or across notes: ties (marked by a tilde, @code{~}),
502 tuplets written as @code{\times x/y @{..@}}, and grace notes
503 written as @code{\grace@{..@}}.
505 Outside LilyPond, the conventional use of brackets requires the
506 different types to be properly nested, like this, @code{<< [ @{ ( .. )
507 @} ] >>}, with the closing brackets being encountered in exactly the
508 opposite order to the opening brackets. This @strong{is} a
509 requirement for the three types of bracket described by the word
510 @q{Encloses} in the table above -- they must nest properly. However,
511 the remaining bracket-like constructs, described with the word
512 @q{Marks} in the table above together with ties and tuplets, do
513 @strong{not} have to nest properly with any of the brackets or
514 bracket-like constructs. In fact, these are not brackets in
515 the sense that they enclose something -- they are simply markers to
516 indicate where something starts and ends.
518 So, for example, a phrasing slur can start before a manually
519 inserted beam and end before the end of the beam -- not very
520 musical, perhaps, but possible:
522 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=2]
523 { g8\( a b[ c b\) a] }
526 In general, different kinds of brackets, bracket-like constructs,
527 and those implied by tuplets, ties and grace notes, may be mixed
528 freely. This example shows a beam extending into a tuplet (line 1),
529 a slur extending into a tuplet (line 2), a beam and a slur
530 extending into a tuplet, a tie crossing two tuplets, and a
531 phrasing slur extending out of a tuplet (lines 3 and 4).
533 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right]
535 r16[ g16 \times 2/3 {r16 e'8] }
536 g16( a \times 2/3 {b d) e' }
537 g8[( a \times 2/3 {b d') e'~]}
538 \times 4/5 {e'32\( a b d' e'} a'4.\)
543 @node Voices contain music
544 @section Voices contain music
546 Singers need voices to sing, and so does LilyPond.
547 The actual music for all instruments in a score
548 is contained in Voices -- the most fundamental
549 of all LilyPond's concepts.
552 * I'm hearing Voices::
553 * Explicitly instantiating voices::
554 * Voices and vocals::
557 @node I'm hearing Voices
558 @subsection I'm hearing Voices
562 @cindex multiple voices
563 @cindex voices, multiple
564 @cindex Voice context
565 @cindex context, Voice
566 @cindex simultaneous music
567 @cindex music, simultaneous
568 @cindex concurrent music
569 @cindex music, concurrent
570 @cindex voices vs. chords
571 @cindex chords vs. voices
573 The lowest, most fundamental or innermost layers in a LilyPond
574 score are called @q{Voice contexts} or just @q{Voices} for short.
575 Voices are sometimes called @q{layers} in other notation
578 In fact, a Voice layer or context is the only one which can contain
579 music. If a Voice context is not explicitly declared one is created
580 automatically, as we saw at the beginning of this chapter. Some
581 instruments such as an Oboe can play only one note at a time. Music
582 written for such instruments is monophonic and requires just a single
583 voice. Instruments which can play more than one note at a time like
584 the piano will often require multiple voices to encode the different
585 concurrent notes and rhythms they are capable of playing.
587 A single voice can contain many notes in a chord, of course,
588 so when exactly are multiple voices needed? Look first at
589 this example of four chords:
591 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=1]
593 <d g>4 <d fis> <d a'> <d g>
596 This can be expressed using just the single angle bracket chord
597 symbols, @code{< ... >}, and for this just a single voice is
598 needed. But suppose the F-sharp were actually an eighth-note
599 followed by an eighth-note G, a passing note on the way to the A?
600 Now we have two notes which start at the same time but have
601 different durations: the quarter-note D and the eighth-note
602 F-sharp. How are these to be coded? They cannot be written as
603 a chord because all the notes in a chord must have the same
604 duration. And they cannot be written as two sequential notes
605 as they need to start at the same time. This is when two
608 Let us see how this is done in LilyPond input syntax.
613 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a
614 staff is to enter each voice as a sequence (with @code{@{...@}}),
615 and combine them simultaneously with angle brackets, @code{<<...>>}.
616 The fragments must also be separated with double backward slashes,
617 @code{\\}, to place them in separate voices. Without these, the
618 notes would be entered into a single voice, which would usually
619 cause errors. This technique is particularly suited to pieces of
620 music which are largely monophonic with occasional short sections
623 Here's how we split the chords above into two voices and add both
624 the passing note and a slur:
626 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=2]
628 % Voice "1" Voice "2"
629 << { g4 fis8( g) a4 g } \\ { d4 d d d } >>
632 Notice how the stems of the second voice now point down.
634 Here's another simple example:
636 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=2]
638 % Voice "1" Voice "2"
639 << { r4 g g4. a8 } \\ { d,2 d4 g } >>
640 << { bes4 bes c bes } \\ { g4 g g8( a) g4 } >>
641 << { a2. r4 } \\ { fis2. s4 } >>
644 It is not necessary to use a separate @code{<< \\ >>} construct
645 for each bar. For music with few notes in each bar this layout
646 can help the legibility of the code, but if there are many
647 notes in each bar it may be better to split out each voice
648 separately, like this:
650 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right,relative=2]
666 @cindex voices, naming
667 @cindex voices crossing brackets
668 @cindex slurs crossing brackets
669 @cindex ties crossing brackest
671 This example has just two voices, but the same construct may be
672 used to encode three or more voices by adding more back-slash
675 The Voice contexts bear the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.
676 In each of these contexts, the vertical direction of slurs,
677 stems, ties, dynamics etc., is set appropriately.
679 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
680 \new Staff \relative c' {
683 % Voice "1" Voice "2" Voice "3"
684 << { g4 f e } \\ { r8 e4 d c8~ } >>
685 << { d2 e2 } \\ { c8 b16 a b8 g~ g2 } \\ { s4 b4 c2 } >>
689 These voices are all separate from the main voice that contains
690 the notes just outside the @code{<< .. >>} construct. Let's call
691 this the @emph{simultaneous construct}. Slurs and ties may only
692 connect notes within the same voice, so slurs and ties cannot go
693 into or out of a simultaneous construct. Conversely,
694 parallel voices from separate simultaneous constructs on the same
695 staff are the same voice. Other voice-related properties also
696 carry across simultaneous constructs. Here is the same example,
697 with different colors and note heads for each voice. Note that
698 changes in one voice do not affect other voices, but they do
699 persist in the same voice later. Note also that tied notes may be
700 split across the same voices in two constructs, shown here in the
703 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
704 \new Staff \relative c' {
723 { c8 b16 a b8 g ~ g2 }
733 @funindex \voiceOneStyle
734 @funindex \voiceTwoStyle
735 @funindex \voiceThreeStyle
736 @funindex \voiceFourStyle
737 @funindex \voiceNeutralStyle
739 The commands @code{\voiceXXXStyle} are mainly intended for use in
740 educational documents such as this one. They modify the color
741 of the note head, the stem and the beams, and the style of the
742 note head, so that the voices may be easily distinguished.
743 Voice one is set to red diamonds, voice two to blue triangles,
744 voice three to green crossed circles, and voice four (not used
745 here) to magenta crosses; @code{\voiceNeutralStyle} (also not
746 used here) reverts the style back to the default.
747 We shall see later how commands like these may be created by the
749 See @ref{Visibility and color of objects} and
750 @ref{Using variables for tweaks}.
752 @cindex polyphony and relative note entry
753 @cindex relative note entry and polyphony
755 Polyphony does not change the relationship of notes within a
756 @code{\relative @{ @}} block. Each note is still calculated
757 relative to the note immediately preceding it, or to the first
758 note of the preceding chord. So in
761 \relative c' @{ noteA << < noteB noteC > \\ noteD >> noteE @}
765 @code{noteB} is relative to @code{noteA} @*
766 @code{noteC} is relative to @code{noteB}, not @code{noteA}; @*
767 @code{noteD} is relative to @code{noteB}, not @code{noteA} or
769 @code{noteE} is relative to @code{noteD}, not @code{noteA}.
771 An alternative way, which may be clearer if the notes in the
772 voices are widely separated, is to place a @code{\relative}
773 command at the start of each voice:
776 \relative c' @{ noteA ... @}
778 \relative c'' @{ < noteB noteC > ... @}
780 \relative g' @{ noteD ... @}
782 \relative c' @{ noteE ... @}
785 Let us finally analyze the voices in a more complex piece of music.
786 Here are the notes from the first two bars of the second of Chopin's
787 Deux Nocturnes, Op 32. This example will be used at later stages in
788 this and the next chapter to illustrate several techniques for
789 producing notation, so please ignore for now anything in the
790 underlying code which looks mysterious and concentrate just on the
791 music and the voices -- the complications will all be explained in
794 @c The following should appear as music without code
795 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
796 \new Staff \relative c'' {
805 % Ignore these for now - they are explained in Ch 4
806 \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #0
808 \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #0.5
816 The direction of the stems is often used to indicate the continuity of
817 two simultaneous melodic lines. Here the stems of the highest notes
818 are all pointing up and the stems of the lower notes are all pointing
819 down. This is the first indication that more than one voice is
822 But the real need for multiple voices arises when notes
823 which start at the same time have different durations.
824 Look at the notes which start at beat three in the first
825 bar. The A-flat is a dotted quarter note, the F is a
826 quarter note and the D-flat is a half note. These
827 cannot be written as a chord as all the notes in a chord
828 must have the same duration. Neither can they be written
829 as sequential notes, as they must start at the same time.
830 This section of the bar requires three voices, and the
831 normal practice would be to write the whole bar as three
832 voices, as shown below, where we have used different note heads
833 and colors for the three voices. Again, the code behind this
834 example will be explained later, so ignore anything you do
837 @c The following should appear as music without code
838 @c The three voice styles should be defined in -init
839 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
840 \new Staff \relative c'' {
851 \\ % No Voice three (we want stems down)
854 % Ignore these for now - they are explained in Ch 4
855 \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #0
857 \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #0.5
866 Let us try to encode this music from scratch. As we
867 shall see, this encounters some difficulties. We begin as
868 we have learnt, using the @code{<< \\ >>} construct to
869 enter the music of the first bar in three voices:
871 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right]
872 \new Staff \relative c'' {
875 { c2 aes4. bes8 } \\ { aes2 f4 fes } \\ { <ees c>2 des2 }
882 @cindex voices and stem directions
883 @cindex stem directions and voices
886 The stem directions are automatically assigned with the
887 odd-numbered voices taking upward stems and the even-numbered
888 voices downward ones. The stems for voices 1 and 2 are right,
889 but the stems in voice 3 should go down in this particular piece
890 of music. We can correct this by skipping voice three
891 and placing the music in voice four. This is done by simply
892 adding another pair of @code{\\}.
894 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment,ragged-right]
895 \new Staff \relative c'' {
901 \\ % Omit Voice three
910 We see that this fixes the stem direction, but exposes a problem
911 sometimes encountered with multiple voices -- the stems of the notes
912 in one voice can collide with the note heads in other voices. In
913 laying out the notes, LilyPond allows the notes or chords from two
914 voices to occupy the same vertical note column provided the stems are
915 in opposite directions, but the notes from the third and fourth voices
916 are displaced, if necessary, to avoid the note heads colliding. This
917 usually works well, but in this example the notes of the lowest voice
918 are clearly not well placed by default. LilyPond provides several ways
919 to adjust the horizontal placing of notes. We are not quite ready yet
920 to see how to correct this, so we shall leave this problem until a
921 later section --- see the @code{force-hshift} property in @ref{Fixing
922 overlapping notation}.
926 Notation Reference: @ruser{Multiple voices}.
929 @node Explicitly instantiating voices
930 @subsection Explicitly instantiating voices
936 @funindex \voiceThree
943 @cindex voice contexts, creating
945 Voice contexts can also be created manually
946 inside a @code{<< >>} block to create polyphonic music, using
947 @code{\voiceOne} ... @code{\voiceFour} to indicate the required
948 directions of stems, slurs, etc. In longer scores this method
949 is clearer, as it permits the voices to be separated and to be
950 given more descriptive names.
952 Specifically, the construct @code{<< \\ >>} which we used in
953 the previous section:
958 << @{ e4 f g a @} \\ @{ c,4 d e f @} >>
968 \new Voice = "1" @{ \voiceOne \relative c' @{ e4 f g a @} @}
969 \new Voice = "2" @{ \voiceTwo \relative c' @{ c4 d e f @} @}
973 Both of the above would produce
975 @c The following example should not display the code
976 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
978 \new Voice = "1" { \voiceOne \relative c' { e4 f g a } }
979 \new Voice = "2" { \voiceTwo \relative c' { c4 d e f } }
983 @cindex voices, reverting to single
984 @cindex reverting to a single voice
986 The @code{\voiceXXX} commands set the direction of stems, slurs,
987 ties, articulations, text annotations, augmentation dots of dotted
988 notes, and fingerings. @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceThree}
989 make these objects point upwards, while @code{\voiceTwo} and
990 @code{\voiceFour} make them point downwards. These commands also
991 generate a horizontal shift for each voice when this is required
992 to avoid clashes of note heads. The command @code{\oneVoice}
993 reverts the settings back to the normal values for a single voice.
995 Let us see in some simple examples exactly what effect
996 @code{\oneVoice}, @code{\voiceOne} and @code{voiceTwo} have on
997 markup, ties, slurs, and dynamics:
999 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1001 % Default behavior or behavior after \oneVoice
1002 c d8~ d e4( f g a) b-> c
1006 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1009 c d8~ d e4( f g a) b-> c
1011 c, d8~ d e4( f g a) b-> c
1015 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1018 c d8~ d e4( f g a) b-> c
1020 c, d8~ d e4( f g a) b-> c
1024 Now let's look at three different ways to notate the same passage
1025 of polyphonic music, each of which is advantageous in different
1026 circumstances, using the example from the previous section.
1028 An expression that appears directly inside a @code{<< >>} belongs
1029 to the main voice (but, note, @strong{not} in a @code{<< \\ >>}
1030 construct). This is useful when extra voices appear while the
1031 main voice is playing. Here is a more correct rendition of our
1032 example. The red diamond-shaped notes
1033 demonstrate that the main melody is now in a single voice context,
1034 permitting a phrasing slur to be drawn over them.
1036 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1037 \new Staff \relative c' {
1039 % The following notes are monophonic
1041 % Start simultaneous section of three voices
1043 % Continue the main voice in parallel
1044 { g4 f e | d2 e2) | }
1045 % Initiate second voice
1047 % Set stems, etc., down
1049 r8 e4 d c8~ | c8 b16 a b8 g~ g2 |
1051 % Initiate third voice
1053 % Set stems, etc, up
1061 @cindex nesting music expressions
1062 @cindex nesting simultaneous constructs
1063 @cindex nesting voices
1064 @cindex voices, temporary
1065 @cindex voices, nesting
1067 More deeply nested polyphony constructs are possible, and if a
1068 voice appears only briefly this might be a more natural way to
1071 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1072 \new Staff \relative c' {
1075 { g4 f e | d2 e2) | }
1080 { c8 b16 a b8 g~ g2 }
1091 @cindex spacing notes
1093 This method of nesting new voices briefly is useful
1094 when only small sections of the music
1095 are polyphonic, but when the whole staff is largely polyphonic
1096 it can be clearer to use multiple voices throughout, using
1097 spacing notes to step over sections where the voice is silent,
1100 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1101 \new Staff \relative c' <<
1102 % Initiate first voice
1105 c16^( d e f g4 f e | d2 e2) |
1107 % Initiate second voice
1109 % Set stems, etc, down
1111 s4 r8 e4 d c8~ | c8 b16 a b8 g~ g2 |
1113 % Initiate third voice
1115 % Set stems, etc, up
1122 @subsubheading Note columns
1125 @cindex note collisions
1126 @cindex collisions, notes
1127 @cindex shift commands
1134 @funindex \shiftOnnn
1137 Closely spaced notes in a chord, or notes occurring at the same
1138 time in different voices, are arranged in two, occasionally more,
1139 columns to prevent the note heads overlapping. These are called
1140 note columns. There are separate columns for each voice, and
1141 the currently specified voice-dependent shift is applied to the
1142 note column if there would otherwise be a collision. This can
1143 be seen in the example above. In bar 2 the C in voice two is
1144 shifted to the right relative to the D in voice one, and in the
1145 final chord the C in voice three is also shifted to the right
1146 relative to the other notes.
1148 The @code{\shiftOn}, @code{\shiftOnn}, @code{\shiftOnnn}, and
1149 @code{\shiftOff} commands specify the degree to which notes and
1150 chords of the voice should be shifted if a collision
1151 would otherwise occur. By default, the outer voices (normally
1152 voices one and two) have @code{\shiftOff} specified, while the
1153 inner voices (three and four) have @code{\shiftOn} specified.
1154 When a shift is applied, voices one and three are shifted to
1155 the right and voices two and four to the left.
1157 @code{\shiftOnn} and @code{\shiftOnnn} define further shift
1158 levels which may be specified temporarily to resolve collisions
1159 in complex situations -- see @ref{Real music example}.
1161 A note column can contain just one note (or chord) from a voice
1162 with stems up and one note (or chord) from a voice with stems
1163 down. If notes from two voices which have their stems in the
1164 same direction are placed at the same position and both voices
1165 have no shift or the same shift specified, the error message
1166 @qq{Too many clashing note columns} will be produced.
1170 Notation Reference: @ruser{Multiple voices}.
1173 @node Voices and vocals
1174 @subsection Voices and vocals
1176 Vocal music presents a special difficulty: we need to combine two
1177 expressions -- notes and lyrics.
1179 @funindex \new Lyrics
1183 @cindex Lyrics context, creating
1184 @cindex lyrics, linking to voice
1186 You have already seen the @code{\addlyrics@{@}} command, which
1187 handles simple scores well. However, this technique is
1188 quite limited. For more complex music, you must introduce the
1189 lyrics in a @code{Lyrics} context using @code{\new Lyrics} and
1191 the lyrics to the notes with @code{\lyricsto@{@}}, using the
1192 name assigned to the Voice.
1194 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,fragment]
1196 \new Voice = "one" \relative c'' {
1199 c4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2
1201 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" {
1202 No more let sins and sor -- rows grow.
1207 Note that the lyrics must be linked to a @code{Voice} context,
1208 @emph{not} a @code{Staff} context. This is a case where it is
1209 necessary to create @code{Staff} and @code{Voice} contexts
1212 @cindex lyrics and beaming
1213 @cindex beaming and lyrics
1214 @funindex \autoBeamOff
1215 @funindex autoBeamOff
1217 The automatic beaming which LilyPond uses by default works well
1218 for instrumental music, but not so well for music with lyrics,
1219 where beaming is either not required at all or is used to indicate
1220 melismata in the lyrics. In the example above we use the command
1221 @code{\autoBeamOff} to turn off the automatic beaming.
1223 @funindex \new ChoirStaff
1224 @funindex ChoirStaff
1225 @funindex \lyricmode
1227 @cindex vocal score structure
1230 Let us reuse the earlier example from Judas Maccabæus to
1231 illustrate this more flexible technique. We first recast
1232 it to use variables so the music and lyrics can be separated
1233 from the staff structure. We also introduce a ChoirStaff
1234 bracket. The lyrics themselves must be introduced with
1235 @code{\lyricmode} to ensure they are interpreted as lyrics
1238 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1239 global = { \time 6/8 \partial 8 \key f \major}
1240 SopOneMusic = \relative c'' {
1241 c8 | c([ bes)] a a([ g)] f | f'4. b, | c4.~ c4 | }
1242 SopTwoMusic = \relative c' {
1243 r8 | r4. r4 c8 | a'([ g)] f f([ e)] d | e([ d)] c bes' | }
1244 SopOneLyrics = \lyricmode {
1245 Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- dorn, __ | }
1246 SopTwoLyrics = \lyricmode {
1247 Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- dorn, | }
1252 \new Voice = "SopOne" {
1256 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "SopOne" {
1261 \new Voice = "SopTwo" {
1265 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "SopTwo" {
1273 This is the basic structure of all vocal scores. More staves may be
1274 added as required, more voices may be added to the staves, more verses
1275 may be added to the lyrics, and the variables containing the music can
1276 easily be placed in separate files should they become too long.
1278 @cindex hymn structure
1279 @cindex SATB structure
1280 @cindex vocal scores with multiple verses
1281 @cindex multiple vocal verses
1282 @cindex verses, multiple vocal
1284 Here is an example of the first line of a hymn with four
1285 verses, set for SATB. In this case the words for all four
1286 parts are the same. Note how we use variables to separate the
1287 music notation and words from the staff structure. See too
1288 how a variable, which we have chosen to call @q{TimeKey}, is used
1289 to hold several commands for use within the two staves. In other
1290 examples this is often called @q{global}.
1292 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1293 TimeKey = { \time 4/4 \partial 4 \key c \major}
1294 SopMusic = \relative c' { c4 | e4. e8 g4 g | a a g | }
1295 AltoMusic = \relative c' { c4 | c4. c8 e4 e | f f e | }
1296 TenorMusic = \relative c { e4 | g4. g8 c4. b8 | a8 b c d e4 | }
1297 BassMusic = \relative c { c4 | c4. c8 c4 c | f8 g a b c4 | }
1298 VerseOne = \lyricmode {
1299 E -- | ter -- nal fa -- ther, | strong to save, | }
1300 VerseTwo = \lyricmode {
1301 O | Christ, whose voice the | wa -- ters heard, | }
1302 VerseThree = \lyricmode {
1303 O | Ho -- ly Spi -- rit, | who didst brood | }
1304 VerseFour = \lyricmode {
1305 O | Tri -- ni -- ty of | love and pow'r | }
1311 \new Voice = "Sop" { \voiceOne \TimeKey \SopMusic }
1312 \new Voice = "Alto" { \voiceTwo \AltoMusic }
1313 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseOne }
1314 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseTwo }
1315 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseThree }
1316 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseFour }
1320 \new Voice = "Tenor" { \voiceOne \TimeKey \TenorMusic }
1321 \new Voice = "Bass" { \voiceTwo \BassMusic }
1327 @cindex verse and refrain
1329 We end with an example to show how we might code a solo verse which
1330 continues into a two-part refrain in two staves. The positioning
1331 of the sequential and simultaneous sections to achieve this within
1332 a single score is quite tricky, so follow the explanation carefully!
1334 Let's start with a score block containing a @code{ChoirStaff}, as
1335 we would like the brace to appear at the start of the chorus.
1336 Normally you would need angle brackets after @code{\new ChoirStaff}
1337 to bring in all the staves in parallel, but here we want to
1338 defer the parallelism during the solo so we use braces, although
1339 angle brackets here wouldn't hurt. Inside the @code{ChoirStaff} we
1340 want first the staff which will contain the verse. This must
1341 contain notes and lyrics in parallel, so here we need angle
1342 brackets around the @code{\new Voice} and @code{\new Lyrics} to
1343 start them at the same time:
1345 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1346 versenotes = \relative c'' {
1352 versewords = \lyricmode {
1353 One two three four five six
1358 \new Voice = "verse" {
1361 \new Lyrics \lyricsto verse {
1369 That gives the verse line.
1371 Now we want to continue with refrainA on the same staff while a
1372 second staff is introduced in parallel with it for refrainB, so
1373 this is a parallel section which must be positioned immediately
1374 following the @code{\break} in the verse Voice. Yes, @emph{within}
1375 the verse Voice! Here's that parallel section. More staves
1376 could be introduced here in the same way.
1381 \new Lyrics \lyricsto verse @{
1385 \new Voice = "refrainB" @{
1388 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "refrainB" @{
1395 Here's the final result with two staves in the chorus showing
1396 how the parallel section is positioned within the verse Voice:
1398 @lilypond[quote,verbatim, ragged-right]
1399 versenotes = \relative c'' {
1405 refrainnotesA = \relative c'' {
1409 refrainnotesB = \relative c {
1414 versewords = \lyricmode {
1415 One two three four five six
1417 refrainwordsA = \lyricmode {
1420 refrainwordsB = \lyricmode {
1426 \new Voice = "verse" {
1430 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "verse" {
1434 \new Voice = "refrainB" {
1437 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "refrainB" {
1443 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "verse" {
1451 @cindex book, example of using
1455 However, although this is an interesting and useful exercise to
1456 help you to understand how sequential and simultaneous blocks work,
1457 in practice one would perhaps choose to code this as two
1458 @code{\score} blocks within an implicit @code{\book} block, as
1461 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1462 versenotes = \relative c'' {
1468 refrainnotesA = \relative c'' {
1472 refrainnotesB = \relative c {
1477 versewords = \lyricmode {
1478 One two three four five six
1480 refrainwordsA = \lyricmode {
1483 refrainwordsB = \lyricmode {
1488 \new Voice = "verse" {
1491 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "verse" {
1500 \new Voice = "refrainA" {
1503 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "refrainA" {
1508 \new Voice = "refrainB" {
1511 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "refrainB" {
1521 Notation Reference: @ruser{Vocal music}.
1524 @node Contexts and engravers
1525 @section Contexts and engravers
1527 Contexts and engravers have been mentioned informally
1528 in earlier sections; we now must look at
1529 these concepts in more detail, as they are important
1530 in the fine-tuning of LilyPond output.
1534 * Contexts explained::
1535 * Creating contexts::
1536 * Engravers explained::
1537 * Modifying context properties::
1538 * Adding and removing engravers::
1541 @node Contexts explained
1542 @subsection Contexts explained
1544 @cindex contexts explained
1546 When music is printed, many notational elements which do not
1547 appear explicitly in the input file must be added to the
1548 output. For example, compare the input and output of the
1551 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2,fragment]
1555 The input is rather sparse, but in the output, bar lines,
1556 accidentals, clef, and time signature have been added. When
1557 LilyPond @emph{interprets} the input the musical information
1558 is parsed from left to right, similar to the way a performer
1559 reads the score. While reading the input, the program remembers
1560 where measure boundaries are, and which pitches require explicit
1561 accidentals. This information must be held on several levels.
1562 For example, an accidental affects only a single staff, while
1563 a bar line must be synchronized across the entire score.
1565 Within LilyPond, these rules and bits of information are grouped in
1566 @emph{Contexts}. We have already introduced the @code{Voice} context.
1567 Others are the @code{Staff} and @code{Score} contexts. Contexts are
1568 hierarchical to reflect the hierarchical nature of a musical score.
1569 For example: a @code{Staff} context can contain many @code{Voice}
1570 contexts, and a @code{Score} context can contain many @code{Staff}
1574 @sourceimage{context-example,5cm,,}
1577 Each context has the responsibility for enforcing some notation rules,
1578 creating some notation objects and maintaining the associated
1579 properties. For example, the @code{Voice} context may introduce an
1580 accidental and then the @code{Staff} context maintains the rule to
1581 show or suppress the accidental for the remainder of the measure.
1583 As another example, the synchronization of bar lines is, by default,
1584 handled in the @code{Score} context.
1585 However, in some music we may not want the bar lines to be
1586 synchronized -- consider a polymetric score in 4/4 and 3/4 time.
1587 In such cases, we must modify the default settings of the
1588 @code{Score} and @code{Staff} contexts.
1590 For very simple scores, contexts are created implicitly, and you need
1591 not be aware of them. For larger pieces, such as anything with more
1592 than one staff, they must be
1593 created explicitly to make sure that you get as many staves as you
1594 need, and that they are in the correct order. For typesetting pieces
1595 with specialized notation, it is usual to modify existing, or
1596 even to define totally new, contexts.
1598 In addition to the @code{Score,} @code{Staff} and
1599 @code{Voice} contexts there are contexts which fit between
1600 the score and staff levels to control staff groups, such as the
1601 @code{PianoStaff} and @code{ChoirStaff} contexts. There
1602 are also alternative staff and voice contexts, and contexts for
1603 lyrics, percussion, fret boards, figured bass, etc.
1605 The names of all context types are formed from one or more
1606 words, each word being capitalized and joined immediately to the
1607 preceding word with no hyphen or underscore, e.g.,
1608 @code{GregorianTranscriptionStaff}.
1612 Notation Reference: @ruser{Contexts explained}.
1615 @node Creating contexts
1616 @subsection Creating contexts
1620 @cindex new contexts
1621 @cindex creating contexts
1622 @cindex contexts, creating
1624 In an input file a score block, introduced with a @code{\score}
1625 command, contains a single music expression and an associated
1626 output definition (either a @code{\layout} or a @code{\midi} block).
1627 The @code{Score} context is usually left to be created automatically
1628 when the interpretation of that music expression starts.
1630 For scores with only one voice and one staff, the @code{Voice} and
1631 @code{Staff} contexts may also be left to be created automatically,
1632 but for more complex scores it is necessary to create them by hand.
1633 The simplest command that does this is @code{\new}. It is prepended
1634 to a music expression, for example
1637 \new @var{type} @var{music-expression}
1641 where @var{type} is a context name (like @code{Staff} or
1642 @code{Voice}). This command creates a new context, and starts
1643 interpreting the @var{music-expression} within that context.
1645 (Note that a @code{\new Score} command is not normally required,
1646 as the essential top-level @code{Score} context is created
1647 automatically when the music expression within the @code{\score}
1648 block is interpreted. The only reason for creating a @code{Score}
1649 context explicitly using @code{\new Score} is to introduce a
1650 @code{\with} block in which one or more score-wide default values
1651 of context properties may be specified. Information on using
1652 @code{\with} blocks can be found under the heading
1653 @qq{Setting context properties with @code{\\with} } in
1654 @ref{Modifying context properties}.)
1656 You have seen many practical examples which created new
1657 @code{Staff} and @code{Voice} contexts in earlier sections, but
1658 to remind you how these commands are used in practice, here's an
1659 annotated real-music example:
1661 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1662 \score { % start of single compound music expression
1663 << % start of simultaneous staves section
1665 \new Staff { % create RH staff
1668 \new Voice { % create voice for RH notes
1669 \relative c'' { % start of RH notes
1675 \new Staff << % create LH staff; needs two simultaneous voices
1678 \new Voice { % create LH voice one
1680 \relative g { % start of LH voice one notes
1681 g8 <bes d> ees, <g c>
1682 g8 <bes d> ees, <g c>
1683 } % end of LH voice one notes
1684 } % end of LH voice one
1685 \new Voice { % create LH voice two
1687 \relative g { % start of LH voice two notes
1690 } % end of LH voice two notes
1691 } % end of LH voice two
1692 >> % end of LH staff
1693 >> % end of simultaneous staves section
1694 } % end of single compound music expression
1697 (Note how all the statements which open a block with either a
1698 curly bracket, @code{@{}, or double angle brackets, @code{<<},
1699 are indented by two further spaces, and the corresponding
1700 closing bracket is indented by exactly the same amount. While
1701 this is not required, following this practice will greatly
1702 reduce the number of @q{unmatched bracket} errors, and is
1703 strongly recommended. It enables the structure of the music to
1704 be seen at a glance, and any unmatched brackets will be obvious.
1705 Note too how the LH staff is created using double angle brackets
1706 because it requires two voices for its music, whereas the RH staff
1707 is created with a single music expression surrounded by curly
1708 brackets because it requires only one voice.)
1710 @cindex contexts, naming
1711 @cindex naming contexts
1713 The @code{\new} command may also give an identifying name to the
1714 context to distinguish it from other contexts of the same type,
1717 \new @var{type} = @var{id} @var{music-expression}
1720 Note the distinction between the name of the context type,
1721 @code{Staff}, @code{Voice}, etc, and the identifying name of a
1722 particular instance of that type, which can be any sequence of letters
1723 invented by the user. Digits and spaces can also be used in the
1724 identifying name, but then it has to be placed in quotes,
1725 i.e. @code{\new Staff = "MyStaff 1" @var{music-expression}}.
1726 The identifying name is used to
1727 refer back to that particular instance of a context. We saw this in
1728 use in the section on lyrics, see @ref{Voices and vocals}.
1732 Notation Reference: @ruser{Creating contexts}.
1735 @node Engravers explained
1736 @subsection Engravers explained
1740 Every mark on the printed output of a score produced by LilyPond
1741 is produced by an @code{Engraver}. Thus there is an engraver
1742 to print staves, one to print note heads, one for stems, one for
1743 beams, etc, etc. In total there are over 120 such engravers!
1744 Fortunately, for most scores it is not necessary to know about
1745 more than a few, and for simple scores you do not need to know
1748 Engravers live and operate in Contexts. Engravers such as the
1749 @code{Metronome_mark_engraver}, whose action and output apply to the
1750 score as a whole, operate in the highest level context -- the
1751 @code{Score} context.
1753 The @code{Clef_engraver} and @code{Key_engraver} are to be
1754 found in every @code{Staff} Context, as different staves may require
1755 different clefs and keys.
1757 The @code{Note_heads_engraver} and @code{Stem_engraver} live
1758 in every @code{Voice} context, the lowest level context of all.
1760 Each engraver processes the particular objects associated
1761 with its function, and maintains the properties that relate
1762 to that function. These properties, like the properties
1763 associated with contexts, may be modified to change the
1764 operation of the engraver or the appearance of those elements
1765 in the printed score.
1767 Engravers all have compound names formed from words which
1768 describe their function. Just the first word is capitalized,
1769 and the remainder are joined to it with underscores. Thus
1770 the @code{Staff_symbol_engraver} is responsible for creating the
1771 lines of the staff, the @code{Clef_engraver} determines and sets
1772 the pitch reference point on the staff by drawing a clef symbol.
1774 Here are some of the most common engravers together with their
1775 function. You will see it is usually easy to guess the function
1776 from the name, or vice versa.
1778 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .7
1781 @item Accidental_engraver
1782 @tab Makes accidentals, cautionary and suggested accidentals
1787 @item Completion_heads_engraver
1788 @tab Splits notes which cross bar lines
1789 @c The old Dynamic_engraver is deprecated. -jm
1790 @item New_dynamic_engraver
1791 @tab Creates hairpins and dynamic texts
1792 @item Forbid_line_break_engraver
1793 @tab Prevents line breaks if a musical element is still active
1795 @tab Creates the key signature
1796 @item Metronome_mark_engraver
1797 @tab Engraves metronome marking
1798 @item Note_heads_engraver
1799 @tab Engraves note heads
1802 @item Staff_symbol_engraver
1803 @tab Engraves the five (by default) lines of the staff
1805 @tab Creates stems and single-stem tremolos
1806 @item Time_signature_engraver
1807 @tab Creates time signatures
1812 We shall see later how the output of LilyPond can be changed
1813 by modifying the action of Engravers.
1817 Internals reference: @rinternals{Engravers and Performers}.
1820 @node Modifying context properties
1821 @subsection Modifying context properties
1823 @cindex context properties
1824 @cindex context properties, modifying
1825 @cindex modifying context properties
1831 Contexts are responsible for holding the values of a number of
1832 context @emph{properties}. Many of them can be changed to
1833 influence the interpretation of the input and so change the
1834 appearance of the output. They are changed by the
1835 @code{\set} command. This takes the form
1838 \set @emph{ContextName}.@emph{propertyName} = #@emph{value}
1841 Where the @emph{ContextName} is usually @code{Score},
1842 @code{Staff} or @code{Voice}. It may be omitted,
1843 in which case the current context (typically @code{Voice}) is assumed.
1845 The names of context properties consist of words joined
1846 together with no hyphens or underscores, all except the
1847 first having a capital letter. Here are a few examples
1848 of some commonly used ones. There are many more.
1850 @c attempt to force this onto a new page
1852 @multitable @columnfractions .25 .15 .45 .15
1853 @headitem propertyName
1859 @tab If true, set extra natural signs before accidentals
1860 @tab @code{#t}, @code{#f}
1861 @item currentBarNumber
1863 @tab Set the current bar number
1867 @tab If true, print slurs both above and below notes
1868 @tab @code{#t}, @code{#f}
1869 @item instrumentName
1871 @tab Set the name to be placed at the start of the staff
1872 @tab @code{"Cello I"}
1875 @tab Increase or decrease the font size
1879 @tab Set the text to print before the start of a verse
1884 where a Boolean is either True (@code{#t}) or False (@code{#f}),
1885 an Integer is a positive whole number, a Real is a positive
1886 or negative decimal number, and text is enclosed in double
1887 apostrophes. Note the occurrence of hash signs,
1888 (@code{#}), in two different places -- as part of the Boolean
1889 value before the @code{t} or @code{f}, and before @emph{value}
1890 in the @code{\set} statement. So when a Boolean is being
1891 entered you need to code two hash signs, e.g., @code{##t}.
1893 @cindex properties operating in contexts
1894 @cindex setting properties within contexts
1896 Before we can set any of these properties we need to know
1897 in which context they operate. Sometimes this is obvious,
1898 but occasionally it can be tricky. If the wrong context
1899 is specified, no error message is produced, but the expected
1900 action will not take place. For example, the
1901 @code{instrumentName} clearly lives in the @code{Staff} context, since
1902 it is the staff that is to be named.
1903 In this example the first staff is labelled, but not the second,
1904 because we omitted the context name.
1906 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1908 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1909 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
1912 \new Staff \relative c' {
1913 \set instrumentName = #"Alto" % Wrong!
1919 Remember the default context name is @code{Voice}, so the second
1920 @code{\set} command set the property @code{instrumentName} in the
1921 @code{Voice} context to @qq{Alto}, but as LilyPond does not look
1922 for any such property in the @code{Voice} context, no
1923 further action took place. This is not an error, and no error
1924 message is logged in the log file.
1926 Similarly, if the property name is mis-spelt no error message is
1927 produced, and clearly the expected action cannot be performed. In
1928 fact, you can set any (fictitious) @q{property} using any name you
1929 like in any context that exists by using the @code{\set} command. But
1930 if the name is not known to LilyPond it will not cause any action to
1931 be taken. Some text editors with special support for LilyPond input
1932 files document property names with bullets when you hover them with
1933 the mouse, like JEdit with LilyPondTool, or highlight unknown property
1934 names differently, like ConTEXT. If you do not use an editor with
1935 such features, it is recommended to check the property name in the
1936 Internals Reference: see @rinternals{Tunable context properties}, or
1937 @rinternals{Contexts}.
1939 The @code{instrumentName} property will take effect only
1940 if it is set in the @code{Staff} context, but
1941 some properties can be set in more than one context.
1942 For example, the property @code{extraNatural} is by
1943 default set to ##t (true) for all staves.
1944 If it is set to ##f (false) in one particular @code{Staff}
1945 context it applies just to the accidentals on that staff.
1946 If it is set to false in the @code{Score} context
1947 it applies to all staves.
1949 So this turns off extra naturals in one staff:
1951 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1953 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1956 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1957 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
1964 and this turns them off in all staves:
1966 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1968 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1971 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1972 \set Score.extraNatural = ##f
1978 As another example, if @code{clefOctavation} is set in
1979 the @code{Score} context this immediately changes the value
1980 of the octavation in all current staves and sets a new default
1981 value which will be applied to all staves.
1983 The opposite command, @code{\unset}, effectively removes the
1984 property from the context, which causes most properties to
1985 revert to their default value. Usually @code{\unset} is not
1986 required as a new @code{\set} command will achieve what is
1989 The @code{\set} and @code{\unset} commands can appear anywhere
1990 in the input file and will take effect from the time they are
1991 encountered until the end of the score or until the property is
1992 @code{\set} or @code{\unset} again. Let's try changing the
1993 font size, which affects the size of the note heads (among
1994 other things) several times. The change is from the default
1995 value, not the most recently set value.
1997 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=1,fragment]
1999 % make note heads smaller
2002 % make note heads larger
2003 \set fontSize = #2.5
2005 % return to default size
2010 We have now seen how to set the values of several different types of
2011 property. Note that integers and numbers are always preceded by a
2012 hash sign, @code{#}, while a true or false value is specified by
2013 @code{##t} and @code{##f}, with two hash signs. A text property
2014 should be enclosed in double quotation signs, as above, although we
2015 shall see later that text can actually be specified in a much more
2016 general way by using the very powerful @code{\markup} command.
2018 @subsubheading Setting context properties with @code{\with}
2022 @cindex context properties, setting with \with
2024 The default value of context properties may be set at the time the
2025 context is created. Sometimes this is a clearer way of setting a
2026 property value if it is to remain fixed for the duration of
2027 the context. When a context is created with a @code{\new}
2028 command it may be followed immediately by a @code{\with @{ .. @}}
2029 block in which the default property values are set. For example,
2030 if we wish to suppress the printing of extra naturals for the
2031 duration of a staff we would write:
2034 \new Staff \with @{ extraNatural = ##f @}
2040 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2046 \new Staff \with { extraNatural = ##f }
2053 Or, if the property override is to be applied to all staves
2054 within the score, it may be appended to an explicit
2055 @code{\new Score} command, like this:
2057 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2059 \new Score \with { extraNatural = ##f } <<
2074 Properties set in this way may still be changed dynamically using
2075 @code{\set} and returned to the default value set in the
2076 @code{\with} block with @code{\unset}.
2078 @cindex fontSize, default and setting
2080 So if the @code{fontSize} property is set in a @code{\with} clause
2081 it sets the default value of the font size. If it is later changed
2082 with @code{\set}, this new default value may be restored with the
2083 @code{\unset fontSize} command.
2085 @subsubheading Setting context properties with @code{\context}
2087 @cindex context properties, setting with \context
2091 The values of context properties may be set in @emph{all} contexts
2092 of a particular type, such as all @code{Staff} contexts, with a single
2093 command. The context type is identified by using its
2094 type name, like @code{Staff}, prefixed by a back-slash: @code{\Staff}.
2095 The statement which sets the property value is the same as that in a
2096 @code{\with} block, introduced above. It is placed in a
2097 @code{\context} block within a @code{\layout} block. Each
2098 @code{\context} block will affect all contexts of the type specified
2099 throughout the @code{\score} or @code{\book} block in which the
2100 @code{\layout} block appears. Here is a example to show the format:
2102 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
2111 \Staff extraNatural = ##t
2118 Context properties set in this way may be overridden for particular
2119 instances of contexts by statements in a @code{\with} block, and by
2120 @code{\set} commands embedded in music statements.
2125 @ruser{Changing context default settings}.
2127 @c uncomment when backslash-node-name issue is resolved -pm
2128 @c @ruser{The set command}.
2130 Internals Reference:
2131 @rinternals{Contexts},
2132 @rinternals{Tunable context properties}.
2135 @node Adding and removing engravers
2136 @subsection Adding and removing engravers
2138 @cindex engravers, adding
2139 @cindex adding engravers
2140 @cindex engravers, removing
2141 @cindex removing engravers
2148 We have seen that contexts each contain several engravers, each
2149 of which is responsible for producing a particular part of the
2150 output, like bar lines, staves, note heads, stems, etc. If an
2151 engraver is removed from a context, it can no longer produce its
2152 output. This is a crude way of modifying the output, but it
2153 can sometimes be useful.
2155 @subsubheading Changing a single context
2157 To remove an engraver from a single context we use the
2158 @code{\with} command placed immediately after the context creation
2159 command, as in the previous section.
2161 As an illustration, let's repeat an example from the previous section
2162 with the staff lines removed. Remember that the staff lines are
2163 produced by the @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}.
2165 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2167 \remove Staff_symbol_engraver
2171 \set fontSize = #-4 % make note heads smaller
2173 \set fontSize = #2.5 % make note heads larger
2175 \unset fontSize % return to default size
2180 @cindex ambitus engraver
2182 Engravers can also be added to individual contexts.
2183 The command to do this is
2185 @code{\consists @var{Engraver_name}},
2188 placed inside a @code{\with} block. Some vocal scores have an ambitus
2189 placed at the beginning of a staff to indicate the range of notes in
2190 that staff -- see @rglos{ambitus}. The ambitus is produced by the
2191 @code{Ambitus_engraver}, which is not normally included in any
2192 context. If we add it to the @code{Voice} context, it calculates the
2193 range from that voice only:
2195 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2198 \consists Ambitus_engraver
2213 but if we add the ambitus engraver to the
2214 @code{Staff} context, it calculates the range from all
2215 the notes in all the voices on that staff:
2217 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2219 \consists Ambitus_engraver
2235 @subsubheading Changing all contexts of the same type
2240 The examples above show how to remove or add engravers to
2241 individual contexts. It is also possible to remove or add
2242 engravers to every context of a specific type by placing the
2243 commands in the appropriate context in a @code{\layout}
2244 block. For example, if we wanted to show an ambitus for every
2245 staff in a four-staff score, we could write
2247 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2276 \consists Ambitus_engraver
2283 The values of context properties may also be set
2284 for all contexts of a particular type by including the
2285 @code{\set} command in a @code{\context} block in the
2290 Notation Reference: @ruser{Modifying context plug-ins},
2291 @ruser{Changing context default settings}.
2294 @node Extending the templates
2295 @section Extending the templates
2297 You've read the tutorial, you know how to write music, you
2298 understand the fundamental concepts. But how can you
2299 get the staves that you want? Well, you can find lots of
2300 templates (see @ref{Templates}) which may give you a start.
2301 But what if you want something that isn't covered there? Read on.
2304 * Soprano and cello::
2305 * Four-part SATB vocal score::
2306 * Building a score from scratch::
2307 * Saving typing with variables and functions::
2308 * Scores and parts::
2311 @node Soprano and cello
2312 @subsection Soprano and cello
2314 @cindex template, modifying
2315 @cindex modifying templates
2317 Start off with the template that seems closest to what you want to end
2318 up with. Let's say that you want to write something for soprano and
2319 cello. In this case, we would start with the @q{Notes and lyrics} template (for the
2323 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2324 melody = \relative c' @{
2331 text = \lyricmode @{
2337 \new Voice = "one" @{
2341 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text
2348 Now we want to add a cello part. Let's look at the @q{Notes only} example:
2351 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2352 melody = \relative c' @{
2366 We don't need two @code{\version} commands. We'll need the
2367 @code{melody} section. We don't want two @code{\score} sections
2368 -- if we had two @code{\score}s, we'd get the two parts separately.
2369 We want them together, as a duet. Within the @code{\score}
2370 section, we don't need two @code{\layout} or @code{\midi}.
2372 If we simply cut and paste the @code{melody} section, we would
2373 end up with two @code{melody} definitions. This would not generate
2374 an error, but the second one would be used for both melodies.
2375 So let's rename them to make them distinct. We'll call the
2376 section for the soprano @code{sopranoMusic} and the section for
2377 the cello @code{celloMusic}. While we're doing this, let's rename
2378 @code{text} to be @code{sopranoLyrics}. Remember to rename both
2379 instances of all these names -- both the initial definition (the
2380 @code{melody = \relative c' @{ } part) and the name's use (in the
2381 @code{\score} section).
2383 While we're doing this, let's change the cello part's staff --
2384 celli normally use bass clef. We'll also give the cello some
2388 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2389 sopranoMusic = \relative c' @{
2396 sopranoLyrics = \lyricmode @{
2400 celloMusic = \relative c @{
2409 \new Voice = "one" @{
2413 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2420 This is looking promising, but the cello part won't appear in the
2421 score -- we haven't used it in the @code{\score} section. If we
2422 want the cello part to appear under the soprano part, we need to add
2425 \new Staff \celloMusic
2429 underneath the soprano stuff. We also need to add @code{<<} and
2430 @code{>>} around the music -- that tells LilyPond that there's
2431 more than one thing (in this case, two @code{Staves}) happening
2432 at once. The @code{\score} looks like this now:
2434 @c Indentation in this example is deliberately poor
2439 \new Voice = "one" @{
2443 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2454 This looks a bit messy; the indentation is messed up now. That is
2455 easily fixed. Here's the complete soprano and cello template.
2457 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2458 sopranoMusic = \relative c' {
2465 sopranoLyrics = \lyricmode {
2469 celloMusic = \relative c {
2479 \new Voice = "one" {
2483 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2495 The starting templates can be found in the @q{Templates} appendix,
2496 see @ref{Single staff}.
2499 @node Four-part SATB vocal score
2500 @subsection Four-part SATB vocal score
2502 @cindex template, SATB
2503 @cindex SATB template
2505 Most vocal scores of music written for four-part mixed choir
2506 with orchestral accompaniment such as Mendelssohn's Elijah or
2507 Handel's Messiah have the choral music and words on four
2508 staves, one for each of SATB, with a piano reduction of the
2509 orchestral accompaniment underneath. Here's an example
2510 from Handel's Messiah:
2512 @c The following should appear as music without code
2513 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2514 global = { \key d \major \time 4/4 }
2515 sopranoMusic = \relative c'' {
2517 r4 d2 a4 | d4. d8 a2 | cis4 d cis2 |
2519 sopranoWords = \lyricmode {
2520 Wor -- thy is the lamb that was slain
2522 altoMusic = \relative a' {
2524 r4 a2 a4 | fis4. fis8 a2 | g4 fis e2 |
2526 altoWords = \sopranoWords
2527 tenorMusic = \relative c' {
2529 r4 fis2 e4 | d4. d8 d2 | e4 a, cis2 |
2531 tenorWords = \sopranoWords
2532 bassMusic = \relative c' {
2534 r4 d2 cis4 | b4. b8 fis2 | e4 d a'2 |
2536 bassWords = \sopranoWords
2537 upper = \relative a' {
2540 r4 <a d fis>2 <a e' a>4
2541 <d fis d'>4. <d fis d'>8 <a d a'>2
2542 <g cis g'>4 <a d fis> <a cis e>2
2544 lower = \relative c, {
2547 <d d'>4 <d d'>2 <cis cis'>4
2548 <b b'>4. <b' b'>8 <fis fis'>2
2549 <e e'>4 <d d'> <a' a'>2
2553 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff in parallel
2555 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2556 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2557 \new Voice = "sopranos" {
2562 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" {
2565 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2566 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2567 \new Voice = "altos" {
2572 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" { \altoWords }
2573 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2574 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2575 \new Voice = "tenors" {
2580 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" { \tenorWords }
2581 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2582 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2583 \new Voice = "basses" {
2588 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" {
2593 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano"
2594 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2595 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2601 None of the templates provides this layout exactly. The nearest is
2602 @q{SATB vocal score and automatic piano reduction} -- see @ref{Vocal
2603 ensembles} -- but we need to change the layout and add a piano
2604 accompaniment which is not derived automatically from the vocal parts.
2605 The variables holding the music and words for the vocal parts are
2606 fine, but we shall need to add variables for the piano reduction.
2608 The order in which the contexts appear in the ChoirStaff of the
2609 template do not correspond with the order in the vocal score shown
2610 above. We need to rearrange them so there are four staves with the
2611 words written directly underneath the notes for each part. All the
2612 voices should be @code{\voiceOne}, which is the default, so the
2613 @code{\voiceXXX} commands should be removed. We also need to specify
2614 the tenor clef for the tenors. The way in which lyrics are specified
2615 in the template has not yet been encountered so we need to use the
2616 method with which we are familiar. We should also add the names of
2619 Doing this gives for our ChoirStaff:
2623 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2624 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2625 \new Voice = "sopranos" @{
2630 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" @{
2633 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2634 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2635 \new Voice = "altos" @{
2640 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" @{
2643 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2644 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2645 \new Voice = "tenors" @{
2650 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" @{
2653 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2654 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2655 \new Voice = "basses" @{
2660 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" @{
2666 Next we must work out the piano part. This is
2667 easy - we just pull out the piano part from the
2668 @q{Solo piano} template:
2672 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano "
2673 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2674 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2678 and add the variable definitions for @code{upper}
2681 The ChoirStaff and PianoStaff must be combined
2682 using angle brackets as we want them to be
2683 stacked one above the other:
2686 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff one above the other
2688 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2689 \new Voice = "sopranos" @{
2694 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" @{
2697 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2698 \new Voice = "altos" @{
2703 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" @{
2706 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2707 \clef "G_8" % tenor clef
2708 \new Voice = "tenors" @{
2713 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" @{
2716 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2718 \new Voice = "basses" @{
2723 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" @{
2729 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano"
2730 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2731 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2736 Combining all these together and adding the music
2737 for the three bars of the example above gives:
2739 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2744 sopranoMusic = \relative c'' {
2746 r4 d2 a4 | d4. d8 a2 | cis4 d cis2
2748 sopranoWords = \lyricmode {
2749 Wor -- thy is the lamb that was slain
2751 altoMusic = \relative a' {
2753 r4 a2 a4 | fis4. fis8 a2 | g4 fis fis2 |
2755 altoWords = \sopranoWords
2756 tenorMusic = \relative c' {
2758 r4 fis2 e4 | d4. d8 d2 | e4 a, cis2 |
2760 tenorWords = \sopranoWords
2761 bassMusic = \relative c' {
2763 r4 d2 cis4 | b4. b8 fis2 | e4 d a'2 |
2765 bassWords = \sopranoWords
2766 upper = \relative a' {
2769 r4 <a d fis>2 <a e' a>4
2770 <d fis d'>4. <d fis d'>8 <a d a'>2
2771 <g cis g'>4 <a d fis> <a cis e>2
2773 lower = \relative c, {
2776 <d d'>4 <d d'>2 <cis cis'>4
2777 <b b'>4. <b' b'>8 <fis fis'>2
2778 <e e'>4 <d d'> <a' a'>2
2782 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff in parallel
2784 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2785 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2786 \new Voice = "sopranos" {
2791 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" {
2794 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2795 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2796 \new Voice = "altos" {
2801 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" {
2804 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2805 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2806 \new Voice = "tenors" {
2811 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" {
2814 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2815 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2816 \new Voice = "basses" {
2821 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" {
2827 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano "
2828 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2829 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2836 @node Building a score from scratch
2837 @subsection Building a score from scratch
2839 @cindex template, writing your own
2840 @cindex example of writing a score
2841 @cindex writing a score, example
2842 @cindex score, example of writing
2844 After gaining some facility with writing LilyPond code, you
2845 may find that it is easier to build a score from scratch
2846 rather than modifying one of the templates. You can also
2847 develop your own style this way to suit the sort of music you
2848 like. Let's see how to put together the score for an organ
2849 prelude as an example.
2851 We begin with a header section. Here go the title, name
2852 of composer, etc, then come any variable definitions, and
2853 finally the score block. Let's start with these in outline
2854 and fill in the details later.
2856 We'll use the first two bars of Bach's prelude
2857 based on @emph{Jesu, meine Freude} which is written for two
2858 manuals and pedal organ. You can see these two bars of music
2859 at the bottom of this section. The top manual part has two voices,
2860 the lower and pedal organ one each. So we need four
2861 music definitions and one to define the time signature
2865 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2867 title = "Jesu, meine Freude"
2868 composer = "J S Bach"
2874 ManualOneVoiceOneMusic = @{ s1 @}
2875 ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic = @{ s1 @}
2876 ManualTwoMusic = @{ s1 @}
2877 PedalOrganMusic = @{ s1 @}
2883 For now we've just used a spacer note, @code{s1},
2884 instead of the real music. We'll add that later.
2886 Next let's see what should go in the score block.
2887 We simply mirror the staff structure we want.
2888 Organ music is usually written on three staves,
2889 one for each manual and one for the pedals. The
2890 manual staves should be bracketed together, so we
2891 need to use a PianoStaff for them. The first
2892 manual part needs two voices and the second manual
2897 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2899 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2902 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2904 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2905 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2909 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2910 >> % end PianoStaff context
2913 Next we need to add a staff for the pedal organ.
2914 This goes underneath the PianoStaff, but it must
2915 be simultaneous with it, so we need angle brackets
2916 around the two. Missing these out would generate
2917 an error in the log file. It's a common mistake
2918 which you'll make sooner or later! Try copying
2919 the final example at the end of this section,
2920 remove these angle brackets, and compile it to
2921 see what errors it generates.
2924 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2926 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2928 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2931 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2933 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2934 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2938 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2939 >> % end PianoStaff context
2940 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2948 It is not necessary to use the simultaneous construct
2949 @code{<< .. >>} for the manual two staff and the pedal organ staff,
2950 since they contain only one music expression, but it does no harm,
2951 and always using angle brackets after @code{\new Staff} is a good
2952 habit to cultivate in case there are multiple voices. The opposite
2953 is true for Voices: these should habitually be followed by braces
2954 @code{@{ .. @}} in case your music is coded in several variables
2955 which need to run consecutively.
2957 Let's add this structure to the score block, and adjust the indenting.
2958 We also add the appropriate clefs, ensure stems, ties and slurs in
2959 each voice on the upper staff point to the right direction with
2960 @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceTwo}, and enter the time signature
2961 and key to each staff using our predefined variable, @code{\TimeKey}.
2965 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2967 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2968 \TimeKey % set time signature and key
2972 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2976 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2978 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2979 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2985 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2986 >> % end PianoStaff context
2987 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2993 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff
2995 @} % end Score context
2998 That completes the structure. Any three-staff organ music
2999 will have a similar structure, although the number of voices
3000 may vary. All that remains now
3001 is to add the music, and combine all the parts together.
3003 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
3005 title = "Jesu, meine Freude"
3006 composer = "J S Bach"
3012 ManualOneVoiceOneMusic = \relative g' {
3016 ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic = \relative c' {
3017 ees16 d ees8~ ees16 f ees d c8 d~ d c~
3018 c c4 b8 c8. g16 c b c d
3020 ManualTwoMusic = \relative c' {
3021 c16 b c8~ c16 b c g a8 g~ g16 g aes ees
3022 f ees f d g aes g f ees d e8~ ees16 f ees d
3024 PedalOrganMusic = \relative c {
3025 r8 c16 d ees d ees8~ ees16 a, b g c b c8
3026 r16 g ees f g f g8 c,2
3030 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
3032 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
3033 \TimeKey % set time signature and key
3037 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
3041 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
3043 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
3044 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
3050 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
3051 >> % end PianoStaff context
3052 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
3058 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff context
3060 } % end Score context
3064 @node Saving typing with variables and functions
3065 @subsection Saving typing with variables and functions
3070 By this point, you've seen this kind of thing:
3072 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3073 hornNotes = \relative c'' { c4 b dis c }
3081 You may even realize that this could be useful in minimalist music:
3083 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3084 fragmentA = \relative c'' { a4 a8. b16 }
3085 fragmentB = \relative c'' { a8. gis16 ees4 }
3086 violin = \new Staff {
3099 However, you can also use these variables (also known as
3100 macros, or user-defined commands) for tweaks:
3102 @c TODO Avoid padtext - not needed with skylining
3103 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3104 dolce = \markup { \italic \bold dolce }
3105 padText = { \once \override TextScript #'padding = #5.0 }
3106 fthenp=_\markup { \dynamic f \italic \small { 2nd } \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p }
3107 violin = \relative c'' {
3109 c4._\dolce b8 a8 g a b
3111 c4.^"hi there!" d8 e' f g d
3112 c,4.\fthenp b8 c4 c-.
3119 \layout { ragged-right=##t }
3123 These variables are obviously useful for saving
3124 typing. But they're worth considering even if you
3125 only use them once -- they reduce complexity. Let's
3126 look at the previous example without any
3127 variables. It's a lot harder to read, especially
3131 violin = \relative c'' @{
3133 c4._\markup @{ \italic \bold dolce @} b8 a8 g a b
3134 \once \override TextScript #'padding = #5.0
3135 c4.^"hi there!" d8 e' f g d
3136 c,4.\markup @{ \dynamic f \italic \small @{ 2nd @} \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p @}
3142 @c TODO Replace the following with a better example -td
3143 @c Skylining handles this correctly without padText
3145 So far we've seen static substitution -- when LilyPond
3146 sees @code{\padText}, it replaces it with the stuff that
3147 we've defined it to be (ie the stuff to the right of
3150 LilyPond can handle non-static substitution, too (you
3151 can think of these as functions).
3153 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3155 #(define-music-function (parser location padding) (number?)
3157 \once \override TextScript #'padding = #$padding
3161 c4^"piu mosso" b a b
3163 c4^"piu mosso" d e f
3165 c4^"piu mosso" fis a g
3169 Using variables is also a good way to reduce work if the
3170 LilyPond input syntax changes (see
3171 @rprogram{Updating files with convert-ly}). If
3172 you have a single definition (such as @code{\dolce}) for all your
3173 input files (see @ref{Style sheets}), then if the syntax changes, you
3174 only need to update your single @code{\dolce} definition,
3175 instead of making changes throughout every @code{.ly} file.
3178 @node Scores and parts
3179 @subsection Scores and parts
3181 In orchestral music, all notes are printed twice. Once in a part for
3182 the musicians, and once in a full score for the conductor. Variables can
3183 be used to avoid double work. The music is entered once, and stored in
3184 a variable. The contents of that variable is then used to generate
3185 both the part and the full score.
3187 It is convenient to define the notes in a special file. For example,
3188 suppose that the file @file{horn-music.ly} contains the following part
3189 of a horn/@/bassoon duo
3192 hornNotes = \relative c @{
3199 Then, an individual part is made by putting the following in a file
3202 \include "horn-music.ly"
3204 instrument = "Horn in F"
3208 \transpose f c' \hornNotes
3215 \include "horn-music.ly"
3219 substitutes the contents of @file{horn-music.ly} at this position in
3220 the file, so @code{hornNotes} is defined afterwards. The command
3221 @code{\transpose f@tie{}c'} indicates that the argument, being
3222 @code{\hornNotes}, should be transposed by a fifth upwards. Sounding
3223 @code{f} is denoted by notated @code{c'}, which corresponds with the
3224 tuning of a normal French Horn in@tie{}F. The transposition can be seen
3225 in the following output
3227 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3228 \transpose f c' \relative c {
3234 In ensemble pieces, one of the voices often does not play for many
3235 measures. This is denoted by a special rest, the multi-measure
3236 rest. It is entered with a capital @code{R} followed by a duration
3237 (@code{1}@tie{}for a whole note, @code{2}@tie{}for a half note,
3238 etc.). By multiplying the
3239 duration, longer rests can be constructed. For example, this rest
3240 takes 3@tie{}measures in 2/4 time
3246 When printing the part, multi-rests
3247 must be condensed. This is done by setting a run-time variable
3250 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
3254 This command sets the property @code{skipBars} in the
3255 @code{Score} context to true (@code{##t}). Prepending the rest and
3256 this option to the music above, leads to the following result
3258 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3259 \transpose f c' \relative c {
3261 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
3268 The score is made by combining all of the music together. Assuming
3269 that the other voice is in @code{bassoonNotes} in the file
3270 @file{bassoon-music.ly}, a score is made with
3273 \include "bassoon-music.ly"
3274 \include "horn-music.ly"
3277 \new Staff \hornNotes
3278 \new Staff \bassoonNotes
3285 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3294 r4 d,8 f | gis4 c | b bes |
3295 a8 e f4 | g d | gis f |