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13 @node Fundamental concepts
14 @chapter Fundamental concepts
16 You've seen in the Tutorial how to produce beautifully printed
17 music from a simple text file. This section introduces the
18 concepts and techniques required to produce equally beautiful
19 but more complex scores.
22 * How LilyPond input files work::
23 * Voices contain music::
24 * Contexts and engravers::
25 * Extending the templates::
29 @node How LilyPond input files work
30 @section How LilyPond input files work
32 The LilyPond input format is quite free-form, giving experienced
33 users a lot of flexibility to structure their files however they
34 wish. But this flexibility can make things confusing for new
35 users. This section will explain some of this structure, but may
36 gloss over some details in favor of simplicity. For a complete
37 description of the input format, see @ruser{File structure}.
40 * Introduction to the LilyPond file structure::
41 * Score is a (single) compound musical expression::
42 * Nesting music expressions::
43 * On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties::
46 @node Introduction to the LilyPond file structure
47 @subsection Introduction to the LilyPond file structure
50 @cindex file structure
52 A basic example of a LilyPond input file is
55 \version @w{"@version{}"}
60 @var{ @dots{} compound music expression @dots{} } % all the music goes here!
67 There are many variations of this basic pattern, but this
68 example serves as a useful starting place.
77 Up to this point none of the examples you have seen have used a
78 @code{\score@{@}} command. This is because LilyPond automatically
79 adds the extra commands which are needed when you give it simple
80 input. LilyPond treats input like this:
89 as shorthand for this:
106 In other words, if the input contains a single music expression,
107 LilyPond will interpret the file as though the music expression
108 was wrapped up inside the commands shown above.
110 @cindex implicit contexts
111 @cindex contexts, implicit
113 @strong{A word of warning!} Many of the examples in the LilyPond
114 documentation will omit the @code{\new Staff} and @code{\new Voice}
115 commands, leaving them to be created implicitly. For simple
116 examples this works well, but for more complex examples, especially
117 when additional commands are used, the implicit creation of contexts
118 can give surprising results, maybe creating extra unwanted staves.
119 The way to create contexts explicitly is explained in
120 @ref{Contexts and engravers}.
122 @warning{When entering more than a few lines of music it is
123 advisable to always create staves and voices explicitly.}
125 For now, though, let us return to the first example and examine the
126 @code{\score} command, leaving the others to default.
128 A @code{\score} block must always contain exactly one music
129 expression. Remember that a music expression could be anything
130 from a single note to a huge compound expression like
135 @var{ @dots{} insert the whole score of a Wagner opera in here @dots{} }
141 Since everything is inside @code{@{ @dots{} @}}, it counts
142 as one music expression.
144 As we saw previously, the @code{\score} block can contain other
167 Note that these three commands -- @code{\header}, @code{\layout} and
168 @code{\midi} -- are special: unlike many other commands which begin
169 with a backward slash (@code{\}) they are @emph{not} music expressions
170 and are not part of any music expression. So they may be placed
171 inside a @code{\score} block or outside it. In fact, these commands
172 are commonly placed outside the @code{\score} block -- for example,
173 @code{\header} is often placed above the @code{\score} command, as the
174 example at the beginning of this section shows.
176 Two more commands you have not previously seen are
177 @code{\layout @{ @}} and @code{\midi @{@}}. If these appear as
178 shown they will cause LilyPond to produce a printed output and a
179 MIDI output respectively. They are described fully in the
180 Notation Reference -- @ruser{Score layout}, and
181 @ruser{Creating MIDI files}.
183 @cindex scores, multiple
184 @cindex book block, implicit
185 @cindex implicit book block
189 You may code multiple @code{\score} blocks. Each will be
190 treated as a separate score, but they will be all combined into
191 a single output file. A @code{\book} command is not necessary
192 -- one will be implicitly created. However, if you would like
193 separate output files from one @file{.ly} file then the
194 @code{\book} command should be used to separate the different
195 sections: each @code{\book} block will produce a
196 separate output file.
200 Every @code{\book} block creates a separate output file (e.g., a
201 PDF file). If you haven't explicitly added one, LilyPond wraps
202 your entire input code in a @code{\book} block implicitly.
204 Every @code{\score} block is a separate chunk of music within a
207 @cindex layout block, effect of location
209 Every @code{\layout} block affects the @code{\score} or
210 @code{\book} block in which it appears -- i.e., a @code{\layout}
211 block inside a @code{\score} block affects only that @code{\score}
212 block, but a @code{\layout} block outside of a @code{\score} block
213 (and thus in a @code{\book} block, either explicitly or
214 implicitly) will affect every @code{\score} in that @code{\book}.
216 For details see @ruser{Multiple scores in a book}.
220 Another great shorthand is the ability to define variables, as
221 shown in @ref{Organizing pieces with variables}. All the
225 melody = \relative c' @{
234 When LilyPond looks at this file, it takes the value of
235 @code{melody} (everything after the equals sign) and inserts it
236 whenever it sees @code{\melody}. There's nothing special about
237 the name -- it could be @code{melody}, @code{global},
238 @code{keyTime}, @code{pianorighthand}, or something else.
239 Remember that you can use almost any name you like as long as it
240 contains just alphabetic characters and is distinct from LilyPond
241 command names. For more details, see @ref{Saving typing with
242 variables and functions}. The exact limitations on variable names
243 are detailed in @ruser{File structure}.
247 For a complete definition of the input format, see
248 @ruser{File structure}.
251 @node Score is a (single) compound musical expression
252 @subsection Score is a (single) compound musical expression
257 @cindex contents of a score block
258 @cindex score block, contents of
259 @cindex compound music expression
260 @cindex music expression, compound
262 We saw the general organization of LilyPond input files in the
263 previous section, @ref{Introduction to the LilyPond file structure}.
264 But we seemed to skip over the most important part: how do we figure
265 out what to write after @code{\score}?
267 We didn't skip over it at all. The big mystery is simply that
268 there @emph{is} no mystery. This line explains it all:
271 @emph{A @code{\score} block must contain exactly one music expression.}
275 To understand what is meant by a
276 music expression, you may find it useful to review the tutorial,
277 @ref{Music expressions explained}. In that section, we saw how to
278 build big music expressions from small pieces -- we started from
279 notes, then chords, etc. Now we're going to start from a big
280 music expression and work our way down. For simplicity, we'll use
281 just a singer and piano in our example. We don't need a
282 @code{StaffGroup} for this ensemble, which simply groups a number
283 of staves together with a bracket at the left, but we do need
284 staves for a singer and a piano, though.
289 \new Staff = "singer" <<
291 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
298 Here we have given names to the staves -- @qq{singer} and
299 @qq{piano}. This is not essential here, but it is a useful habit
300 to cultivate so that you can see at a glance what each stave is
303 Remember that we use @code{<< @dots{} >>} instead of @code{@{ @dots{} @}} to
304 show simultaneous music. This causes the vocal part and piano part
305 to appear one above the other in the score. The @code{<< @dots{} >>}
306 construct would not be necessary for the Singer staff in the example
307 above if it were going to contain only one sequential music
308 expression, but @code{<< @dots{} >>} rather than braces is necessary if
309 the music in the Staff is to contain two or more simultaneous
310 expressions, e.g. two simultaneous Voices, or a Voice with lyrics.
311 We're going to have a voice with lyrics, so angle brackets are
312 required. We'll add some real music later; for now let's just put
313 in some dummy notes and lyrics. If you've forgotten how to add lyrics
314 you may wish to review @code{\addlyrics} in @ref{Setting simple songs}.
316 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
319 \new Staff = "singer" <<
320 \new Voice = "vocal" { c'1 }
323 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
324 \new Staff = "upper" { c'1 }
325 \new Staff = "lower" { c'1 }
332 Now we have a lot more details. We have the singer's staff: it
333 contains a @code{Voice} (in LilyPond, this term refers to a set of
334 notes, not necessarily vocal notes -- for example, a violin
335 generally plays one voice) and some lyrics. We also have a piano
336 staff: it contains an upper staff (right hand) and a lower staff
337 (left hand), although the lower staff has yet to be given a bass
340 At this stage, we could start filling in notes. Inside the curly
341 braces next to @code{\new Voice = "vocal"}, we could start writing
349 But if we did that, the @code{\score} section would get pretty
350 long, and it would be harder to understand what was happening. So
351 let's use variables instead. These were introduced at the end
352 of the previous section, remember? To ensure the contents of the
353 @code{text} variable are interpreted as lyrics we preface them with
354 @code{\lyricmode}. Like @code{\addlyrics}, this switches the input
355 mode to lyrics. Without that, LilyPond would try to interpret the
356 contents as notes, which would generate errors. (Several other
357 input modes are available, see @ruser{Input modes}.)
359 So, adding a few notes and a bass clef for the left hand, we now
360 have a piece of real music:
362 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
363 melody = \relative c'' { r4 d8\noBeam g, c4 r }
364 text = \lyricmode { And God said, }
365 upper = \relative c'' { <g d g,>2~ <g d g,> }
366 lower = \relative c { b2 e }
370 \new Staff = "singer" <<
371 \new Voice = "vocal" { \melody }
374 \new PianoStaff = "piano" <<
375 \new Staff = "upper" { \upper }
376 \new Staff = "lower" {
386 When writing (or reading) a @code{\score} section, just take it
387 slowly and carefully. Start with the outer level, then work on
388 each smaller level. It also really helps to be strict with
389 indentation -- make sure that each item on the same level starts
390 on the same horizontal position in your text editor.
394 Notation Reference: @ruser{Structure of a score}.
397 @node Nesting music expressions
398 @subsection Nesting music expressions
400 @cindex staves, temporary
401 @cindex temporary staves
404 It is not essential to declare all staves at the beginning; they may
405 be introduced temporarily at any point. This is particularly useful
406 for creating ossia sections -- see @rglos{ossia}. Here is a simple
407 example showing how to introduce a new staff temporarily for the
408 duration of three notes:
410 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
427 Note that the size of the clef is the same as a clef printed
428 following a clef change -- slightly smaller than the clef
429 at the beginning of the line. This is usual for clefs printed
430 in the middle of a line.
432 @cindex staff, positioning
434 The ossia section may be placed above the staff
437 @lilypond[verbatim,quote,ragged-right]
438 \new Staff = "main" {
445 alignAboveContext = #"main"
453 This example uses @code{\with}, which will be explained more
454 fully later. It is a means of modifying the default behavior
455 of a single Staff. Here it says that the new staff should be
456 placed above the staff called @qq{main} instead of the default
457 position which is below.
461 Ossia are often written without clef and without
462 time signature and are usually in a smaller font.
463 These require further commands which
464 have not yet been introduced. See @ref{Size of objects},
465 and @ruser{Ossia staves}.
468 @node On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties
469 @subsection On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties
471 @cindex brackets, nesting
472 @cindex bracket types
473 @cindex brackets, enclosing vs. marking
475 You have already met a number of different types of bracket and
476 bracket-like constructs in writing the input file to LilyPond.
477 These obey different rules which can be confusing at first.
478 Let's first review the different types of brackets and bracket-like
481 @c attempt to force this onto a new page
483 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .7
484 @headitem Bracket Type
486 @item @code{@{ @dots{} @}}
487 @tab Encloses a sequential segment of music
488 @item @code{< @dots{} >}
489 @tab Encloses the notes of a chord
490 @item @code{<< @dots{} >>}
491 @tab Encloses simultaneous music expressions
492 @item @code{( @dots{} )}
493 @tab Marks the start and end of a slur
494 @item @code{\( @dots{} \)}
495 @tab Marks the start and end of a phrasing slur
496 @item @code{[ @dots{} ]}
497 @tab Marks the start and end of a manual beam
500 To these we should add other constructs which generate lines
501 between or across notes: ties (marked by a tilde, @code{~}),
502 tuplets written as @code{\tuplet x/y @{ @dots{} @}}, and grace notes
503 written as @code{\grace @{ @dots{} @}}.
505 Outside LilyPond, the conventional use of brackets requires the
506 different types to be properly nested, like this, @code{<< [ @{ ( @dots{} )
507 @} ] >>}, with the closing brackets being encountered in exactly the
508 opposite order to the opening brackets. This @strong{is} a
509 requirement for the three types of bracket described by the word
510 @q{Encloses} in the table above -- they must nest properly. However,
511 the remaining bracket-like constructs, described with the word
512 @q{Marks} in the table above together with ties and tuplets, do
513 @strong{not} have to nest properly with any of the brackets or
514 bracket-like constructs. In fact, these are not brackets in
515 the sense that they enclose something -- they are simply markers to
516 indicate where something starts and ends.
518 So, for example, a phrasing slur can start before a manually
519 inserted beam and end before the end of the beam -- not very
520 musical, perhaps, but possible:
522 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=2]
523 g8\( a b[ c b\) a] g4
526 In general, different kinds of brackets, bracket-like constructs,
527 and those implied by tuplets, ties and grace notes, may be mixed
528 freely. This example shows a beam extending into a tuplet (line 1),
529 a slur extending into a tuplet (line 2), a beam and a slur
530 extending into a tuplet, a tie crossing two tuplets, and a
531 phrasing slur extending out of a tuplet (lines 3 and 4).
533 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=1]
534 r16[ g \tuplet 3/2 { r16 e'8] }
535 g,16( a \tuplet 3/2 { b16 d) e }
536 g,8[( a \tuplet 3/2 { b8 d) e~] } |
537 \tuplet 5/4 { e32\( a, b d e } a4.\)
541 @node Voices contain music
542 @section Voices contain music
544 Singers need voices to sing, and so does LilyPond.
545 The actual music for all instruments in a score
546 is contained in Voices -- the most fundamental
547 of all LilyPond's concepts.
550 * I'm hearing Voices::
551 * Explicitly instantiating voices::
552 * Voices and vocals::
555 @node I'm hearing Voices
556 @subsection I'm hearing Voices
560 @cindex multiple voices
561 @cindex voices, multiple
562 @cindex Voice context
563 @cindex context, Voice
564 @cindex simultaneous music
565 @cindex music, simultaneous
566 @cindex concurrent music
567 @cindex music, concurrent
568 @cindex voices vs. chords
569 @cindex chords vs. voices
571 The lowest, most fundamental or innermost layers in a LilyPond
572 score are called @q{Voice contexts} or just @q{Voices} for short.
573 Voices are sometimes called @q{layers} in other notation
576 In fact, a Voice layer or context is the only one which can contain
577 music. If a Voice context is not explicitly declared one is created
578 automatically, as we saw at the beginning of this chapter. Some
579 instruments such as an Oboe can play only one note at a time. Music
580 written for such instruments requires just a single voice. Instruments
581 which can play more than one note at a time like the piano will often
582 require multiple voices to encode the different concurrent notes and
583 rhythms they are capable of playing.
585 A single voice can contain many notes in a chord, of course,
586 so when exactly are multiple voices needed? Look first at
587 this example of four chords:
589 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=1]
591 <d g>4 <d fis> <d a'> <d g>
594 This can be expressed using just the single angle bracket chord
595 symbols, @code{< @dots{} >}, and for this just a single voice is
596 needed. But suppose the F-sharp were actually an eighth-note
597 followed by an eighth-note G, a passing note on the way to the A?
598 Now we have two notes which start at the same time but have
599 different durations: the quarter-note D and the eighth-note
600 F-sharp. How are these to be coded? They cannot be written as
601 a chord because all the notes in a chord must have the same
602 duration. And they cannot be written as two sequential notes
603 as they need to start at the same time. This is when two
606 Let us see how this is done in LilyPond input syntax.
611 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a
612 staff is to enter each voice as a sequence (with @code{@{ @dots{} @}}),
613 and combine them simultaneously with angle brackets, @code{<< @dots{} >>}.
614 The fragments must also be separated with double backward slashes,
615 @code{\\}, to place them in separate voices. Without these, the
616 notes would be entered into a single voice, which would usually
617 cause errors. This technique is particularly suited to pieces of
618 music which are largely homophonic with occasional short sections
621 Here's how we split the chords above into two voices and add both
622 the passing note and a slur:
624 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=2]
626 % Voice "1" Voice "2"
627 << { g4 fis8( g) a4 g } \\ { d4 d d d } >>
630 Notice how the stems of the second voice now point down.
632 Here's another simple example:
634 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=2]
636 % Voice "1" Voice "2"
637 << { r4 g g4. a8 } \\ { d,2 d4 g } >> |
638 << { bes4 bes c bes } \\ { g4 g g8( a) g4 } >> |
639 << { a2. r4 } \\ { fis2. s4 } >> |
642 It is not necessary to use a separate @code{<< \\ >>} construct
643 for each bar. For music with few notes in each bar this layout
644 can help the legibility of the code, but if there are many
645 notes in each bar it may be better to split out each voice
646 separately, like this:
648 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=2]
664 @cindex voices, naming
665 @cindex voices crossing brackets
666 @cindex slurs crossing brackets
667 @cindex ties crossing brackets
669 This example has just two voices, but the same construct may be
670 used to encode three or more voices by adding more back-slash
673 The Voice contexts bear the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc.
674 The first contexts set the @emph{outer} voices, the highest
675 voice in context @code{"1"} and the lowest voice in context
676 @code{"2"}. The inner voices go in contexts @code{"3"} and
677 @code{"4"}. In each of these contexts, the vertical direction
678 of slurs, stems, ties, dynamics etc., is set appropriately.
680 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
681 \new Staff \relative c' {
684 % Voice "1" Voice "2" Voice "3"
685 << { g4 f e } \\ { r8 e4 d c8~ } >> |
686 << { d2 e } \\ { c8 b16 a b8 g~ 2 } \\ { s4 b c2 } >> |
690 These voices are all separate from the main voice that contains
691 the notes just outside the @code{<< @dots{} >>} construct. Let's call
692 this the @emph{simultaneous construct}. Slurs and ties may only
693 connect notes within the same voice, so slurs and ties cannot go
694 into or out of a simultaneous construct. Conversely,
695 parallel voices from separate simultaneous constructs on the same
696 staff are the same voice. Other voice-related properties also
697 carry across simultaneous constructs. Here is the same example,
698 with different colors and note heads for each voice. Note that
699 changes in one voice do not affect other voices, but they do
700 persist in the same voice later. Note also that tied notes may be
701 split across the same voices in two constructs, shown here in the
704 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
705 \new Staff \relative c' {
734 @funindex \voiceOneStyle
735 @funindex \voiceTwoStyle
736 @funindex \voiceThreeStyle
737 @funindex \voiceFourStyle
738 @funindex \voiceNeutralStyle
740 The commands @code{\voiceXXXStyle} are mainly intended for use in
741 educational documents such as this one. They modify the color
742 of the note head, the stem and the beams, and the style of the
743 note head, so that the voices may be easily distinguished.
744 Voice one is set to red diamonds, voice two to blue triangles,
745 voice three to green crossed circles, and voice four (not used
746 here) to magenta crosses; @code{\voiceNeutralStyle} (also not
747 used here) reverts the style back to the default.
748 We shall see later how commands like these may be created by the
750 See @ref{Visibility and color of objects} and
751 @ref{Using variables for layout adjustments}.
753 @cindex polyphony and relative note entry
754 @cindex relative note entry and polyphony
756 Polyphony does not change the relationship of notes within a
757 @code{\relative} block. Each note is still calculated relative to
758 the note immediately preceding it, or to the first note of the
759 preceding chord. So in
762 \relative c' @{ noteA << < noteB noteC > \\ noteD >> noteE @}
766 @code{noteB} is relative to @code{noteA} @*
767 @code{noteC} is relative to @code{noteB}, not @code{noteA}; @*
768 @code{noteD} is relative to @code{noteB}, not @code{noteA} or
770 @code{noteE} is relative to @code{noteD}, not @code{noteA}.
772 An alternative way, which may be clearer if the notes in the
773 voices are widely separated, is to place a @code{\relative}
774 command at the start of each voice:
777 \relative c' @{ noteA @dots{} @}
779 \relative c'' @{ < noteB noteC > @dots{} @}
781 \relative g' @{ noteD @dots{} @}
783 \relative c' @{ noteE @dots{} @}
786 Let us finally analyze the voices in a more complex piece of music.
787 Here are the notes from the first two bars of the second of Chopin's
788 Deux Nocturnes, Op 32. This example will be used at later stages in
789 this and the next chapter to illustrate several techniques for
790 producing notation, so please ignore for now anything in the
791 underlying code which looks mysterious and concentrate just on the
792 music and the voices -- the complications will all be explained in
795 @c The following should appear as music without code
796 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
797 \new Staff \relative c'' {
803 % Ignore these for now - they are explained in Ch 4
804 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0
806 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0.5
812 \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0
820 The direction of the stems is often used to indicate the continuity of
821 two simultaneous melodic lines. Here the stems of the highest notes
822 are all pointing up and the stems of the lower notes are all pointing
823 down. This is the first indication that more than one voice is
826 But the real need for multiple voices arises when notes
827 which start at the same time have different durations.
828 Look at the notes which start at beat three in the first
829 bar. The A-flat is a dotted quarter note, the F is a
830 quarter note and the D-flat is a half note. These
831 cannot be written as a chord as all the notes in a chord
832 must have the same duration. Neither can they be written
833 as sequential notes, as they must start at the same time.
834 This section of the bar requires three voices, and the
835 normal practice would be to write the whole bar as three
836 voices, as shown below, where we have used different note heads
837 and colors for the three voices. Again, the code behind this
838 example will be explained later, so ignore anything you do
841 @c The following should appear as music without code
842 @c The three voice styles should be defined in -init
843 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
844 \new Staff \relative c'' {
853 % Ignore these for now - they are explained in Ch 4
854 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0
856 \once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0.5
859 \\ % No Voice three (we want stems down)
862 \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = #0
871 Let us try to encode this music from scratch. As we
872 shall see, this encounters some difficulties. We begin as
873 we have learnt, using the @code{<< \\ >>} construct to
874 enter the music of the first bar in three voices:
876 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
877 \new Staff \relative c'' {
880 { c2 aes4. bes8 } \\ { <ees, c>2 des } \\ { aes'2 f4 fes }
887 @cindex voices and stem directions
888 @cindex stem directions and voices
891 The stem directions are automatically assigned with the
892 odd-numbered voices taking upward stems and the even-numbered
893 voices downward ones. The stems for voices 1 and 2 are right,
894 but the stems in voice 3 should go down in this particular piece
895 of music. We can correct this by skipping voice three
896 and placing the music in voice four. This is done by simply
897 adding another pair of @code{\\}.
899 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
900 \new Staff \relative c'' {
906 \\ % Omit Voice three
915 We see that this fixes the stem direction, but the horizontal
916 placement of notes is not what we want. LilyPond shifts the
917 inner notes when they or their stems would collide with outer
918 voices, but this is not appropriate for piano music. In other
919 situations, the shifts LilyPond applies might fail to clear
920 the collisions. LilyPond provides several ways to adjust the
921 horizontal placing of notes. We are not quite ready yet to see
922 how to correct this, so we shall leave this problem until a
923 later section --- see the @code{force-hshift} property in
924 @ref{Fixing overlapping notation}.
926 @warning{Lyrics, spanners (such as slurs, ties, hairpins etc.) cannot be
927 created @q{across} voices.}
931 Notation Reference: @ruser{Multiple voices}.
934 @node Explicitly instantiating voices
935 @subsection Explicitly instantiating voices
941 @funindex \voiceThree
948 @cindex voice contexts, creating
950 Voice contexts can also be created manually
951 inside a @code{<< >>} block to create polyphonic music, using
952 @code{\voiceOne} @dots{} @code{\voiceFour} to indicate the required
953 directions of stems, slurs, etc. In longer scores this method
954 is clearer, as it permits the voices to be separated and to be
955 given more descriptive names.
957 Specifically, the construct @code{<< \\ >>} which we used in
958 the previous section:
963 << @{ e4 f g a @} \\ @{ c,4 d e f @} >>
973 \new Voice = "1" @{ \voiceOne \relative c' @{ e4 f g a @} @}
974 \new Voice = "2" @{ \voiceTwo \relative c' @{ c4 d e f @} @}
978 Both of the above would produce
980 @c The following example should not display the code
981 @lilypond[ragged-right,quote]
983 \new Voice = "1" { \voiceOne \relative c' { e4 f g a } }
984 \new Voice = "2" { \voiceTwo \relative c' { c4 d e f } }
988 @cindex voices, reverting to single
989 @cindex reverting to a single voice
991 The @code{\voiceXXX} commands set the direction of stems, slurs,
992 ties, articulations, text annotations, augmentation dots of dotted
993 notes, and fingerings. @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceThree}
994 make these objects point upwards, while @code{\voiceTwo} and
995 @code{\voiceFour} make them point downwards. These commands also
996 generate a horizontal shift for each voice when this is required
997 to avoid clashes of note heads. The command @code{\oneVoice}
998 reverts the settings back to the normal values for a single voice.
1000 Let us see in some simple examples exactly what effect
1001 @code{\oneVoice}, @code{\voiceOne} and @code{voiceTwo} have on
1002 markup, ties, slurs, and dynamics:
1004 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1006 % Default behavior or behavior after \oneVoice
1007 c4 d8~ 8 e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1011 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1014 c4 d8~ 8 e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1016 c,4 d8~ 8 e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1020 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1023 c4 d8~ 8 e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1025 c,4 d8~ 8 e4( f | g4 a) b-> c |
1029 Now let's look at three different ways to notate the same passage of
1030 polyphonic music, each of which is advantageous in different
1031 circumstances, using the example from the previous section.
1033 An expression that appears directly inside a @code{<< >>} belongs to the
1034 main voice (but, note, @strong{not} in a @code{<< \\ >>} construct).
1035 This is useful when extra voices appear while the main voice is playing.
1036 Here is a more correct rendition of our example. The red diamond-shaped
1037 notes demonstrate that the main melody is now in a single voice context,
1038 permitting a phrasing slur to be drawn over them.
1040 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1041 \new Staff \relative c' {
1043 % This section is homophonic
1045 % Start simultaneous section of three voices
1047 % Continue the main voice in parallel
1048 { g4 f e | d2 e) | }
1049 % Initiate second voice
1051 % Set stems, etc., down
1053 r8 e4 d c8~ | 8 b16 a b8 g~ 2 |
1055 % Initiate third voice
1057 % Set stems, etc, up
1065 @cindex nesting music expressions
1066 @cindex nesting simultaneous constructs
1067 @cindex nesting voices
1068 @cindex voices, temporary
1069 @cindex voices, nesting
1071 More deeply nested polyphony constructs are possible, and if a
1072 voice appears only briefly this might be a more natural way to
1075 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1076 \new Staff \relative c' {
1079 { g4 f e | d2 e) | }
1084 { c8 b16 a b8 g~ 2 | }
1095 @cindex spacing notes
1097 This method of nesting new voices briefly is useful
1098 when only small sections of the music
1099 are polyphonic, but when the whole staff is largely polyphonic
1100 it can be clearer to use multiple voices throughout, using
1101 spacing notes to step over sections where the voice is silent,
1104 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right,verbatim]
1105 \new Staff \relative c' <<
1106 % Initiate first voice
1109 c16^( d e f g4 f e | d2 e) |
1111 % Initiate second voice
1113 % Set stems, etc, down
1115 s4 r8 e4 d c8~ | 8 b16 a b8 g~ 2 |
1117 % Initiate third voice
1119 % Set stems, etc, up
1126 @subsubheading Note columns
1129 @cindex note collisions
1130 @cindex collisions, notes
1131 @cindex shift commands
1138 @funindex \shiftOnnn
1141 Closely spaced notes in a chord, or notes occurring at the same
1142 time in different voices, are arranged in two, occasionally more,
1143 columns to prevent the note heads overlapping. These are called
1144 note columns. There are separate columns for each voice, and
1145 the currently specified voice-dependent shift is applied to the
1146 note column if there would otherwise be a collision. This can
1147 be seen in the example above. In bar 2 the C in voice two is
1148 shifted to the right relative to the D in voice one, and in the
1149 final chord the C in voice three is also shifted to the right
1150 relative to the other notes.
1152 The @code{\shiftOn}, @code{\shiftOnn}, @code{\shiftOnnn}, and
1153 @code{\shiftOff} commands specify the degree to which notes and
1154 chords of the voice should be shifted if a collision
1155 would otherwise occur. By default, the outer voices (normally
1156 voices one and two) have @code{\shiftOff} specified, while the
1157 inner voices (three and four) have @code{\shiftOn} specified.
1158 When a shift is applied, voices one and three are shifted to
1159 the right and voices two and four to the left.
1161 @code{\shiftOnn} and @code{\shiftOnnn} define further shift
1162 levels which may be specified temporarily to resolve collisions
1163 in complex situations -- see @ref{Real music example}.
1165 A note column can contain just one note (or chord) from a voice
1166 with stems up and one note (or chord) from a voice with stems
1167 down. If notes from two voices which have their stems in the
1168 same direction are placed at the same position and both voices
1169 have no shift or the same shift specified, the error message
1170 @qq{This voice needs a @code{@bs{}voiceXx} or @code{@bs{}shiftXx} setting}
1176 @ref{Moving objects}.
1179 @ruser{Multiple voices}.
1182 @node Voices and vocals
1183 @subsection Voices and vocals
1185 Vocal music presents a special difficulty: we need to combine two
1186 expressions -- notes and lyrics.
1188 @funindex \new Lyrics
1192 @cindex Lyrics context, creating
1193 @cindex lyrics, linking to voice
1195 You have already seen the @code{\addlyrics@{@}} command, which
1196 handles simple scores well. However, this technique is
1197 quite limited. For more complex music, you must introduce the
1198 lyrics in a @code{Lyrics} context using @code{\new Lyrics} and
1200 the lyrics to the notes with @code{\lyricsto@{@}}, using the
1201 name assigned to the Voice.
1203 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1205 \new Voice = "one" {
1209 c4 b8. a16 | g4. f8 | e4 d | c2 |
1212 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" {
1213 No more let | sins and | sor -- rows | grow. |
1218 Note that the lyrics must be linked to a @code{Voice} context,
1219 @emph{not} a @code{Staff} context. This is a case where it is
1220 necessary to create @code{Staff} and @code{Voice} contexts
1223 @cindex lyrics and beaming
1224 @cindex beaming and lyrics
1225 @funindex \autoBeamOff
1226 @funindex autoBeamOff
1228 The automatic beaming which LilyPond uses by default works well
1229 for instrumental music, but not so well for music with lyrics,
1230 where beaming is either not required at all or is used to indicate
1231 melismata in the lyrics. In the example above we use the command
1232 @code{\autoBeamOff} to turn off the automatic beaming.
1234 @funindex \new ChoirStaff
1235 @funindex ChoirStaff
1236 @funindex \lyricmode
1238 @cindex vocal score structure
1241 Let us reuse the earlier example from Judas Maccabæus to
1242 illustrate this more flexible technique. We first recast
1243 it to use variables so the music and lyrics can be separated
1244 from the staff structure. We also introduce a ChoirStaff
1245 bracket. The lyrics themselves must be introduced with
1246 @code{\lyricmode} to ensure they are interpreted as lyrics
1249 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1250 global = { \key f \major \time 6/8 \partial 8 }
1252 SopOneMusic = \relative c'' {
1253 c8 | c8([ bes)] a a([ g)] f | f'4. b, | c4.~ 4
1255 SopOneLyrics = \lyricmode {
1256 Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- dorn, __
1258 SopTwoMusic = \relative c' {
1259 r8 | r4. r4 c8 | a'8([ g)] f f([ e)] d | e8([ d)] c bes'
1261 SopTwoLyrics = \lyricmode {
1262 Let | flee -- cy flocks the | hills a -- dorn,
1268 \new Voice = "SopOne" {
1272 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "SopOne" {
1277 \new Voice = "SopTwo" {
1281 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "SopTwo" {
1289 This is the basic structure of all vocal scores. More staves may be
1290 added as required, more voices may be added to the staves, more verses
1291 may be added to the lyrics, and the variables containing the music can
1292 easily be placed in separate files should they become too long.
1294 @cindex hymn structure
1295 @cindex SATB structure
1296 @cindex vocal scores with multiple verses
1297 @cindex multiple vocal verses
1298 @cindex verses, multiple vocal
1300 Here is an example of the first line of a hymn with four
1301 verses, set for SATB. In this case the words for all four
1302 parts are the same. Note how we use variables to separate the
1303 music notation and words from the staff structure. See too
1304 how a variable, which we have chosen to call @q{keyTime}, is used
1305 to hold several commands for use within the two staves. In other
1306 examples this is often called @q{global}.
1308 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1309 keyTime = { \key c \major \time 4/4 \partial 4 }
1311 SopMusic = \relative c' { c4 | e4. e8 g4 g | a4 a g }
1312 AltoMusic = \relative c' { c4 | c4. c8 e4 e | f4 f e }
1313 TenorMusic = \relative c { e4 | g4. g8 c4. b8 | a8 b c d e4 }
1314 BassMusic = \relative c { c4 | c4. c8 c4 c | f8 g a b c4 }
1317 \lyricmode { E -- | ter -- nal fa -- ther, | strong to save, }
1319 \lyricmode { O | Christ, whose voice the | wa -- ters heard, }
1321 \lyricmode { O | Ho -- ly Spi -- rit, | who didst brood }
1323 \lyricmode { O | Tri -- ni -- ty of | love and pow'r }
1329 \new Voice = "Sop" { \voiceOne \keyTime \SopMusic }
1330 \new Voice = "Alto" { \voiceTwo \AltoMusic }
1331 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseOne }
1332 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseTwo }
1333 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseThree }
1334 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" { \VerseFour }
1338 \new Voice = "Tenor" { \voiceOne \keyTime \TenorMusic }
1339 \new Voice = "Bass" { \voiceTwo \BassMusic }
1347 Notation Reference: @ruser{Vocal music}.
1350 @node Contexts and engravers
1351 @section Contexts and engravers
1353 Contexts and engravers have been mentioned informally
1354 in earlier sections; we now must look at
1355 these concepts in more detail, as they are important
1356 in the fine-tuning of LilyPond output.
1360 * Contexts explained::
1361 * Creating contexts::
1362 * Engravers explained::
1363 * Modifying context properties::
1364 * Adding and removing engravers::
1367 @node Contexts explained
1368 @subsection Contexts explained
1370 @cindex contexts explained
1372 When music is printed, many notational elements which do not
1373 appear explicitly in the input file must be added to the
1374 output. For example, compare the input and output of the
1377 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,relative=2]
1378 cis4 cis2. | a4 a2. |
1381 The input is rather sparse, but in the output, bar lines,
1382 accidentals, clef, and time signature have been added. When
1383 LilyPond @emph{interprets} the input the musical information
1384 is parsed from left to right, similar to the way a performer
1385 reads the score. While reading the input, the program remembers
1386 where measure boundaries are, and which pitches require explicit
1387 accidentals. This information must be held on several levels.
1388 For example, an accidental affects only a single staff, while
1389 a bar line must be synchronized across the entire score.
1391 Within LilyPond, these rules and bits of information are grouped in
1392 @emph{Contexts}. We have already introduced the @code{Voice} context.
1393 Others are the @code{Staff} and @code{Score} contexts. Contexts are
1394 hierarchical to reflect the hierarchical nature of a musical score.
1395 For example: a @code{Staff} context can contain many @code{Voice}
1396 contexts, and a @code{Score} context can contain many @code{Staff}
1400 @sourceimage{context-example,5cm,,}
1403 Each context has the responsibility for enforcing some notation rules,
1404 creating some notation objects and maintaining the associated
1405 properties. For example, the @code{Voice} context may introduce an
1406 accidental and then the @code{Staff} context maintains the rule to
1407 show or suppress the accidental for the remainder of the measure.
1409 As another example, the synchronization of bar lines is, by default,
1410 handled in the @code{Score} context.
1411 However, in some music we may not want the bar lines to be
1412 synchronized -- consider a polymetric score in 4/4 and 3/4 time.
1413 In such cases, we must modify the default settings of the
1414 @code{Score} and @code{Staff} contexts.
1416 For very simple scores, contexts are created implicitly, and you need
1417 not be aware of them. For larger pieces, such as anything with more
1418 than one staff, they must be
1419 created explicitly to make sure that you get as many staves as you
1420 need, and that they are in the correct order. For typesetting pieces
1421 with specialized notation, it is usual to modify existing, or
1422 even to define totally new, contexts.
1424 In addition to the @code{Score,} @code{Staff} and
1425 @code{Voice} contexts there are contexts which fit between
1426 the score and staff levels to control staff groups, such as the
1427 @code{PianoStaff} and @code{ChoirStaff} contexts. There
1428 are also alternative staff and voice contexts, and contexts for
1429 lyrics, percussion, fret boards, figured bass, etc.
1431 The names of all context types are formed from one or more
1432 words, each word being capitalized and joined immediately to the
1433 preceding word with no hyphen or underscore, e.g.,
1434 @code{GregorianTranscriptionStaff}.
1438 Notation Reference: @ruser{Contexts explained}.
1441 @node Creating contexts
1442 @subsection Creating contexts
1446 @cindex new contexts
1447 @cindex creating contexts
1448 @cindex contexts, creating
1450 In an input file a score block, introduced with a @code{\score}
1451 command, contains a single music expression and an associated
1452 output definition (either a @code{\layout} or a @code{\midi} block).
1453 The @code{Score} context is usually left to be created automatically
1454 when the interpretation of that music expression starts.
1456 For scores with only one voice and one staff, the @code{Voice} and
1457 @code{Staff} contexts may also be left to be created automatically,
1458 but for more complex scores it is necessary to create them by hand.
1459 The simplest command that does this is @code{\new}. It is prepended
1460 to a music expression, for example
1463 \new @var{type} @var{music-expression}
1467 where @var{type} is a context name (like @code{Staff} or
1468 @code{Voice}). This command creates a new context, and starts
1469 interpreting the @var{music-expression} within that context.
1471 @warning{@bs{}@code{new Score} should not be used as the essential
1472 top-level @code{Score} context is created automatically when the music
1473 expression within the @bs{}@code{score} block is interpreted. Score-wide
1474 default values of context properties can be changed within the
1475 @bs{}@code{layout} block. See @ref{Modifying context properties}}
1477 You have seen many practical examples which created new
1478 @code{Staff} and @code{Voice} contexts in earlier sections, but
1479 to remind you how these commands are used in practice, here's an
1480 annotated real-music example:
1482 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1483 \score { % start of single compound music expression
1484 << % start of simultaneous staves section
1486 \new Staff { % create RH staff
1489 \new Voice { % create voice for RH notes
1490 \relative c'' { % start of RH notes
1496 \new Staff << % create LH staff; needs two simultaneous voices
1499 \new Voice { % create LH voice one
1501 \relative g { % start of LH voice one notes
1502 g8 <bes d> ees, <g c> |
1503 g8 <bes d> ees, <g c> |
1504 } % end of LH voice one notes
1505 } % end of LH voice one
1506 \new Voice { % create LH voice two
1508 \relative g { % start of LH voice two notes
1511 } % end of LH voice two notes
1512 } % end of LH voice two
1513 >> % end of LH staff
1514 >> % end of simultaneous staves section
1515 } % end of single compound music expression
1518 (Note how all the statements which open a block with either a
1519 curly bracket, @code{@{}, or double angle brackets, @code{<<},
1520 are indented by two further spaces, and the corresponding
1521 closing bracket is indented by exactly the same amount. While
1522 this is not required, following this practice will greatly
1523 reduce the number of @q{unmatched bracket} errors, and is
1524 strongly recommended. It enables the structure of the music to
1525 be seen at a glance, and any unmatched brackets will be obvious.
1526 Note too how the LH staff is created using double angle brackets
1527 because it requires two voices for its music, whereas the RH staff
1528 is created with a single music expression surrounded by curly
1529 brackets because it requires only one voice.)
1531 @cindex contexts, naming
1532 @cindex naming contexts
1534 The @code{\new} command may also give an identifying name to the
1535 context to distinguish it from other contexts of the same type,
1538 \new @var{type} = @var{id} @var{music-expression}
1541 Note the distinction between the name of the context type,
1542 @code{Staff}, @code{Voice}, etc, and the identifying name of a
1543 particular instance of that type, which can be any sequence of letters
1544 invented by the user. Digits and spaces can also be used in the
1545 identifying name, but then it has to be placed in quotes,
1546 i.e. @code{\new Staff = "MyStaff 1" @var{music-expression}}.
1547 The identifying name is used to
1548 refer back to that particular instance of a context. We saw this in
1549 use in the section on lyrics, see @ref{Voices and vocals}.
1553 Notation Reference: @ruser{Creating and referencing contexts}.
1556 @node Engravers explained
1557 @subsection Engravers explained
1561 Every mark on the printed output of a score produced by LilyPond
1562 is produced by an @code{Engraver}. Thus there is an engraver
1563 to print staves, one to print note heads, one for stems, one for
1564 beams, etc, etc. In total there are over 120 such engravers!
1565 Fortunately, for most scores it is not necessary to know about
1566 more than a few, and for simple scores you do not need to know
1569 Engravers live and operate in Contexts. Engravers such as the
1570 @code{Metronome_mark_engraver}, whose action and output apply to the
1571 score as a whole, operate in the highest level context -- the
1572 @code{Score} context.
1574 The @code{Clef_engraver} and @code{Key_engraver} are to be
1575 found in every @code{Staff} Context, as different staves may require
1576 different clefs and keys.
1578 The @code{Note_heads_engraver} and @code{Stem_engraver} live
1579 in every @code{Voice} context, the lowest level context of all.
1581 Each engraver processes the particular objects associated
1582 with its function, and maintains the properties that relate
1583 to that function. These properties, like the properties
1584 associated with contexts, may be modified to change the
1585 operation of the engraver or the appearance of those elements
1586 in the printed score.
1588 Engravers all have compound names formed from words which
1589 describe their function. Just the first word is capitalized,
1590 and the remainder are joined to it with underscores. Thus
1591 the @code{Staff_symbol_engraver} is responsible for creating the
1592 lines of the staff, the @code{Clef_engraver} determines and sets
1593 the pitch reference point on the staff by drawing a clef symbol.
1595 Here are some of the most common engravers together with their
1596 function. You will see it is usually easy to guess the function
1597 from the name, or vice versa.
1599 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .7
1602 @item Accidental_engraver
1603 @tab Makes accidentals, cautionary and suggested accidentals
1608 @item Completion_heads_engraver
1609 @tab Splits notes which cross bar lines
1610 @item Dynamic_engraver
1611 @tab Creates hairpins and dynamic texts
1612 @item Forbid_line_break_engraver
1613 @tab Prevents line breaks if a musical element is still active
1615 @tab Creates the key signature
1616 @item Metronome_mark_engraver
1617 @tab Engraves metronome marking
1618 @item Note_heads_engraver
1619 @tab Engraves note heads
1622 @item Staff_symbol_engraver
1623 @tab Engraves the five (by default) lines of the staff
1625 @tab Creates stems and single-stem tremolos
1626 @item Time_signature_engraver
1627 @tab Creates time signatures
1632 We shall see later how the output of LilyPond can be changed
1633 by modifying the action of Engravers.
1637 Internals reference: @rinternals{Engravers and Performers}.
1640 @node Modifying context properties
1641 @subsection Modifying context properties
1643 @cindex context properties
1644 @cindex context properties, modifying
1645 @cindex modifying context properties
1651 Contexts are responsible for holding the values of a number of
1652 context @emph{properties}. Many of them can be changed to
1653 influence the interpretation of the input and so change the
1654 appearance of the output. They are changed by the
1655 @code{\set} command. This takes the form
1658 \set @emph{ContextName}.@emph{propertyName} = #@emph{value}
1661 Where the @emph{ContextName} is usually @code{Score},
1662 @code{Staff} or @code{Voice}. It may be omitted,
1663 in which case the current context (typically @code{Voice}) is assumed.
1665 The names of context properties consist of words joined
1666 together with no hyphens or underscores, all except the
1667 first having a capital letter. Here are a few examples
1668 of some commonly used ones. There are many more.
1670 @c attempt to force this onto a new page
1672 @multitable @columnfractions .25 .15 .45 .15
1673 @headitem propertyName
1679 @tab If true, set extra natural signs before accidentals
1680 @tab @code{#t}, @code{#f}
1681 @item currentBarNumber
1683 @tab Set the current bar number
1687 @tab If true, print slurs both above and below notes
1688 @tab @code{#t}, @code{#f}
1689 @item instrumentName
1691 @tab Set the name to be placed at the start of the staff
1692 @tab @code{"Cello I"}
1695 @tab Increase or decrease the font size
1699 @tab Set the text to print before the start of a verse
1704 where a Boolean is either True (@code{#t}) or False (@code{#f}),
1705 an Integer is a positive whole number, a Real is a positive
1706 or negative decimal number, and text is enclosed in double
1707 apostrophes. Note the occurrence of hash signs,
1708 (@code{#}), in two different places -- as part of the Boolean
1709 value before the @code{t} or @code{f}, and before @emph{value}
1710 in the @code{\set} statement. So when a Boolean is being
1711 entered you need to code two hash signs, e.g., @code{##t}.
1713 @cindex properties operating in contexts
1714 @cindex setting properties within contexts
1716 Before we can set any of these properties we need to know
1717 in which context they operate. Sometimes this is obvious,
1718 but occasionally it can be tricky. If the wrong context
1719 is specified, no error message is produced, but the expected
1720 action will not take place. For example, the
1721 @code{instrumentName} clearly lives in the @code{Staff} context, since
1722 it is the staff that is to be named.
1723 In this example the first staff is labeled, but not the second,
1724 because we omitted the context name.
1726 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1728 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1729 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
1732 \new Staff \relative c' {
1733 \set instrumentName = #"Alto" % Wrong!
1739 Remember the default context name is @code{Voice}, so the second
1740 @code{\set} command set the property @code{instrumentName} in the
1741 @code{Voice} context to @qq{Alto}, but as LilyPond does not look
1742 for any such property in the @code{Voice} context, no
1743 further action took place. This is not an error, and no error
1744 message is logged in the log file.
1746 Similarly, if the property name is mis-spelt no error message is
1747 produced, and clearly the expected action cannot be performed. In
1748 fact, you can set any (fictitious) @q{property} using any name you
1749 like in any context that exists by using the @code{\set} command. But
1750 if the name is not known to LilyPond it will not cause any action to
1751 be taken. Some text editors with special support for LilyPond input
1752 files document property names with bullets when you hover them with
1753 the mouse, like JEdit with LilyPondTool, or highlight unknown property
1754 names differently, like ConTEXT. If you do not use an editor with
1755 such features, it is recommended to check the property name in the
1756 Internals Reference: see @rinternals{Tunable context properties}, or
1757 @rinternals{Contexts}.
1759 The @code{instrumentName} property will take effect only
1760 if it is set in the @code{Staff} context, but
1761 some properties can be set in more than one context.
1762 For example, the property @code{extraNatural} is by
1763 default set to ##t (true) for all staves.
1764 If it is set to ##f (false) in one particular @code{Staff}
1765 context it applies just to the accidentals on that staff.
1766 If it is set to false in the @code{Score} context
1767 it applies to all staves.
1769 So this turns off extra naturals in one staff:
1771 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1773 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1776 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1777 \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
1784 and this turns them off in all staves:
1786 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1788 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1791 \new Staff \relative c'' {
1792 \set Score.extraNatural = ##f
1798 As another example, if @code{clefTransposition} is set in
1799 the @code{Score} context this immediately changes the value
1800 of the transposition in all current staves and sets a new default
1801 value which will be applied to all staves.
1803 The opposite command, @code{\unset}, effectively removes the
1804 property from the context, which causes most properties to
1805 revert to their default value. Usually @code{\unset} is not
1806 required as a new @code{\set} command will achieve what is
1809 The @code{\set} and @code{\unset} commands can appear anywhere
1810 in the input file and will take effect from the time they are
1811 encountered until the end of the score or until the property is
1812 @code{\set} or @code{\unset} again. Let's try changing the
1813 font size, which affects the size of the note heads (among
1814 other things) several times. The change is from the default
1815 value, not the most recently set value.
1817 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,relative=1]
1819 % make note heads smaller
1822 % make note heads larger
1823 \set fontSize = #2.5
1825 % return to default size
1830 We have now seen how to set the values of several different types of
1831 property. Note that integers and numbers are always preceded by a
1832 hash sign, @code{#}, while a true or false value is specified by
1833 @code{##t} and @code{##f}, with two hash signs. A text property
1834 should be enclosed in double quotation signs, as above, although we
1835 shall see later that text can actually be specified in a much more
1836 general way by using the very powerful @code{\markup} command.
1838 @subsubheading Setting context properties with @code{\with}
1842 @cindex context properties, setting with \with
1844 The default value of context properties may be set at the time the
1845 context is created. Sometimes this is a clearer way of setting a
1846 property value if it is to remain fixed for the duration of
1847 the context. When a context is created with a @code{\new}
1848 command it may be followed immediately by a @code{\with @{ @dots{} @}}
1849 block in which the default property values are set. For example,
1850 if we wish to suppress the printing of extra naturals for the
1851 duration of a staff we would write:
1854 \new Staff \with @{ extraNatural = ##f @}
1860 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1864 gisis4 gis aeses aes
1867 \new Staff \with { extraNatural = ##f } {
1869 gisis4 gis aeses aes
1875 Properties set in this way may still be changed dynamically using
1876 @code{\set} and returned to the default value set in the
1877 @code{\with} block with @code{\unset}.
1879 @cindex fontSize, default and setting
1881 So if the @code{fontSize} property is set in a @code{\with} clause
1882 it sets the default value of the font size. If it is later changed
1883 with @code{\set}, this new default value may be restored with the
1884 @code{\unset fontSize} command.
1886 @subsubheading Setting context properties with @code{\context}
1888 @cindex context properties, setting with \context
1892 The values of context properties may be set in @emph{all} contexts
1893 of a particular type, such as all @code{Staff} contexts, with a single
1894 command. The context type is identified by using its
1895 type name, like @code{Staff}, prefixed by a back-slash: @code{\Staff}.
1896 The statement which sets the property value is the same as that in a
1897 @code{\with} block, introduced above. It is placed in a
1898 @code{\context} block within a @code{\layout} block. Each
1899 @code{\context} block will affect all contexts of the type specified
1900 throughout the @code{\score} or @code{\book} block in which the
1901 @code{\layout} block appears. Here is an example to show the format:
1903 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
1919 If the property override is to be applied to all staves
1922 @lilypond[quote,verbatim]
1927 gisis4 gis aeses aes
1932 gisis4 gis aeses aes
1938 \Score extraNatural = ##f
1945 Context properties set in this way may be overridden for particular
1946 instances of contexts by statements in a @code{\with} block, and by
1947 @code{\set} commands embedded in music statements.
1952 @ruser{Changing context default settings}.
1953 @ruser{The set command}.
1955 Internals Reference:
1956 @rinternals{Contexts},
1957 @rinternals{Tunable context properties}.
1960 @node Adding and removing engravers
1961 @subsection Adding and removing engravers
1963 @cindex engravers, adding
1964 @cindex adding engravers
1965 @cindex engravers, removing
1966 @cindex removing engravers
1973 We have seen that contexts each contain several engravers, each
1974 of which is responsible for producing a particular part of the
1975 output, like bar lines, staves, note heads, stems, etc. If an
1976 engraver is removed from a context, it can no longer produce its
1977 output. This is a crude way of modifying the output, but it
1978 can sometimes be useful.
1980 @subsubheading Changing a single context
1982 To remove an engraver from a single context we use the
1983 @code{\with} command placed immediately after the context creation
1984 command, as in the previous section.
1986 As an illustration, let's repeat an example from the previous section
1987 with the staff lines removed. Remember that the staff lines are
1988 produced by the @code{Staff_symbol_engraver}.
1990 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
1992 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
1996 \set fontSize = #-4 % make note heads smaller
1998 \set fontSize = #2.5 % make note heads larger
2000 \unset fontSize % return to default size
2005 @cindex ambitus engraver
2007 Engravers can also be added to individual contexts.
2008 The command to do this is
2010 @code{\consists @var{Engraver_name}},
2013 placed inside a @code{\with} block. Some vocal scores have an ambitus
2014 placed at the beginning of a staff to indicate the range of notes in
2015 that staff -- see @rglos{ambitus}. The ambitus is produced by the
2016 @code{Ambitus_engraver}, which is not normally included in any
2017 context. If we add it to the @code{Voice} context, it calculates the
2018 range from that voice only:
2020 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2023 \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
2040 but if we add the ambitus engraver to the
2041 @code{Staff} context, it calculates the range from all
2042 the notes in all the voices on that staff:
2044 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2046 \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
2064 @subsubheading Changing all contexts of the same type
2069 The examples above show how to remove or add engravers to
2070 individual contexts. It is also possible to remove or add
2071 engravers to every context of a specific type by placing the
2072 commands in the appropriate context in a @code{\layout}
2073 block. For example, if we wanted to show an ambitus for every
2074 staff in a four-staff score, we could write
2076 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2105 \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
2112 The values of context properties may also be set
2113 for all contexts of a particular type by including the
2114 @code{\set} command in a @code{\context} block in the
2118 Notation Reference: @ruser{Modifying context plug-ins},
2119 @ruser{Changing context default settings}.
2122 The @code{Stem_engraver} and @code{Beam_engraver} attach their
2123 objects to note heads. If the @code{Note_heads_engraver} is removed
2124 no note heads are produced and therefore no stems or beams are created
2128 @node Extending the templates
2129 @section Extending the templates
2131 You've read the tutorial, you know how to write music, you
2132 understand the fundamental concepts. But how can you
2133 get the staves that you want? Well, you can find lots of
2134 templates (see @ref{Templates}) which may give you a start.
2135 But what if you want something that isn't covered there? Read on.
2138 * Soprano and cello::
2139 * Four-part SATB vocal score::
2140 * Building a score from scratch::
2141 * Saving typing with variables and functions::
2142 * Scores and parts::
2145 @node Soprano and cello
2146 @subsection Soprano and cello
2148 @cindex template, modifying
2149 @cindex modifying templates
2151 Start off with the template that seems closest to what you want to
2152 end up with. Let's say that you want to write something for
2153 soprano and cello. In this case, we would start with the
2154 @q{Notes and lyrics} template (for the soprano part).
2157 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2159 melody = \relative c' @{
2166 text = \lyricmode @{
2172 \new Voice = "one" @{
2176 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text
2183 Now we want to add a cello part. Let's look at the @q{Notes only} example:
2186 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2188 melody = \relative c' @{
2202 We don't need two @code{\version} commands. We'll need the
2203 @code{melody} section. We don't want two @code{\score} sections
2204 -- if we had two @code{\score}s, we'd get the two parts separately.
2205 We want them together, as a duet. Within the @code{\score}
2206 section, we don't need two @code{\layout} or @code{\midi}.
2208 If we simply cut and paste the @code{melody} section, we would
2209 end up with two @code{melody} definitions. This would not generate
2210 an error, but the second one would be used for both melodies.
2211 So let's rename them to make them distinct. We'll call the
2212 section for the soprano @code{sopranoMusic} and the section for
2213 the cello @code{celloMusic}. While we're doing this, let's rename
2214 @code{text} to be @code{sopranoLyrics}. Remember to rename both
2215 instances of all these names -- both the initial definition (the
2216 @code{melody = \relative c' @{ } part) and the name's use (in the
2217 @code{\score} section).
2219 While we're doing this, let's change the cello part's staff --
2220 celli normally use bass clef. We'll also give the cello some
2224 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2226 sopranoMusic = \relative c' @{
2233 sopranoLyrics = \lyricmode @{
2237 celloMusic = \relative c @{
2246 \new Voice = "one" @{
2250 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2257 This is looking promising, but the cello part won't appear in the
2258 score -- we haven't used it in the @code{\score} section. If we
2259 want the cello part to appear under the soprano part, we need to add
2262 \new Staff \celloMusic
2266 underneath the soprano stuff. We also need to add @code{<<} and
2267 @code{>>} around the music -- that tells LilyPond that there's
2268 more than one thing (in this case, two @code{Staves}) happening
2269 at once. The @code{\score} looks like this now:
2271 @c Indentation in this example is deliberately poor
2276 \new Voice = "one" @{
2280 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2282 \new Staff \celloMusic
2290 This looks a bit messy; the indentation is messed up now. That is
2291 easily fixed. Here's the complete soprano and cello template.
2293 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2294 sopranoMusic = \relative c' {
2301 sopranoLyrics = \lyricmode {
2305 celloMusic = \relative c {
2315 \new Voice = "one" {
2319 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \sopranoLyrics
2321 \new Staff \celloMusic
2330 The starting templates can be found in the @q{Templates} appendix,
2331 see @ref{Single staff templates}.
2334 @node Four-part SATB vocal score
2335 @subsection Four-part SATB vocal score
2337 @cindex template, SATB
2338 @cindex SATB template
2340 Most vocal scores of music written for four-part mixed choir
2341 with orchestral accompaniment such as Mendelssohn's Elijah or
2342 Handel's Messiah have the choral music and words on four
2343 staves, one for each of SATB, with a piano reduction of the
2344 orchestral accompaniment underneath. Here's an example
2345 from Handel's Messiah:
2347 @c The following should appear as music without code
2348 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
2349 global = { \key d \major \time 4/4 }
2351 sopranoMusic = \relative c'' {
2353 r4 d2 a4 | d4. d8 a2 | cis4 d cis2 |
2355 sopranoWords = \lyricmode {
2356 Wor -- thy | is the lamb | that was slain |
2359 altoMusic = \relative a' {
2361 r4 a2 a4 | fis4. fis8 a2 | g4 fis e2 |
2363 altoWords = \sopranoWords
2365 tenorMusic = \relative c' {
2367 r4 fis2 e4 | d4. d8 d2 | e4 a, cis2 |
2369 tenorWords = \sopranoWords
2371 bassMusic = \relative c' {
2373 r4 d2 cis4 | b4. b8 fis2 | e4 d a'2 |
2375 bassWords = \sopranoWords
2377 upper = \relative a' {
2380 r4 <a d fis>2 <a e' a>4 |
2381 <d fis d'>4. <d fis d'>8 <a d a'>2 |
2382 <g cis g'>4 <a d fis> <a cis e>2 |
2385 lower = \relative c, {
2388 <d d'>4 <d d'>2 <cis cis'>4 |
2389 <b b'>4. <b' b'>8 <fis fis'>2 |
2390 <e e'>4 <d d'> <a' a'>2 |
2394 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff in parallel
2396 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2397 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2398 \new Voice = "sopranos" {
2403 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" {
2406 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2407 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2408 \new Voice = "altos" {
2413 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" { \altoWords }
2414 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2415 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2416 \new Voice = "tenors" {
2421 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" { \tenorWords }
2422 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2423 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2424 \new Voice = "basses" {
2429 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" {
2434 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano"
2435 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2436 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2442 @warning{This layout can be achieved very easily using the built-in
2443 template: @code{satb.ly}, see @ref{Built-in templates}. But for ease
2444 of use this template deliberately hides the necessary context
2445 structure, instead providing it automatically. So for purposes of
2446 learning let us see how to build this up from scratch. You may need
2447 to do this if the built-in template does not meet your needs
2450 The nearest copy-and-edit template to this layout is
2451 @ref{SATB vocal score and automatic piano reduction} -- but we need
2452 to change the layout and add a piano
2453 accompaniment which is not derived automatically from the vocal parts.
2454 The variables holding the music and words for the vocal parts are
2455 fine, but we shall need to add variables for the piano reduction.
2457 The order in which the contexts appear in the ChoirStaff of the
2458 template do not correspond with the order in the vocal score shown
2459 above. We need to rearrange them so there are four staves with the
2460 words written directly underneath the notes for each part. All the
2461 voices should be @code{\voiceOne}, which is the default, so the
2462 @code{\voiceXXX} commands should be removed. We also need to specify
2463 the tenor clef for the tenors. The way in which lyrics are specified
2464 in the template has not yet been encountered so we need to use the
2465 method with which we are familiar. We should also add the names of
2468 Doing this gives for our ChoirStaff:
2472 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2473 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2474 \new Voice = "sopranos" @{
2479 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" @{
2482 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2483 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2484 \new Voice = "altos" @{
2489 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" @{
2492 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2493 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2494 \new Voice = "tenors" @{
2499 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" @{
2502 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2503 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2504 \new Voice = "basses" @{
2509 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" @{
2515 Next we must work out the piano part. This is
2516 easy - we just pull out the piano part from the
2517 @q{Solo piano} template:
2521 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano "
2522 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2523 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2527 and add the variable definitions for @code{upper}
2530 The ChoirStaff and PianoStaff must be combined
2531 using angle brackets as we want them to be
2532 stacked one above the other:
2535 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff one above the other
2537 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2538 \new Voice = "sopranos" @{
2543 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" @{
2546 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2547 \new Voice = "altos" @{
2552 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" @{
2555 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2556 \clef "G_8" % tenor clef
2557 \new Voice = "tenors" @{
2562 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" @{
2565 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2567 \new Voice = "basses" @{
2572 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" @{
2578 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano"
2579 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2580 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2585 Combining all these together and adding the music
2586 for the three bars of the example above gives:
2588 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2589 global = { \key d \major \time 4/4 }
2590 sopranoMusic = \relative c'' {
2592 r4 d2 a4 | d4. d8 a2 | cis4 d cis2 |
2594 sopranoWords = \lyricmode {
2595 Wor -- thy | is the lamb | that was slain |
2597 altoMusic = \relative a' {
2599 r4 a2 a4 | fis4. fis8 a2 | g4 fis fis2 |
2601 altoWords = \sopranoWords
2602 tenorMusic = \relative c' {
2604 r4 fis2 e4 | d4. d8 d2 | e4 a, cis2 |
2606 tenorWords = \sopranoWords
2607 bassMusic = \relative c' {
2609 r4 d2 cis4 | b4. b8 fis2 | e4 d a'2 |
2611 bassWords = \sopranoWords
2612 upper = \relative a' {
2615 r4 <a d fis>2 <a e' a>4 |
2616 <d fis d'>4. <d fis d'>8 <a d a'>2 |
2617 <g cis g'>4 <a d fis> <a cis e>2 |
2619 lower = \relative c, {
2622 <d d'>4 <d d'>2 <cis cis'>4 |
2623 <b b'>4. <b' b'>8 <fis fis'>2 |
2624 <e e'>4 <d d'> <a' a'>2 |
2628 << % combine ChoirStaff and PianoStaff in parallel
2630 \new Staff = "sopranos" <<
2631 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Soprano"
2632 \new Voice = "sopranos" {
2637 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranos" {
2640 \new Staff = "altos" <<
2641 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto"
2642 \new Voice = "altos" {
2647 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "altos" {
2650 \new Staff = "tenors" <<
2651 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Tenor"
2652 \new Voice = "tenors" {
2657 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenors" {
2660 \new Staff = "basses" <<
2661 \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Bass"
2662 \new Voice = "basses" {
2667 \new Lyrics \lyricsto "basses" {
2673 \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano "
2674 \new Staff = "upper" \upper
2675 \new Staff = "lower" \lower
2682 @node Building a score from scratch
2683 @subsection Building a score from scratch
2685 @cindex template, writing your own
2686 @cindex example of writing a score
2687 @cindex writing a score, example
2688 @cindex score, example of writing
2690 After gaining some facility with writing LilyPond code, you
2691 may find that it is easier to build a score from scratch
2692 rather than modifying one of the templates. You can also
2693 develop your own style this way to suit the sort of music you
2694 like. Let's see how to put together the score for an organ
2695 prelude as an example.
2697 We begin with a header section. Here go the title, name
2698 of composer, etc, then come any variable definitions, and
2699 finally the score block. Let's start with these in outline
2700 and fill in the details later.
2702 We'll use the first two bars of Bach's prelude
2703 based on @emph{Jesu, meine Freude} which is written for two
2704 manuals and pedal organ. You can see these two bars of music
2705 at the bottom of this section. The top manual part has two voices,
2706 the lower and pedal organ one each. So we need four
2707 music definitions and one to define the time signature
2711 \version @w{"@version{}"}
2713 title = "Jesu, meine Freude"
2714 composer = "J S Bach"
2716 keyTime = @{ \key c \minor \time 4/4 @}
2717 ManualOneVoiceOneMusic = @{ s1 @}
2718 ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic = @{ s1 @}
2719 ManualTwoMusic = @{ s1 @}
2720 PedalOrganMusic = @{ s1 @}
2726 For now we've just used a spacer note, @code{s1},
2727 instead of the real music. We'll add that later.
2729 Next let's see what should go in the score block.
2730 We simply mirror the staff structure we want.
2731 Organ music is usually written on three staves,
2732 one for each manual and one for the pedals. The
2733 manual staves should be bracketed together, so we
2734 need to use a PianoStaff for them. The first
2735 manual part needs two voices and the second manual
2740 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2742 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2745 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2747 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2748 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2752 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2753 >> % end PianoStaff context
2756 Next we need to add a staff for the pedal organ.
2757 This goes underneath the PianoStaff, but it must
2758 be simultaneous with it, so we need angle brackets
2759 around the two. Missing these out would generate
2760 an error in the log file. It's a common mistake
2761 which you'll make sooner or later! Try copying
2762 the final example at the end of this section,
2763 remove these angle brackets, and compile it to
2764 see what errors it generates.
2767 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2769 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2771 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2774 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2776 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2777 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2781 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2782 >> % end PianoStaff context
2783 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2791 It is not necessary to use the simultaneous construct
2792 @code{<< @dots{} >>} for the manual two staff and the pedal organ staff,
2793 since they contain only one music expression, but it does no harm,
2794 and always using angle brackets after @code{\new Staff} is a good
2795 habit to cultivate in case there are multiple voices. The opposite
2796 is true for Voices: these should habitually be followed by braces
2797 @code{@{ @dots{} @}} in case your music is coded in several variables
2798 which need to run consecutively.
2800 Let's add this structure to the score block, and adjust the indenting.
2801 We also add the appropriate clefs, ensure stems, ties and slurs in
2802 each voice on the upper staff point to the right direction with
2803 @code{\voiceOne} and @code{\voiceTwo}, and enter the key and time
2804 signature to each staff using our predefined variable, @code{\keyTime}.
2808 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2810 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2811 \keyTime % set key and time signature
2815 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2819 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2821 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2822 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" <<
2828 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2829 >> % end PianoStaff context
2830 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2836 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff
2838 @} % end Score context
2841 @cindex stretchability of staves
2842 @cindex staves, stretchability
2844 The above layout of the organ staves is almost perfect; however,
2845 there is a slight defect which is not visible by looking at just a
2846 single system: The distance of the pedal staff to the left hand staff
2847 should behave approximately the same as the right hand staff to the
2848 left hand staff. In particular, the stretchability of staves in a
2849 @code{PianoStaff} context is limited (so that the distance between
2850 the staves for the left and right hand can't become too large), and
2851 the pedal staff should behave similarly.
2853 @cindex sub-properties
2854 @cindex properties, sub-properties
2855 @cindex graphical objects
2856 @cindex objects, graphical
2859 Stretchability of staves can be controlled with the
2860 @code{staff-staff-spacing} property of the
2861 @code{VerticalAxisGroup} @q{graphical object} (commonly called
2862 @q{grob}s within the lilypond documentation) -- don't worry about
2863 the details right now; this is fully explained later. For the
2864 curious, have a look at @ruser{Overview of modifying properties}.
2865 In this case, we want to modify the @code{stretchability}
2866 sub-property only. Again, for the curious, you can find the
2867 default values for the staff-staff-spacing property
2868 in file @file{scm/define-grobs.scm} by looking up the definition
2869 of the @code{VerticalAxisGroup} grob. The value for
2870 @code{stretchability} is taken from the definition of the
2871 @code{PianoStaff} context (in file @file{ly/engraver-init.ly})
2872 so that the values are identical.
2876 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2878 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2879 \keyTime % set key and time signature
2883 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2887 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2889 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2890 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" \with @{
2891 \override VerticalAxisGroup.staff-staff-spacing.stretchability = 5
2898 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2899 >> % end PianoStaff context
2900 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2906 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff
2908 @} % end Score context
2910 That completes the structure. Any three-staff organ music
2911 will have a similar structure, although the number of voices
2912 may vary. All that remains now
2913 is to add the music, and combine all the parts together.
2915 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right,addversion]
2917 title = "Jesu, meine Freude"
2918 composer = "J S Bach"
2920 keyTime = { \key c \minor \time 4/4 }
2921 ManualOneVoiceOneMusic = \relative g' {
2925 ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic = \relative c' {
2926 ees16 d ees8~ 16 f ees d c8 d~ d c~ |
2927 8 c4 b8 c8. g16 c b c d |
2929 ManualTwoMusic = \relative c' {
2930 c16 b c8~ 16 b c g a8 g~ 16 g aes ees |
2931 f16 ees f d g aes g f ees d ees8~ 16 f ees d |
2933 PedalOrganMusic = \relative c {
2934 r8 c16 d ees d ees8~ 16 a, b g c b c8 |
2935 r16 g ees f g f g8 c,2 |
2939 << % PianoStaff and Pedal Staff must be simultaneous
2941 \new Staff = "ManualOne" <<
2942 \keyTime % set key and time signature
2946 \ManualOneVoiceOneMusic
2950 \ManualOneVoiceTwoMusic
2952 >> % end ManualOne Staff context
2953 \new Staff = "ManualTwo" \with {
2954 \override VerticalAxisGroup.staff-staff-spacing.stretchability = 5
2961 >> % end ManualTwo Staff context
2962 >> % end PianoStaff context
2963 \new Staff = "PedalOrgan" <<
2969 >> % end PedalOrgan Staff context
2971 } % end Score context
2978 @node Saving typing with variables and functions
2979 @subsection Saving typing with variables and functions
2984 By this point, you've seen this kind of thing:
2986 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2987 hornNotes = \relative c'' { c4 b dis c }
2996 You may even realize that this could be useful in minimalist music:
2998 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
2999 fragmentA = \relative c'' { a4 a8. b16 }
3000 fragmentB = \relative c'' { a8. gis16 ees4 }
3002 violin = \new Staff {
3003 \fragmentA \fragmentA |
3004 \fragmentB \fragmentA |
3014 However, you can also use these variables (also known as
3015 macros, or user-defined commands) for tweaks:
3017 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3018 dolce = \markup { \italic \bold dolce }
3020 centreText = { \once \override TextScript.self-alignment-X = #CENTER }
3023 \dynamic f \italic \small { 2nd } \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
3026 violin = \relative c'' {
3028 c4._\dolce b8 a8 g a b |
3030 c4.^"hi there!" d8 e f g d |
3031 c4.\fthenp b8 c4 c-. |
3042 These variables are obviously useful for saving
3043 typing. But they're worth considering even if you
3044 only use them once -- they reduce complexity. Let's
3045 look at the previous example without any
3046 variables. It's a lot harder to read, especially
3050 violin = \relative c'' @{
3052 c4._\markup @{ \italic \bold dolce @} b8 a8 g a b |
3053 \once \override TextScript.self-alignment-X = #CENTER
3054 c4.^"hi there!" d8 e f g d |
3056 \dynamic f \italic \small @{ 2nd @} \hspace #0.1 \dynamic p
3063 So far we've seen static substitution -- when LilyPond
3064 sees @code{\centreText}, it replaces it with the stuff that
3065 we've defined it to be (ie the stuff to the right of
3066 @code{centreText=}).
3068 LilyPond can handle non-static substitution, too (you
3069 can think of these as functions).
3071 @lilypond[quote,verbatim,ragged-right]
3073 #(define-music-function
3074 (parser location padding)
3077 \once \override TextScript.padding = #padding
3081 c4^"piu mosso" b a b
3083 c4^"piu mosso" b a b
3085 c4^"piu mosso" b a b
3089 Using variables is also a good way to reduce work if the
3090 LilyPond input syntax changes (see
3091 @rprogram{Updating files with convert-ly}). If
3092 you have a single definition (such as @code{\dolce}) for all your
3093 input files (see @ref{Style sheets}), then if the syntax changes, you
3094 only need to update your single @code{\dolce} definition,
3095 instead of making changes throughout every @file{.ly} file.
3098 @node Scores and parts
3099 @subsection Scores and parts
3101 In orchestral music, all notes are printed twice. Once in a part for
3102 the musicians, and once in a full score for the conductor. Variables can
3103 be used to avoid double work. The music is entered once, and stored in
3104 a variable. The contents of that variable is then used to generate
3105 both the part and the full score.
3107 It is convenient to define the notes in a special file. For example,
3108 suppose that the file @file{horn-music.ly} contains the following part
3109 of a horn/@/bassoon duo
3112 hornNotes = \relative c @{
3114 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3119 Then, an individual part is made by putting the following in a file
3122 \include "horn-music.ly"
3125 instrument = "Horn in F"
3129 \transpose f c' \hornNotes
3136 \include "horn-music.ly"
3140 substitutes the contents of @file{horn-music.ly} at this position in
3141 the file, so @code{hornNotes} is defined afterwards. The command
3142 @code{\transpose f@tie{}c'} indicates that the argument, being
3143 @code{\hornNotes}, should be transposed by a fifth upwards. Sounding
3144 @code{f} is denoted by notated @code{c'}, which corresponds with the
3145 tuning of a normal French Horn in@tie{}F. The transposition can be seen
3146 in the following output
3148 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3149 \transpose f c' \relative c {
3151 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3155 In ensemble pieces, one of the voices often does not play for many
3156 measures. This is denoted by a special rest, the multi-measure
3157 rest. It is entered with a capital @code{R} followed by a duration
3158 (@code{1}@tie{}for a whole note, @code{2}@tie{}for a half note,
3159 etc.). By multiplying the
3160 duration, longer rests can be constructed. For example, this rest
3161 takes 3@tie{}measures in 2/4 time
3167 When printing the part, multi-rests
3168 must be condensed. This is done by setting a run-time variable
3171 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
3175 This command sets the property @code{skipBars} in the
3176 @code{Score} context to true (@code{##t}). Prepending the rest and
3177 this option to the music above, leads to the following result
3179 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3180 \transpose f c' \relative c {
3182 \set Score.skipBars = ##t
3184 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3189 The score is made by combining all of the music together. Assuming
3190 that the other voice is in @code{bassoonNotes} in the file
3191 @file{bassoon-music.ly}, a score is made with
3194 \include "bassoon-music.ly"
3195 \include "horn-music.ly"
3198 \new Staff \hornNotes
3199 \new Staff \bassoonNotes
3206 @lilypond[quote,ragged-right]
3212 r4 f8 a | cis4 f | e4 d |
3217 r4 d,8 f | gis4 c | b4 bes |
3218 a8 e f4 | g4 d | gis4 f |